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How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Definition, Format, Examples, and Tips

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk, "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Alex Dos Diaz

The Scientific Method

Hypothesis Format

Falsifiability of a hypothesis.

Operationalization

Hypothesis Types

Hypotheses examples.

Collecting Data

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide the research process.

Consider a study designed to examine the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance. The hypothesis might be: "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."

At a Glance

A hypothesis is crucial to scientific research because it offers a clear direction for what the researchers are looking to find. This allows them to design experiments to test their predictions and add to our scientific knowledge about the world. This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

In the scientific method , whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:

Forming a question
Performing background research
Creating a hypothesis
Designing an experiment
Collecting data
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions
Communicating the results

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. At this point, researchers then begin to develop a testable hypothesis.

Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore numerous factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment do not support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk adage that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
Can your hypothesis be tested?
Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

How to Formulate a Good Hypothesis

To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.

In the scientific method , falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.

Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that if something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.

One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.

The Importance of Operational Definitions

A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.

Operational definitions are specific definitions for all relevant factors in a study. This process helps make vague or ambiguous concepts detailed and measurable.

For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in various ways. Clearly defining these variables and how they are measured helps ensure that other researchers can replicate your results.

Replicability

One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.

Replication means repeating an experiment in the same way to produce the same results. By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

Some variables are more difficult than others to define. For example, how would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.

To measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming others. The researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness in this situation.

Hypothesis Checklist

Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
Can you manipulate the variables?
Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:

Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
Complex hypothesis : This type suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent and dependent variables.
Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative population sample and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the dependent variable if you change the independent variable .

The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

"Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
"Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."
"Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."
"Children who receive a new reading intervention will have higher reading scores than students who do not receive the intervention."

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

"People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
"Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

"There is no difference in anxiety levels between people who take St. John's wort supplements and those who do not."
"There is no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."
"There is no difference in aggression levels between children who play first-person shooter games and those who do not."

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

"People who take St. John's wort supplements will have less anxiety than those who do not."
"Adults will perform better on a memory task than children."
"Children who play first-person shooter games will show higher levels of aggression than children who do not."

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as case studies , naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when conducting an experiment is difficult or impossible. These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.

Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational study can examine how the variables are related. This research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).

Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually cause another to change.

The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.

Thompson WH, Skau S. On the scope of scientific hypotheses . R Soc Open Sci . 2023;10(8):230607. doi:10.1098/rsos.230607

Taran S, Adhikari NKJ, Fan E. Falsifiability in medicine: what clinicians can learn from Karl Popper [published correction appears in Intensive Care Med. 2021 Jun 17;:]. Intensive Care Med . 2021;47(9):1054-1056. doi:10.1007/s00134-021-06432-z

Eyler AA. Research Methods for Public Health . 1st ed. Springer Publishing Company; 2020. doi:10.1891/9780826182067.0004

Nosek BA, Errington TM. What is replication ? PLoS Biol . 2020;18(3):e3000691. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000691

Aggarwal R, Ranganathan P. Study designs: Part 2 - Descriptive studies . Perspect Clin Res . 2019;10(1):34-36. doi:10.4103/picr.PICR_154_18

Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Psychology /

Methods of Enquiry in Psychology: Free PDF

Updated on
Jan 19, 2024

We know that psychologists study behaviours, mental processes, and experiences in different contexts but have you ever given thought to what methods psychologists use to understand these phenomena? Psychologists use a variety of research methods such as experiments, observation, interviews, case studies, surveys, etc. It is the methodology used that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Let’s further understand and explore these interesting and illuminating methods that make psychology a scientific endeavour. In this blog, you will find some of the most crucial notes on Methods of Enquiry in Psychology- Class 11 Psychology .

This Blog Includes:

Methods of enquiry in psychology: goals, steps in conducting scientific research, nature of psychological data, different methods of enquiry in psychology, psychological testing, analysis of data, limitations in methods of enquiry in psychology, ethical issues with methods of enquiry in psychology.

Download the Full NCERT Chapter on Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Here.

Description

The description requires recording a particular behaviour and describing it accurately so as to attain a comprehensive understanding of the same
For example, morning habits may have a diverse range of behaviours like reading positive literature, meditation, exercise, journaling etc.
It is the second goal of psychological enquiry
Here we attempt to understand the relationship between the behaviour we are describing with the other types of behaviour.

Explanation

It is the third goal of psychological enquiry
It attempts to explain the causal factors of behaviour and attain an understanding of the conditions in which the behaviour occurs or not.
It is the fourth goal of psychological inquiry
Making a particular behaviour happen
Reducing it
Enhancing it

Application

It is the fifth goal of psychological enquiry
focuses on bringing out a positive change in people’s lives

Conceptualizing a problem

It is the first step of conducting a scientific research
The researcher selects a topic for study which is done on basis of either review of past research, observations, personal experience

Identification of problem

It is the second step of scientific research
Development of a tentative statement about the topic takes place which is termed a hypothesis
For example, “ greater is the amount of time spent by children in playing violent video games, the greater is the degree of impatience and anger developed by them”

Collection of data

This step focuses on developing a research design or blueprint of the entire study.
Participants in the study
Methods of study
Tools to be used in research
Procedure for data collection

Drawing conclusions

The next step of scientific research is to analyse data through statistical procedures
It can be achieved through measures of central tendency like mean, median, mode and graphical presentations like pie charts, bar diagram

Revising research conclusions

The researcher revises the whole study and the hypothesis being taken is analysed thoroughly to see whether it stands true or not

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Demographic information

It includes personal information like name, age, gender, education, occupation etc.

Physical information

Includes information about ecological conditions, housing conditions, size of rooms, facilities available at home, in the neighbourhood, in the school etc.

Psychological information

The information focuses on areas like intelligence, personality, interests etc.

Observation

It is a very powerful method of psychological enquiry
It involves the selection of a particular behaviour, recording the selected behaviour using symbols, photographs and analysis of the recorded behaviour

Merits

enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour.
Can provide in-depth information about behaviour to be observed
It is time-consuming
It can be labour-intensive at times
Poor method for establishing cause and effect relationship.

Experimental method

Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables in a controlled setting.
Independent variables are manipulated and their effects are measured on the dependent variable.
The optimal method for establishing cause and effect relationship between two or more variables
The extraneous variables can be controlled thus, no scope for an alternative explanation
The experimenter’s bias may affect the
The authenticity of the experiment

Correlational research

The strength and direction of the relationship between two variables are represented by a number, termed the correlation coefficient
Its value may range from +1.0 through 0.0 to -1.0
Correlation helps in the prediction between the given variables
Can examine issues that cannot be studied ethically or practically in experiments
Fails to establish cause and effect relationship between variables

Survey research

It came into existence to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts by use of techniques such as questionnaires, interviews, etc.
A properly selected representative sample may yield an accurate result
It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations
Information can be gathered quickly and efficiently
Unrepresentative samples may yield misleading results
Interviewer bias and social desirability bias may distort the findings
Inaccurate information may be obtained at times
It is an in-depth study of a particular case.
It employs multiple methods for collecting information such as interviews, observations and psychological tests from a variety of respondents who in some way or the other might be associated with the case and can provide useful information.
Provides rich descriptive information
Helps in an in-depth study of a rare phenomenon.
Fails to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
It may be subject to the biases of the researcher.
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A psychological test is a standardized and objective instrument that is used to assess an individual’s standing about others on some mental or behavioural characteristics
Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on two different occasions
Validity refers to the question, “Does the test measure what it claims to measure?”
Norms help in making a test standardised. Norm is referred to as the average performance of the group.

Quantitative Method

Psychological tests, interviews, questionnaires contain a series of close-ended questions and the probable response to these questions are given in a scaled manner and that clearly illustrates the strength and magnitude of the response.

Qualitative Method

Human experiences are very complex. This complexity is lost when one elicits information from a respondent based on a question.

Lack of true zero-point

Psychological measurements lack an absolute zero point. For example, even after scoring zero on a vocabulary test, it can’t be said that the respondent has zero knowledge of vocabulary.

Relative nature of psychological tools

The nature of psychological tools is relative, not absolute and they are developed keeping in view the important features of a particular context.

Subjective interpretation of qualitative data

The interpretation of the qualitative data used in the research is characterized by subjective interpretation which means that it varies from individual to individual.

Informed consent

The principle of informed consent states that potential participants must understand what will happen in the experiment and to them during the study so that they can make an informed decision about their participation in the study.

Confidentiality of data source

Participants of the study have the right to privacy and the researcher must safeguard the privacy of the participants by keeping the information provided by them confidential.

Voluntary participation

As per this principle, the participants must have the freedom to decide whether to participate in the study or not.

Debriefing

Once the study is over, the participants are provided with the necessary information to complete their understanding of the research. The researcher should make efforts to remove any sort of anxiety which may have taken place as a result of the experiment

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The relationship between the client and the therapist requires a lot of trust, empathy, and non-judgemental behaviour, and keeping that in mind the ethical guidelines to be kept in consideration are informed consent, the confidentiality of data source, voluntary participation, and debriefing.

The method used by Dr Ram is the observation method. In this method, the to be observed is selected, recorded and then analysed properly to draw relevant conclusions. The advantage of this method is that phenomena can be observed in real-time but the disadvantage is it can be time-consuming at times.

The psychological data basically comprises demographic information, psychological and physical information

The goals of psychological enquiry are description, prediction, explanation, control and application.

Scientific inquiry is a lengthy and detailed process that involves conceptualizing a problem, identification of the problem, collecting data, drawing conclusions, and revising research conclusions.

Hence, we hope that this blog summarizing Methods of Enquiry in Psychology notes helped you cover the key topics and concepts in this chapter of the Class 11 Syllabus . For more information on such informative topics for your school, visit our school education page and follow Leverage Edu .

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NCERT solutions for Class 11 Psychology chapter 2 - Methods of Enquiry in Psychology [Latest edition]

Online mock tests.

NCERT solutions for Class 11 Psychology chapter 2 - Methods of Enquiry in Psychology - Shaalaa.com

Solutions for chapter 2: methods of enquiry in psychology.

Below listed, you can find solutions for Chapter 2 of CBSE NCERT for Class 11 Psychology.

NCERT solutions for Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Review Questions [Page 42]

What are the goals of scientific enquiry?

Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.

Explain the nature of psychological data.

How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.

A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the experimental method as a method of enquiry.

Dr Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.

Give two examples of the situations where the survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?

Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.

Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.

Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.

What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry?

NCERT solutions for Class 11 Psychology chapter 2 - Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

Shaalaa.com has the CBSE Mathematics Class 11 Psychology CBSE solutions in a manner that help students grasp basic concepts better and faster. The detailed, step-by-step solutions will help you understand the concepts better and clarify any confusion. NCERT solutions for Mathematics Class 11 Psychology CBSE 2 (Methods of Enquiry in Psychology) include all questions with answers and detailed explanations. This will clear students' doubts about questions and improve their application skills while preparing for board exams.

Further, we at Shaalaa.com provide such solutions so students can prepare for written exams. NCERT textbook solutions can be a core help for self-study and provide excellent self-help guidance for students.

Concepts covered in Class 11 Psychology chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology are Methods of Enquiry in Psychology, Goals of Psychological Enquiry, Nature of Psychological Data, Some Important Methods in Psychology, Analysis of Data, Limitations of Psychological Enquiry, Ethical Issues.

Using NCERT Class 11 Psychology solutions Methods of Enquiry in Psychology exercise by students is an easy way to prepare for the exams, as they involve solutions arranged chapter-wise and also page-wise. The questions involved in NCERT Solutions are essential questions that can be asked in the final exam. Maximum CBSE Class 11 Psychology students prefer NCERT Textbook Solutions to score more in exams.

Get the free view of Chapter 2, Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Class 11 Psychology additional questions for Mathematics Class 11 Psychology CBSE, and you can use Shaalaa.com to keep it handy for your exam preparation.

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Chapter 1 What is Psychology | class 11th | ncert quick revision notes psychology

Chapter 1 What is Psychology…

• Psychology is defined as a science which studies mental processes, experiences and behaviour in different contexts. In doing so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically. It makes sense of the data so that it can be organized as knowledge. • Mental process: (i) Mental processes are activities of the mind and brain, related to cognition. (ii) We use mental processes when we think or remember something, or solve a problem. (iii) However, these mental activities are -different from neural activities, though they are mutually overlapping processes. (iv) The mind emerges and evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world get dynamically organized in the form of a system which is responsible for the occurrence of various mental processes. (v) Mental processes include reasoning, learning, thinking, problem solving, perception, etc. • Experiences: Experiences can be defined as the learning acquired through everyday life situation. (i) Experiences are subjective in nature, different for every individual. (ii) We cannot directly observe or know someone’s experience. (iii) Only the experiencing person can be aware or conscious of his/her experiences. Thus, experiences are imbedded in our awareness or consciousness. (iv) Experiences are influenced by internal and external conditions of the experiences. (v) The nature of the experience can only be understood by analyzing a complex set of internal and external conditions. (vi) Experiences are important because most of our learning is based on experiences. • Behaviours: (i) Behaviours are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in. Eg. One can feel the heart pounding before taking an examination. (ii) Some behaviours such as thinking may be simple or complex, short or enduring. (iii) On the other hand, some behaviours can be outwardly seen or sensed and are called overt, for example laughing. (iv) All behaviours can be explained on the basis of S-R (Stimulus Response Relations). Any behaviour, overt or covert, is associated with or triggered by a stimulus. (v) Both stimulus and response can be internal or external. (vi) The same stimulus can have different responses, due to the organism variable. It emphasises upon an individual’s uniqueness and variation that make him different from other. • Psychology as a discipline (i) It studies behaviour, experience and mental processes. (ii) It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how different mental processes result in different behaviours. (iii) When we observe others, our own point of view or ways of understanding the world influence our interpretations of their behaviours and experiences. (iv) Psychologists try to minimize such biases in their explanations of behaviour and experience in various ways. (v) Some do so by making their analysis scientific and objective. (vi) Others seek to explain behaviour from the point of view of those experiencing persons because they think that selectivity is a necessary aspect of human experience. – Neuroscience and computer science borrow principles continuously from psychology. There are fast developing brain imaging techniques like MRI, ECG, etc. which make it possible to study brain processes in real time, i.e, when they are actually taking place. – Psychology as hybrid science : Psychology is a hybrid science that draws its influence from both natural and social sciences. • As a natural science : (i) Modem Psychology has developed because of the application of the scientific method to study, psychological phenomenon. (ii) As a physical science, it emphasizes on data that is systematic and can be studied under controlled conditions. (iii) It is quantitative and requires analysis. (iv) It takes influences from both physics and biology and believes in the Hypothetico Deductive Model (HDM). (v) Every or any hypothesis can be accepted or rejected on the basis of factors available. The model suggests that scientific advancement can take place if you have a theory to explain a phenomenon. (vi) A hypothesis is a tentative solution to a problem that helps in guiding a research or a theory. (vii) Hypothesis has been successfully used for determining many theories related to learning and memory. For example, the way a child has been brought up in his family will shape his personality. • Conscious means to be alert and aware of something. We are aware of all the outside environment as well as of the processes taking place in ourselves. Thus we are aware of the diverse sensations, perceptions, memories and feelings that take place in ourselves. In waking consciousness, we perceive time, place and events as real, meaningful and familiar. • Psychology is a social science because it studies the behaviour of human beings in their social tests cultural context. • Psychology as a social science discipline focuses on humans as social beings. • It focuses on the individual and communities in relation to their social, cultural and physical environment. • If we go back in History Psychology was defined as the science of the Mind. The use of term mind was considered to be relevant since it represents all the mental phenomena such as perceiving, thinking, imagining, reasoning and so on. But, certain difficulties regarding the term mind, its nature and its relationship with the body continued to persist. • Due to many researches particularly in Neurology the term ‘mind’ has returned in Psychology. It is true that Mind and brain are different and mind cannot exist without brain. Recent studies in Neuro Science has proved that there is a relationship between Mind and Behaviour. These researches and neurological experiments proved that a person suffer from damage of some part of the brain but his mind had remained intact. • Popular notions about the discipline of Psychology should be understood. Psychology as a science explains patterns of beha viour which can be predicted and explains behaviour before the act occur common sense. Psychology is based on hindsight. Professional Psychologists are trained, affiliated to some institution. They attain educational and professional qualification and understand, predict and modify human behaviour by scientific methods. • The emergence of Psychology as a science of mental processes, behaviour and experiences can be attributed to certain important development in Physiology and Physics as well as to the efforts of William Wilhelm Wundt who established first Psychological laboratory in 1879. • The evolution of Psychology can be traced in the major schools of Psychological thoughts. • Structuralism: It was proposed by Wundt and he studied the structure of conscious experiences by introspection. • Introspection is a procedure in which individual or subjects in Psychological experiments are asked to describe their own mental processes or experiences scientifically in detail. • Functionalism: It was proposed by William James and Jonh Dewey. They studied the functions of concious experiences in how people deal with the environment using introspection method. It shows the adaptation of human behaviour according to their changing needs. • Gestalt Psychology: The school was proposed by Koffka, Kohler and Werthiemer. It focussed on human perception. According to Gestalt Psychology, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. • Behaviourism: It was proposed by John Watson and Skinner. According to this, Psychology must focus on what is observable and verifiable. • Psychoanalysis: It was proposed by Dr Sigmund Freud. He focused on unconscious mind and childhood experiences. • Humanistic Perspective: It was a revolt against Psychoanalysis and Behaviourism proposed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. It stated that human strive to grow and unfold their inner potential. • Cognitive Perspective: It focuses on mental processes. It views human beings as actively constructing their mind through their exploration into the Physical and Social world. Piaget stated that children actively construct their own minds whereas Vygofsky suggested that the mind is a joint cultural construction and emerges as a result of interaction between children and adults. • The modem era of Human Psychology began in the department of Philosophy at Calcutta University where the first syllabus of experiment on Psychology was introduced and the first Psychology Laboratory was established in 1915. Calcutta University started the first department of Psychology in the year 1916 and another department of applied Psychology in 1938. It was greatly influenced by Dr N.N. Sengupta. • Psychology as a science is closely related to other sciences. Behaviour is closely related to Biological make up, the hereditary predisposition and his level of maturity. Physiology, embroyology genetics and biochemistry are relating knowledge with Psychological functioning of human beings. A large number of hospitals now employ Psychologists. • The roots of Psychology are found in Philosophy particularly with respect to methods of knowing. • Psychology is closely related to Economics, Political Science and Sociology. Psychology has provided knowledge related to micro level economic behaviour and consumer behaviour. Psychology provides understanding of voting behaviour, exercise of power, opinion polls etc. Sociology is positively related to Psychology, e.g., Psychology studies human behaviour whereas Sociology studies human behaviour in society, i.e., socio cultural context. • The information processing approach in cognitive Psychology, to explain memory and concept of Artificial intelligence is highly linked with computer sciences. • Psychological principles explain crime, criminal behaviour, how well a witness remembers a crime, etc. Accordingly Psychology is closely related to law and criminology. Similarly Psychology has close bonds with Mass Communication, Music and Fine Arts, Architecture and Engineering. • Psychology as a discipline not only provide understanding to the development of theoretical knowledge of human behaviour but it has close linkages across Psychological processes. Psychologists now a days employed to help in diverse activities in different domains of Professional activities including hospitals, educational settings, industrial organisations, training institutes, military and government organisations. • Psychology continuously provides knowledge and understanding of human behaviour in different domains. Some of the emerging perspectives are Evolutionary Psychology, Cultural Psychology and Positive Psychology. • Evolutionary Psychology is an approach in social and natural sciences that examines psychological structure from a modem evolutionary perspective. • It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are involved in adaptations—that is the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. • The goal of research in evolutionary psychology is to discover and understand the design of the human mind. • It is a theoretical approach to Psychology that attempts to explain useful mental and psychological traits — such as memory, perception or language — as adaptations, i.e., as the functional products of natural selection. • The purpose of this approach is to bring the functional way of thinking about biological mechanism such as the immune system into the field of Psychology. • In short Evolutionary Psychology is focused on how evolution has shaped the mind and behaviour. • Cultural Psychology is the study of how psychological and behavioural tendencies are rooted in and embodied in culture. • It studies how mind and culture are inseparable and mutually constitute, i.e., people are shaped by culture and their culture is shaped by them. • Cultural Psychology is the study of the way cultural traditions and social practices, regulate, express and transform the human Psyche, resulting less in Psychic unity for hurrian kind than in ethnic divergences in mind, self and emotion (Richard Shweder). • Contemporary psychologists have shown increasing interest in understanding what makes life good and meaningful. This development is termed as positive psychology. • There are some themes which provides direction to research and application of Psychology are to develop principles of behaviour and mental processes, function of the attributes of persons and environment, causality of human behaviour, culturally constructed human behaviour and controlling and modifying the behaviour. • Psychology can be viewed in two fold perspective which are complementary to each other i.e. Basic Psychology and Applied Psychology. Basic Psychology provides theories through researchers whereas Applied Psychology is related to the category of application according to the needs of society. • Psychologists study a wide range of issues related to mental and behavioural functioning. Psychologists study how the biological system works and socio-cultural bases shapes human behaviour. Contemporary psychologists study these processes from a perspective of lifespan. The basic psychological processes are parts of a dynamic regulated system. All these processes are interconnected and together help the organism to adapt to environment and grow. Knowing the environment requires several mental processes, which together are called cognition. Psychologists study how information is used in thinking, reasoning, decision-making, communicating and solving problems. 1. Behaviour: Any covert or overt action/reaction a person or animal does that can be observed in some way. 2. Behaviourism: A school of thought that emphasises objectivity, observable behavioural responses, learning, and environmental determinants. 3. Cognition: All the mental activities associated with knowing; namely, perceiving, thinking, and remembering, etc. These are associated with processing, understanding, and communication information. 4. Cognitive economy: A term to denote maximum and efficient use of the capacity of long-term memory through organisation of concepts in a hierarchical network. 5. Consciousness: Awareness of the general condition of one’s mind, awareness of particular mental contents, or self-awareness. 6. Constructivism: Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively constructing their minds through their exploration into the physical and the social world. 7. Developmental Psychology: A branch of psychology which establishes the physical, social and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages over a life-span, from conception to old age. 8. Functionalism / Functional fixedness: The tendency to think of thinks only in terms of their usual functions, impediments to problem solving. The school of psychology That emphasised the utilitarian, adaptive functions of the human mind or consciousness. 9. Gestalt: An organised whole, Gestalt psychologists emphasise our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. 10. Gestalt psychology: A branch of psychology in which behaviour is viewed as an integrated whole, greater than the sum of its parts. 11. Humanistic approach: The approach to Psychology that emphasises the person, or the self, and personal growth land development. 12. Hue: Property of chromatic colours or name of the colours. 13. Introspection: The process of looking inward to one’s feeling and conscious experience. 14. Mind: Mind is a concept, which refers to unique set of individual’s sensations, perceptions, memories, thoughts, dreams, motives and emotional feelings. 15. Neuro psychology: It is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes as function of brain activity and the nervous system. 16. Physiological psychology: A scientific study of human and animal behaviour based on the relationship of physiological processes like those of nervous system, hormones, sensory organs and the behavioural parameters. 17. Psychoanalysis: A method of psychotherapy in which the therapist attempts to bring repressed unconscious material into conscious. 18. Sociology: The systematic study of the biological basis for social behaviour. 19. Stimulus: Any well-defined element in the environment affecting the organism, which may lead to an overt or a covert response. 20. Structuralism: Associated with Wilhelm Wundt, the approach to psychology that seeks to understand the structure and operation of consciousness, or the human mind.

Author: noor arora

NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Psychology – Chapter 2 -Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

Review questions : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 42

Q1 : What are the goals of scientific enquiry? Answer : The goals of scientific enquiry are as follows: Description – It is very important in a scientific enquiry to describe the behaviour or a phenomenon accurately in order to be able to deal with it. Prediction – Scientific enquiry aims at the understanding of a particular behaviour in relationship to other behaviours or events. It tries to predict their occurrences under certain conditions with a margin of error. Explanation – Scientific enquiry is conducted to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour and the conditions where the behaviour does not occur. Control – Being able to explain behaviour also leads to the control in behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. The control refers to making a particular behaviour happen, reduce it and enhance it. Application – Application of a particular behaviour aims at bringing about positive changes in the lives of people by solving their problems in various settings.

Q2 : Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry. Answer : The various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry can be described as follows: (i) Conceptualisation of problem – It is important in a scientific enquiry to narrow down the focus and understand the specific problem. It is done by reviewing past research, personal experience and observations. This is further followed by preparing a hypothesis or a tentative solution of the problem. (ii) Data collection – The second step involves the preparation of a blueprint of the entire study. It consists of four aspects namely, identifying the participants in the study, methods of data collection, tools to be used in research and procedure for data collection. (iii) Drawing conclusions – The data are analysed through statistical procedures and represented graphically in the form of pie-chart, bar-diagram, etc. It helps to verify the hypothesis and draw conclusions by putting them into an appropriate context. (iv) Revising research conclusions – The existing hypothesis is finally confirmed on the basis of revision of data else, a new hypothesis is stated and tested by new data. The research may also be revised by other researchers, hence making it a continuous process.

Q3 : Explain the nature of psychological data. Answer : The nature of psychological data can be explained through the following points: The psychological data are not independent entities: The physical or social context, the persons involved and the time of the behaviour affects the data. For instance, an individual behaves differently in a group than being alone. The quality and nature of data is affected by the method of data collection: It is possible that while conducting a personal interview, an individual provides with answers which are different than his/her behaviour as observed by the researcher. Data are facts without any meaning: This suggests that data do not speak themselves about reality. They only acquire meaning when placed in a context by the researcher.

Q4 : How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example. Answer : Experimental groups differ from control groups as independent variable manipulation occurs in an experimental group whereas it is absent in a control group. For example, in a study conducted by Latane and Darley, there were two experimental groups and one control group. The participants in the study were sent to three types of rooms. Room 1 in which the participant was alone formed the control group. Room 2 and 3, in which two persons were present with the participant formed experimental groups. The independent variable, in this study, was the absence or presence of other persons sitting in the room. The remaining factors in the experiment were the same for both kinds of groups. In experimental groups, two persons were present with the real participant while in the control group, participant was alone. Therefore, it can be said that the manipulated variable is absent in control group.

Q5 : A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables. Answer : Relationship between the speed of cycling and the presence of people Hypothesis – As the speed of cycling increases people tend to move away fast. Field experiment – Two market places A boy is asked to ride a bicycle with different speedsin the market. Market 1 – It is observed that when the boy passes through the market street with high speed on the bicycle, people surrounding him will get away quickly in order to protect themselves from getting hit by the cycle. Market 2 – It is observed that when the boy passes through the market street with normal speed on the bicycle people around him will get away normally and slowly to give him the way as compared to the people of market 1. Conclusion – When the speed of the cycle is high people move away from it quickly and when the speed of cycle is normal people will move away slowly in comparison. Revision of research conclusion – The conclusion has matched the hypothesis. Therefore, the hypothesis is correct. Independent variable – Speed of cycle Dependent variable – Movement of people

Q6 : Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry. Answer : Answer : The strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry are: Strengths It provides a relatively convincing evidence of a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables. The extraneous variables can be eliminated from the laboratory. It can minimise the sequence effect with the help of counter-balancing technique. It eliminates any potential systematic differences between groups by giving random assignment to groups of participants. This is done to help in framing the conclusion without any assumption.

Weaknesses The highly controlled laboratory situation only simulates the conditions of the outer world. The results of the experiments cannot be generally applied to real situations, thus field experiments are required in such situations. It is not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally. It is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables, particularly in field experiments. Many variables cannot be manipulated in laboratory settings.

Q7 : Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits. Answer : Dr. Krishnan will use non-participant observation methodto observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. She will sit in the corner of the play school and will observe the behaviour of children, their interaction with other children and teachers, how they play and react to winning and losing. The children will not be aware that they are being observed. Later, she will record her observations in a file. She will analyse and conclude it and then try to match her conclusion with the hypothesis. Merits of non-participant observation method The researcher observes the people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation as it occurs. Demerits of non-participant observation method This method is time taking, labour intensive and vulnerable to the researcher’s bias. The observations are influenced by the personal values and interpretations of the observer.

Q8 : Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method? Answer : The two examples where a survey method can be used are as follows: (i) To find out the attitudes of people on polio eradication programme. (ii) To record information about the members of a particular population. The limitations of survey method are as follows: People may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they do not want the researcher to know their real opinions about a particular issue. People sometimes respond in a way they think the researcher wants to hear.

Q9 : Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire. Answer : The difference between an interview and a questionnaire are:


1	It is a form of interaction in which questions are asked directly to the respondents.	i	It is a framework in which questions of scientific enquiry are written.
2	Questions may vary in their sequence according to the need of the situation.	ii	Questions are in written in an appropriate sequence which is answered in written by the respondents.
3	Researcher and respondents are in face-to-face contact.	iii	Researcher and respondents are not required to be in face-to-face contact.
4	Researcher can visit the respondents or call them at the office.	iv	Researcher can go to the places to distribute the questionnaire or questions can be sent through e-mail and post.
5	The questions are flexible by nature.	v	The questions are rigid.
6	Number of questions can be increased or decreased.	vi	Number of questions cannot be changed.

Q10 : Explain the characteristics of a standardised test. Answer : The characteristics of standardised test are as follows: Validity – The test has to be devised to measure what it claims to measure in order to be held as valid and usable. Reliability – This refers to the consistency of scores obtainedby an individual on the same test on two different occasions. Test-retest indicates temporal stability and split-half indicates internal consistency of the test. Norms – The test needs to devise norms or the average performance of the group. It helps in comparison and interpretation of an individual’s performance in relation to the overall standards of the group.

Q11 : Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry. Answer : The limitations of psychological enquiry are as follows: Lack of true zero point – Psychological measurements do not have a zero point. The scores that are assigned to individuals in psychological studies are not absolute in nature but have relative value. Relative nature of psychological tools – Psychological tests need to be developed, modified and adapted according to the context of study. For example, test developed for urban children is not suitable and cannot be applied on tribal children. Subjective interpretation of qualitative data – The qualitative data are largely subjective and interpretations may vary from one individual to the other.

Q12 : What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry? Answer : The following are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry: Voluntary Participation – The person on whom the study has to be conducted has the choice whether to participate or not in the study. Informed Consent – The participants should be informed about the nature of the study and its impact upon them before it starts. Debriefing – The participants have to be provided with information to complete their understanding of the research and enable them to leave the place or laboratory in the same mental and physical state as before the test was conducted. Sharing the results – Theresearcher has to share the results of the study with the participants to fulfil their expectations. The opinion of participants about the results also provides new insights to the researcher. Confidentiality of Data Source – The researcher has to make sure that the information given by the participants is kept confidential and not shared with other interested parties. Henceforth, it is necessary for the researcher to ensure certain ethics and principles in order to respect an individual’s privacy and protect him/her from any harm caused by the research.

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Cbse notes and sample papers, methods of enquiry in psychology class 11 notes.

December 11, 2018 Mehak Psychology 8

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

Description

In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible.
This helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other behaviours.
Within a particular category there may be further minute descriptions.
The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which helps in its proper understanding.
The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour.
If you are able to understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to know the relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or phenomena.
You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error.
Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed.

Explanation

The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour.
Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour occur.
Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not occur.
If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions.
Control refers to three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it.

Application

The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of people.
Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings.
Because of these efforts the quality of life of people is a major concern of psychologists.
Scientific enquiry is also conducted to develop new theories or constructs, which leads to further research.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

Science is not so defined by what it investigates as by how it investigates.
The scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an objective, systematic, and testable manner.
The objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more persons independently study a particular event, both of them, to a great extent, should arrive at the same conclusion.
The second characteristic of scientific research is that it follows systematic procedure or steps of investigation.

Conceptualising a Problem

The process of scientific research begins when a researcher selects a theme or topic for study.
Then s/he narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems for the study.
This is done on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal experiences.
After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative answer of the problem, which is called hypothesis.

Collecting Data

The second step in scientific research is to collect data.
Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study.
Depending upon the nature of the study, the researcher has to decide who would be the participants in the study.
The second decision is related to the use of methods of data collection, such as observation method, experimental method, correlational method, case study, etc.

Drawing Conclusions

The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean.
This can be achieved through graphical representations and by the use of different statistical methods.
The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly.

Revising Research Conclusions

S/he has to see whether the conclusions support this hypothesis.
If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is confirmed.
If not, s/he will revise or state an alternative hypothesis/theory and again test it based on new data and draw conclusions which may be verified by future researchers.
Thus, research is a continuous process.

Alternative Paradigms of Research

human behaviour is predictable, caused by internal and external forces, and can be observed, measured, and controlled.
It takes the stand that, in view of complex and variable nature of human behaviour and experience, its method of investigation should be different from the method of investigation of the physical world.
This viewpoint emphasises the importance of how human beings give meaning to events and actions and interpret them as they occur in a particular context.
we need to understand the subjective interpretation of the reality.
The goal here is to explore the different aspects of human experiences and behaviour without attempting to disturb its natural flow.
Both scientific and interpretive traditions are concerned with studying behaviour and experiences of others.

NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA

Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing diverse methods.
The information, also called data (singular = datum), relate to the individuals’ covert or overt behaviour, their subjective experiences, and mental processes.
Data form an important input in psychological enquiry.
They in fact approximate the reality to some extent and provide an opportunity to verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions, etc.
It should be understood that data are not independent entities.
data are not independent of the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time when the behaviour occurs.
data does not in itself speak about reality.
Inferences have to be made from data.
A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it in its proper context.

Demographic Information

This information generally includes personal information

Physical Information

This category includes information about ecological conditions

Physiological Data

In some studies physical, physiological and psychological .

Psychological Information

Psychological information collected, may relate to such areas as intelligence, personality, interest, consciousness, subjective experiences, etc.

SOME IMPORTANT METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Observational Method

Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry.
It is an effective method of describing behaviour.
A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation
Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter.
Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation.
While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc

Analysis of Data

After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it.
It is important to know that making good observations is a skill.
A good observer knows what s/he is looking for, whom s/he wants to observe, when and where the observation needs to be made, in what form the observation will be recorded, and what methods will be used to analyse the observed behaviour.

Types of Observation

Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation

When observations are done in a natural or real-life settings it is called naturalistic observation.
In this case the observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the situation for making an observation.
This type of observation is conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centers, etc.
controlled laboratory situation. This type of observation, called Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually, is obtained in laboratory experiments.

Non-Participant vs Participant Observation

the type of observation in which researcher is in involved is called non-participant observation.
The danger in this type of setup is that the very fact that someone is sitting and observing may bring a change in the behaviour of students and the teacher.
In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being observed.
In participant observation, the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting her/him as one of the group members.
the degree of involvement of the observer with the group being observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study.

The advantage

The observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs.
the observation method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the observer’s bias.
Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event
the observer should record the behaviour as it happens and should not interpret the behaviour at the time of observation itself

Experimental Method

Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship between two sets of events or variables in a controlled setting.
In the experiment, cause is the event being changed or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour that changes because of the manipulation.

The Concept of Variable

in the experimental method, a researcher attempts to establish causal relationship between two variables.
Any stimulus or event which varies, that is, it takes on different values and can be measured is a variable.
An object by itself is not a variable.
Independent variable is that variable which is manipulated or altered or its strength varied by the researcher in the experiment.
It is the effect of this change in the variable which the researcher wants to observe or note in the study.
The independent variable was presence or absence of other persons in the room.
The variables on which the effect of independent variable is observed is called dependent variable.
Dependent variable represents the phenomenon the researcher desires to explain.
It is expected that change in the dependent variable will ensue from changes in the independent variable.
independent and dependent variables are interdependent.
Neither of them can be defined without the other.
independent variable chosen by the researcher is not the only variable that influences the dependent variable.
Independent and dependent variables are chosen because of the researcher’s theoretical interest.
extraneous variables need to be controlled in an experiment so that a researcher is able to pin-point the cause and effect relationship between independent and dependent variables.

Experimental and Control Groups

Experiments generally involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups.
An experimental group is a group in which members of the group are exposed to independent variable manipulation.
The control group is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group except that the manipulated variable is absent in it.
in an experiment, except for the experimental manipulation, other conditions are kept constant for both experimental and control groups.
One attempts to control all those relevant variables which can influence the dependent variable.
All relevant variables in experimental studies that might influence the dependent variable need to be controlled.
Exposure to many conditions may result in experimental fatigue, or practice effects, which may influence the results of the study and make the interpretation of the findings difficult.
Since the goal of an experiment is to minimise extraneous variables, the best way to handle this problem is to eliminate them from the experimental setting.
Elimination is not always possible. In such cases, effort should be made to hold them constant so that their effect remains the same throughout the experiment.
For controlling organismic and background variables matching is also used. In this procedure the relevant variables in the two groups are equated or are held constant by taking matched pairs across conditions of the experiment.
Counter-balancing technique is used to minimize the sequence effect

Strength and limitation

The strength of a well-designed experiment is that it can provide, relatively speaking, a convincing evidence of a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.
experiments are often conducted in a highly controlled laboratory situation.
In this sense, they only simulate situations that exist in the outside world.
They are frequently criticised for this reason.
The experiments may produce results that do not generalise well, or apply to real situations.
they have low external validity.
limitation of the laboratory experiment is that it is not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally.
it is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables.

Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments

If a researcher wants to have high generalisability or to conduct studies which are not possible in laboratory settings, s/he may go to the field or the natural setting where the particular phenomenon actually exists.
it is more timeconsuming and expensive.
Many variables cannot be manipulated in the laboratory settings.
In quasi experimentation the independent variable is selected rather than varied or manipulated by the experimenter.
a quasi experiment attempts to manipulate an independent variable in a natural setting using naturally occurring groups to form experimental and control groups.

Correlational Research

The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables is represented by a number, known as correlation coefficient.
Its value can range from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the value of the other variable (Y) will also increase.
Similarly when variable X decreases, a decrease in Y too takes place.
negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the value of the other (Y) decreases.
It is also possible that sometimes no correlation may exist between the two variables. This is called zero correlation.
This indicates that no significant relationship exists between two variables or the two variables are unrelated.

Survey Research

Survey research came into existence to study opinions, attitudes and social facts.
Their main concern initially was to find out the existing reality or baseline.
The survey research uses different techniques for collecting information.

Personal Interviews

The interview method is one of the most frequently used methods for obtaining information from people.
It is used in diverse kinds of situations.
An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive factual information, opinions and attitudes, and reasons for particular behaviour, etc. from the respondents.
It is generally conducted face-to-face but sometimes it can also take place over the phone.

structured or standardised, and unstructured or non-standardised.

This distinction is based upon the type of preparation we make before conducting the interview.
As we have to ask questions during the interview, it is required that we prepare a list of questions before-hand. The list is called an interview schedule.
A structured interview is one where the questions in the schedule are written clearly in a particular sequence.
The interviewer has little or no liberty to make changes in the wordings of the questions or the order in which they are to be asked.
The responses to these questions are also, in some cases, specified in advance. These are called close-ended questions.
in unstructured interview the interviewer has the flexibility to take decisions about the questions to be asked, the wording of the questions, and the sequence in which questions are to be asked.
responses are not specified in such type of interviews, the respondent can answer the questions in the way s/he chooses to. Such questions are called open-ended questions.

Individual to Individual : It is a situation where one interviewer interviews another person.

Individual to Group : In this situation, one interviewer interviews a group of persons. One variant of it is called a Focus Group Discussion (FGD).

Group to Individuals : It is a situation where one group of interviewers interview one person. .

Group to Group : It is a situation where one group of interviewers interview another group of interviewees.

Interviewing is a skill which requires proper training.
A good interviewer knows how to make the respondent at ease and get the optimal answer.
S/he remains sensitive to the way a person responds and, if needed, probes for more information.
If the respondent gives vague answers, the interviewer may try to get specific and concrete answers.
The interview method helps in obtaining in-depth information.
It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations, and can often be used when no other method is possible or adequate.
It can be used even with children, and non-literate persons.
An interviewer can know whether the respondent understands the questions, and can repeat or paraphrase questions.

Questionnaire Survey

The questionnaire is the most common, simple, versatile, and low-cost self-report method of collecting information.
It consists of a predetermined set of questions.
The respondent has to read the questions and mark the answers on paper rather than respond verbally to the interviewer.
They are in some ways like highly structured interviews.
Questionnaires can be distributed to a group of persons at a time who write down their answers to the questions and return to the researcher or can be sent through mail.
With open-ended questions, the respondent is free to write whatever answers/he considers appropriate.
In the closedended type, the questions and their probable answers are given and the respondent is required to select the correct answer.
The main problem of a mailed questionnaire is poor response from the respondents.

Telephone Survey

Surveys are also conducted through telephone, and now-a-days you must have seen programmes asking you to send your views through mobile phones’ SMS.
The telephone survey helps in reducing time.
the respondents do not know the interviewer, the technique is fraught with uncooperativeness, reluctance, and superficial answers by the respondents.
This will lead to very biased kinds of results.

Advantage and Disadvantage

The researcher needs to exercise caution in selecting a particular method.
information can be gathered quickly and efficiently from thousands of persons.
surveys can be conducted quickly, public opinions on new issues can be obtained almost as soon as the issues arise.
people may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they may not want to let the researcher know what they really believe about a particular issue.
People sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear.

Psychological Testing

Assessment of individual differences has remained one of the important concerns of psychology from the very beginning.
Psychologists have constructed different types of tests for assessment of various human characteristics
a test contains a number of questions, called items, with their probable responses, which are related to a particular human characteristic or attribute.
It is important here that the characteristic for which a test has been developed, should be defined clearly and unambiguously, and all items should be related to that characteristic only.
a psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument which is used to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others on some mental or behavioural characteristics.
Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test on the same group of people, both of them would come up with more or less the same values for each person in the group.
In order for a psychological test to become an objective measure, it is essential that items should be worded in such a manner that they communicate the same meaning to different readers.
the instructions to the test takers about how to answer the test items should be specified in advance.
The construction of a test is a systematic process and involves certain steps.
Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on two different occasions.
It is computed by finding out co-efficient of correlation between the two sets of scores on the same set of persons.
split-half reliability gives an indication about the degree of internal consistency of the test.
This is based on the assumption that items of a test if they are from the same domain should correlate with each other.
For a test to be usable, it should also be valid.
a test becomes a standardised test when norms are developed for the test.
norm is the normal or average performance of the group.

Types of Tests

Psychological tests are classified on the basis of their language, mode of administration, and difficulty level.
Depending upon the language, we have verbal, non-verbal, and performance tests.
Literacy is required for taking verbal tests as the items have to be written in some language.
In non-verbal tests, items are made of symbols or pictures.
Performance tests require movement of objects from their respective places in a particular order.
Depending upon the mode of administration, psychological tests are divided into individual or group tests.
An individual test is administered by the researcher to one person at a time, while group tests can be administered to large number of persons at the same time.
In individual tests, the researcher administers the test face to face and remains seated before the test taker and notes down the responses.
Individual tests are time consuming, but are important ways of getting responses from children, and from those who do not know the language.
Group tests are easy to administer and are also less time consuming.
In a speed test, there is a time limit within which the test taker is required to answer all the items.
power test assesses the underlying ability of the individuals by allowing them sufficient time, i.e. these tests do not have any time limit.
In a power test, the items are generally arranged in an increasing order of difficulty.
The test user or the decision maker should not rely on any single test.
In this method, the emphasis is given on indepth study of a particular case.
Researchers focus on cases which can provide critical information or new learning on less understood phenomena.
The cases that we select for study are unique and, therefore, are rich in information.
Case studies provide a narrative or detailed descriptions of the events that take place in a person’s life.
A case study is a valuable research tool in the field of clinical psychology and human development.
Freud’s insights that led to the development of psychoanalytic theory emerged from his observations and showed that meticulous records must be maintained on individual cases.
Piaget developed his theory of cognitive development on the basis of observations of his three children.
Case studies provide detailed in-depth depictions of people’s lives.
The problem of validity in a single case study is quite challenging. It is recommended that the information should be collected using multiple strategies from different sources of information by a number of investigators.
Careful planning of data collection is also very necessary.
the process of data collection the researcher is required to maintain a chain of evidence for linking various data sources having bearing on the research questions.
the researcher should not depend upon only one method.
A combination of two or more methods should be used to get the real picture.
If the methods converge, i.e. they give the same results, one can certainly be more confident.

LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

Lack of True Zero Point

Psychological measurements do not have a true zero point.
The problem in such type of assessment is that the difference between first and second rank holders may not be the same as is the difference between the second and third rank holders.
This also illustrates the relative nature of the psychological measurement.

Relative Nature of Psychological Tools

Psychological tests are developed keeping in view the salient features of a particular context.
tests need to be properly modified and adapted keeping in view the characteristics of the context in which they are to be used.

Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data

Data from qualitative studies are largely subjective since they involve interpretation on the part of the researcher as well as the person providing data.
The interpretations may vary from one individual to the other.
It is, therefore, often suggested that in case of qualitative studies, the field work should be done by more than one investigator, who at the end of the day should discuss their observations and arrive at an agreement before finally giving it a meaning.
one is better off, if the respondents too are involved in such meaning-making process.

ETHICAL ISSUES

Voluntary Participation

This principle states that the persons on whom you want to conduct the study should have the choice to decide whether to participate or not to participate in the study.
The participants should have the freedom to decide about their participation without any coercion or excessive inducement, and the freedom to withdraw from the research without penalty, once it has begun.

Informed Consent

It is essential that the participants in a study should understand what will happen to them during the study.
The principle of informed consent states that potential participants must receive this information before data from them are collected, so that they make an informed decision about participation in the study.
They may at times be required to give some private information, which is generally not shared with others.
It is important that the participants are explained the nature of the study before its actual commencement.
Once the study is over, the participants are provided with necessary information to complete their understanding of research. T
his is particularly important if deception has been used in the study.
Debriefing ensures that participants leave the study in the same physical and mental state as when they entered. It should offer reassurance to the participants.
The researcher should make efforts to remove any anxiety or other adverse effects that participants may have felt as a result of being deceived in the course of the study.

Sharing the Results of the Study

In psychological research, after collecting information from the participants, we come back to our places of work, analyse the data and draw conclusions.
It is obligatory for the researcher to go back to the participants and share the results of the study with them.
When you go for data collection, the participants develop certain expectations from you.
you fulfil the expectations of the participants.
The participants may tell you their opinion about the results, which sometimes may help you develop new insights.

Confidentiality of Data Source

The participants in a study have the right to privacy.
The researcher must safeguard their privacy by keeping the information provided by them in strict confidence.
The information should only be used for research purposes and, in no circumstances, it should be passed on to other interested parties.
The most effective way of protecting the confidentiality of participants is not to record their identities.
This is, however, not possible in certain kinds of research.
In such cases, code numbers are given on the data sheet, and the names with the codes are kept separately. The identification list should be destroyed as soon as the research is over.

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NCERT Solutions For Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods Of Enquiry In Psychology

Class 11 psychology chapter 2 methods of enquiry in psychology.

NCERT Solutions For Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods Of Enquiry In Psychology, (Psychology) exam are Students are taught thru NCERT books in some of state board and CBSE Schools. As the chapter involves an end, there is an exercise provided to assist students prepare for evaluation. Students need to clear up those exercises very well because the questions withinside the very last asked from those.

Sometimes, students get stuck withinside the exercises and are not able to clear up all of the questions. To assist students solve all of the questions and maintain their studies with out a doubt, we have provided step by step NCERT Solutions for the students for all classes. These answers will similarly help students in scoring better marks with the assist of properly illustrated solutions as a way to similarly assist the students and answering the questions right.

Page No: 42 Review Questions

1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry? Answer The goals of scientific enquiry are: → Description: It is important in scientific enquiry to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible which helps in its proper understanding. → Prediction: The second goal of scientific enquiry is understanding of a particular behaviour in relationship to other behaviours, events or phenomena. It tries to predict their occurrences under certain conditions with a margin of error. Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed.

→ Conceptualising a Problem: The researcher have to select a theme or topic for study. Then narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems for the study. This is done on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal experiences. Next, they have to prepare a hypothesis or a tentative solution of the problem.

→ Collecting Data: The second step in scientific research is to collect data. Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study. It requires taking decisions about the following four aspects: participants in the study, methods of data collection, tools to be used in research, and procedure for data collection. → Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean. This can be achieved through graphical representations such as preparation of pie-chart, bar-diagram, etc. and by the use of different statistical methods.It helps to verify the hypothesis and draw conclusions by putting them into an appropriate context.

→ Revising Research Conclusions:The existing hypothesis is finally confirmed on the basis of revision of data else, a new hypothesis is stated and tested by new data. The research may also be revised by other researchers, hence making it a continuous process.

→ The method of data collection such as survey, interview, experiment, etc. used and the characteristics of respondents such as, individual or group, young or old, male or female, rural or urban, etc. also influence the nature and quality of data.

Experimental groups differ from control groups as independent variable manipulation occurs in an experimental group whereas it is absent in a control group. For example, in the study by Latane and Darley, there were two experimental groups and one control group. The participants in the study were sent to three types of rooms. In one room no one was present (control group). In the other two rooms, two persons were already seated (experimental groups). The independent variable, in this study, was the absence or presence of other persons sitting in the room. The remaining factors in the experiment were the same for both kinds of groups. In experimental groups, two persons were present with the real participant while in the control group, participant was alone. Therefore, it can be said that the manipulated variable is absent in control group.

5. A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.

Answer A study of relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people.

6. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.

7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits. Answer Non-participant observation method is involved in research of Dr. Krishnan here. He can install a video camera to record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school or sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities and then analyse and conclude it. • Merits: The researcher study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs. • Demerits: This method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event.

8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method? Answer Two Examples of the situations where survey method can be used are: → The attitude of people towards family planning.

The limitations of this method are: → People may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they may not want to let the researcher know what they really believe about a particular issue. → People sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear.

Interview	Questionnaire
It is a form of interaction in which questions are asked directly to the respondents.	It is a framework in which questions of scientific enquiry are written.
Its questions may vary in their sequence according to the need of the situation.	It consists of a predetermined set of questions.
Researcher and respondents are in face-to-face contact.	Researcher and respondents are not required to be in face-to-face contact.
Number of questions can be increased or decreased.	Number of questions cannot be changed.

• Relative Nature of Psychological Tools: Psychological tests are developed keeping in view the salient features of a particular context. For example, a test developed for urban children is not suitable and cannot be applied on tribal children.

12. What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry? Answer The ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry are: • Voluntary Participation : This principle states that the persons on whom researcher want to conduct the study should have the choice to decide whether to participate or not to participate in the study.

• Informed Consent : It is essential that the participants in a study should understand what will happen to them during the study. • Debriefing : Once the study is over, the participants are provided with necessary information to complete their understanding of research. • Sharing the Results of the Study : In psychological research, after collecting information from the participants, we come back to our places of work, analyse the data and draw conclusions. It is obligatory for the researcher to go back to the participants and share the results of the study with them. • Confidentiality of Data Source : The participants in a study have the right to privacy. The researcher must safeguard their privacy by keeping the information provided by them in strict confidence.

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NCERT Solutions for Class 11th: Ch 1 What is Psychology

Ncert solutions for class 11th: ch 1 what is psychology .

It is based on scientific study of psychological phenomenon.

It uses common-sense knowledge to understand behaviour.

It explains the phenomenon on the basis of experiences, sayings or beliefs.

It explains events in hindsight after they occur.


A psychologist deals with the psychological phenomenon.	A psychiatrist deals with serious mental problems.
His/her main work is research in psychology and formulation of psychological conclusions that are derived on the basis of data.	A psychiatrist studies the causes, treatment and prevention of psychological disorders.
A psychologist does not hold a medical degree and is mainly into academic and research fields.	A psychiatrist holds a medical degree and he/she can use medical treatment to cure the patients.


A counsellor deals with the causes, treatment and prevention of different types of psychological disorders, which are related to motivational and emotional problems.	A clinical psychologist provides therapy for behavioural problems, which are related to mental disorders.
Counsellors help people in vocational rehabilitation programmes, making professional choices and adjusting to new situations in life.	Clinical psychologists conduct interviews and administer psychological tests to diagnose various problems.
A counsellor deals with different types of psychological disorders in everyday life of the patient.	A clinical psychologist deals with specific and complicated psychological disorders

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NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Psychology Chapter 1 What is Psychology?

June 3, 2024 by Bhagya

NCERT Text Book Questions Solved

Question 1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour? Answer: Behaviour refers to any response of an organism that can be measured. Any covert or overt action/reaction a person does that can be observed in some ways. A person running to catch train is an example of overt behaviour. The working of human memory or problem solving might be thought of as behaviour, even though they cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from their product.

Read more about NCERT Psychology Class 11

Question 2. How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the discipline of Psychology? Answer: The popular theories of human behaviour are based on common sense and may or may not be true if investigated scientifically.

Common sense based on hind sight. Psychology as a science looks for patterns of behaviour which can be predicted and not explained after the behaviour occurs.
Dweck’s study on children (who gave up too easily when faced with difficult problems or failures) is worth mentioning here.
Commonsense tells us to give them easy problems, first in order to increase their success rate so that their confidence goes up.
Dweck found that children who had always succeeded because they were given easy problems could not cope up with difficult problems and gave up faster in comparison to those who had experience of both success and failure and were taught to put more effort to deal with difficult problems.Such studies prove that predictions based on empirical studies are reliable and valid.

Question 3. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology. Answer: Psychology as a modem discipline has a short history but a long past. It grew out of ancient philosophy. It emerges as a scientific discipline in the following phases: 1. Structuralism: It is the oldest school/approach to psychology, and it was proposed by William Wundt. Structuralists were interested in analysis of human mind and its structure.

They were interested in conscious experience and wanted to study the building blocks of mind.
They used introspective method to study mental processes and experiences.

2. Functionalism: It is an approach to psychology, developed by an American Psychologist William James.

They (Functionalists) emphasised on what the mind does and the function of consciousness in adjustment to the environment
According to them consciousness is an on-going stream of mental process, it can’t be broken down into parts.
They also used introspective method to study mental processes and experiences.

3. Behaviourism: Proposed by John B. Watson who viewed psychology as the science of behaviour and behaviour could be described objectively in terms of stimuli and responses (S-R).

This approach proposed that mentalist concepts such as consciousness, image or mind cannot be measured or studied objectively and scientifically.
Watson emphasised on observable and verifiable response to stimuli.
He was influenced by Pavlov’s classical conditioning and was interested in the study of learning.

4. Gestalt Psychology: This approach was a revolt against structuralism, founded in Germany by Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka

It focused on perceptual organisation (organisation of what we see) and they also demonstrated the laws of perceptual organisation.
Structuralist wanted to break down perception into elements but Gestalt stated that when we look at the world, our perceptual experience is more than the sum of the components of the perceptions i.e. we give meaning to perception.
For example, when we look at a table we do not see four wooden legs and trapezoid plain surface above it but we recognise it as a table.

5. Psychoanalysis: This approach was proposed by Dr. Sigmund Freud.

He viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires and conflicts of which we are not aware at present.
He used psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological disorders.

6. Humanism: It was advocated by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

They emphasised on the free will of human beings i.e. people are free to do whatever they choose to do. Their actions are not predetermined by any force.
They said that human beings strive to grow and unfold their inner potential i.e. what they are capable of doing.
According to them all individuals have innate tendency to self actualise and all human activities are goal directed and worthwhile.

7. Cognitive Perspective/Cortstructivism: This perspective is a combination of Gestalt approach and structuralist approach. This approach focuses on cognition i.e. how we know the world through thinking understanding, perceiving, memorising and problem solving etc.

Jean Piaget and Vygotsky are the pioneers of this approach.
Cognitive psychologists view the human mind as an information processing system like a computer.
Mind is considered to receive, process, transform, store and retrieve information.
Mind is dynamic and human beings actively construct their minds as they interact with the social and physical environment and interaction between adults and children.

Question 4. What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines can be fruitful? Take any two problems to explain. Answer: Psychology is located at the intersection of many fields of knowledge pertaining to human functioning.

It contributes to the growth of other disciplines and draws subject-matter from them as well.
In the study of brain and behaviour psychology shares its knowledge with neurology, physiology, biology, medicine and computer science.
In studying the meaning, growth and the development of human behaviour in a socio-cultural context, psychology shares its knowledge with anthropology, sociology, social work, political science and economics.

Question 5. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical psychologist. Answer: (a) Psychologist —A psychologist is someone who possesses the knowledge of psychology and holds recognized degree in the field; they work in diverse areas, like teaching, counselling, community etc. Psychiatrist—They are qualified medical-practitioners who are concerned with psychological well-being of individuals. Clinical Psychologist and psychiatrist are different in the qualification and in roles. Clinical Psychologist cannot administer or prescribe drugs whereas psychiatrists are medical professionals and trained in administering medicine/drugs to treat mental disorders. (b) Counsellor —A counsellor provides advice to the persons who suffer from motivational and emotional problems, they provide vocational guidance also. Clinical psychologist—A clinical psychologist also helps people with behavioural, mental and emotional problems.

They are post- graduate in Psychology and are specialised professionals.
They provide therapy for various mental disorders, anxiety, fear or stress of any type.
They use interview and administer psychological tests to diagnose the client’s problem.

Question 6. Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put to practice. Answer:

Psychology is not only a subject that satisfies curiosities of our mind about human nature, but it is also a subject that offers solutions to a variety of problems. It ranges from personal to family, a community or even national and international dimensions.
The solution of these problems may involve political, economic and social reforms; however, these problems are a result of unhealthy thinking, negative attitude towards people and self and undesirable patterns of behaviour.
A psychological analysis of these problems helps both in having a deeper understanding of these problems and also finding effective solutions.
Psychology enables an individual to understand oneself in a balanced and positive way without being reactionary, in order to deal with everyday challenges and meet with personal expectations.
Therefore, understanding of psychology enables a person to build stronger relationships at community level and improve individual strength.

Question 7. How can knowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promote environment friendly behaviour? Answer: Environmental psychology studies the interaction between natural and man-made environment and human behaviour.

The knowledge of environmental psychology can help us prevent big disasters.
We can learn to modify our behaviour to prevent any unwanted and painful outcome.
For example, if we know the hazards of growing population, we can certainly apply some measure to stop population growth.

Question 8. In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch of psychology do you think is most suitable. Identify the field and discuss the concerns of the psychologists working in this field. Answer: The branch of social psychology is the most suitable for solving problems like crime. It explores through thought process of people and their influence on other. Social psychologists are concerned with topics like attitude, conformity, obedience to authority, social motivation, inter-group relations, etc. In answering such questions the knowledge of psychology for Lawer and a criminologist is also very essential. If they have the knowledge of psychology they can understand how well a witness remembers the incident? How well can he/she report such facts when taking the witness stand in the court.

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CBSE Notes for Class 11 Psychology
1. Descriptive methods include the use of surveys, naturalistic observation, and clinical methods to describe behaviour and mental processes; these help us to reach the goal of description. 2. Correlational methods are used to study the relationships between variables; these help us to reach the goal of prediction. 3.
PDF Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Chapter
hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier evidence or your observation, you might develop a hypothesis 'greater is the amount of time spent by children in viewing violence on television, higher is the degree of aggression displayed by them'. In your research, you shall now try to prove whether the statement is true or false.
Hypothesis: Definition, Examples, and Types
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide the research process. Consider a study designed to examine the relationship between sleep deprivation and test ...
PDF Methods of Enquiry in Psin Psin Psyyychologychologychology in ...
hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier evidence or your observation, you might develop a hypothesis 'greater is the amount of time spent by children in viewing violence on television, higher is the degr ee of aggr ession displayed by them'. In your r esear ch, you shall now try to pr ove whether the statement is true or false.
NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods ...
Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry. The process begins when a researcher selects a theme or topic for study. Then the research questions or problems for the study are formulated. Problem is based on the review of past researches, observations and personal experiences.
Psychology Class 11 Chapter 1
Psychology Class 11 Chapter 1: Concepts. YouTube: 2 Minute Classroom. Psychology is defined formally as a science that studies mental processes, experiences and behaviours in different contexts. We will further understand the meaning of mental processes, behaviours and experiences in detail. Mental Processes are usually used when we think or to ...
Methods of Enquiry in Psychology: Free PDF Class 11
Psychologists use a variety of research methods such as experiments, observation, interviews, case studies, surveys, etc. It is the methodology used that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Let's further understand and explore these interesting and illuminating methods that make psychology a scientific endeavour.
CBSE Notes for Class 11 Psychology
What is Psychology? Methods of Enquiry in Psychology. The Bases of Human Behaviour. Human Development. Sensory, Attentional And Perceptual Processes. Learning. Human Memory. Thinking. Motivation And Emotion.
NCERT Solutions for Class 11th: Ch 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry. Answer. The various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry are: → Conceptualising a Problem: The researcher have to select a theme or topic for study. Then narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems for the study.
NCERT solutions for Class 11 Psychology chapter 2
Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables. VIEW SOLUTION. Review Questions | Q 6 | Page 42. ... Using NCERT Class 11 Psychology solutions Methods of Enquiry in Psychology exercise by students is an easy way to prepare for the exams, as they involve solutions arranged chapter-wise and also page-wise. ...
PDF Chapter 1 What is Psychology?
Psychology 2 psychology was a study of the soul or mind. But since then it has moved away considerably from this focus and established itself as a
Chapter 1 What is Psychology
Class 11th. Chapter 1 What is Psychology…. • Psychology is defined as a science which studies mental processes, experiences and. behaviour in different contexts. In doing so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically. It makes sense of the data so that it can be organized as knowledge.
NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Psychology
It helps to verify the hypothesis and draw conclusions by putting them into an appropriate context. (iv) Revising research conclusions - The existing hypothesis is finally confirmed on the basis of revision of data else, a new hypothesis is stated and tested by new data. The research may also be revised by other researchers, hence making it a ...
CBSE Class 11 Psychology Revision Notes
The CBSE Class 11 Psychology Revision Notes is an invaluable resource that delves deep into the core of the Humanities/Arts exam. These study notes are curated by experts and cover all the essential topics and concepts, making your preparation more efficient and effective.
Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Class 11 Notes
The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour occur. Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not occur. Control.
NCERT Solutions For Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods Of Enquiry In
Class 11 Psychology Chapter 2 Methods Of Enquiry In Psychology As the chapter involves an end, there is an exercise provided to assist students prepare for evaluation. Students need to clear up those exercises very well because the questions withinside the very last asked from those.
NCERT Textbook
Full syllabus notes, lecture and questions for NCERT Textbook - What is Psychology - Psychology Class 11 - Humanities/Arts - Humanities/Arts ... Based on a theory, scientists deduce or propose a hypothesis, that offers a tentative explanation of how a certain phenomenon takes place. The hypothesis then is tested and proved true or false based ...
NCERT Solutions for Class 11th: Ch 1 What is Psychology
Scientific psychology. Popular notion about psychology. It is based on scientific study of psychological phenomenon. It uses common-sense knowledge to understand behaviour. It explains the psychological phenomenon systematically on the basis of empirical data. It explains the phenomenon on the basis of experiences, sayings or beliefs.
Psychology class 11: Define the following terms: (1 marks ...
(i) Hypothesis-: a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation. (ii)Observation-: Researchers utilizing the observational method can exert varying amounts of control over the environment in which the observation takes place. (iii)Experiment-: An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested.
PDF Chapter 1 What is Ps What is Psyychology?chology?
Theme 1 : Psychology like other sciences attempts to develop principles of behaviour and mental processes. In research, the main concern is with the understanding and explanation of behaviour and mental events and processes. Psychologists, who choose to engage in research, function more like other scientists.
NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Psychology
Here is the list of chapters for Class 11 Psychology NCERT Textbook. Chapter 1 What is Psychology? Chapter 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology. Chapter 3 The Bases of Human Behaviour. Chapter 4 Human Development. Chapter 5 Sensory, Attentional And Perceptual Processes. Chapter 6 Learning. Chapter 7 Human Memory. Chapter 8 Thinking.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
Table of contents for Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50, 8, Aug 01, 2024. Skip to main content. Intended for healthcare professionals ... we tested the hypothesis that increased income inequality between individuals will reduce social affiliation within dyadic interactions. ... Restricted access Research article First published ...
What Is Psychology?
In waking consciousness, we perceive time, place and events as real, meaningful and familiar. • Psychology is a social science because it studies the behaviour of human beings in their social tests cultural context. • Psychology as a social science discipline focuses on humans as social beings. • It focuses on the individual and ...
NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Psychology Chapter 1 What is Psychology?
Question 3. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology. Answer: Psychology as a modem discipline has a short history but a long past. It grew out of ancient philosophy. It emerges as a scientific discipline in the following phases: 1. Structuralism: It is the oldest school/approach to psychology, and it was proposed by William Wundt.

How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Format

Hypothesis Types

At a Glance

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

How to Formulate a Good Hypothesis

The Importance of Operational Definitions

Replicability

Hypothesis Checklist

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Descriptive Research Methods

Experimental Research Methods

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Methods of Enquiry in Psychology: Free PDF

This Blog Includes:

Description

Explanation

Application

Conceptualizing a problem

Identification of problem

Collection of data

Drawing conclusions

Revising research conclusions

Demographic information

Physical information

Psychological information

Observation

Merits

Experimental method

Correlational research

Survey research

Quantitative Method

Qualitative Method

Lack of true zero-point

Relative nature of psychological tools

Subjective interpretation of qualitative data

Informed consent

Confidentiality of data source

Voluntary participation

Debriefing

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NCERT solutions for Class 11 Psychology chapter 2 - Methods of Enquiry in Psychology [Latest edition]

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