was alexander the great a good leader essay

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World history

Course: world history > unit 2.

Philip of Macedon unifies Greece
Alexander the Great takes power
Alexander the Great conquers Persia
Diadochi and the Hellenistic Period

Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great was famous for his military power and is a legendary figure in history.
Much of what we know about Alexander the Great is unreliable and steeped in myth; a lot of these mythologies were used by Alexander’s successors.

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Alexander the Great

By: History.com Editors

Updated: February 5, 2024 | Original: November 9, 2009

Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they’d follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Though Alexander the Great died before realizing his dream of uniting a new realm, his influence on Greek and Asian culture was so profound that it inspired a new historical epoch—the Hellenistic Period.

Where Was Alexander the Great From?

Alexander III was born in Pella, Macedonia , in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods .

Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire .

At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander’s life.

When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy.

Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battle and left his son in charge of Macedonia. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes—a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers—during the Battle of Chaeronea.

Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes.

Ancient Empires

Watch the three-episode documentary event, Ancient Empires . Available to stream now.

Alexander Becomes King

In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty.

He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. Once he’d cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father’s footsteps and continue Macedonia’s world domination.

Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Victory went to Alexander and the Macedonians.

Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. Under siege yet not beaten, Halicarnassus held out long enough for King Darius III, the newest Persian king, to amass a substantial army.

Gordian Knot

From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot , a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia.

As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph.

Battle of Issus

In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Alexander’s forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia’s great wealth, much of it plundered.

As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son.

By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”

Battle of Tyre

Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.

He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water.

Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian forces thwarted Alexander’s clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.

He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.

Alexander Enters Egypt

After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt . He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria.

Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity.

Alexander Becomes King of Persia

After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It’s said Alexander was sad when he found Darius’s body and he gave him a royal burial.

Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. Alexander couldn’t let the claim stand.

After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia.

Proskynesis

To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He began dressing like a Persian and adopted the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that involved bowing down and kissing the hand of others, depending on their rank.

The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death.

Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed).

Alexander Kills Cleitus

In 328 B.C., Cleitus, another general and close friend of Alexander, also met a violent end. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements.

Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life.

Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander’s demand to surrender.

Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane.

As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey.

Alexander Enters India

In 327 B.C., Alexander marched on Punjab, India. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River.

Porus’s army was less experienced than Alexander’s, but they had a secret weapon—elephants. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated.

One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him.

Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli.

After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River.

A Mass Wedding

In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He also took two more wives for himself.

The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down.

To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet.

How Did Alexander the Great Die?

By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers.

Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. But he’d never live to see it happen. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor.

His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create.

How Old Was Alexander the Great When He Died?

After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.

Why Was Alexander the Great ‘Great’?

Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period , from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced.

Alexander the Great. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Alexander the Great. Livius.org. Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. Historyofmacedonia.org . Alexander of Macedonia. San Jose State University . Bucephalus. Ancient History Encyclopedia. The Battle of Issus. Livius.org. The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas . Fordham University . The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). Livius.org.

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HISTORY & CULTURE

Who was Alexander the Great?

The son of a king, Alexander was a brilliant military leader who conquered most of the known world—but he wasn't much of a diplomat.

Alexander the Great stands with a knife raised amidst a crowd of people

Alexander the Great slices the Gordian Knot with his sword in 333 B.C. The legend—depicted in this painting by Jean-Simon Berthelemy—has it that the knot in the city of Gordium (present-day Turkey) was only to be untied by the future conquerer of Asia.

The vast Eurasian empire that Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) forged was not long-lasting, but his heroic deeds were legendary. Alexander was the son of King Philip II of Macedonia , a realm north of Greece. When Athens was left unstable by the interminable Peloponnesian War, Philip saw an opening and took it; he subdued Greece around 339 B.C.

While Philip was at war, Alexander studied math, archery, and other subjects with tutors, including the renowned philosopher Aristotle. According to Greek author Plutarch, Alexander kept a copy of Homer’s Iliad, annotated by Aristotle, “with his dagger under his pillow, declaring that he esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge.” ( Were Alexander the Great and Hephaestion more than friends? )

The precocious Alexander was already a seasoned commander in the Macedonian army when he became king at the age of 20 in 336 B.C., after his father’s assassination. In one of his most decisive moves, the young monarch forcefully proved his authority over rebellious Greeks by storming the defiant city of Thebes, slaughtering thousands of residents and enslaving the rest.

Persian conquest

In 334 B.C., Alexander set out to conquer the Persian Empire, which had waned in power but remained a behemoth. Alexander’s army numbered fewer than 40,000 men, mostly Macedonian and fiercely loyal. The versatile force included cavalry and heavily armed foot soldiers, who wielded spears and formed a phalanx, advancing relentlessly behind raised shields. Alexander deployed his troops with great skill and earned their devotion by leading them in battle and suffering several wounds.

Alexander visited the fabled city of Troy as he crossed the Bosporus into Asia Minor and routed the Persian forces there. Greek cities in Asia Minor that had been under Persian control welcomed his rule. At the Gulf of Issus in 333 B.C., Alexander soundly defeated Persian emperor Darius III, who retreated so hastily, he left behind family members to be taken hostage.

Refusing to make peace unless Darius yielded to him as emperor, Alexander swept south along the sea toward Egypt. He seized strategic ports, including the defiant Phoenician port of Tyre. He met with more reverence in Egypt, where he was honored as a god-king like the pharaohs of old—veneration he considered his due.

From the Mediterranean, Alexander advanced east into Mesopotamia and engaged Darius’s replenished troops on the plain of Gaugamela in 331 B.C. Once again, Alexander demonstrated that a small army acting in concert was superior to a sprawling, disorganized one. When a gap opened in the Persian ranks, he and his elite cavalrymen dashed into the breach, splitting the opposing army in two. He had conquered the Persians at last.

Alexander the Great's fall—and death

By adding the vast Persian realm to his Balkan kingdom, Alexander forged a Eurasian empire of unprecedented scope. Yet that wasn’t enough. He didn’t heed the Greek lesson about the danger of hubris , striving arrogantly for more than any man could realistically achieve. He subdued Bactria (in modern-day Afghanistan) and wed Roxana, the daughter of a Bactrian chief. He then invaded India in 327 B.C. and crossed the Indus River, the farthest frontier of the old Persian Empire. But monsoons made his troops feverish and mutinous; in 325 B.C., they turned back.

( How suspicion and intrigue eroded Alexander's empire .)

Alexander’s genius was military, not political or diplomatic. He made fitful efforts to organize his huge empire in the style of the Persians; he hired Persian officials and wed Persian princesses (as did dozens of his commanders). Many Macedonians felt he placed too much trust in people they still viewed as enemies, and Greeks consented only reluctantly to his demand to be recognized as divine like some Near Eastern monarchs. “If Alexander wishes to be a god,” Spartans observed skeptically, “let him be a god.”

The mortal Alexander died suddenly (perhaps from typhoid fever) in Babylon in 323 B.C. His empire fractured after his death, but those lands were forever changed, infused with the culture and cosmopolitan spirit of a larger Greek world that Alexander brought into being.

Were Alexander the Great and Hephaestion more than friends?

Who invented the marathon? It’s not as ancient as you think

Who were the Tarim Basin mummies? Even scientists were surprised.

How scientists bring ancient faces back to life

How suspicion and intrigue eroded Alexander's empire

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

The rise of macedon and the conquests of alexander the great.

Bronze box mirror

Set of jewelry

Ganymede jewelry

Marble head of a Ptolemaic queen

Bronze statuette of a rider wearing an elephant skin

Gold stater

Colette Hemingway Independent Scholar

Seán Hemingway Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2004

During the first half of the fourth century B.C., Greek poleis, or city-states, remained autonomous. As each polis tended to its own interests, frequent disputes and temporary alliances between rival factions resulted. In 360 B.C., an extraordinary individual, Philip II of Macedon (northern Greece), came to power. In less than a decade, he had defeated most of Macedon’s neighboring enemies: the Illyrians and the Paionians to the west and northwest, and the Thracians to the north and northeast. Phillip II instituted far-reaching reforms at home and abroad. Innovations—improved catapults and siege machinery, as well as a new kind of infantry in which each soldier was equipped with an enormous pike known as a sarissa—placed his armies at the forefront of military technology. In 338 B.C., at the pivotal Battle of Chaeronea in Boeotia, Philip II completed what was to be the last phase of his domination when he became the undisputed ruler of Greece. His plans for war against Asia were cut short when he was assassinated in 336 B.C. Excavations of the royal tombs at Vergina in northern Greece give a glimpse of the vibrant wall paintings and rich decorative arts produced for the Macedonian royal court ( 37.11.8-.17 ), which had become the leading center of Greek culture.

The reign of Alexander the Great (336–323 B.C.) would change the face of Europe and Asia forever ( 10.132.1 ; 55.11.11 ). As crown prince, he received the finest education in the Macedonian court under his celebrated tutor Aristotle. At the age of twenty, already a charismatic and decisive leader, Alexander quickly harnessed the Macedonian forces that his father’s reforms had made into the premier military power in the region. In 334 B.C., he led a grand army across the Hellespont in Asia. With some 43,000 infantry and 5,500 cavalry, it was the most formidable military expedition ever to leave Greece. The first to reach Asiatic soil, Alexander leapt ashore, cast a spear into the land, and dramatically claimed the continent as “spear won.” In a remarkable campaign that lasted eleven years, he went on to fulfill his claim and more by conquering the Persian empire of western Asia and Egypt, and by continuing into Central Asia as far as the Indus Valley. In the end, he was defeated by his own army, which insisted on returning to Greece. On the way back, he died of fever in Babylon at the age of thirty-three. All the lands that he had conquered were divided up among his generals ( 52.127.4 ), and it was these political divisions that comprised the many kingdoms of the Hellenistic period (323–31 B.C.).

Hemingway, Colette, and Seán Hemingway. “The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm (October 2004)

Additional Essays by Seán Hemingway

Hemingway, Seán. “ Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition .” (April 2007)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Greek Hydriai (Water Jars) and Their Artistic Decoration .” (July 2007)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Hellenistic Jewelry .” (April 2007)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Intellectual Pursuits of the Hellenistic Age .” (April 2007)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Mycenaean Civilization .” (October 2003)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Africans in Ancient Greek Art .” (January 2008)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art .” (July 2007)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Greek Gods and Religious Practices .” (October 2003)
Hemingway, Seán. “ The Art of Classical Greece (ca. 480–323 B.C.) .” (January 2008)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Athletics in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
Hemingway, Seán. “ The Technique of Bronze Statuary in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Cyprus—Island of Copper .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Music in Ancient Greece .” (October 2001)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Etruscan Art .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Prehistoric Cypriot Art and Culture .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Seán. “ Minoan Crete .” (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Colette Hemingway

Hemingway, Colette. “ Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition .” (April 2007)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Greek Hydriai (Water Jars) and Their Artistic Decoration .” (July 2007)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Hellenistic Jewelry .” (April 2007)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Intellectual Pursuits of the Hellenistic Age .” (April 2007)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Mycenaean Civilization .” (October 2003)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Retrospective Styles in Greek and Roman Sculpture .” (July 2007)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Africans in Ancient Greek Art .” (January 2008)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art .” (July 2007)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Architecture in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Greek Gods and Religious Practices .” (October 2003)
Hemingway, Colette. “ The Art of Classical Greece (ca. 480–323 B.C.) .” (January 2008)
Hemingway, Colette. “ The Labors of Herakles .” (January 2008)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Athletics in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
Hemingway, Colette. “ The Technique of Bronze Statuary in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Women in Classical Greece .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Cyprus—Island of Copper .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Music in Ancient Greece .” (October 2001)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) and Art .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Etruscan Art .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Prehistoric Cypriot Art and Culture .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Sardis .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Medicine in Classical Antiquity .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Southern Italian Vase Painting .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Theater in Ancient Greece .” (October 2004)
Hemingway, Colette. “ The Kithara in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
Hemingway, Colette. “ Minoan Crete .” (October 2002)

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Alexander the Great

Who Was Alexander the Great?

Conqueror and king of Macedonia, Alexander the Great was born on July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella, in the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia. During his leadership, from 336 to 323 B.C., he united the Greek city-states and led the Corinthian League. He also became the king of Persia, Babylon and Asia, and created Macedonian colonies in the region. While considering the conquests of Carthage and Rome, Alexander died of malaria in Babylon (now Iraq), on June 13, 323 B.C.

Alexander the Great was born in the Pella region of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia on July 20, 356 B.C., to parents King Philip II of Macedon and Queen Olympia, daughter of King Neoptolemus. The young prince and his sister were raised in Pella's royal court. Growing up, the dark-eyed and curly-headed Alexander hardly ever saw his father, who spent most of his time engaged in military campaigns and extra-marital affairs. Although Olympia served as a powerful role model for the boy, Alexander grew to resent his father's absence and philandering.

Alexander received his earliest education under the tutelage of his relative, the stern Leonidas of Epirus. Leonidas, who had been hired by King Phillip to teach Alexander math, horsemanship and archery, struggled to control his rebellious student. Alexander's next tutor was Lysimachus, who used role-playing to capture the restless boy's attention. Alexander particularly delighted in impersonating the warrior Achilles.

In 343 B.C., King Philip II hired the philosopher Aristotle to tutor Alexander at the Temple of the Nymphs at Meiza. Over the course of three years, Aristotle taught Alexander and a handful of his friends philosophy, poetry, drama, science and politics. Seeing that Homer's Iliad inspired Alexander to dream of becoming a heroic warrior, Aristotle created an abridged version of the tome for Alexander to carry with him on military campaigns.

Alexander completed his education at Meiza in 340 B.C. A year later, while still just a teen, he became a soldier and embarked on his first military expedition, against the Thracian tribes. In 338, Alexander took charge of the Companion Cavalry and aided his father in defeating the Athenian and Theban armies at Chaeronea. Once Philip II had succeeded in his campaign to unite all the Greek states (minus Sparta) into the Corinthian League, the alliance between father and son soon disintegrated. Philip married Cleopatra Eurydice, niece of General Attalus, and ousted Alexander's mother, Olympia. Alexander and Olympia were forced to flee Macedonia and stay with Olympia's family in Epirus until Alexander and King Philip II were able to reconcile their differences.

King of Macedonia

In 336, Alexander's sister wed the Molossian king, an uncle who was also called Alexander. During the festival that followed, King Philip II was murdered at the hands of Pausanias, a Macedonian noble.

In the wake of his father's death, Alexander, then 19, was determined to seize the throne by any means necessary. He quickly garnered the support of the Macedonian army, including the general and troops he had had fought with at Chaeronea. The army proclaimed Alexander the feudal king and proceeded to help him murder other potential heirs to the throne. Ever a loyal mother, Olympia further ensured her son's claim to the throne by slaughtering the daughter of King Philip II and Cleopatra and driving Cleopatra herself to suicide.

Even though Alexander was the feudal king of Macedonia, he didn't obtain automatic control of the Corinthian League. In fact, the southern states of Greece were celebrating Philip II's death and expressed divided interests. Athens had its own agenda: Under the leadership of democratic Demosthenes, the state hoped to take charge of the league. As they launched independence movements, Alexander sent his army south and coerced the region of Thessaly into acknowledging him as the leader of the Corinthian League. Then during a meeting of league members at Thermopylae, Alexander elicited their acceptance of his leadership. By the fall of 336, he reissued treaties with the Greek city-states that belonged to the Corinthian League — with Athens still refusing membership — and was granted full military power in the campaign against the Persian Empire. But, before preparing for war with Persia, Alexander first conquered the Thracian Triballians in 335, securing Macedonia's northern borders.

Campaigns and Conquests

As Alexander was nearing the end of his northern campaign, he was delivered the news that Thebes, a Greek city-state, had forced out the Macedonian troops that were garrisoned there. Fearing a revolt among the other city-states, Alexander leapt into action, marching his massive army—consisting of 3,000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry—southward all the way to the tip of the Greek peninsula. Meanwhile, Alexander's general, Parmenion, had already made his way to Asia Minor.

Alexander and his forces arrived in Thebes so quickly that the city-state didn't have a chance to pull together allies for its defense. Three days after his arrival, Alexander led the massacre of Thebes. It was Alexander's hope that the destruction of Thebes would serve as a warning to city-states contemplating revolt. His intimidation tactic proved effective; the other Greek city-states, including Athens, chose to pledge their alliance to the Macedonian Empire or opted to remain neutral.

In 334, Alexander embarked on his Asiatic expedition, arriving in Troy that spring. Alexander then faced Persian King Darius III's army near the Grancius River; Darius' forces were swiftly defeated. By fall, Alexander and his army had made it across the southern coast of Asia Minor to Gordium, where they took the winter to rest. In the summer of 333, the troops of Alexander and Darius once again went head to head in battle at Issus. Although Alexander's army was outnumbered, he used his flair for military strategy to create formations that defeated the Persians again and caused Darius to flee. In November of 333, Alexander declared himself the king of Persia after capturing Darius and making him a fugitive.

Next up on Alexander's agenda was his campaign to conquer Egypt. After besieging Gaza on his way to Egypt, Alexander easily achieved his conquest; Egypt fell without resistance. In 331, he created the city of Alexandria, designed as a hub for Greek culture and commerce. Later that year, Alexander defeated the Persians at the Battle of Gaugamela. With the collapse of the Persian army, Alexander became "King of Babylon, King of Asia, King of the Four Quarters of the World."

Alexander's next conquest was eastern Iran, where he created Macedonian colonies and in 327 seized the fortress in Ariamazes. After capturing Prince Oxyartes, Alexander married the prince's daughter, Rhoxana.

In 328, Alexander defeated King Porus' armies in northern India. Finding himself impressed by Porus, Alexander reinstated him as king and won his loyalty and forgiveness. Alexander forged eastward to the Ganges but headed back when his armies refused to advance any farther. On their way back along the Indus, Alexander was wounded by Malli warriors.

In 325, after Alexander had recovered, he and his army headed north along the rugged Persian Gulf, where many fell prey to illness, injury and death. In February 324, Alexander at last reached the city of Susa. Desperate to retain his leadership and recruit more soldiers, he tried to connect Persian nobles to Macedonians in order to create a ruling class. To this end, at Susa he commanded that a large number of Macedonians marry Persian princesses. After Alexander managed to recruit tens of thousands of Persian soldiers into his army, he dismissed many of his existing Macedonian soldiers. This enraged the soldiers, who spoke critically of Alexander's new troops and condemned him for adopting Persian customs and manners. Alexander appeased the Macedonian soldiers by killing 13 Persian military leaders. The Thanksgiving Feast at Susa, which had been geared towards solidifying the bond between Persians and Macedonians, shaped up to be quite the opposite.

While considering the conquests of Carthage and Rome, Alexander the Great died of malaria in Babylon (now Iraq), on June 13, 323 B.C. He was just 32 years old. Rhoxana gave birth to his son a few months later.

After Alexander died, his empire collapsed and the nations within it battled for power. Over time, the cultures of Greece and the Orient synthesized and thrived as a side effect of Alexander's empire, becoming part of his legacy and spreading the spirit of Panhellenism.

QUICK FACTS

Birth Year: 356
Birth date: July 20, 356
Birth City: Pella
Birth Country: Greece
Gender: Male
Best Known For: Alexander the Great served as king of Macedonia from 336 to 323 B.C. During his time of leadership, he united Greece, reestablished the Corinthian League and conquered the Persian Empire.
Astrological Sign: Cancer
Death Year: 323
Death date: June 13, 323
Death City: Babylon, Persia (now Iraq)
Death Country: Iraq

CITATION INFORMATION

Article Title: Alexander the Great Biography
Author: Biography.com Editors
Website Name: The Biography.com website
Url: https://www.biography.com/political-figures/alexander-the-great
Access Date:
Publisher: A&E; Television Networks
Last Updated: June 29, 2021
Original Published Date: April 3, 2014
Remember upon the conduct of each depends the fate of all.
I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.
I had rather excel others in the knowledge of what is excellent, than in the extent of my power and dominion.
There is nothing impossible to him who will try.
How great are the dangers I face to win a good name in Athens.
I am dying from the treatment of too many physicians.
Heaven cannot brook two suns, nor earth two masters.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Alexander the great.

Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. His empire ushered in significant cultural changes in the lands he conquered and changed the course of the region’s history.

Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

Photo of a marble bust of a man.

Photograph by Kenneth Garrett, National Geographic

Alexander the Great , also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia is known as one of the greatest generals in all history.

Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. in Pella, Macedonia, to King Philip II. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. When Alexander was a teenager, his father hired Aristotle to be his private tutor. He studied with Aristotle for three years and from Aristotle ’s teachings, Alexander developed a love of science, particularly of medicine and botany . Alexander included botanists and scientists in his army to study the lands he conquered .

In 336 B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a political rival assassinated his father. Alexander began his reign by subduing rivals in the Greek and Macedonian regions. At a council of the League of Corinth, he was chosen as the commander of a military invasion of Asia. King Alexander began his invasion of the Middle East in 334 B.C.E. He spent most of his reign on a military campaign through northeast Africa and southwestern Asia.

Alexander built many new cities in the lands he conquered , including Alexandria in Egypt. He went on to conquer the lands of the Persian Empire, establishing more cities, and like Alexandria, often naming them after himself. His conquest continued through Asia until he reached the shores of the Ganga (Ganges) River in India. At this point, his army refused to continue further into India, exhausted and discouraged by heavy rains.

Alexander was 32 when he died in 323 B.C.E.

During his 13-year reign as the king of Macedonia, Alexander created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.

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7 Reasons Alexander the Great Was, Well, Great

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When Alexander III of Macedon died in Babylon at just 32 years old, he ruled a territory that spanned three continents and covered nearly 2 million square miles (5 million square kilometers). Not only was he the king of his native Macedonia, but he was also ruler of the Greeks, the king of Persia and even an Egyptian pharaoh .

So, did he deserve the title Alexander the Great? Absolutely.

"It's hard to imagine another human being whose personal choices had an impact on more people's lives for many centuries than Alexander," says historian Elizabeth Carney, an Alexander scholar from Clemson University in South Carolina.

"Because of the decisions Alexander made, hundreds of thousands of people died, any number of political entities disappeared or were replaced. And perhaps most importantly, he helped launch this vast cultural enterprise that combined aspects of the Greek and Macedonian world with aspects of the various worlds he conquered."

With that in mind, here are some other big things about him.

Aristotle Was His High School Teacher
His Father Was Pretty Great Too
Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion
He Stomped the Persian Empire
He Was a Globalist
Alexandria Became the Intellectual Capital of the World
He May Have Been the World's First Action Hero

1. Aristotle Was His High School Teacher

OK, there was no such thing as high school in the fourth century B.C.E., but young Alexander was famously tutored from the ages of 14 to 16 by none other than Aristotle , one of the fathers of Western philosophy and arguably the greatest intellectual mind of Ancient Greece.

Aristotle would have been around 40 years old when he was hired by Alexander's powerful father Phillip II as a court philosopher. Aristotle, a student of Plato, wasn't yet a philosophical superstar and would have taught the prince science and math in addition to literature and philosophy.

What exactly was Aristotle's influence on the man Alexander would become? Historians can only guess. One clue is that Alexander loved the works of Homer and is rumored to have slept with a copy of "The Iliad." And Alexander didn't forget his geography lessons when he marched his army across the known world.

"Great advances in science, especially in geographical knowledge, were made as a result of Alexander's campaigns," wrote Michael Tierney in a 1942 study of Alexander and Aristotle , "and that they were possible is unquestionably due to Aristotle."

But both Tierney and Carney are unconvinced that Aristotle's political teachings on good government and good citizens shaped the way that Alexander operated as a leader.

"Is Alexander's political thinking affected by Aristotle?" asks Carney. "I would tend to say not at all."

2. His Father Was Pretty Great Too

The Kingdom of Macedonia was a political backwater before Alexander's father Phillip turned it into a military superpower. Tired of being pushed around by Greek city-states like Athens and Thebes, Phillip transformed the ragtag Macedonian army into a well-oiled fighting machine.

The pride of the Macedonian military was its well-trained cavalry and an unbreakable infantry formation called the Macedonian phalanx . Armed with elongated hunting spears called sarissas — 18-foot (5.5-meter) wooden poles with iron tips — Phillip's infantry would march in tight formations of eight men across and 16 deep. Each row would lower its spears in succession, impaling charging armies and horses.

When 20-year-old Alexander took the throne after Phillip was assassinated in 336 B.C.E., he inherited his father's army that had already crushed Macedonia's rivals on the Greek mainland and was rolling toward Persia.

Phillip is best remembered as the father of Alexander the Great, but Alexander may never have achieved his greatness if not for Phillip's huge head start. Historians still struggle to figure out who deserves the most credit for Macedonia's dominance.

"Rarely in history does somebody so able and famous have an equally able and famous successor," says Carney. "It makes it very hard to draw a line."

3. Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion

After Phillip's death, several towns and territories under Macedonian control tried to break free. While young Alexander was busy getting the northern kingdoms of Thrace and Illyria back in line, the Greek leaders of Thebes heard a rumor that Alexander had actually been killed in battle.

No such luck. When Alexander received word that the Macedonian garrison in Thebes was under attack, he and his army flew to the fight, supposedly covering 300 miles (482 kilometers) in just 12 days . In the ensuing Battle of Thebes, Alexander decided to send a clear message. Anyone who crosses Macedonia will not only be defeated, but obliterated.

According to the Greek historian Diodorus of Sicily , 6,000 Theban soldiers and citizens were killed and 30,000 captured before the city was burned to the ground. He wrote:

The tactics were cruel, but the message was received. Alexander was the undisputed new ruler of the Greeks.

4. He Stomped the Persian Empire

The Persian Empire had ruled the Mediterranean for two centuries when Alexander marched his 50,000-man army across the Hellespont to face King Darius III, who reportedly commanded a total Persian army of more than 2.5 million men .

The pivotal battle came near the Persian town of Gaugamela, where Darius had the land flattened and cleared to give advantage to his horse-drawn chariots. The Persians numbered 250,000 at Gaugamela, a seemingly insurmountable five-to-one advantage over the Macedonians, but Darius ended up playing right into Alexander's hand.

In what's known as a "pawn sacrifice," Alexander sent in thousands of troops to draw Darius' resources to the right flank. The sacrificed troops were able to distract Darius long enough for Alexander to launch a cavalry attack through a weak link in the center of the Persian line. Darius turned and fled as the famed Macedonian cavalry, led by Alexander, steamrolled through the Persian defenses.

After Darius was murdered by one of his cousins (and his head presented to Alexander), Alexander was crowned the new king of all of Persia, extending the Macedonian empire from modern-day Israel through Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan.

5. He Was a Globalist

Alexander's conquests, not only of the Persian Empire, but also Egypt and parts of India, launched the Hellenistic period, during which elements of Greek culture and politics were spread throughout the vast Macedonian Empire.

Alexander wasn't a Greek nationalist, intent on imposing Greek customs on every land he conquered. Instead, he folded foreign customs and religious beliefs into the fabric of his growing empire, winning the loyalty of his newly conquered subjects. The result was a Greek-speaking network of trade and military power that ruled the Mediterannean and Near East for three centuries.

6. Alexandria Became the Intellectual Capital of the World

Alexander founded more than 70 cities during his eight-year, 11,000-mile (17,703-kilometer) march throughout the Middle and Near East, but none compared to the grandeur that was Alexandria in Egypt.

Although Alexander chose the spot for the coastal city that bore his name, he didn't design it nor live long enough to see it flourish. After Alexander's death, the Macedonian Empire was chopped into three and ruled by each of his generals. Egypt fell under the control of Ptolemy and became known as the Ptolemaic Dynasty.

The Ptolemies spoke Macedonian Greek and filled Alexandria with Greek-style public buildings, including the famous library, which once held an estimated 700,000 scrolls , the greatest repository of knowledge in the ancient world.

The brilliant Greek mathematicians Euclid and Eratosthenes called Alexandria home, and the Ptolemaic navy commanded a huge fleet that pushed Alexandria's discoveries out into the wider world.

When Alexander died suddenly in Babylon from a fever at just 32 years old, the Ptolemies intercepted his funeral procession on the way back to Macedonia and built a glass sarcophagus in Alexandria where subjects could pay tribute to Alexander's mummy for centuries.

7. He May Have Been the World's First Action Hero

Alexander's heroics were written up in a series of fictionalized adventure stories called the " Alexander Romance ", some of which date back to within a century of his death in 323 B.C.E.. Medieval versions are chock-full of sexy escapades, narrow escapes and colorful illustrations.

Next to the Bible and Quran, it's argued that the "Alexander Romance" traveled further and was translated into more languages than any other ancient collection of stories.

Fourteenth-century texts include the tale of Alexander exploring the ocean depths using a diving bell . But when Alexander settles on the ocean floor, his mistress double-crosses him, eloping with her lover and leaving him stranded in the deep.

For Carney, the popularity of the "Alexander Romance" reflects the enduring allure of this world-changing figure.

"Alexander grabbed people's imagination," says Carney. "That he was so young; that he wasn't defeated in a major battle; that things happened so quickly; he was such a risk taker and he went to all these places that seemed exotic."

Alexander's mother, Olympias, deserves credit for his rise to greatness, too. Greek historians report that she had several rival heirs to the throne murdered after Phillip's death.

Alexander The Great FAQ

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Home » Leadership » Alexander The Great Leadership – Greatest of World Conquerors

Alexander The Great Leadership – Greatest of World Conquerors

Great Conquerors: Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great was one of history’s most celebrated conquerors. Born as heir to the Macedonian King, his great ambition led him to take on the high Persian Empire. At its height, Alexander’s empire stretched from modern-day Italy clear to the Himalayas.

Alexander The Great Leadership: A Short Biography

Alexander was born July 20, 356 BC, in Pella, a city in the Ancient Greek Kingdom of Macedonia. As the son of Philip II, King of Macedon, Alexander was raised as a noble Macedonian youth. Alexander's priorities were learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.

As he got older, his father had the famous Aristotle tutor his son. His father knew he could no longer effectively challenge the mind and body of his son. Aristotle educated Alexander and his companions in various disciplines, such as medicine, philosophy, morality, religion, logic, and art. Many of his study companions would later become generals in his army.

When King Philip was assassinated, Alexander ascended to the throne at age 20. After quelling minor uprisings and rebellions after his father’s death, Alexander began his campaign against the Persian Empire.

Crossing into Asia with over 100,000 men, he began his war against Persia, which lasted more than seven years. Alexander displayed tactical brilliance in the fight against the Persian army, remaining undefeated despite having fewer soldiers.

His successes took him to the edge of India, to the banks of the Ganges River. His armies feared the might of the Indian empires and mutinied, which marked the end of his campaign to the East. He had intended to march further into India, but he was persuaded against it because his soldiers wanted to return to their families.

Alexander died unexpectedly after his return to Babylon. Because his death was sudden and he did not name a successor to his throne, his empire fell into chaos as generals fought to take control.

Alexander the Great is still one of history's most successful military leaders. His conquests shaped not just Eastern and Western culture but also the history of the world.

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Alexander The Great Leadership Style

Alexander the Great's leadership style can be characterized by his charisma, tactical brilliance, personal bravery, and ability to inspire loyalty in his troops. He was known to lead from the front, often participating in the thick of battles, which earned him the respect of his soldiers and commanders. Alexander was an innovative strategist who could adapt to changing circumstances and exploit his enemies' weaknesses. In addition, he often incorporated the conquered people into his administration and army, demonstrating a level of tolerance and cultural integration uncommon for his time.

Furthermore, Alexander understood the importance of maintaining morale among his troops, celebrating their victories, and sharing their hardships. He was an adept diplomat, using marriages and alliances to secure his rule and establish stability in his conquered territories. However, his leadership style also had flaws; his ambition and desire for glory sometimes led to rash decisions, and his temper could be volatile. Despite these shortcomings, Alexander the Great's remarkable accomplishments in such a short life have made him one of the most iconic and studied military leaders in history.

Alexander The Great: Leadership Lessons

Believe in yourself

From a very young age, his parents instilled in Alexander a belief that it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. This belief would stay with Alexander until his deathbed. At a few points in his life, Alexander even believed that he was the Son of Zeus and was to be worshiped. This demonstrates the depth of his self-belief.

Although it may seem to many that such extreme egoism could be harmful, your self-worth and self-confidence need to believe in yourself wholeheartedly. There has never been a leader in the history of the world who did not have a considerable amount of self-belief and confidence. This is how great leaders inspire the same self-confidence and self-worth in their teams and how you can.

Do you genuinely believe in your ability to succeed? If you can't give an outright ‘yes,’ take a closer look at what beliefs hold you back.

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Leverage your team’s strengths.

Alexander was a brilliant and cunning tactician in battle. He knew that the disorganized Persian army would be unable to withstand his phalanxes (a body of troops in a tight military formation). So he used them to their best effect each time, breaking through enemy ranks and forcing the Persians to retreat.

A good leader understands the strengths and weaknesses of his team, and he puts them in positions where they are more likely to succeed.

You might liken it to being a chess player. You have various resources: people with differing skills and abilities. The key is always to learn how to position each person in a role that leverages their strengths.

Make yourself an unnecessary part of the team.

Although Alexander conquered much of the known world, his empire never survived him. His strength when he was alive became a weakness after his death.

After Alexander had passed away, no one had the charisma or leadership to rule such a vast empire. Civil war soon broke out, and what Alexander built in one generation was destroyed in the next.

A good leader makes himself indispensable to the team, but a great leader makes himself dispensable! He can leave the team and still have them perform at total capacity.

So please find a way to position your team so you become an unnecessary part of it. When your team can still perform well, you have done your leadership role, even when you remove yourself from the equation.

Alexander The Great: Ambition

Alexander was taken with the character Achilles in Homer's epic tale, the Illiad, in his growing-up years. He decided to model himself after Achilles.

Alexander's teacher was the well-known philosopher Aristotle, and he annotated the full version of The Illiad for Alexander so he could better emulate Achilles. He cherished this gift from his mentor and would even sleep with it under his pillow.

He also received encouragement from his mother, Olympias. Rumors were that she consulted with the gods regarding her son and told him he was a direct descendant of Achilles and Hercules. This fueled the fire inside Alexander.

After taming a wild horse at just 14 years old, his father, Phillip II of Macedonia, was seeking to purchase, he proudly said, "My son, look thee out a kingdom equal and worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee."

Weaknesses of Alexander The Great

His temper was well-known. He could erupt like a volcano, and it was best not to get too close so you wouldn't get any fallout.
While he was not considered an alcoholic by today's standards, he did turn to spirits heavily on occasion.
He was too eccentric for many, including those close to him. Because of this, just before his death, he lost the loyalty of many people.

Famous and Well-Known Quotes from Alexander the Great

“I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.”

“There is nothing impossible to him who will try.”

“I had rather excel others in the knowledge of what is excellent than in the extent of my power and dominion.”

“Remember upon the conduct of each depends on the fate of all.”

“I am indebted to my father for living, but to my teacher for living well.”

“Heaven cannot brook two suns, nor earth two masters.”

“How great are the dangers I face to win a good name in Athens.”

“A tomb now suffices him for whom the whole world was insufficient.”

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Random Facts about Alexander The Great

What is Alexander The Great Known For?

During his leadership run between 336 and 323 B.C., he successfully unified the Greek city-states and led the Corinthian League.

How did Alexander The Great die?

The exact causes are unknown as it was not a custom in his day and age to list the cause of death as it is today. The most common belief is he died of typhoid fever (which, along with malaria, was a common form of death during that period in ancient Babylon). This was the theory proposed by the University of Maryland School of Medicine in 1998. Other theories included alcoholic liver disease, fever, and even strychnine poisoning.

King Darius III - Commonly known as "Darius The Great," was the fourth Persian King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire. Darius was the last Achaemenid ruler, reigned from 336 to 330 BCE, and was a crucial figure in the history of Alexander the Great. As the Persian ruler, Darius faced the unstoppable force of Alexander the Great, who sought to conquer the vast Persian Empire. Despite resisting Alexander's invasion, Darius suffered devastating defeats, most notably during the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE and the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE. These losses not only showcased Alexander's military prowess but also led to the collapse of the Achaemenid dynasty and the establishment of the Macedonian Empire in its place. While Darius failed to halt Alexander's conquest, his struggles against the Macedonian king exemplify the clash of two major empires in antiquity and the rise of a new era in world history.

Battle of Issus - Occurring in 333 B.C., this battle happened early in Alexander The Great's invasion of Asia, in which he successfully defeated the Persian army led by King Darius III. This battle marked a significant turning point in Alexander the Great's campaign to conquer the Persian Empire. As the young Macedonian king led his forces eastward, he encountered the formidable Persian army commanded by King Darius III at the Pinarus River near Issus.

Despite being outnumbered, Alexander displayed exceptional tactical acumen by exploiting the narrow battlefield to neutralize the Persian numerical advantage. Launching a fierce attack on the Persian left flank with his elite Companion cavalry, Alexander forced Darius to flee the battlefield in haste, securing a decisive victory for the Macedonian army.

This triumph cemented Alexander's reputation as an unrivaled military commander. It paved the way for the eventual downfall of the Achaemenid Empire and the expansion of Macedonian rule throughout the region.

Persian Customs - During Alexander the Great's reign (356-323 BC), Persian customs played a significant role in shaping the culture of the time. One such custom was the practice of proskynesis, a ceremonial form of obeisance or respect shown by bowing or prostrating before a superior. Alexander sought to incorporate this tradition into his court to solidify his rule over the conquered Persian territories.

Another notable custom was the Persian royal banquet, which exemplified the opulence and grandeur of the Persian court. These banquets featured a lavish spread of food and wine, with guests reclining on luxurious couches and cushions while entertained by musicians and dancers. The adoption of Persian clothing, such as the long-sleeved tunic and trousers, was also joint among Alexander's elite as a symbol of cultural integration. These Persian customs played a significant role in shaping the Hellenistic world during Alexander the Great's reign, blending Greek and Persian cultures in a powerful and lasting way.

Battle of Gaugamela - The Battle of Gaugamela, fought on October 1, 331 BCE, was a pivotal confrontation between Alexander the Great's Macedonian army and King Darius III's Persian forces. Located near present-day Mosul in Iraq, the battle unfolded on a large, open plain that favored Darius's numerically superior army, with chariots and war elephants. Yet, despite the apparent disadvantage, Alexander employed a brilliant strategy that would ultimately lead to a decisive victory.

Alexander used a series of feints and flanking maneuvers to draw the Persian cavalry away from their center, creating gaps in Darius's battle line. He then personally led his elite Companion cavalry through one of these gaps, targeting the vulnerable Persian center and Darius himself. With the imminent threat, Darius was forced to flee the battlefield, leaving his army in disarray.

The victory at Gaugamela had a profound impact on Alexander's campaign. It marked the Achaemenid Empire's fall and the Macedonian Empire's beginning, as Alexander subsequently took control of key Persian cities such as Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. In addition, the Battle of Gaugamela showcased Alexander's tactical genius. It solidified his reputation as one of history's most skilled military commanders, paving the way for his continued conquests in the East.

See the following video summarizing the battle fought in 331 B.C.

King of Macedonia - was a prestigious and influential title held by various rulers of the ancient Macedonian kingdom, a state in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula. Notable kings include Philip II (382-336 BC), who transformed Macedonia into a dominant military power by reforming its army and expanding its territory. Philip's accomplishments laid the foundation for his son, Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), to build an empire that stretched from the eastern Mediterranean to India. Alexander's military genius and cultural diplomacy facilitated the spread of Hellenistic culture throughout his vast empire, leaving an indelible impact on Western history. Other significant Macedonian kings include Antigonus II Gonatas, who restored Macedonian power in the 3rd century BC. Perseus, the last king of the Antigonid dynasty, unsuccessfully fought against Rome during the Third Macedonian War. The legacy of the kings of Macedonia endures through their remarkable achievements and their role in shaping the ancient world.

Phillip II of Macedon (382-336 BC) - a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon, reigning from 359 to 336 BC. He was the father of Alexander the Great and a member of the Argead dynasty. Philip was a skilled military leader and diplomat who transformed Macedonia into a formidable power in the Greek world.

He implemented significant military reforms during his reign, turning the Macedonian army into a well-organized and highly effective fighting force. He introduced the sarissa, a long spear that gave his phalanx infantry a significant advantage in battle. Philip also employed a combination of infantry, cavalry, and siege equipment, making his army one of the most advanced and flexible of its time.

Philip's diplomacy and strategic marriages helped him secure alliances and expand Macedonian influence. He managed to unite most Greek city-states, except for Sparta, under the League of Corinth. This alliance paved the way for a united Greek campaign against the Persian Empire, although Philip did not live to see the invasion.

In 336 BC, Philip II was assassinated at a wedding celebration by one of his bodyguards, Pausanias of Orestis. His son, Alexander the Great, succeeded in conquering the Persian Empire and creating one of the largest empires in history. Philip's military innovations, diplomacy, and expansionist policies laid the groundwork for Alexander's remarkable achievements.

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Alexander III - commonly known as Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), was a king of Macedon and one of the most successful military commanders in history. He was the son of King Philip II and Queen Olympias and ascended to the throne in 336 BC after his father's assassination. Alexander's reign marked a period of unprecedented conquest and expansion as he sought to fulfill his father's plan to invade the Persian Empire.

Alexander's military campaigns began with subjugating the remaining Greek city-states that resisted his rule. Once he consolidated power in Greece, he invaded the Persian Empire in 334 BC. Over the next decade, Alexander defeated Persian King Darius III in several significant battles, ultimately leading to the collapse of the Persian Empire. His conquests extended beyond Persia, reaching as far as Egypt, where he founded the city of Alexandria, and the Indian subcontinent, where he fought against the Indian king Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes.

Throughout his campaigns, Alexander sought to blend Greek and Persian cultures, adopting Persian customs and promoting cultural exchange within his vast empire. His death in 323 BC marked the end of his extraordinary conquests. His empire was eventually divided among his former generals, leading to the Hellenistic period of ancient history.

Alexander the Great's military achievements, cultural integration policies, and the scope of his empire have cemented his legacy as one of the most influential figures in history.

Darius III (c. 380-330 BC) - was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire, also known as the First Persian Empire, ruling from 336 to 330 BC. Born as Artashata, he was a distant relative of the royal Achaemenid lineage and took the throne after the assassination of his predecessor, Artaxerxes IV Arses.

Darius III's reign was marked by the invasion of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great, who sought to avenge previous Persian invasions of Greece and expand his empire. Darius faced Alexander's forces in several significant battles, including the Battle of Issus in 333 BC and the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. Despite having larger armies, Darius was defeated by Alexander's tactical prowess and the superior organization of the Macedonian forces.

The Persian Empire began to disintegrate rapidly after losing at the Battle of Gaugamela. Darius attempted to regroup and maintain control, but his satraps (provincial governors) and generals began to defect, and the empire crumbled. In 330 BC, as Darius was fleeing from Alexander's forces, he was captured and killed by one of his satraps, Bessus, who sought to seize power for himself.

Darius III's reign marked the end of the Achaemenid Empire, one of the ancient world's most powerful and influential empires. The fall of the Persian Empire paved the way for the rise of the Hellenistic period, in which Greek culture and influence spread throughout the territories once ruled by Persia.

This is why Alexander The Great was so great.

Achaemenid Empire

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What made Alexander The Great so great?

Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III of Macedon, was one of the most successful military commanders in history, and his greatness stems from several key factors:

Military Genius: Alexander demonstrated exceptional military strategy and tactics, inherited partly from his father, King Philip II of Macedon, who was also a brilliant military leader. Alexander's ability to adapt his tactics to different enemies and terrains and his innovative use of cavalry and infantry allowed him to win battles against vastly larger forces.
Conquests: His conquests constitute a significant part of his legacy. By age thirty, Alexander had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. This was unprecedented and showcased his military prowess, ambition, and vision.
Cultural Integration: Alexander's approach to governance was also notable. He sought to integrate Greek culture with the local cultures of the regions he conquered, promoting a fusion known as Hellenism. This cultural integration policy helped spread the Greek language, arts, architecture, and philosophy worldwide, influencing these regions for centuries.
Education and Influence: Tutored by Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers of all time, Alexander was educated in philosophy, science, medicine, and literature. This education influenced his approach to leadership and governance, making him more than just a military leader.
Legacy: Despite his empire fragmenting soon after his death, Alexander's conquests had a lasting impact on the world, laying the groundwork for the Hellenistic period. The cities he founded, most notably Alexandria in Egypt, became significant centers of culture and learning.
Charisma and Leadership: Alexander was charismatic, inspiring loyalty and admiration from his soldiers and subjects. His leadership skills were evident in his ability to motivate his army and maintain their loyalty over vast distances and through many years of campaigns.
Physical and Mental Endurance: Alexander's campaigns were marked by grueling marches, fierce battles, and strategic sieges. His physical and mental stamina, willingness to endure hardships alongside his men, and determination were crucial to his success.

Alexander the Great's achievements were so extraordinary that they have left a permanent mark on world history, making him a figure of fascination and study even thousands of years after his death.

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What as the Achaemenid Empire?

The Achaemenid Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BCE; it was an ancient Persian empire that spanned three continents, encompassing parts of modern-day Iran, Turkey, Egypt, and beyond. As the largest empire of its time, the Achaemenids wield immense power and influence, fostering cultural exchange and administrative innovations that shaped history.

The empire's relationship with Alexander the Great began when he ascended the Macedonian throne in 336 BCE and embarked on a campaign to conquer Persia. Alexander's military brilliance and ambition led him to defeat King Darius III, the last Achaemenid ruler, in a series of pivotal battles, such as Issus and Gaugamela.

These victories enabled Alexander to dismantle the Achaemenid Empire, replacing it with the Macedonian Empire, which stretched from Greece to the Indus River. The fall of the Achaemenids under Alexander's conquest significantly impacted the political landscape of the ancient world. It marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture spread throughout the conquered territories.

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Why was Alexander the Great So Successful In His Conquests

In the public's mind, few well-known conquerors in history match the exploits of Alexander the Great. In just a few years, from 334-330 BC, Alexander would conquer the largest empire the world had known and establish his empire that eventually stretched from Greece to India. Furthermore, Alexander began a process where Greek culture began to intermix with ancient Near Eastern, Egyptian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures that influenced much of the Old World for many centuries.

The exchange of ideas and trade brought about an era of unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced the ancient world's sciences. It led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Renaissance in the 15 or 16th century AD. What is remarkable is he achieved all of this by the age of 32 at the time of his death in Babylon. However, the root of all the social change that would eventually influence Europe, the Near East, Egypt, and much of Asia rested in his ability to conquer many territories and do it quickly. The question is, how did he do this?

What region did Alexander conquer first?

Alexander took power after the death of his father, Philip II of Macedon, who had already planned to invade the Persian, Achaemenid Empire. [1] His first battles were Greece and the Balkans, where he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts.

Shortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30,000-50,000 troops, Alexander quickly won his first major battle at Granicus. [2] This victory allowed him to take the western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges and taking Sardis, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria. He encountered the Persian King Darius III in 333 at Issus's battle. [3] This is the first major battle he had with the Persian king, and once again, Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's centerline, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman-era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).

How did Alexander conquer the Levant, Syria, and Egypt?

After the battle of Issus, Alexander took the Levant and the coastal Mediterranean cities, which were important trading cities and allowed the Achaemenids to derive much of their wealth, establish their navy, and proceed into Egypt. In Syria and the Levant, his only major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BC. [4] In Egypt, he was quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander and, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership.

Here, he became considered Amun's son, the chief of the Egyptian pantheon, further exalting him in his new subjects' eyes. Alexander also began the process of founding cities, the most famous of which was Alexandria. Its position along the Mediterranean reflects a key change, where Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated into culture and trade in the centuries to come. [5] That was Alexander's intention from the outset, showing that he likely had long-term, strategic thinking about the nature and future of his conquered lands long after his own time.

What was the Battle of Gaugamela?

The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at Gaugamela's battle near modern-day Erbil. Once again, Alexander's tactics proved decisive where his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' center, causing the king to flee the battle likely. With this battle secure, all of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander, and Alexander entered Babylon's great city without any need for combat. At Babylon, Alexander perhaps decided he would make the city the new capital of his now vast empire, as it would unite the Greek and Near Eastern worlds more closely. Alexander then went on to take Susa, the old capital of the Persians, and then the ceremonial capital of Persepolis, which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's troops.

Only one more major battle was fought against the Persians at the Persian Gates battle, a strategic crossing. [6] After this, Darius III was killed by one of his generals, and Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla-style war against Alexander. However, they squabbled between themselves over the remains of their empire.

What was the Fall of the Achaemenids?

This division allowed Alexander to reach Central Asia with only minor resistance easily. He founded many cities along the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandahar in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet. His wars continued in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistance. [7]

Alexander's battles were the first where European armies had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Nevertheless, the difficulty of long campaigning and undoubtedly losing many men led to his men tiring of conflict and eventually forcing Alexander to pull his forces back, finally reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2).

Why Was Alexander the Great Successful?

Alexander's success lay in his military genius, knowing how to use his cavalry and troops precisely at key moments in battle. It seemed he was close to defeat several times but could use the situation to his advantage by luring his enemies into a deeper trap. Furthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions and not panicking in battle. [8] However, a lot of the success had little to do with Alexander but the Achaemenid Empire's nature.

The Achaemenids were perhaps the most successful empire up to that point. They had succeeded in uniting a vast territory and genuinely integrating it into a cohesive realm that traded extensively and had well-maintained roads. The Achaemenid state was prosperous, and people had by then began to move and live in areas far from their homelands. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many of their tolerant policies.

What was Alexander's legacy?

While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, many had benefited from the Achaemenids. Therefore, it is no wonder that Alexander marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on the regalia of the Achaemenid kings. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his new capital. It was one of the chief cities and capitals of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in Mesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions, and Alexander understood this. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander's penchant for the Achaemenids, as the Greeks still held beliefs that the Persians were not on the same level as them.

While Alexander died before realizing his dream of a super empire, the east's benefits became more apparent to his generals and men. Many of them stayed after the wars. New Greek populations began to migrate to the Near East, and the process of mixing Hellenic and eastern cultures had started. The mixture of Greece and the Nearly mixed knowledge and created an integrated understanding that facilitated the rise of astronomy, physics, mathematics, and other scientific fields. Alexander's legacy lasted long after his death. His military success paved the way for the tremendous Classical achievements that eventually became one of the foundations of the Renaissance and our modern Western world.

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↑ For more on Alexander's father and his plans of conquests, see: Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, and Daniel Ogden, eds. 2010. Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives . Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.
↑ For more on this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. Alexander the Great at the Battle of Granicus . Stroud: Spellmount.
↑ For more on the battle of Issus, see Delbrück, Hans. 1975. History of the Art of War . Lincoln, Neb: University of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 191.
↑ For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant and Syria, see: Freeman, Philip. 2011. Alexander the Great . New York: Simon & Schuster, pg. 26.
↑ For more on Alexander's time in Egypt, Bowman, Alan K. 1996. Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642  ; from Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2. paperback printing. Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California Press, pg. 22
↑ For More on the Battles of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilcken, Ulrich, and Eugene N. Borza. 1967. Alexander the Great. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pg. 60.
↑ For more on Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: Roy, Kaushik. 2004. India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil . Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, pg. 29
↑ For more on the battle tactics of Alexander, see Bose, Partha Sarathi. 2004. Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great Empire Builder . London: Profile.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Ancient Greece — Alexander The Great

Essays on Alexander The Great

Alexander the Great was one of the most influential leaders in history, and writing an essay about him can be a valuable exercise in understanding the impact of his conquests and legacy. Here are some reasons why writing an essay on Alexander the Great is important:

Historical significance: Alexander the Great's conquests and the spread of Hellenistic culture had a profound impact on the ancient world. Understanding his achievements and the historical context in which he lived is essential for gaining insights into the development of Western civilization.
Leadership and military strategy: Alexander the Great was a brilliant military leader who achieved remarkable success in battle. Studying his leadership style and military strategies can provide valuable lessons in leadership and management.
Cultural influence: Alexander's conquests led to the spread of Greek culture and ideas across the ancient world. Exploring the cultural impact of his conquests can shed light on the interconnectedness of different civilizations and the exchange of ideas in the ancient world.

Writing Tips:

Research extensively: Before writing your essay, make sure to research Alexander the Great's life, conquests, and legacy thoroughly. Use reputable sources such as academic journals, history books, and scholarly articles to gather information.
Organize your thoughts: Create an outline for your essay to organize your thoughts and ensure a logical flow of ideas. Consider dividing your essay into sections such as early life, conquests, and legacy to structure your writing.
Analyze and interpret: Instead of simply recounting the events of Alexander's life, strive to analyze and interpret the significance of his actions. Consider the motivations behind his conquests, the impact of his rule on different regions, and the long-term effects of his legacy.
Use primary sources: Incorporating primary sources such as historical texts, letters, and speeches from the time of Alexander the Great can add depth and authenticity to your essay. Analyzing primary sources can provide insights into the perspectives of people from the ancient world.
Edit and revise: After completing your essay, take the time to edit and revise your work. Check for grammatical errors, clarity of expression, and coherence of arguments. Consider seeking feedback from peers or instructors to improve the quality of your writing.

What Makes a Good Alexander The Great essay topic

When tasked with writing an essay about Alexander The Great, it's important to choose a topic that is not only interesting but also allows for in-depth exploration and analysis. To brainstorm and choose an essay topic, consider the aspects of Alexander's life and legacy that intrigue you the most. Think about the impact of his conquests, his leadership style, or his influence on future leaders. A good essay topic should be focused, specific, and allow for critical thinking and argumentation. Consider the historical significance, controversies, or lesser-known aspects of Alexander's life for a unique and engaging essay topic.

Best Alexander The Great Essay Topics

The Legacy of Alexander The Great's Conquests
The Influence of Alexander The Great on Hellenistic Culture
Leadership Style of Alexander The Great
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Alexander The Great Essay Topics Prompts

If Alexander The Great had not died at a young age, how might the course of history have been different?
Explore the portrayal of Alexander The Great in popular culture and its accuracy compared to historical records.
Investigate the role of women in Alexander The Great's empire and their influence on politics and society.
Compare the leadership styles of Alexander The Great and other historical conquerors.
Analyze the psychological motivations behind Alexander The Great's conquests and their impact on his decision-making.

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The Life of Conquest is The Life of Alexander The Great

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20 or 21 July 356 BC

10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)

Philip II of Macedon

The ancient kingdom of Macedonia

Alexander III, Alexander of Macedonia

Alexander was the son of Philip II of Macedonia and Olympias. He was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle from the age of 13 to 16. Aristotle inspired young Alexander's interests in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation.

Alexander the Great was a king of ancient Macedonia and changed the course of history. He established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen that stretched from Macedonia to Egypt and from Greece to part of India. Alexander III was one of the greatest military leader of antiquity.

His death is still a mystery. Alexander the Great died in Babylon, he became ill after a prolonged banquet. The most popular theories claim that he was poisoned or that he died of environmental causes such as malaria, lung infection.

“I am indebted to my father for living, but to my teacher for living well." “There is nothing impossible to him who will try.” “I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.” “When we give someone our time, we actually give a portion of our life that we will never take back.”

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