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The future of recycling: breakthrough technologies on the horizon

• 1.1 Introduction
• 2 Historical Background
• 3.1 Circular Economy
• 3.2 Waste-to-Energy
• 3.3 Advanced Recycling Technologies
• 4.1 Advanced Sorting Technologies
• 4.2 Explanation of advanced sorting technologies
• 4.3 Benefits and potential challenges
• 4.4 Examples of advanced sorting technologies
• 5.1 Introduction to enhanced materials recovery techniques
• 5.2 Explanation of technologies like chemical recycling and pyrolysis
• 5.3 Case studies highlighting successful implementation of enhanced materials recovery
• 6.1 Overview of plastic waste problem
• 6.2 Breakthrough technologies for plastic recycling
• 6.3 Potential environmental and economic benefits
• 7.1 Growing challenge of e-waste management
• 7.2 Innovations in e-waste recycling technologies
• 7.3 Impact on resource conservation and reduction of hazardous substances
• 8.1 Successful implementation of advanced sorting technologies in XYZ city
• 8.2 Chemical recycling plant in ABC company leading to resource recovery
• 9.1 Integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning in recycling technologies
• 9.2 Increased focus on traceability and transparency in recycling processes
• 9.3 Industry collaborations and partnerships for scaling up recycling innovations
• 10.1 Economic viability of breakthrough recycling technologies
• 10.2 Potential environmental impacts and trade-offs
• 10.3 Regulatory barriers and policy considerations
• 11.1 Potential impact of breakthrough technologies on global recycling rates
• 11.2 Role of consumer awareness and behavior in driving recycling innovation
• 11.3 Anticipated advancements and areas for further research
• 12.1 Share this:
• 12.2 Like this:
• 12.3 Related

Advanced Technologies Revolutionizing Recycling: Enhancing Sustainability and Resource Recovery

Introduction.

Recycling plays a crucial role in promoting environmental sustainability and resource conservation by converting waste materials into reusable products. In recent years, breakthrough technologies have emerged, revolutionizing the recycling industry and offering new opportunities for enhanced waste management. This article explores the significance of these breakthrough technologies in shaping the future of recycling.

Historical Background

Recycling practices have a long history, dating back centuries and evident in ancient civilizations. However, it was not until the industrial revolution that recycling gained momentum. Major milestones in recycling technology development include the invention of the first paper recycling mill in the 19th century and the establishment of the first recycling center in the 20th century.

Key Concepts and Definitions

Circular economy.

The concept of a circular economy emphasizes minimizing waste and maximizing resource efficiency. It aims to create a closed-loop system where materials are recycled and reused instead of being disposed of as waste. The circular economy approach has gained traction in recent years as a sustainable solution for managing resources.

Waste-to-Energy

Waste-to-energy technologies involve converting waste materials into energy sources, such as electricity or heat. This process not only reduces the volume of waste sent to landfills but also provides a renewable energy alternative. Waste-to-energy facilities have become an integral part of sustainable waste management strategies.

Advanced Recycling Technologies

Advanced recycling technologies refer to innovative processes that enable the recovery and reuse of materials from waste streams. These technologies go beyond traditional recycling methods and offer more efficient and effective ways of treating various types of waste.

Main Discussion Points

Advanced sorting technologies, explanation of advanced sorting technologies.

Advanced sorting technologies utilize automated systems to identify and separate different materials in waste streams. These technologies employ advanced sensors and artificial intelligence algorithms to improve sorting accuracy and efficiency.

Benefits and potential challenges

Advanced sorting technologies offer several benefits, including increased recycling rates, reduced contamination, and improved resource recovery. However, challenges such as high initial costs and the need for skilled operators may hinder their widespread implementation.

Examples of advanced sorting technologies

Optical sorting and robotic sorting are two prominent examples of advanced sorting technologies. Optical sorting relies on sensors and cameras to identify and sort materials based on their properties, while robotic sorting uses robotic arms to physically separate recyclables.

Enhanced Materials Recovery

Introduction to enhanced materials recovery techniques.

Enhanced materials recovery techniques focus on extracting valuable materials from waste streams, even those that are traditionally difficult to recover. These techniques include chemical recycling and pyrolysis, which break down waste materials into their base components for further processing.

Explanation of technologies like chemical recycling and pyrolysis

Chemical recycling involves converting plastic waste into its original monomer or other useful chemicals through different chemical processes. Pyrolysis uses high temperatures to thermally decompose waste materials, producing valuable products like biofuels and chemicals.

Case studies highlighting successful implementation of enhanced materials recovery

Several successful case studies showcase the implementation of enhanced materials recovery techniques. For instance, chemical recycling plants have demonstrated the effective recovery of plastic waste, enabling resource reuse and reducing environmental impact.

Innovations in Plastic Recycling

Overview of plastic waste problem.

Plastic waste has become a global environmental concern due to its persistence in the environment and adverse impacts on ecosystems. Innovations in plastic recycling aim to address this issue by developing new technologies to efficiently recycle plastic waste.

Breakthrough technologies for plastic recycling

Enzymatic recycling, which utilizes enzymes to break down plastic materials, and depolymerization, which breaks down plastic into its monomers for reuse, are among the breakthrough technologies in plastic recycling. These technologies show great potential in reducing plastic waste and creating a circular economy for plastics.

Potential environmental and economic benefits

The adoption of breakthrough technologies in plastic recycling can lead to significant environmental benefits, such as reduced plastic pollution and decreased reliance on fossil fuel-based materials. Furthermore, it opens up economic opportunities by creating new markets for recycled plastics.

Advancements in E-Waste Recycling

Growing challenge of e-waste management.

The rapid proliferation of electronic devices has resulted in a surge in electronic waste (e-waste), posing challenges in its proper management and disposal. Advancements in e-waste recycling technologies offer solutions to effectively handle this growing waste stream.

Innovations in e-waste recycling technologies

Urban mining, a process that extracts valuable metals from e-waste, and hydrometallurgical processes, which use chemical solutions to separate and recover metals, are examples of innovations in e-waste recycling technologies. These advancements contribute to resource conservation and the reduction of hazardous substances in the environment.

Impact on resource conservation and reduction of hazardous substances

The implementation of advanced e-waste recycling technologies promotes the conservation of valuable resources by recovering metals and other materials from discarded electronic devices. Furthermore, it reduces the environmental and health risks associated with the improper disposal of e-waste.

Case Studies or Examples

Successful implementation of advanced sorting technologies in xyz city.

XYZ city successfully implemented advanced sorting technologies, such as optical sorting and robotic sorting, in its recycling facilities. These technologies significantly improved recycling rates and reduced contamination levels, leading to more efficient waste management in the city.

Chemical recycling plant in ABC company leading to resource recovery

ABC company established a chemical recycling plant that effectively converts plastic waste into valuable chemicals and monomers. This plant has not only reduced plastic waste but also enabled resource recovery and the creation of a circular economy for plastics.

Current Trends or Developments

Integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning in recycling technologies.

The integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning has revolutionized recycling technologies. These technologies enable more accurate sorting, improved process optimization, and predictive analysis, leading to increased recycling efficiency and resource recovery.

Increased focus on traceability and transparency in recycling processes

In response to growing concerns about the traceability and transparency of recycling processes, industry players are adopting technologies that enable tracking and verification of recycled materials. This ensures the credibility of recycling claims and promotes trust among consumers and stakeholders.

Industry collaborations and partnerships for scaling up recycling innovations

To accelerate the adoption of breakthrough recycling technologies, industry collaborations and partnerships are crucial. Collaborative efforts between recycling companies, technology providers, and government agencies facilitate the scaling up of recycling innovations, enabling widespread adoption and impact.

Challenges or Controversies

Economic viability of breakthrough recycling technologies.

One of the main challenges in implementing breakthrough recycling technologies is their economic viability. High initial costs, limited market demand for recycled materials, and complex infrastructural requirements may pose financial barriers to the widespread adoption of these technologies.

Potential environmental impacts and trade-offs

While breakthrough recycling technologies offer environmental benefits, they may also have potential trade-offs. The energy consumption and emissions associated with certain recycling processes, as well as the disposal of by-products and residues, should be carefully assessed to ensure overall sustainability.

Regulatory barriers and policy considerations

Regulatory barriers, such as outdated waste management policies and inconsistent regulations, can hinder the implementation of breakthrough recycling technologies. Streamlining regulations and fostering a supportive policy environment are essential for encouraging innovation and driving sustainable recycling practices.

Future Outlook

Potential impact of breakthrough technologies on global recycling rates.

The integration of breakthrough technologies has the potential to significantly increase global recycling rates. By improving sorting accuracy, enhancing materials recovery, and enabling efficient recycling of challenging waste streams, these technologies can contribute to a more circular and sustainable economy.

Role of consumer awareness and behavior in driving recycling innovation

Consumer awareness and behavior play a critical role in driving recycling innovation. Educating consumers about the importance of recycling and promoting responsible waste disposal practices can create a demand for recycling technologies and foster a culture of sustainability.

Anticipated advancements and areas for further research

The future of recycling will witness further advancements in technology and ongoing research to address existing challenges. Areas of research focus include developing more efficient and cost-effective recycling processes, exploring new recycling avenues, and assessing the environmental impacts of recycling technologies.

Breakthrough technologies are revolutionizing the recycling industry, offering innovative solutions to enhance sustainability and resource recovery. Advanced sorting technologies, enhanced materials recovery techniques, innovations in plastic recycling, and advancements in e-waste recycling are among the key developments shaping the future of recycling. While challenges and controversies exist, industry collaborations and supportive policies can overcome these barriers, paving the way for a circular economy and a greener future. The adoption of breakthrough technologies, coupled with consumer awareness and behavior change, will play a crucial role in driving recycling innovations and paving the way for a sustainable future.

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Top 8 Recycling Technology Trends & Innovations in 2024

Are you curious about which recycling technology trends & startups will soon impact your business? Explore our in-depth industry research on 1800+ startups & scaleups and get data-driven insights into technology-based solutions in our Recycling Technology Innovation Map!

Growing concerns around energy sourcing and demand for secondary raw materials are forcing recyclers to increase recycling efficiency. We give you a comprehensive view of global recycling technology trends so that you can follow the latest developments in the industry. For example, you will discover how chemical and advanced mechanical recycling technologies attract investments to increase the value of waste and wastewater streams. At the same time, recycling facilities are integrating artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) to improve operational efficiency. Read more to explore the top trends impacting the recycling sector.

This article was published in July 2022 and updated in August 2023.

Innovation Map outlines the Top 8 Recycling Technology Trends & 16 Promising Startups

For this in-depth research on the top global recycling technology trends and startups, we analyzed a sample of 1862 global startups & scaleups. This data-driven research provides innovation intelligence that helps you improve strategic decision-making by giving you an overview of emerging technologies and trends in the recycling technology industry. In the Recycling Technology Innovation Map, you get a comprehensive overview of the innovation trends & startups that impact your company.

Top 8 Recycling Technology Trends in 2024

• Internet of Waste
• Chemical Recycling
• Recycling Robots
• Waste Valorization
• Artificial Intelligence
• Green Waste Management
• Material Life Cycle Extension
• Big Data & Analytics

Click to download

These insights are derived by working with our Big Data & Artificial Intelligence-powered StartUs Insights Discovery Platform , covering 3 790 000+ startups & scaleups globally. As the world’s largest resource for data on emerging companies, the SaaS platform enables you to identify relevant technologies and industry trends quickly & exhaustively.

Tree Map reveals the Impact of the Top 8 Recycling Technology Trends

Based on the Recycling Technology Innovation Map, the Tree Map below illustrates the impact of the Top 8 Recycling Technology Trends in 2024. IoT increases visibility into recycling workflows and improves quality control of waste streams. This is crucial to improve the performance of the recycling sector, making IoT the top recycling trend. Chemical recycling and recycling robots are the other major trends after IoT and they improve recycling efficiency.

The recycling industry further innovates in waste valorization, green waste management, and material life cycle extension. This generates value for recyclers and diverts a significant amount of solid and organic waste away from landfills and incinerators. Finally, recycling facilities leverage big data, analytics, and AI to optimize classification, sorting, and picking at recycling facilities as well as streamline waste logistics.

Global Startup Heat Map covers 1862 Startups & Scaleups

The Global Startup Heat Map below highlights the global distribution of the 1862 exemplary startups & scaleups that we analyzed for this research. Created through the StartUs Insights Discovery Platform , the Heat Map reveals that Western Europe sees the most startup activity, followed by the US.

Below, you get to meet 16 out of these 1862 promising startups & scaleups as well as the solutions they develop. These recycling technology startups are hand-picked based on criteria such as founding year, location, funding raised, and more. Depending on your specific needs, your top picks might look entirely different.

Interested to explore all 1800+ recycling technology startups & scaleups?

Top 8 Recycling Technology Trends for 2024

1. internet of waste.

IoT-enabled waste management and recycling significantly reduce the inefficiencies in waste logistics. From fill-level sensors to smart bins and material quality assessing sensors, the recycling industry is leveraging the internet of waste to streamline operations. For example, monitoring fill levels in garbage containers allows collection facilities to ensure timely pickup.

This enables recyclers to move from periodical workflows to waste generation-based task schedules. Additionally, integrating IoT into recycling processes generates digital points. Startups combine this data and advanced analytics to further optimize waste collection and operational efficiency.

Bintel offers Waste Fill Level Sensors

Bintel is a Swedish startup that develops fill-level sensors for trash bins, containers, and recycling stations. The startup’s sensors utilize low-power wide area networking (LoRaWAN) or narrowband IoT (NB-IoT) based on range requirements.

These sensors allow waste collectors and recyclers to increase visibility into container status without incurring massive capital expenses. Moreover, the sensors enable recyclers to optimize emptying frequency and waste logistics.

Smartbin.io makes Smart Bins

Smartbin.io is a US-based startup that creates smart bins for commercial spaces. The startup’s bin combines various sensors to track fill levels and notifies collectors when the bins are almost full. Smartbin.io also offers insights into the types of waste generated. This allows businesses, retail outlets, and other commercial spaces to better manage waste and recycling indoors.

2. Chemical Recycling

Sustainable development goals (SDG) and customer preferences are driving the demand for secondary raw materials. That is why the industry is adopting chemical waste recycling methods. Chemical recycling plants leverage pyrolysis, gasification, and solvolysis, among other techniques, to recover materials without degrading their quality.

Unlike conventional methods, chemical recycling results in intermediates and petrochemical alternatives suitable for high-value applications. As a result, chemical recycling-based secondary materials replace virgin raw materials from the manufacturing supply chain and reduce carbon emissions. This, in turn, expands the market for secondary raw materials.

Refiberd advances Textile Chemical Recycling

US-based startup Refiberd specializes in the chemical recycling of post-consumer textile waste. The startup combines AI, robotics, and its proprietary green chemical recycling technology to convert used and discarded textiles into new, reusable threads. Refiberd offers recycled polyester and cellulose thread kits. This approach diverts significant amounts of waste from landfills and reduces the need for virgin materials in textile manufacturing.

Plastic Back specializes in Plastic Chemical Oxidation

Plastic Back is an Israeli startup that leverages chemical oxidation for plastic recycling. The startup’s proprietary process breaks down plastic polymers into oils, waxes, and other chemicals. Additionally, Plastic Back develops conversion units based on its process with a small footprint, enabling decentralized plastic recycling. This allows waste generators and recyclers to treat waste on-site as well as process mixed and contaminated plastic wastes.

3. Recycling Robots

While chemical recycling solutions offer better conversion efficiency, mechanical recycling is the most profitable means to recover materials. However, waste contamination and lack of workforce affect mechanical recycling operations. To tackle this, startups develop recycling robots to automate and augment sorting lines with AI-powered classification and sorting systems.

Additionally, such robots increase the picking speed, minimize errors, and improve picking efficiency. As a result, materials recovery facilities (MRFs) reduce their operational expenses, optimize waste stream quality control, and increase visibility into waste flows.

2B0 enables Robotic Waste Sorting & Processing

2B0 is a US-based startup that develops waste sorting and processing robots. The startup’s patented recycling unit combines IoT, robotics, and AI to identify co-mingled waste materials and assess their recycling potential. It then grinds the waste to create high-value materials. This allows offices and retail stores to recycle waste on the premise and reduce waste management costs, in turn, lowering their carbon footprint.

Ursa Robotics offers Autonomous Waste Collection Vehicles

UK-based startup Ursa Robotics makes autonomous waste collection vehicles. The startup replaces communal bins and garbage trucks with its automated containers. Once a container gets filled, another automated container replaces it. This allows recycling facilities to automate, scale, and optimize waste logistics.

4. Waste Valorization

Waste recovery companies leverage biological and chemical means to upcycle their waste streams. Unlike conventional recycling, waste valorization solutions recover materials without quality loss or repurpose waste into new products. This generates more value than the original raw materials or products.

Startups are developing novel recycling technologies to convert solid and organic waste into energy and other chemicals. For example, some startups offer anaerobic digesters that use bacteria to treat organic waste and generate biogas. Such solutions allow recycling facilities to divert waste from landfills and create more revenue.

Moreover, the growing demand for clean energy is generating high interest in waste-to-energy (WTE) solutions. For instance, plastic-to-fuel conversion technologies address plastic waste and augment the energy supply.

Spouted Bed Solutions (SBS) Thermal Technologies provides Waste Heat Valorization Solutions

SBS Thermal Technologies is a Spanish startup that develops a patented waste heat valorization technique. The startup uses high-efficiency contact (HECO) technology to achieve optimized conditions for mass and energy transfer for increased waste conversion efficiency.

Its process supports various wastes and materials such as organic waste, industrial sludge and minerals, and forestry products. Therefore, recycling facilities use this technology to enhance chemical recycling efficiency and recover clean energy, biofuels, and raw materials faster.

Avris Environment Technologies develops a Food Waste Treatment System

Avris Environment Technologies is an Indian startup that offers Chugg , a food waste treatment system. It leverages anaerobic digestion to convert food waste into biogas. Chugg features a modular design and requires minimal intervention for operations. This allows restaurants and hotels to deploy biogas plants on site and reduce dependence on liquified petroleum gas (LPG), reducing energy costs.

5. Artificial Intelligence

AI allows plastic recycling facilities to automate material analysis, sorting, and picking tasks. It also improves worker safety by reducing human exposure to hazardous waste streams. To integrate AI into workflows, startups utilize machine learning and computer vision, among others to capture unique characteristics in mixed waste streams and improve quality control.

The technology also allows recyclers to optimize waste collection routes and pickup schedules in waste logistics. This, in turn, enables them to improve recycling performance and recover more value from waste.

Sortera Alloys provides an Automated Metal Sorting System

Sortera Alloys is a US-based startup that offers an automated metal sorting system for scrap metal recycling and reuse industries. The sorting system combines AI, data analytics, and sensors to classify and sort waste streams. It also upgrades feedstock streams and removes unwanted contaminants.

The startup’s high-throughput sorter enables recyclers to increase material recovery efficiency, create low-cost, high-quality metal alloys, and enable local supply chains.

BANQloop offers Smart Waste Management

BANQloop is a US-based startup that develops an eponymous smart waste management platform. The startup deploys its smart trash units, banQx1 , or its heavy-duty variant, banQx1.HD , at waste generation sites. They use AI-driven robotics to sort wastes at the source. The startup’s mobile smart trash unit, banQx1.HDm , also provides household waste pick-up services.

BANQloop’s intelligence platform, loopiQ , then provides material analysis data, pick-up notifications, and green scores. Government institutions and businesses leverage these solutions to increase recycling rates and optimize waste logistics.

6. Green Waste Management

Food waste contributes to about 8% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions . Diverting it away from landfills enables recyclers to reduce emissions while also recovering high-value materials. Therefore, green waste management startups develop solutions to upcycle organic waste into stabilized organic compounds, carbon dioxide, and methane.

This includes compost facilities that convert green waste into biofuel or fertilizers. Besides, the growing market penetration of biopolymers enables a newer market for materials sourced from biomass waste.

BicyCompost offers Bio-Waste Valorization

BicyCompost is a French startup that provides bio-waste valorization. The startup collects organic waste using electric bikes and naturally composts it. BicyCompost then distributes the compost, free of charge, to its partner farmers, promoting local agriculture. This allows food businesses to ensure sustainable management of the waste they generate.

Biovert Protein advances Food Waste to Resource

Biovert Protein is a Thailand-based startup that uses black soldier flies (BSF) for bioconversion of food waste into high-protein animal feed, high-fat oil, and fertilizers. Waste management facilities use this solution to divert organic waste away from landfills while it also reduces the pressure on clogged agri supply chains due to animal feed demand.

7. Material Life Cycle Extension

Recycling technologies play a significant role in extending material life cycles. Closed-loop recycling and chemical recycling techniques have a great impact on material life cycle extension. However, a few challenges in achieving infinite recyclability include the quality of waste and recycling methods involved. For example, recycling metals and glass without degrading their quality is relatively easier compared to recycling plastics.

To overcome these challenges, startups develop advanced recycling solutions based on depolymerization, chemical treatment, and tech-driven mechanical recycling, among others. They enable recycling facilities to produce high-quality secondary materials and extend the lifetime of materials infinitely, reducing dependence on virgin raw materials.

Ever Resource facilitates Lead-Acid Battery (LAB) Recycling

UK-based startup Ever Resource advances LAB recycling. The startup’s hydrometallurgical process, REGENERATE , leverages mechanical separation, mixing, filtration, crystallization, and calcination. It generates high-quality lead oxide that replaces virgin lead oxide required to create LABs. The startup’s process, thus, ensures a continuous material flow between LAB manufacturers and recyclers, eliminating the use of virgin lead in batteries.

Fili Pari offers Marble-based Clothes

Fili Pari is a Spanish startup that makes marble-based clothes. The startup combines its patented marble-based material, natural materials, and recycled fabric from textile deadstock to create its products. Fili Pari repurposes marble otherwise sent to landfills into coats, raincoats, and other accessories. Additionally, it leverages process optimization and compostable packaging to enhance product sustainability.

8. Big Data & Analytics

The recycling industry utilizes data points generated by the connected waste management ecosystem through big data and advanced analytics. They allow recyclers to identify process inefficiencies and facilitate flow management. Further, big data and analytics enable advanced data processing techniques such as machine learning and deep learning for process automation.

Workflow digitization powered by analytics also drives transparency in operations and decision-making. For instance, some startups develop solutions that predict waste generation trends and identify communities or businesses that produce more waste, enabling targeted services.

Waste Labs aids Waste Logistics Optimization

Waste Labs is a Singaporean startup that develops a waste logistics optimization platform. It combines data fusion and an AI-based optimization engine to collect and analyze waste collection route data. The platform then detects inefficiencies and identifies optimal routing opportunities. Waste haulers and recyclers utilize the platform to map out waste generation flows, streamline service costs, and identify prospective waste producers.

Recyda facilitates Packaging Recyclability Assessment

Recyda is a German startup that aids packaging recyclability assessment. The startup’s software allows users to manually enter or import package-sourcing data. It then analyzes this data to identify missing attributes and packaging non-compliance risks. This allows packaging manufacturers to ensure recyclability at sales and developmental stages. Besides, the increased visibility into package life cycles increases recycling efficiency at waste management facilities.

Discover all Recycling Technology Trends, Technologies & Startups

Advanced recycling technologies have the potential to significantly reduce the global demand for virgin raw materials – from plastics to energy. Recent developments include ultra-fast pyrolysis and on-site recycling systems, as well as using bacteria to tackle plastic waste. Additionally, startups are making recycling technologies affordable and scalable to address the already unsustainable waste management problem.

The Recycling Technology Trends & Startups outlined in this report only scratch the surface of trends that we identified during our data-driven innovation and startup scouting process. Among others, molecular recycling, biological depolymerization, and advanced data analytics will transform the sector and shape the future of recycling technology.

Identifying new opportunities and emerging technologies to implement into your business goes a long way in gaining a competitive advantage. Get in touch to easily and exhaustively scout startups, technologies & trends that matter to you!

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Advanced recycling: Opportunities for growth

As industries continue to shift away from fossil fuels and toward sustainability, many consumer-packaged-goods (CPG) companies have pledged to sell goods that have less impact on the environment. These pledges affect a large portion of the plastic products people use or encounter in everyday life, including packaging materials such as bottles, caps, meal trays, and flexible film wrap. As a result, the demand for circular polymers is rapidly increasing—but capacity announcements are not on pace with demand growth. 1 As described by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, a circular economy is based on eliminating waste and pollution, circulating products and materials, and regenerating nature. For more, see “Circular economy introduction,” Ellen MacArthur Foundation, accessed December 21, 2021.

Advanced recycling offers one potential solution. This term refers to recent technological developments meant to complement mechanical recycling—which has generally been the default approach to recycling for the past 30 years. Mechanical recycling is most effective with high-quality, relatively clean sorted waste; it faces structural limitations such as limited pools of appropriate feedstock and resulting material properties that limit end-market applications.

Advanced recycling can not only expand the types of plastics that are recyclable but also produce plastics that have tailored molecular weight distributions and comonomers that are suited for high-value applications, such as flexible packaging for food. However, capacity is limited today; many of these technologies are still developing and scaling.

Given the still-limited scale and uncertain financial returns, advanced recycling is a work in progress. This article addresses the current state of affairs as well as how to mature advanced-recycling technologies, building out infrastructure and sortation, and setting up end-to-end partnerships.

Accelerating demand for recycled plastics

Demand for recycled polymers is growing, primarily because of increased consumer awareness, CPG pledges, and regulations (Exhibit 1). These plastics can be produced through either mechanical recycling or advanced recycling. In mechanical recycling, plastic waste is washed, shredded, and pelletized, while in advanced recycling there is a chemical change and a longer route to go from plastic waste to ready-to-use plastic.

Recycled plastics are gathering steam: more than 80 global CPG, packaging, and retail companies have made public commitments to reach recycled content in their packaging between 15 to 50 percent by 2025.

Europe leads the way in sustainability-related regulation, with fines imposed on nonrecycled-plastic packaging and a single-use plastics ban on ten items. Australia, Japan, and South Korea have set recycling targets for 2025 or 2030. And in North America, legislation in the United States varies by state, with Canada slightly ahead in terms of overall recycling requirements.

The potential of advanced recycling

As of today, mechanically recycled materials are the highest-by-volume nonfossil plastics, followed by bio-based or biodegradable plastics. Mechanical processes are successful in effectively recovering the materials from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethylene (PE) bottles, which can be used to make recycled beverage containers (bottle-to-bottle recycling). These techniques are also applied to products as diverse as agricultural films, tubs, and bowls.

That said, using recycled plastics in food-grade materials is particularly challenging because of safety concerns around contaminants. Advanced recycling offers a way to solve this challenge by converting recycled material back into hydrocarbons and precursors that other processes can use as chemical feedstocks. Advanced recycling—which includes technologies such as pyrolysis, gasification, solvolysis, and microwave—offers a complementary way to expand the recycling landscape. As a result, it will likely play an increasingly important role in achieving circular-economy targets and commitments  and help to expand the amounts, types, and qualities of plastic waste that can be recycled (Exhibit 2). Although mechanical-recycling rates are high for rigid polyethylene (PE) and rigid PET resin, certain advanced-recycling technologies can accept a range of polymers, including mixed plastics with potentially greater contamination.

Advanced recycling also has sustainability benefits. For example, it uses waste rather than fossil fuels for polymer production, and it diverts plastic waste from landfills and incineration. With landfills nearing capacity in some regions and incineration prompting concerns about carbon emissions, advanced recycling offers an alternative.

Must-win battles for advanced recycling

If the current sustainability momentum were to continue at pace and if the constraints were resolved, 2 Constraints include ample waste supply, improved economics as technology matures and scales, successful partnerships or investment, and continued green premiums. we anticipate that advanced recycling would continue to grow and play a crucial role in meeting the demand for recycled polymers. In such a scenario, advanced recycling could satisfy 4 to 8 percent of total polymer demand by 2030 and would require the deployment of more than $40 billion in capital investment over the next decade (Exhibit 3). Although that may seem like a small portion of the total market for plastics, it demonstrates significant growth over today’s near-zero percent. Moreover, the technology has the potential for more than 20 percent year-over-year growth through 2030.

Currently at limited scale, advanced recycling requires further development of key technologies and waste collection as well as new partnerships or investments. To meet demand, advanced-recycling technology needs to be improved, infrastructure needs to be more widespread and effective, and partnerships need to be scaled across the value chain.

Maturing advanced-recycling technologies toward scale and reliability

Dozens of companies are developing technology to make these plans possible. As companies adopt these technologies, they will no doubt face learning curves. And as each technology matures, its yield, efficiency, and reliability will improve, leading to higher throughput and lower operational cost. Scale-up of these technologies also means lower capital cost per metric ton and lower fixed costs for labor, maintenance, and overhead. That said, few companies currently have large-scale commercial plants. Many are in the early stages of commercialization (with production of less than 20,000 metric tons of advanced-recycled plastics per year), and a limited scale can result in high capital cost per unit (with a relatively high capital intensity of more than $3,000 per metric ton) as well as fixed costs.

For some advanced-recycling technologies, the optimization of output quality, quantity, and process efficiency depends on feedstock consistency. For instance, presorting mixed plastic waste is sometimes required to remove PET and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) prior to pyrolysis, which produce byproducts that can cause problems with equipment. For other processes, such as gasification, this is less of a concern. Furthermore, transporting, storing, and potentially upgrading intermediates can add significant operational and capital costs. 3 For example, hydrotreating can increase operations costs. Plastic pyrolysis oil is highly unsaturated and may repolymerize to form deposits, but hydrogen can be used to react with unsaturated bonds. These are increasingly offset by green premiums, but economics still depend on the optimization of processes and site location—for example, the trade-off between waste proximity and the location of further chemical processing.

Building out infrastructure and sortation to ensure feedstock availability

Today, increasing the plastic feedstock supply requires the buildout of infrastructure and sortation, yet access to low-cost feedstock is limited by the logistics around waste collection and transportation costs. For example, flexible plastic–packaging waste has a lower recovery rate compared with rigid-packaging waste in some regions because the former may not be accepted in recycling programs, is difficult to sort, and is often contaminated (Exhibit 4).

For these reasons, among others, new programs should help to improve the collection of plastic waste, particularly around flexibles, multilayers, and pouches. Some programs have been introduced to improve sortation for flexible plastics and enhance recovery rates, including pilot programs for enhanced optical sortation in material recovery facilities (MRFs) and alternative collection programs, such as secondary bagging.

Scaling these programs, however, entails significant changes in consumer behavior, and investment in waste collection and MRF upgrades. Material densification, which compresses loose plastics into waste bales of uniform size and shape, can help offset high transportation costs. Other routes to help scale supply require changes in collection processes and consumer participation to expand the supply of plastic waste, improved feedstock management via digital solutions to ensure consistent input and output quality, and technological advances in sortation to improve recovery rate.

Setting up end-to-end partnerships to achieve at-scale investment

Coordination across the value chain between technology providers, resin producers, waste-management companies, and CPGs could serve to expand the supply of feedstock and the demand for recycled materials (Exhibit 5). Over the past year, there have been partnership announcements centered in Europe and the United States, but investment lags in part due to the uncertainties of the long-term economics. Sustained green premiums, 4 A green premium is the additional cost of choosing a green technology or material over its conventional counterpart. Regulatory incentives include carbon taxes, taxes for virgin material, and penalties for nonrecycled packaging. linked to strong CPG demand for recycled polymers, are supportive of economic returns for advanced-recycling projects.

Cross–value chain partnerships, such as MRF supply agreements and secured offtake contracts, could also strengthen advanced recycling’s development trajectory. The combination of sustained green premiums, technology scaling, and value chain partnerships could further encourage investment.

On this point, technology developers have announced more than 20 advanced-recycling projects in the past few years, often in partnership with petrochemical players. Overall, these announced projects could reach up to one million metric tons per year of capacity by 2024. Although a majority are small scale, with only a few large projects expected to create capacity of more than 50 thousand metric tons per year, some players have set ambitious targets, committing more than ten million metric tons per year by 2030.

Recent climate pledges and commitments from CPG companies underscore the urgent need to take action around advanced recycling to deliver on consumer expectations. In the years to come, increased use of advanced-recycling technologies could be a win–win for companies that can consistently provide recycled materials and for consumers who are motivated to buy these products. Ultimately, these technologies can benefit the environment and improve the viability of the plastics recycling value chain.

Zhou Peng is a consultant in McKinsey’s Houston office, Theo Jan Simons is a partner in the Cologne office, Jeremy Wallach is a partner in the Boston office, and Adam Youngman is an associate partner in the Los Angeles office.

The authors wish to thank Mikhail Kirilyuk, Anne Lally, Emily Mendelsohn, Andrew Ryba, and Christof Witte for their contributions to this article.

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Battery recycling: 10 Breakthrough Technologies 2023

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High-value metals recovered from old laptops, corroded power drills, and electric vehicles could power tomorrow’s cars, thanks to recycling advances that make it possible to turn old batteries into new ones. 

Demand for lithium-ion batteries is skyrocketing as electric vehicles become more common. Greater use of electric vehicles is good news for the climate . But supplies of the metals needed to build battery cells are already stretched thin, and demand for lithium could increase 20 times by 2050. 

Recycling may help. Older methods of processing spent batteries struggled to reliably recover enough of these individual metals to make recycling economical. But new approaches have swiftly changed that, enabling recyclers to more effectively dissolve the metals and separate them from battery waste. 

Recycling facilities can now recover nearly all of the cobalt and nickel and over 80% of the lithium from used batteries and manufacturing scrap left over from battery production—and recyclers plan to resell those metals for a price nearly competitive with that of mined materials. Aluminum, copper, and graphite are often recovered as well. 

China leads the world in battery recycling today, dominated by subsidiaries of major battery companies like CATL. The EU recently proposed extensive recycling regulations with mandates for battery manufacturers. And companies in North America, like Redwood Materials and Li-Cycle, are quickly scaling operations, funded by billions of dollars in public and private investment. 

Battery demand is expected to grow exponentially for decades. Recycling alone won’t be enough to satisfy it. And these new recycling processes aren’t perfect. But battery recycling factories will create a supply of materials the world needs to meet its climate goals.

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Technical groups, follow aiche, you are here, transforming the science and technology of plastics recycling.

Finding solutions to the plastic waste problem will require public-private partnerships, innovation in deconstruction and upcycling technologies, and the invention of new recyclable-by-design materials.

Plastics have revolutionized modern life, but our reliance on these inherently nondegradable materials is causing a global pollution crisis (1). Plastics manufacturing is predicted to account for 20% of global petroleum consumption in 2050, contributing substantially to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and carbon pollution (2). Of the nearly 5 billion m.t. of plastics that have been discarded across the globe in the past decades, only 600 million m.t. have been recycled. Research and development (R&D) into new technologies is required to mitigate this problem and protect the environment from further harm.

To address these problems, and as part of the U.S. Dept. of Energy’s (DOE’s) Plastics Innovation Challenge, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is leading a new public-private partnership called the BOTTLE Consortium — short for Bio-Optimized Technologies to keep Thermoplastics out of Landfills and the Environment. The consortium was created to find solutions to the plastic waste problem and to enable the transition to a circular economy for polymers ( Figure 1 ) (3).

▲ Figure 1. Single-use plastic products must be phased out to transition from a linear economy to a circular economy.

Supported by the DOE’s Bioenergy Technologies Office and Advanced Manufacturing Office, BOTTLE comprises industry and university members, government research laboratories, and other public and private agencies. The consortium’s science leadership team consists of leading researchers from academia and national laboratories, including Eugene Chen (Colorado State Univ.), Yuriy Román-Leshkov (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Jennifer DuBois (Montana State Univ.), Linda Broadbelt (Northwestern Univ.), John McGeehan (Univ. of Portsmouth), Meltem Urgun-Demirtas (Argonne National Laboratory), Taraka Dale (Los Alamos National Laboratory), Gregg Beckham (NREL), Adam Guss (Oak Ridge National Laboratory), and Chris Tassone (Stanford Linear Accelerator Laboratory).

BOTTLE’s vision is to deliver selective, scalable technologies that enable cost-effective recycling and upcycling with high energy efficiencies. The mission is to develop robust processes to upcycle existing waste plastics and develop new, biobased plastics that are recyclable-by-design (RBD). To fulfill this vision and mission...

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Forging a More Sustainable Path

One lab’s war against the plastics pileup, advancing a circular economy, special section: waste plastics recycling (complete 19-page section), optimize reboiler performance via effective condensate drainage, parting boxes can make or break packed tower performance, part ii: spargers with dip tubes, departments, editorial: reexamine your relationship with plastics, cep: news update, catalyzing commercialization: a fast, cost-effective path to decarbonization of heavy-duty vehicles, aiche journal highlight: the future of refineries: a separations perspective, process safety beacon: cybersecurity and plant operations, new products: july 2021, emerging voices: keep your job and earn your mba, che in context: understanding the u.s. chemical safety board, institute news: july 2021, calendars: july 2021.

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A research team is developing a method to recycle more plastics

by University of Texas at Arlington

Despite consumer efforts to sort and separate recyclables, most plastic bottles still end up in the landfill. Standard recycling methods to sort, shred and remake plastics are limited to just type-1 and type-2 plastics—basically only soda bottles, water bottles and milk jugs.

Global plastic production has increased from 2 million tons in 1950 to 360 million tons in 2018, and about 50% of that plastic becomes trash after a single use. By 2050, it's predicted that 12 billion tons of plastic waste will be in the environment and landfills.

To improve recycling rates, Kevin Schug, the Shimadzu Distinguished Professor of Analytical Chemistry at The University of Texas at Arlington, is working on new ways to separate and recycle mixed plastics. He and a team of graduate and undergraduate researchers at UTA have collaborated on a study published in Journal of Chromatography A .

"A prominent means of chemical recycling is called pyrolysis," Schug said. "During pyrolysis, plastics are heated in an oxygen-free environment until they decompose into pyrolysis oils. These oils have much of the same characteristics as crude oil , with a few exceptions. Importantly, they can be further refined into fuels, and even better, turned into chemical feedstocks to make new plastics."

Unlike traditional plastic recycling that requires sorting and shredding before the material can be recycled, pyrolysis is not limited to specific plastic types. It can accommodate them all.

However, the pyrolysis of mixed plastic waste does create some complex mixtures that manufacturers must examine closely. Contaminants such as sulfur and nitrogen can create chemical compounds that can hurt downstream processing strategies.

"Pyrolysis has become quite a big deal. Many companies are ramping up large chemical recycling operations," Schug said. "Still, the characterization of the pyrolysis oils requires the development of new analytical methods, such as the one we describe in our new peer-reviewed research."

With the support of Jean-Francois Borny from Lummus Technologies LLC, a Houston-based chemical company, Schug and his colleagues at UTA—graduate students Alexander Kaplitz and Niray Bhakta, and undergraduate researchers Shane Marshall and Sadid Morshed—created a new supercritical fluid chromatography method that can separate the pyrolysis oils. The researchers found they could clearly differentiate oils created from polyethylene versus polypropylene feedstocks.

"This is just the beginning, but we're very excited at the potential of this technique to differentiate oils produced from many different plastics and mixtures," Schug said. "Finding a way to better recycle these plastics will help us reduce our reliance on new fossil fuels, and hopefully, do our part to stop contributing to climate change."

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New polystyrene recycling process could be world's first to be both economical and energy-efficient

Chemical method identified to tackle hard-to-recycle packaging material, cutting landfill waste.

Engineers have modelled a new way to recycle polystyrene that could become the first viable way of making the material reusable.

The team of chemical engineers, based at the University of Bath in the UK and Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Massachusetts, US, say their technique could be the first to make recycling polystyrene both economically viable and energy efficient.

Explained in a new research paper published in the Chemical Engineering Journal , the technique uses a chemical process called pyrolysis to break down polystyrene into parts which can be reformed into new pieces of the material.

Dr Bernardo Castro-Dominguez, a Senior Lecturer in Chemical Engineering at the University of Bath and a Co-Director of the Centre for Digital, Manufacturing & Design (dMaDe), says: "Chemical recycling techniques are a major focus within chemical engineering right now, and cost- and energy-efficient ways to breakdown plastics to their primary building blocks such as polystyrene are urgently needed.

"Less than 5% of polystyrene is recycled at present -- our work shows that as much as 60% of all polystyrene used today could be replaced by chemically recycled styrene."

Michael Timko, PhD, Professor of Chemical Engineering at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, adds: "Our analysis finds polystyrene to be an ideal candidate for a chemical recycling process. Surprisingly, the process is energetically efficient and potentially economically competitive. In terms of emissions, investing in this process has the potential to be equivalent to simple measures such as energy conservation in terms of the amount of emissions reduction that can be achieved for a given investment."

Polystyrene can be chemically recycled using heat, but repeated treatments degrade the material, causing it to lose strength and flexibility. Because this process requires specialised facilities, most recycling centres do not accept polystyrene -- and because of its bulk, high transport costs mean it is rarely moved to these facilities. Consequently, very little polystyrene is recycled at present.

Pyrolysis involves exposing a material to very high temperatures (of more than 450°C) in an oxygen-free chamber, meaning it cannot ignite. Instead, the polystyrene breaks down into parts known as monomers, which can then be purified and subsequently reconstituted into virgin polystyrene. Creating one kilogram of the new material requires less than 10 megajoules of energy -- roughly enough to power a typical microwave for around 30 minutes.

The identified process involves a pyrolysis reactor, heat exchanger and a pair of distillation columns, which separate out the parts of polystyrene into 'monomer grade' styrene -- the part which can be reformed into polystyrene -- and 'light' and 'heavy' petroleum-like by-products, which can be reused in other ways.

The process has a yield of 60% -- meaning that if 1kg of used polystyrene were used, 600 grams of 99% pure monomer grade styrene would be left available to generate new polystyrene, thus reducing the use of fossil fuels. This work also highlights the environmental benefits, noting that the cost to decrease the amount of carbon emissions through the implementation of this process is approximately $1.5 per ton of CO 2 , considerably lower than many other recycling processes.

The researchers say that policies to incentivise consumers to recycle polystyrene, or divert it from landfill, would help make the process even more economically attractive.

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Materials provided by University of Bath . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Madison R. Reed, Elizabeth R. Belden, Nikolaos K. Kazantzis, Michael T. Timko, Bernardo Castro-Dominguez. Thermodynamic and economic analysis of a deployable and scalable process to recover Monomer-Grade styrene from waste polystyrene . Chemical Engineering Journal , 2024; 492: 152079 DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.152079

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• Published: 03 August 2023

Measuring the recycling potential of industrial waste for long-term sustainability

• Qudsia Kanwal 1 ,
• Xianlai Zeng   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5563-6098 1 &
• Jinhui Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7819-478X 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  471 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Industrial waste is the byproduct of many industrial processes. Estimating the recycling potential of industrial waste can help solve the anthropogenic circularity conundrum. Here we employed the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) to verify GDP as a route to "amplified resource efficiency". The results provide substantial evidence for an inverted U and N relationship between the hypothesized GDPPC and industrial waste generation. During 2011–2025, the recycling potential in China showed a downward trend. China is projected to experience a dramatic increase in the production of industrial hazardous waste until the successful implementation of industrial hazardous waste prevention measures reverses the current trends. The turning point of the EKC between industrial waste generation and economic development is around US$8000, while the comprehensive utilization is 102.22 million tons. The EKC inflection points established by the study are correlated with the waste category’s turning point. The revised EKC claims that technological change may accelerate the turning points; thus, the graph shifts downward and right. The study recommends investing in new technology development to help the industry produce virgin and recycled industrial waste for a circular economy. Recycling potential evaluation also assists us to achieve our Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

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Introduction.

In the Anthropocene era, material flow from the lithosphere to the anthroposphere caused the rapid depletion of geological minerals and serious pollution of the ecological environment, resulting in the dramatic generation of solid waste. The majority, <90%, of material is sinking finally as waste, yet it could potentially be recycled (Zeng and Li, 2018 ). Industrial waste is one offspring of anthropogenic metabolism as the global population has grown and become more urban and affluent in the past century. China’s industrial waste generation, which includes tailings, sludge, slag, and coal tar, increased tenfold between 1998 and 2018 and is expected to double by 2025 (Hoornweg et al., 2013 ; Kanwal et al., 2022 ). China, for example, generated around 3.5 billion tons (t) of industrial waste in 2019, accounting for ~30% of all solid waste generated globally (Kanwal et al., 2021 ; Kanwal et al., 2022 ). Global average special waste (i.e., industrial waste) is expected to rise to 12.73 kg/capita/day (Kaza et al., 2018 ; Wang et al., 2000 ). These statistics introduce significant challenges which may be addressed by estimating the recycling potential of industrial waste.

Industrial wastes and byproducts are increasingly used as structural fillers. Secondary materials used in construction include recovered rocky or earthy waste materials and industrial byproducts. Slags from the steel industry (used in coastal protection, highways, and parking lot foundations), ashes from municipal solid waste incineration (used in road construction, noise barriers), and construction and demolition waste (used in foundations, road construction) are only a few examples (Ayres and Ayres, 2002 ; Dijkstra et al., 2019 ). Industrial waste quantification and recycling are necessary components of a system-oriented industrial ecology to determine the existence of "new anthropogenic elements".

It is well known that China experienced sustained, rapid industrialization from the late 1970s when economic reform was introduced. Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (GDPPC) has grown nearly 10% yearly. Rapid economic growth enhances living standards and social welfare while creating severe environmental problems. According to the central baseline scenario modeled using the OECD ENV-Linkages model, global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is predicted to quadruple between 2011–2060. As a result, global average per capita income will reach current OECD levels by 2060 (around US$ 40,000) (OECD, 2019 ). Although waste generation in OECD countries will peak by 2050 and in Asia–Pacific countries by 2075, waste will continue to rise in Sub-Saharan Africa’s fast-growing cities. Based on current trends, it is estimated that by 2100, solid waste generation will reach 11 million tons per day, more than three times today’s rate (Hoornweg et al., 2013 ).

There is a correlation between economic growth and municipal/electronic trash; nevertheless, these growths are truly correlated with generation quantity; as a result, an increase in GDP is the cause of an increase in industrial waste generation (D’Adamo et al., 2020 ). The EKC approach is applied in this study because of its ability to determine the correlation between each social-economic driving factor and solid waste generation. According to the EKC hypothesis, metal consumption peaks and declines throughout economic development. Metals are necessary for economic growth, human progress, and a prerequisite for expanding renewable energy. Metals’ anthropogenic use has increased significantly, particularly in emerging economies. As defined by GDPPC, affluence has been recognized as the primary economic driver of domestic metal consumption. On the other hand, domestic metal consumption declines as affluence increases, implying that high-income economies are becoming more resource-efficient (Bechle et al., 2011 ).

This study can provide a scientific basis for resolving the contradiction between the rapid development of the social economy and the degradation of the ecological environment due to the enormous quantity of industrial solid waste, and thus serve as a guide for ecological environment management decisions regarding waste management in China.

Due to the lack of empirical study on the recent evolution of income distribution and environmental pollution, this essay explores the problem of growing income inequality and environmental degradation (waste generation) to reassess the Kuznets theory from a Chinese viewpoint. The novelty/significance of this research is:

Currently, we focus on fiscal development and industrial waste generation nexus.

Despite being part of industrial ecology, waste sector research is patchy. "The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12 focuses on waste management and is part of the anthropogenic circularity debate.

To our knowledge, this is the first observational analysis modeling the Kuznets curve: the income–pollution link across China while also accounting for additional control variables such as population, comprehensive utilization, and mineral rent (% of GDP) and therefore, our analysis results in more appropriate policy prescriptions.

This paper is based on a comprehensive analysis of China’s industrial hazardous waste recycling potential (see Fig. S1 ). The article proceeds as follows. The first two sections describe the conceptual underpinnings of EKC and its integration with the STIRPAT model, current knowledge, methods, and data employed. The third segment discusses the factors contributing to industrial waste and formulates theories for testing. The fourth section explains the conclusions and the fifth section policy implications.

Literature review

Environmental kuznets curve (ekc).

Grossman and Krueger’s ( 1995 ) EKC theory defines the dynamic link between income per capita and the environment (Grossman and Krueger, 1995 ; Kasioumi and Stengos, 2020 ). Environmental quality deteriorates during the early phase of economic growth, forming an inverted U-curve. However, the pattern reverses after reaching a particular per capita income threshold (Bank, 1992 ).

Since the early 1990s, a slew of experiments has looked into two Kuznets-related hypotheses: the inverted U-curve hypothesis and the EKC, to see any potential links (between growth and income redistribution and growth and the environment) (Panayotou, 1993a ). Real GDP and GDPPC are the most commonly utilized economic measures in EKC literature, including panel data (Ge et al., 2018 ; Narayan and Narayan, 2010 ; Ozcan, 2013 ) and cross-sectional data (Ahmad et al., 2017 ; Hill and Magnani, 2002 ). Nevertheless, the findings of these surveys, carried out mainly in the early 2000s, remain inconclusive (Ota, 2017 ). Therefore, research using a new time frame and methodology is needed.

Several host studies were conducted to investigate the EKC. Li ( 2016 ) conducted an observational analysis of economic development and environmental pollution in Gansu province. The findings revealed that Gansu and the west zone have more complex economic conditions and environmental pollution (Li, 2016 ). Research on pollution and economic growth of Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei has shown that these cities are already on the left side of the EKC curve: and a greater emphasis on inverted U-shaped green construction must be made (Dal Mas et al., 2021 ; Yuan, 2019 ).

Since then, observational research into the effect of GDP on potentially mitigating environmental pollution based on the Kuznets curve has progressed. Various countries or territories, sampling periods, pollutants, data sets, and methodologies were used (Boubellouta and Kusch-Brandt, 2020 ; Dodds et al., 2013 ; Lieb, 2003 ; Ota, 2017 ; Purcel, 2020b ; Sarkodie and Strezov, 2019 ; Van Alstine and Neumayer, 2010 ). The research linking EKC to materials and industrial waste is smaller than municipal waste and air pollution. Precedent research uses a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model to consider spatial heterogeneity to explain the interactions between environmental performance and economic growth in China (Kim et al., 2018 ; Madden et al., 2019 ). Mazzanti and Zoboli ( 2009 ) examined empirical evidence for decoupling economic growth and municipal waste output by observing an inverted U-shaped curve to gross domestic savings as a proportion of GDP (Ercolano et al., 2018 ; Khajuria et al., 2012 ; Mazzanti and Zoboli, 2009 ; Mazzanti and Zoboli, 2005 ). Based on the EKC hypothesis, a study investigates the relationship between environmental pollution and economic growth in Chinese provinces. Waste gas, wastewater, and solid waste as environmental indicators and GDP are used as economic indicator. All these pollutants are U-shaped; it can be explained by an ever-cleaner industrial structure, rapidly increasing investment in environmental protection, and tighter environmental policy (Tao et al., 2008 ; Xuemei et al., 2011 ; Yanrong et al., 2011 ).

Similarly, research on panel data from 258 prefecture-level cities in China from 2003 to 2016 uses an extended stochastic effect on population, wealth, and technology (STIRPAT) regression model with the difference-in-difference (DID) approach to research the impact of waste collection policy and MSW’s main socioeconomic variables and the environmental hypothesis of EKC measure. A substantial N, U, or inverted N-shaped curve was observed between the MSW generation and economic growth at the national level. However, the traditional EKC hypothesis has no evidence to support it (Cheng et al., 2020 ; Gui et al., 2019 ). For the first time for e-waste of 174 countries, the EKC hypothesis was tested using ordinary least square regression. It includes population, urbanization, industrialization, and electricity access. The results strongly support the hypothesized inverted-U relationship between GDPPC and e-waste per capita worldwide (Boubellouta and Kusch-Brandt, 2021 ).

However, no preceding research accounts for the industrial waste generation concerning EKC variables. Thus, this EKC-China study covers gaps by offering an essential roadmap to estimate Chinese industrial waste recycling potential.

Data, method, and modeling

Data and variables.

To ensure data consistency, we established EKCs using GDP as the economic indicator and tailings (total tailings, Fe tailings, Cu tailings, and Au tailings), smelting slag (ISS, NFSS, RM), coal ash, coal gangue, and industrial byproduct gypsum as environmental indicators between 1993- 2018. This paper’s data are derived from the World Bank development indicator, the National Statistical Bureau of China. Table 1 contains descriptive information, including the mean and standard deviation. Table 2 shows the regression and covariance coefficients of various indicators. Our descriptive statistics analysis highlights the need to deal with our data’s heterogeneity.

Independent variables

We use GDPPC as an independent variable based on previous studies related to environmental economics. GDPPC square and cube are applied to the regression model to test the EKC hypothesis. Suppose the GDPPC coefficient is positive and statistically significant, and the GDPPC square and cube coefficient is negative and significant. Thus inverted U-shaped relationship between GDPPC and industrial waste per capita is obtained; hence, the EKC hypothesis is tested.

Dependent variables

The dependent variable in our study is the industrial waste generation expressed in million tons per annum. Industrial waste has witnessed exceptionally high growth worldwide over the past few years (Kanwal et al., 2022 ). Industrial waste from various processes, such as sludge, kiln mud, slags, and ashes, is referred to as industrial waste (JeyaSundar et al., 2020 ). This variable comprises ten waste categories; based on field surveys, literature reviews, and governmental websites.

Control variables

Time-series analysis is based on the mathematical EKC model of historical data. It inevitably leads to uncertainty as we do not know whether the historical trends in recycling potential can persist. Nonetheless, contextual factors impact potential demand changes (Schipper et al., 2018 ). Among these subjective factors, demographic variations, Comprehensive utilization rate, and Mineral rents (% of GDP) significantly influence a particular country’s waste resource potential.

Comprehensive utilization rate

The comprehensive utilization stage consists of resource recovery and recycling; for example, the crude oil removed during the treatment stage and the sludge can be used in various ways (Dal Mas et al., 2021 ). Using EKC analysis, an estimate of China’s industrial waste production, primary treatment, extensive recycling, and disposal process was carried out using 2011- 2018 as the time boundary.

Mineral rents (% of GDP)

The economic potential of industrial waste is calculated in terms of Mineral rents. The difference between the production value for a mineral stock at world prices and its total production costs (Text S1 ). The values range from 1.45–16.4 million tons (% of GDP) (2020) (SI excel sheet). Thereby, we use Mineral rents as a control variable to estimate recycling potential. We also assumed that the rise in demand is projected to exceed the Chinese mineral and metal demand, as China has already taken an indispensable position in the mineral industry.

We used the population variants depicted in several World Bank publications (Nations, 2015 ; Zhang et al., 2017 ) to forecast recycling potential. Hence, we used 1993 as the base year. Previous research indicates that the growing population increases consumer demand, resulting in environmental degradation. However, a shift in environmental impact per capita is possible (Al Mamun et al., 2014 ; Boubellouta and Kusch-Brandt, 2020 ; Ohlan, 2015 ; Salman et al., 2019 ). From 2004–2006, there was a positive relationship between population and municipal waste generation per capita in 547 Italian municipalities (Abrate and Ferraris, 2010 ; Hanif and Gago-de-Santos, 2017 ). Based on this, we anticipate that population growth would positively impact industrial waste generation.

Financial growth

Given that China is already at a crossroads in expanding financial reform and reducing environmental pollution, it is critical and worthwhile to examine the relationship between financial development and environmental performance in China (Maneejuk et al., 2020 ; Zhao et al., 2019 ) (Awasthi et al., 2018 ). The existing research uses an "investment in environmental pollution treatment" as a financial sector indicator. Therefore, we chose this measure as financial depth. It is expressed as the ratio of total investment to the GDP in percentage terms. Data is collected from China Statistical Yearbook (Book).

Methodology

The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) is used in this study to assess the relationship between social-economic factors and industrial hazardous waste generation and calculate Chinese future recycling potential. By quantitatively assessing the IHW generation trend at a macro level, our study may provide a comprehensive picture of IHW generation and feedback on the Chinese government’s efficiency.

EKC modeling

The EKC model is based on the quadratic relationship between GDPPC and the environment. Many factors influence the relationship between the two, so in this paper, we adopt a trinomial equation to establish the quantitative relationship between GDPPC and the generation of industrial wastes. GDPPC is plotted along the horizontal axis, while industrial waste generation is plotted along the vertical axis. After determining the model, we use Origin to perform data fitting analysis.

We chose polynomial regression models (Grossman and Krueger, 1991 ; Miyama and Managi, 2014 ; Panayotou, 1993b ) because of their robustness in dealing with non-linear data and unobserved distinct heterogeneity variation. Using a quadratic function allows testing the standard EKC hypothesis (i.e., the hypothetical bell-shaped connection between pollution and growth). Furthermore, a quadratic functional form enables an EKC with an N or M shape (Terrell, 2020 ). In contrast, a higher polynomial order specification, such as the cubic function, allows for multiple pattern modeling (Purcel, 2020a ). The formulation of the model is well supported by literature (Enchi Liu et al., 2020 ; Jie Gu et al., 2020 ; Kim et al., 2018 ; Lazar et al., 2019 ; Tao et al., 2008 ; Xuejiao Huang et al., 2020 ; Xuemei et al., 2011 ). The model takes the following form:

where R p is the recycling potential index for industrial waste, ψ is the intercept value, γ is the economic development index (GDPPC), α 0 , α 1 , α 2 is the parameter to be estimated, δ is the random error term. The paper uses third-order polynomial fitting curves to have a higher fit, and R 2 and F tests show excellent results. The alpha coefficients determine the precise functional form as follows:

α ≠ 0, α 0  = α 1  = 0: the linear relationship between industrial waste and growth

α 0  < 0, α 1  > 0, α 2  = 0: U-shaped industrial waste growth nexus

α 0  > 0, α 1  < 0, α 2  = 0: inverted U-shaped industrial waste growth nexus

α 0  > 0, α 1  < 0, α 2  > 0: N-shaped industrial waste growth nexus

α 0  < 0, α 1  > 0, α 2  < 0: inverted N-shaped industrial waste growth nexus

An EKC-STIRPAT Model

STIRPAT is a well-known model in ecology; it is a mathematical expansion of the classic IPAT model. The model employs driving factors to assess the impact ( I ) of human activity on the environment (Wang et al., 2017 ). There are three basic specifications: population ( P ), affluence ( A ), and technology ( T ), usually in non-logarithmic form (Wang et al., 2013 ). Although this is important for theoretical work, researchers typically estimate using its logarithm version (STIRPAT).

Here, representative pollutants industrial hazardous waste emissions were selected as I indicators, and the indicators of the social economy were selected as P (Population/10000 persons), A (Affluence GDPPC), and T (Energy intensity by GDP) indicators, while e denotes an error.

Since the relationship between GDP and environmental degradation might be non-linear, the STIRPAT model has been used to investigate the EKC hypothesis between GDP and emissions (CO 2 ) or other environmental indicators. This has yet to be tested for solid waste. Combining the EKC hypothesis with the STIRPAT model could give a powerful technique for investigating the relationship between GDP and waste quantity in each industrial hazardous waste category.

Interrelationship among strategic elements to support EKC

The schematic view of the model is illustrated in Fig. 1 (produced with Vensim PLE 9.0 software). Considering the feedback loop between waste generation variables and GDP is valuable. The model allows us to evolve industrial waste recycling potential in non-trivial ways: including economics, comprehensive utilization, mineral rent, waste generation intensity, and environment. Industrialization also leads to the accumulation of waste pollutants. Growing ecological footprints and poor environmental cleanup bring about indirect EKC support. Without proper regulation, the link between the environment and development may constantly be positive. Moreover, Fig. 1 implies that China’s desire for a healthy climate increases the government’s pressure to regulate industry-based waste effectively.

Bold lines represent a ± feedback mechanism among variables.

Model equations

Numerous EKC research formulae, including linear, quadratic, and cubic, ensure the chosen model’s accuracy. Polynomial regression analysis revealed the following findings based on the GDPPC and the "three wastes" emission data statistics (Table S1 ).

Model analysis

In order to ensure the cross-compatibility of waste generation data and to develop forecasts for waste recycling potential, this analysis assumes that waste generation grows predominantly due to two variables. GDPPC growth: As a country develops economically, its per capita waste generation rises. GDPPC, with a purchasing power parity adjustment to 2011, shows economic growth. Population growth: as a country’s population increases, its total waste output rises proportionally. Figure 2 depicts the observed relationship between GDPPC and waste generation. The correlation between GDPPC and waste generation (tons/person/year) was calculated using a regression model. Total tailings and total slag (1993–2018) showed an inverted N shape, while different types of tailings, such as coal ash, coal gangue, etc., showed an inverted U shape. The independent variable in the best-fitting model is the natural logarithm of GDPPC (see STIRPAT model), while the dependent variable is per capita waste generation in tons/person/year.

It shows the GDPPC relationship, which steadily rises and correlates to industrial waste generation. The curves show quadratic regression models fitted to the data.

The Chinese EKC for the industrial waste generation curve is in the upward phase of the inverted U. Subsequently, large quantities of industrial waste, such as coal tar, different types of tailings, and slag, have increased quickly in recent years. At the same time, it demonstrates the influence of the Chinese GDPPC and the absence of timely environmental policy implementation. Numerous Kuznets curves were fitted to environmental and economic data to get regression coefficients R 2 (Fig. 2 ). The model’s R 2 for the trinomial equation is 0.86; the F test shows significance. Because the regression value is close to 1, the degree of curve fitting is more significant, and the analytical error is small. We compare our value to the volume of e-waste collected and the GDP Purchasing Power Standards, and the findings indicate that the best fit for the data is possible (Awasthi et al., 2018 ; D’Adamo et al., 2020 ).

STIRPAT model

This paper defines ln PRV , ln PPV , ln ARV , lnAPV, ln TPV , and ln TRV as dependent variables I . ln GDP , ln P , ln T (Energy intensity by GDP) are defined as independent variable PAT . It can be seen that the R 2 of all four groups of equations is more significant than 0.957, indicating that the regression results are credible. The three indexes with the greatest impact are as follows: ln PRV (11.845), ln ARV (−0.0069), and ln TRV (0.19062) (Fig. 3 ). Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned from the obtained estimates is that reducing the amount of industrial waste generated is a collaborative effort, as environmental measures taken by one municipality in the region affect the concentration levels of the pollutant in neighboring municipalities. The implications of the above model are to evaluate anthropogenic environmental impacts and constitute a valuable instrument for policy decision-making directed at controlling hazardous pollutants.

Here, lnA denotes the log of affluence, lnT the log of technology, and lnP the log of population.

EKC analysis and variable fitting

Economic development probably gives rise to environmental degradation, promoting economic prosperity with environmental protection. The EKC principle states that as the economy grows, so do emission indicators and the human population. Figure 4 shows the turning point for each variable, like comprehensive utilization in 2019 has a turning value of 102 million tons (Table S2 ). The waste category’s turning point corresponds to the study’s determined EKC inflection points. The revised EKC claims that technological change may accelerate the turning points; thus, the EKC graph shifts downward and right.

The existence of EKC in industrial waste can also be checked graphically.

The EKC turning points

During 2000–2018, the economy in China rapidly grew with an average increasing rate of 7.6% [Fig. S3A ]. For each measure of financial development, there is a range of GDPPC for which the total elasticity of financial development on industrial waste discharge per capita is negative [SI Fig. S3B ]. In other words, financial development benefits environmental quality at a particular degree of development. One explanation for this observation is that financial development’s effects on technological progress are critical for improving energy efficiency and lowering the waste emission intensity (i.e., the ratio of waste generation to GDP), which is not linear and depends on the economy’s specific characteristics.

The Chinese economy proliferated due to policies that allowed industrialization to dominate the economy. The turning point of the EKC between industrial waste generation and economic development in China is US$ 8066 (2018) (Fig. 4 ). The waste generation will continuously reduce as GDPPC increases if China’s economic growth is maintained. The underlying empirical research paid close attention to turning points in the waste generation-economic development nexus. Existing research shows that turning point values depend on various factors, including economic growth, the variables used to proxy for environmental quality, and the model used (Lazar et al., 2019 ; López-Menéndez et al., 2014 ; Sulemana et al., 2017 ). In our analysis, the presence of divergent GDP values for turning points are insulated from these sources of heterogeneity for the same pollutant (industrial waste generation) and after controlling for the same domestic (population, comprehensive utilization) and external mineral rent (% of GDP) factors. As a result, disparities in these turning points may well reproduce structural heterogeneity within our sample country.

Chinese EKC

The relationship between social economy and industrial waste pollution varies based on the country’s level of development (Levinson, 2002 ). However, this EKC pattern was most likely triggered by the following: The structure of the Chinese economy has shifted away from energy-intensive heavy industry to a more market-oriented service-based economy, which has aided China in ameliorating rather than exacerbating pollution. Additionally, corporations are committed to investing in new and enhanced technologies to increase cost-effectiveness (Luo et al., 2014 ; Panayotou, 1993b ). One of the most notable implications of this trend has been an increase in resource efficiency (comprehensive utilization) within the industrial sector, which has resulted in a 50% reduction in industrial energy intensity during the 1990s (Liu and Diamond, 2005 ). In addition, environmental awareness has increased among citizens (Luo et al., 2014 ). Environmental protection regulations have been enacted and efficiently implemented, another primary reason for impelling EKC (He and Wang, 2012 ; Kijima et al., 2011 ).

Numerical model for industrial waste recycling potential

Industrial waste is recycled based on generation volume and unit economic value (Yu et al., 2020 ). Equation 4 illustrates the quantitative model.

where \(RP_{IW}\) refers to the industrial waste recycling potential (unit: US$), and TGW a refers to the total generated amount (unit: million tons) of industrial waste a . EV a refers to the unit economic value (Chinese Yuan) of different waste categories. This model is well supported by literature (Yu et al., 2020 ). Table S3 shows the recycling potential in a million tons/yuan from 2011–2017. Then we forecast it till 2025 using integrated ARMA in NumXL software. Figure 5 shows a trend from 2011–2025, and the recycling potential shows a downward trend supporting EKC. For instance, total tailings support an inverted N-shaped. This estimation derives the probability distribution of the waste intensity factor statistically and extrapolates trash tonnages across China. This downtrend of recycling potential is due to the few valuable resources in industrial waste.

Recycling potential up to 2017 was calculated on collected data (Table S3 ). The projected forecast is based on the current trend (followed by EKC downtrend). Future recycling capacity of industrial waste will be determined by a range of socioeconomic factors that are difficult to predict.

We compare our projections result with previously published papers. Hoornweg et al., 2013 stated that extending those forecasts to 2100 for various published population and GDP scenarios demonstrates that global ‘peak waste’ will not occur this century if current trends continue (Dyson and Chang, 2005 ; Hoornweg et al., 2013 ). Li et al. 2020 estimated that the overall volume of discarded foundry sand in the United States declined from 2.2–7.1 million tons in 2004 to 1.4–4.7 million tons in 2014 (Li et al., 2020 ). Similarly, minerals included in non-hazardous industrial waste (NHIW) account for 100 million tons, with an annual power potential of ~200 billion kWh from 1990 to 2016. Both are predicted to increase by around 50% between 2017 and 2050 (Chen et al., 2021 ).

Robustness check

The sensitivity analysis with a deviation (±5%) is used to test the robustness of the EKC Model. Figure 6 shows that all the variables in EKC Model have different influence directions, as mentioned in the above model, so the estimation of the model is robust and reliable. We also validated our prediction with Integrated ARMA. Sarkodie and Strezov, 2018 used autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) analysis to validate the inverted N-shaped EKC hypothesis (Barış-Tüzemen et al., 2020 ; Sarkodie and Strezov, 2018 ).

All unknown parameters are at their base values, as indicated by the grey vertical line. The width of the bars represents the degree of uncertainty associated with each parameter (ranging from lower to upper limit). The blue segments of the bars indicate result values that increase the base case. In contrast, the orange segments indicate result values that decrease the base case.

The amount of waste generated and economic activity determines industrial waste recycling potential toward anthropogenic circularity. This paper closes the gap by establishing a sound framework to analyze industrial waste-related trends within a WKC conceptual framework encompassing the policy evaluation stage. The WKC theory was tested, and adding control variables demonstrated its robustness. The GDPPC, coal ash, and coal gangue showed an inverted U-curve, while total tailings, slag, and the industrial byproduct gypsum showed an inverted N-curve. The Chinese data set reflects signs of decoupling (reversal of industrial waste discharge per capita), indicating that the EKC of industrial waste per capita is still inverted N-curve due to the comprehensive utilization rate. The annual growth of China’s GDPPC in the 5 years leading up to the study appeared to play a significant role in the rise of industrial waste.

Thus, Chinese EKC exists in industrial waste, i.e., industrial waste generation increases as GDPPC rises and then starts declining at a certain level of GDPPC. However, this study determined the turning point at a high GDP level of US$ 8066 ± 1836 per capita. The turning point estimated in this work is consistent with Sarkodie and Strezov, who found US$7078 in 2018 (Sarkodie and Strezov, 2018 ). In EKC, the recycling rates generally remain high throughout. Thus, the proportion of industrial waste impacted recycling potential positively. The paper presents sound conclusions and recommendations. Building on the current literature overview, future work might include a meta-analysis to better understand the industrial waste-economic nexus via the EKC. Ecological changes cannot depend solely on the environment’s automaticity in economic development. Advanced technologies will increase resource utilization, resulting in industrial waste reduction. Thus, the relationship between Chinese GDPPC and industrial waste is constantly changing. The model indicates that industrial waste generation increases in lockstep with GDPPC growth.

Policy implications to achieve a circular economy

Economic liberalization and other growth-oriented measures are not a replacement for environmental policy. Economic growth depends on inputs (environmental resources) to outputs (product waste) (Arrow et al., 1995 ). EKC’s structure is determined by various factors, including the economic institutions that govern human activity. Only highly developed countries are expected to reach a turning point. Policy management, control, and monitoring will become increasingly important for long-term sustainable growth. From 2016–2020, China’s yearly growth rate is predicted to be less than seven percent (Zhang et al., 2016 ), a much slower pace than in the previous three decades. The Chinese government’s primary economic goal has switched from expansion to growth-balancing economic activity and environmental protection. Empirical evidence from EKC requires policymakers to understand if economic and sustainable development are stirring simultaneously.

An adequate waste management system will minimize mismanaged waste and generate financial returns by recycling and reusing materials. The Circular Economy can contribute to several different SDGs. Continued efforts are needed in all countries to improve waste collection, recycling, and reuse. The sustainability bottleneck is necessary to respond to China’s complexities and unique challenges of different waste flows. Offering targeted incentives to the private sector and improving national regulations are two factors that may contribute to developing the legal and institutional structure for proper waste management. Our findings help policymakers and academics devise research methods and evaluate the recycling potential of industrial waste.

Based on the preceding study, China’s industrial waste management might employ many CE practices to help achieve some SDG 12 goals. In the context of China, the responsible management of chemicals and waste (Target 12.4), the reduction of waste generation (Target 12.5), and the expansion of technological capacity (Target 12.6) are being pursued. In addition, lifecycle methods (Targets 12.4–12.6) and economic and social challenges merit additional consideration in promoting SDG 12. As an added measure, we must disseminate recycling procedures and technology that eliminate chemical emissions harmful to the environment. This would help get us closer to target 12.4 ("By 2020, achieve environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle."). Urgent initiatives are required for the successful execution of the Chinese Circular Economy Action Plan and the achievement of UN SDG Target 12.4:

Facilitate collaboration and involvement of all key actors along the whole life cycle of chemicals and materials with transparent supply chain management towards a unified vision based on the 12 principles of circular chemistry at the national, continental, and global levels.

Implement funding for new technology research to assist the industry in producing virgin and recycled industrial waste efficiently suitable for a circular economy model.

Waste must be included in future nexus studies to understand better these ties, especially in feedback and dynamics from interconnections between different SDGs.

Focusing on SDG 13 (Climate Action) is crucial for effective industrial waste recycling. According to Climate Action Tracker, initiatives that invest in green energy infrastructures, such as energy efficiency and low and zero-carbon energy supply technologies, have the highest impact on cutting emissions, regardless of whether the economy recovers optimistically or pessimistically by 2030.

Guarantee that everyone can access appropriate, safe, affordable solid waste collection services. Often, uncollected waste is dumped in waterways or burned in the open air, resulting in direct pollution and contamination.

Optimizing waste collection, source segregation, treatment technology, and landfill diversion is vital. Using the Internet of Things to manage and monitor waste saves CO 2 emissions. This will help mitigate climate change.

Here some policy suggestions are tentatively made. Green development of traditional industries should focus on the inherent requirements of "green, circular, and low-carbon" development. Using the "polluter pays" principle, pollution fees (taxes) are levied to increase non-green. Use the guiding role of the capital market to build a green financial system. Briefly, China should develop a plan to maximize the benefits of waste comprehensive utilization technology transfer and resource recovery technology.

Limitations

Our analysis yielded novel insights into the significant determinants of industrial waste and contributed to the EKC’s analytical discussion. Due to the limitation of the original data, the time series samples are only taken from 1993–2018 (and, for fewer cases, 2011–2018). Thus, the sample size is small; the empirical analysis is often more relevant if we use quarterly or monthly data. When additional data sets spanning many years become accessible, we allow prospective studies to use more extensive data sets covering a more extended period. Additionally, we urge future experiments to use various explanatory variables and other techniques to account for time-invariant characteristics.

Data availability

The supported data sources are publicly available, and their citations are mentioned in references of this paper and the Supplementary Information file.

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Kanwal, Q., Zeng, X. & Li, J. Measuring the recycling potential of industrial waste for long-term sustainability. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 471 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01942-1

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Electric vehicle batteries waste management and recycling challenges: a comprehensive review of green technologies and future prospects

• Published: 21 May 2024

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• Hussein K. Amusa   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9829-0891 1 ,
• Muhammad Sadiq 2 ,
• Gohar Alam 3 ,
• Rahat Alam 3 ,
• Abdelfattah Siefan 3 ,
• Haider Ibrahim 3 ,
• Ali Raza 1 &
• Banu Yildiz 3  

Electric vehicle (EV) batteries have lower environmental impacts than traditional internal combustion engines. However, their disposal poses significant environmental concerns due to the presence of toxic materials. Although safer than lead-acid batteries, nickel metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries still present risks to health and the environment. This study reviews the environmental and social concerns surrounding EV batteries and their waste. It explores the potential threats of these batteries to human health and the environment. It also discusses alternative methods to enhance EV-battery performance, safety, and sustainability, such as hybrid systems of green technologies and innovative recycling processes. Finding alternative materials for EV batteries is crucial to addressing current resource shortage risks and improving EV performance and sustainability. Therefore, the development of efficient and sustainable solutions for the safe handling of retired EV batteries is necessary to ensure carbon neutrality and mitigate environmental and health risks.

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Raw Materials and Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries

Generation and management of waste electric vehicle batteries in china.

The Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: a Review of Current Processes and Technologies

Abbreviations.

Alternating current

Battery electric vehicle

Direct current

Deep eutectic solvent

Department of Energy

Department of Transportation

European Battery Recycling Organization

Eutrophication potential

Extended producer responsibilities

European Raw Materials Alliance

European Union

Electric vehicle

Greenhouse gas

Hydrogen bond acceptor

Hydrogen bond donor

Hazardous Materials Regulation

Human toxicity potential

Ionic liquid

Life cycle assessment

Lithium iron phosphate

Lithium-ion battery

Nickle metal hydride

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

Polyvinylidene fluoride

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Supercritical CO 2

Strategy Energy Technology Plan

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Amusa, H.K., Sadiq, M., Alam, G. et al. Electric vehicle batteries waste management and recycling challenges: a comprehensive review of green technologies and future prospects. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-024-01982-y

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Research progress on recycling technology of waste lithium battery anode materials

Hongyu Yang 1

Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science , Volume 651 , 3rd International Conference on Green Energy and Sustainable Development 14-15 November 2020, Shenyang City, China Citation Hongyu Yang 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 651 042006 DOI 10.1088/1755-1315/651/4/042006

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In this paper, three kinds of recycling technologies for automotive lithium battery anode materials at home and abroad are introduced, including thermal metallurgy, hydrometallurgy and bio metallurgy. By comparison, the wet process with acid leaching precipitation extraction process has low requirements for equipment and energy consumption, and high leaching efficiency, which is an excellent technology easily introduced in industry.

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Chemical Recycling: Shaping A Circular Plastic Future

It’s time to explore the challenges and solutions in polymer science and sustainability with chemical recycling.

In our everyday lives, plastics surround us in various forms – from the sports equipment we use in our favorite activities to the interiors of the cars we drive, the packaging that protects our food, the containers for our personal care products, and even the components in our electronic devices. To illustrate, check this graphic with data from oecd.org that shows the percentage of use of plastic for different applications.  

Surprisingly, despite their widespread presence, less than 9% of the plastics produced annually actually get recycled. In 2019, for example, 368 million tons of plastics were produced. Most of them end up undergoing mechanical recycling processes , like grinding and melt‐processing. Unfortunately, this frequently leads to lower-quality materials that quickly find their way back into the waste stream. This traditional economy resumes itself in “use and discard”. 

Now, let’s see why this happens. Polymers ordinarily called plastics are long-chain molecules made up of smaller units called monomers. These monomers link together to form these versatile materials we use every day. Traditionally, plastics are designed to be tough, resistant, and long-lasting, not really with recycling properties. Therefore, when we try to recycle them using mechanical methods, we often end up cutting the chains or changing their chemical structure resulting in materials that are not as good as virgin ones.

Introducing Chemical Recycling

Alongside the familiar mechanical recycling and pyrolysis methods, there is an emerging alternative called chemical recycling. This method consists in breaking down plastics into their original, high-quality building blocks or monomers . 

The current challenge is to make this suitable – creating plastics that smoothly go through chemical recycling to become something new. Shifting from just focusing on durability to combining durability with recyclability is a significant move and is considered a major challenge in the field of polymer science and sustainability.

Imagine a world where plastic does not just end up in landfills or oceans but instead goes through a process of transformation, becoming something new and useful each time. That is the dream of a circular economy for plastics – a system where materials are used, reused, and reimagined, breaking free from the traditional linear economy mindset, in which the materials are used once and discarded. 

In essence, we are on a mission to revolutionize how we think about and use plastics. It is not just about making them tough; it is about making them smart, sustainable, and a part of our circular journey toward a greener, cleaner future.

History And Evolution Of Chemical Recycling

The concept of chemical recycling has its roots in the early 20th century, but it wasn’t until the late 1970s that the process began to gain attention. Initially, it was seen as a possible solution to the growing problem of plastic waste. However, due to technological constraints and the high cost of implementation, it remained largely unexplored for many years.

The 1990s saw a resurgence in interest in chemical recycling, as concerns about plastic waste and its impact on the environment began to mount. Technological advances allowed for the development of more efficient and cost-effective chemical recycling methods, making it a more viable option for waste management.

In the last decade, chemical recycling has undergone significant evolution. Increased environmental awareness, coupled with advancements in technology, has led to the development of more effective and scalable chemical recycling processes. Today, it is the chemical industry that’s considered a significant part of the solution to the global plastic waste crisis, and its role is anticipated to grow in the coming years.

What Is Chemical Recycling?

Chemical recycling is a groundbreaking process that offers a transformative solution to the challenges posed by traditional waste management. Unlike mechanical recycling, which involves physical processes like grinding and melting to reclaim materials, chemical recycling employs chemical reactions to break down complex polymer structures into their original building blocks. This innovative approach holds immense promise for addressing the growing issue of plastic waste and contributing to a more sustainable future.

The Chemical Recycling Process

Steps involved in chemical recycling.

The process of chemical recycling can be broadly divided into three steps:

Sorting And Cleaning

The first step in chemical recycling involves sorting and cleaning the plastic waste. It’s crucial to separate different types of plastic, remove any contaminants, and clean the plastic thoroughly to ensure the purity of the resulting chemicals.

Depolymerization

After the sorting and cleaning process, the plastic waste undergoes depolymerization. This process normally involves high temperatures, and solvents and are designed to break down the complex polymers into smaller molecules, i.e. oligomers or monomers.

Purification And Utilization

The resulting chemicals are then purified and converted back into new plastics or other products.

Each of these steps requires sophisticated technology and precise control to ensure the efficiency and safety of the process. But with these in place, chemical recycling offers a viable and sustainable solution to the plastic waste problem.

Key Principles Of Chemical Recycling

Chemical recycling utilizes innovative methods to break down plastics into molecular components for creating new, eco-friendly materials. Through depolymerization, purification, and polymerization, it transforms waste plastics into valuable resources, promoting a circular economy and reducing environmental impact.

Polymer Depolymerization

Through chemical processes like hydrolysis , glycolysis, or solvolysis , polymers can be deconstructed into their constituent monomers, the foundational units from which the polymers were initially created.

Recovery Of High-Quality Materials

Unlike some mechanical recycling methods that might degrade the quality of recycled materials, chemical recycling has the potential to recover high-quality monomers, closely resembling the virgin materials. Then, they can be subsequently polymerized to originate the polymer in the original state.

Versatility In Polymer Types

Addressing Diverse Polymers: Chemical recycling is not restricted to specific polymer types. It can be applied to a wide range of polymers, including thermoplastics and even challenging thermosets , providing a versatile solution for diverse plastic waste streams.

Polymer Upcycling

Creating Value from Waste: Beyond merely recycling, chemical processes open the door to polymer upcycling. This involves converting waste polymers into materials of higher value or even transforming them into entirely new products with enhanced functionalities.

Global Perspectives On Chemical Recycling

Chemical recycling is gaining interest and recognition worldwide as a potential solution to the global plastic waste crisis. Various countries are investing in research and development, policy initiatives, and infrastructure to support this emerging industry.

In Europe, for instance, the European Union’s Circular Economy Action Plan recognizes chemical recycling as a key technology for achieving circularity in the plastic sector. Several European countries, including the Netherlands and Germany, are already home to pilot and commercial-scale chemical recycling facilities.

In Asia, countries like Japan and South Korea have incorporated chemical recycling technologies into their national plastic waste management strategies. China too is exploring this technology as part of its broader push towards a circular economy.

In North America, both the United States and Canada have seen increased investment in chemical recycling projects, with several facilities in operation or under construction.

Despite these positive trends, it’s important to recognize that the global adoption of chemical recycling is still in its early stages. It will require continued technological innovation, regulatory support, and public-private collaboration to realize its full potential.

Innovative Research In Chemical Recycling

The future of chemical recycling is being shaped by innovative research in several areas. One promising line of investigation is exploring new catalysts that can speed up the depolymerization process, thus enhancing efficiency and reducing energy consumption. Another advancement would be to use heterogeneous catalysis and fix these catalysts in flow reactors. 

Researchers are also studying the use of biocatalysts , which could offer a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional catalysts.

Another area of innovation is the development of advanced sorting systems, aided by artificial intelligence, that can more effectively separate different types of plastic waste. This technology can significantly increase the efficiency and yield of the recycling process.

Also read: Artificial Intelligence In Science

Additionally, researchers are exploring the use of alternative energy sources, such as solar heat, to power the energy-intensive recycling processes. This innovation could significantly decrease the environmental impact of chemical recycling.

Last but not least, there’s a growing emphasis on life-cycle analysis to evaluate the full environmental impact of chemical recycling processes. Such studies can help identify areas for improvement and guide the development of more sustainable recycling methods.

Challenges And Future Prospects

While chemical recycling holds great promise, challenges such as scalability, cost-effectiveness, and ensuring the purity of recycled materials need to be addressed. Continuous research and technological advancements are crucial for overcoming these hurdles and unlocking the full potential of chemical recycling in revolutionizing the way we manage and repurpose polymer waste. As the field progresses, chemical recycling stands poised to play a pivotal role in reshaping the landscape of polymer sustainability.

Predicted Growth And Trends In Chemical Recycling

As awareness and understanding of the global plastic waste crisis grow, so does the attention towards chemical recycling. There’s a strong consensus among industry experts that chemical recycling is set for significant growth in the coming years.

Part of this growth will be driven by increasing investments in technology and infrastructure to scale up chemical recycling processes. Both private and public sectors are expected to contribute to these investments, reflecting the shared responsibility in tackling the plastic waste problem.

Furthermore, regulatory support for chemical recycling is predicted to increase, with more countries recognizing this method as a key part of their waste management and circular economy strategies. This could lead to policy initiatives that incentivize chemical recycling, such as tax benefits or grants.

Finally, innovation will continue to shape the future of chemical recycling. Advances in catalysts, process technology, and artificial intelligence will enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and improve the quality of recycled plastic products, making chemical recycling an increasingly attractive and viable solution for plastic waste management.

Creating Effective Visualizations Of Polymer And Recycling With Mind the Graph

Crafting visual representations of polymer and chemical recycling processes can be complex. Fortunately, Mind the Graph offers a solution. With its array of tools tailored for scientific schematizing, it becomes easier to illustrate the monomers, reactors, and polymerization and depolymerization processes. By accurately depicting molecular structures, reaction pathways, and material flows, these visuals become indispensable aids to help you communicate your research. They not only enhance comprehension for researchers but also serve as powerful educational tools for students and professionals alike, fostering a deeper understanding of sustainable materials management.

Visually Appealing Figures For Your Research

Mind the Graph : Transforming scientific figures with ease and impact. Create visually stunning figures that captivate audiences, communicate complex concepts, and elevate the impact of your research. Experience the power of visual communication with Mind the Graph and revolutionize your scientific presentations. Sign up for free!

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German researchers have light bulb moment

Researchers at the karlsruhe institute of technology (kit) are investigating a simpler way to recycle light bulbs. the r&d team hopes to improve the recovery of magnetic particles containing rare earths..

The KIT team is conducting experiments using magnetic field-controlled chromatography to separate phosphors containing rare earths from end-of-life fluorescent lamps.

‘Results demonstrate that with the intrinsic magnetisation of the phosphor particles and a careful choice of process parameters, we can control the separation outcome,’ says Laura Kruger, who led the research.

The work resulted in purities of up to 95.3% and recoveries of 93.6%. The researchers report that aqueous eluent consumption was found to be ‘quite modest’ at 4.1 L/g and contained minimal quantities of non-toxic and biodegradable solvent.

Kruger notes there is a possibility of scaling up the process by increasing the column size or transferring it to continuous processing methods. Doing so could further enhance its practical applicability across industries.

‘Rare earth-containing materials are essential for a wide range of modern technologies and have significant technological and economic importance,’ she observes.

Her team is determined to contribute to the development of more efficient and effective purification processes for rare earth-containing materials.

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