intervention and problem solving

Join our Newsletter

Get helpful tips and the latest information

Problem-Solving Therapy: How It Works & What to Expect

Author: Lydia Antonatos, LMHC

Lydia Angelica Antonatos LMHC

Lydia has over 16 years of experience and specializes in mood disorders, anxiety, and more. She offers personalized, solution-focused therapy to empower clients on their journey to well-being.

Problem-solving therapy (PST) is an intervention with cognitive and behavioral influences used to assist individuals in managing life problems. Therapists help clients learn effective skills to address their issues directly and make positive changes. PST is used in various settings to address mental health concerns such as depression, anxiety, and more.

Find the Perfect Therapist for You, with BetterHelp.

If you don’t click with your first match, you can easily switch therapists. BetterHelp has over 30,000 licensed therapists who provide convenient and affordable online therapy. BetterHelp starts at $65 per week. Take a free online assessment  and get matched with the right therapist for you.

What Is Problem-Solving Therapy?

Problem-solving therapy (PST) is based on a model that the body, mind, and environment all interact with each other and that life stress can interact with a person’s predisposition for developing a mental condition. 2 Within this context, PST contends that mental, emotional, and behavioral struggles stem from an ongoing inability to solve problems or deal with everyday stressors. Therefore, the key to preventing health consequences and improving quality of life is to become a better problem-solver. 3 , 4

The problem-solving model has undergone several revisions but upholds the value of teaching people to become better problem-solvers. Overall, the goal of PST is to provide individuals with a set of rational problem-solving tools to reduce the impact of stress on their well-being.

The two main components of problem-solving therapy include: 3 , 4

• Problem-solving orientation: This focuses on helping individuals adopt an optimistic outlook and see problems as opportunities to learn from, allowing them to believe they can solve problems.
• Problem-solving style: This component aims to provide people with constructive problem-solving tools to deal with different life stressors by identifying the problem, generating/brainstorming solution ideas, choosing a specific option, and implementing and reviewing it.

Techniques Used in Problem-Solving Therapy

PST emphasizes the client, and the techniques used are merely conduits that facilitate the problem-solving learning process. Generally, the individual, in collaboration and support from the clinician, leads the problem-solving work. Thus, a strong therapeutic alliance sets the foundation for encouraging clients to apply these skills outside therapy sessions. 4

Here are some of the most relevant guidelines and techniques used in problem-solving therapy:

Creating Collaboration

As with other psychotherapies, creating a collaborative environment and a healthy therapist-client relationship is essential in PST. The role of a therapist is to cultivate this bond by conveying a genuine sense of commitment to the client while displaying kindness, using active listening skills, and providing support. The purpose is to build a meaningful balance between being an active and directive clinician while delivering a feeling of optimism to encourage the client’s participation.

This tool is used in all psychotherapies and is just as essential in PST. Assessment seeks to gather facts and information about current problems and contributing stressors and evaluates a client’s appropriateness for PST. The problem-solving therapy assessment also examines a person’s immediate issues, problem-solving attitudes, and abilities, including their strengths and limitations. This sets the groundwork for developing an individualized problem-solving plan.

Psychoeducation

Psychoeducation is an integral component of problem-solving therapy and is used throughout treatment. The purpose of psychoeducation is to provide a client with the rationale for problem-solving therapy, including an explanation for each step involved in the treatment plan. Moreover, the individual is educated about mental health symptoms and taught solution-oriented strategies and communication skills.

This technique involves verbal prompting, like asking leading questions, giving suggestions, and providing guidance. For example, the therapist may prompt a client to brainstorm or consider alternatives, or they may ask about times when a certain skill was used to solve a problem during a difficult situation. Coaching can be beneficial when clients struggle with eliciting solutions on their own.

Shaping intervention refers to teaching new skills and building on them as the person gradually improves the quality of each skill. Shaping works by reinforcing the desired problem-solving behavior and adding perspective as the individual gets closer to their intended goal.

In problem-solving therapy, modeling is a method in which a person learns by observing. It can include written/verbal problem-solving illustrations or demonstrations performed by the clinician in hypothetical or real-life situations. A client can learn effective problem-solving skills via role-play exercises, live demonstrations, or short-film presentations. This allows individuals to imitate observed problem-solving skills in their own lives and apply them to specific problems.

Rehearsal & Practice

These techniques provide opportunities to practice problem-solving exercises and engage in homework assignments. This may involve role-playing during therapy sessions, practicing with real-life issues, or imaginary rehearsal where individuals visualize themselves carrying out a solution. Furthermore, homework exercises are an important aspect when learning a new skill. Ongoing practice is strongly encouraged throughout treatment so a client can effectively use these techniques when faced with a problem.

Positive Reinforcement & Feedback

The therapist’s task in this intervention is to provide support and encouragement for efforts to apply various problem-solving skills. The goal is for the client to continue using more adaptive behaviors, even if they do not get it right the first time. Then, the therapist provides feedback so the client can explore barriers encountered and generate alternate solutions by weighing the pros and cons to continue working toward a specific goal.

Use of Analogies & Metaphors

When appropriate, analogies and metaphors can be useful in providing the client with a clearer vision or a better understanding of specific concepts. For example, the therapist may use diverse skills or points of reference (e.g., cooking, driving, sports) to explain the problem-solving process and find solutions to convey that time and practice are required before mastering a particular skill.

What Can Problem-Solving Therapy Help With?

Although problem-solving therapy was initially developed to treat depression among primary care patients, PST has expanded to address or rehabilitate other psychological problems, including anxiety , post-traumatic stress disorder , personality disorders , and more.

PST theory asserts that vulnerable populations can benefit from receiving constructive problem-solving tools in a therapeutic relationship to increase resiliency and prevent emotional setbacks or behaviors with destructive results like suicide. It is worth noting that in severe psychiatric cases, PST can be effectively used when integrated with other mental health interventions. 3 , 4

PST can help individuals challenged with specific issues who have difficulty finding solutions or ways to cope. These issues can involve a wide range of incidents, such as the death of a loved one, divorce, stress related to a chronic medical diagnosis, financial stress , marital difficulties, or tension at work.

Through the problem-solving approach, mental and emotional distress can be reduced by helping individuals break down problems into smaller pieces that are easier to manage and cope with. However, this can only occur as long the person being treated is open to learning and able to value the therapeutic process. 3 , 4

Lastly, a large body of evidence has indicated that PST can positively impact mental health, quality of life, and problem-solving skills in older adults. PST is an approach that can be implemented by different types of practitioners and settings (in-home care services, telemedicine, etc.), making mental health treatment accessible to the elderly population who often face age-related barriers and comorbid health issues. 1 , 5, 6

Top Rated Online Therapy Services

BetterHelp  – Best Overall

“BetterHelp is an online therapy platform that quickly connects you with a licensed counselor or therapist and earned 4 out of 5 stars.”   Take a free assessment

Talkspace - Best For Insurance

Talkspace accepts many insurance plans including Optum, Cigna, and Aetna. Talkspace also accepts Medicare in some states. The average copay is $15, but many people pay $0. Visit Talkspace

Problem-Solving Therapy Examples

Due to the versatility of problem-solving therapy, PST can be used in different forms, settings, and formats. Following are some examples where the problem-solving therapeutic approach can be used effectively. 4

People who suffer from depression often evade or even attempt to ignore their problems because of their state of mind and symptoms. PST incorporates techniques that encourage individuals to adopt a positive outlook on issues and motivate individuals to tap into their coping resources and apply healthy problem-solving skills. Through psychoeducation, individuals can learn to identify and understand their emotions influence problems. Employing rehearsal exercises, someone can practice adaptive responses to problematic situations. Once the depressed person begins to solve problems, symptoms are reduced, and mood is improved.

The Veterans Health Administration presently employs problem-solving therapy as a preventive approach in numerous medical centers across the United States. These programs aim to help veterans adjust to civilian life by teaching them how to apply different problem-solving strategies to difficult situations. The ultimate objective is that such individuals are at a lower risk of experiencing mental health issues and consequently need less medical and/or psychiatric care.

Psychiatric Patients

PST is considered highly effective and strongly recommended for individuals with psychiatric conditions. These individuals often struggle with problems of daily living and stressors they feel unable to overcome. These unsolved problems are both the triggering and sustaining reasons for their mental health-related troubles. Therefore, a problem-solving approach can be vital for the treatment of people with psychological issues.

Adherence to Other Treatments

Problem-solving therapy can also be applied to clients undergoing another mental or physical health treatment. In such cases, PST strategies can be used to motivate individuals to stay committed to their treatment plan by discussing the benefits of doing so. PST interventions can also be utilized to assist patients in overcoming emotional distress and other barriers that can interfere with successful compliance and treatment participation.

Benefits of Problem-Solving Therapy

PST is versatile, treating a wide range of problems and conditions, and can be effectively delivered to various populations in different forms and settings—self-help manuals, individual or group therapy, online materials, home-based or primary care settings, as well as inpatient or outpatient treatment.

Here are some of the benefits you can gain from problem-solving therapy:

• Gain a sense of control over your life
• Move toward action-oriented behaviors instead of avoiding your problems
• Gain self-confidence as you improve the ability to make better decisions
• Develop patience by learning that successful problem-solving is a process that requires time and effort
• Feel a sense of empowerment as you solve your problems independently
• Increase your ability to recognize and manage stressful emotions and situations
• Learn to focus on the problems that have a solution and let go of the ones that don’t
• Identify barriers that may hinder your progress

How to Find a Therapist Who Practices Problem-Solving Therapy

Finding a therapist skilled in problem-solving therapy is not any different from finding any qualified mental health professional. This is because many clinicians often have knowledge in cognitive-behavioral interventions that hold similar concepts as PST.

As a general recommendation, check your health insurance provider lists, use an online therapist directory , or ask trusted friends and family if they can recommend a provider. Contact any of these providers and ask questions to determine who is more compatible with your needs. 3 , 4

Are There Special Certifications to Provide PST?

Therapists do not need special certifications to practice problem-solving therapy, but some organizations can provide special training. Problem-solving therapy can be delivered by various healthcare professionals such as psychologists, psychiatrists, physicians, mental health counselors, social workers, and nurses.

Most of these clinicians have naturally acquired valuable problem-solving abilities throughout their career and continuing education. Thus, all that may be required is fine-tuning their skills and familiarity with the current and relevant PST literature. A reasonable amount of understanding and planning will transmit competence and help clients gain insight into the causes that led them to their current situation. 3 , 4

Questions to Ask a Therapist When Considering Problem-Solving Therapy

Psychotherapy is most successful when you feel comfortable and have a collaborative relationship with your therapist. Asking specific questions can simplify choosing a clinician who is right for you. Consider making a list of questions to help you with this task.

Here are some key questions to ask before starting PST:

• Is problem-solving therapy suitable for the struggles I am dealing with?
• Can you tell me about your professional experience with providing problem-solving therapy?
• Have you dealt with other clients who present with similar issues as mine?
• Have you worked with individuals of similar cultural backgrounds as me?
• How do you structure your PST sessions and treatment timeline?
• How long do PST sessions last?
• How many sessions will I need?
• What expectations should I have in working with you from a problem-solving therapeutic stance?
• What expectations are required from me throughout treatment?
• Does my insurance cover PST? If not, what are your fees?
• What is your cancellation policy?

How Much Does Problem-Solving Therapy Cost?

The cost of problem-solving therapy can range from $25 to $150 depending on the number of sessions required, severity of symptoms, type of practice, geographic location, and provider’s experience level. However, if your insurance provider covers behavioral health, the out-of-pocket costs per session may be much lower. Medicare supports PST through professionally trained general health practitioners. 1

What to Expect at Your First PST Session

During the first session, the therapist will strive to build a connection and become familiar with you. You will be assessed through a clinical interview and/or questionnaires. During this process, the therapist will gather your background information, inquire about how you approach life problems, how you typically resolve them, and if problem-solving therapy is a suitable treatment for you. 3 , 4

Additionally, you will be provided psychoeducation relating to your symptoms, the problem-solving method and its effectiveness, and your treatment goals. The clinician will likely guide you through generating a list of the current problems you are experiencing, selecting one to focus on, and identifying concrete steps necessary for effective problem-solving. Lastly, you will be informed about the content, duration, costs, and number of therapy sessions the therapist suggests. 3 , 4

Would You Like to Try Therapy?

Find a supportive and compassionate therapist ! BetterHelp has over 30,000 licensed therapists who provide convenient and affordable online therapy. BetterHelp starts at $65 per week. Take a free online assessment  and get matched with the right therapist for you.

Is Problem-Solving Therapy Effective?

Extensive research and studies have shown the efficacy of problem-solving therapy. PST can yield significant improvements within a short amount of time. PST is also useful for addressing numerous problems and psychological issues. Lastly, PST has shown its efficacy with different populations and age groups.

One meta-analysis of PST for depression concluded that problem-solving therapy was as efficient for reducing symptoms of depression as other types of psychotherapies and antidepressant medication. Furthermore, PST was significantly more effective than not receiving any treatment. 7 However, more investigation may be necessary about PST’s long-term efficacy in comparison to other treatments. 5,6

How Is PST Different From CBT & SFT?

Problem-solving, cognitive-behavioral, and solution-focused therapy belong to the cognitive-behavioral framework, sharing a common goal to modify thoughts, aptitudes, and behaviors to improve mental health and quality of life.

Problem-Solving Therapy Vs. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a short-term psychosocial treatment developed under the premise that how we think affects how we feel and behave. CBT addresses problems arising from maladaptive thought patterns and seeks to challenge and modify these to improve behavioral responses and overall well-being. CBT is the most researched approach and preferred treatment in psychotherapy due to its effectiveness in addressing various problems like anxiety, sleep disorders, substance abuse, and more.

Like CBT, PST addresses mental, emotional, and behavioral issues. However, PST may provide a better balance of cognitive and behavioral elements.

Another difference between these two approaches is that PST mostly focuses on faulty thoughts about problem-solving orientation and modifying maladaptive behaviors that specifically interfere with effective problem-solving. Usually, PST is used as an integrated approach and applied as one of several other interventions in CBT psychotherapy sessions.

Problem-Solving Therapy Vs. Solution-Focused Therapy

Solution-focused therapy (SFT) , like PST, is a goal-directed, evidence-based brief therapeutic approach that encourages optimism, options, and self-efficacy. Similarly, it is also grounded on cognitive behavioral principles. However, it differs from problem-solving therapy because SFT is a semi-structured approach that does not follow a step-by-step sequential format. 8

SFT mainly focuses on solution-building rather than problem-solving, specifically looking at a person’s strengths and previous successes. SFT helps people recognize how their lives would differ without problems by exploring their current coping skills. Community mental health, inpatient settings, and educational environments are increasing the use of SFT due to its demonstrated efficacy. 8

Final Thoughts

Problem-solving therapy can be an effective treatment for various mental health concerns. If you are considering treatment, ask your doctor for recommendations or conduct your own research to learn more about this approach and other options available.

Additional Resources

To help our readers take the next step in their mental health journey, Choosing Therapy has partnered with leaders in mental health and wellness. Choosing Therapy is compensated for marketing by the companies included below.

Online Therapy 

BetterHelp – Get support and guidance from a licensed therapist. BetterHelp has over 30,000 therapists who provide convenient and affordable online therapy. Take a free online assessment and get matched with the right therapist for you. Free Assessment

Online Psychiatry

Hims / Hers If you’re living with anxiety or depression, finding the right medication match may make all the difference. Connect with a licensed healthcare provider in just 12 – 48 hours. Explore FDA-approved treatment options and get free shipping, if prescribed. No insurance required. Get Started

Medication + Therapy

Brightside Health – Together, medication and therapy can help you feel like yourself, faster. Brightside Health treatment plans start at $95 per month. United Healthcare, Anthem, Cigna, and Aetna accepted. Following a free online evaluation and receiving a prescription, you can get FDA approved medications delivered to your door. Free Assessment

Starting Therapy Newsletter

A free newsletter for those interested in learning about therapy and how to get the most benefits out of therapy. Get helpful tips and the latest information. Sign Up

Choosing Therapy Directory 

You can search for therapists by specialty,  experience, insurance, or price, and location. Find a therapist today .

For Further Reading

• 12 Strategies to Stop Using Unhealthy Coping Mechanisms
• Depression Therapy: 4 Effective Options to Consider
• CBT for Depression: How It Works, Examples, & Effectiveness

Best Online Therapy Services

There are a number of factors to consider when trying to determine which online therapy platform is going to be the best fit for you. It’s important to be mindful of what each platform costs, the services they provide you with, their providers’ training and level of expertise, and several other important criteria.

Best Online Psychiatry Services

Online psychiatry, sometimes called telepsychiatry, platforms offer medication management by phone, video, or secure messaging for a variety of mental health conditions. In some cases, online psychiatry may be more affordable than seeing an in-person provider. Mental health treatment has expanded to include many online psychiatry and therapy services. With so many choices, it can feel overwhelming to find the one that is right for you.

Problem-Solving Therapy Infographics

A free newsletter for those interested in starting therapy. Get helpful tips and the latest information.

Choosing Therapy strives to provide our readers with mental health content that is accurate and actionable. We have high standards for what can be cited within our articles. Acceptable sources include government agencies, universities and colleges, scholarly journals, industry and professional associations, and other high-integrity sources of mental health journalism. Learn more by reviewing our full editorial policy .

Beaudreau, S. A., Gould, C. E., Sakai, E., & Terri Huh, J. W. (2017). Problem-Solving Therapy. In N. A. Pachana (Ed.), Encyclopedia of geropsychology : with 148 figures and 100 tables . Singapore: Springer.

Broerman, R. (2018). Diathesis-Stress Model. In T. Shackleford & V. Zeigler-Hill (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences (Living Edition, pp. 1–3). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_891-1

Mehmet Eskin. (2013). Problem solving therapy in the clinical practice . Elsevier.

Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., & D’Zurilla, T. J. (2013). Problem-Solving Therapy A Treatment Manual . Springer Publishing Company.

Cuijpers, P., et al. (2018). Problem-solving therapy for adult depression: An updated meta-analysis. European Psychiatry   48 , 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.11.006

Kirkham, J. G., Choi, N., & Seitz, D. P. (2015). Meta-analysis of problem-solving therapy for the treatment of major depressive disorder in older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry , 31 (5), 526–535. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4358

Bell, A. C., & D’Zurilla, T. J. (2009). Problem-solving therapy for depression: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review , 29 (4), 348–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.02.003

Proudlock, S. (2017). The Solution Focused Way Incorporating Solution Focused Therapy Tools and Techniques into Your Everyday Work . Routledge.

Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., & Gerber, H. R. (2019). (Emotion‐centered) problem‐solving therapy: An update. Australian Psychologist , 54 (5), 361–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12418

We regularly update the articles on ChoosingTherapy.com to ensure we continue to reflect scientific consensus on the topics we cover, to incorporate new research into our articles, and to better answer our audience’s questions. When our content undergoes a significant revision, we summarize the changes that were made and the date on which they occurred. We also record the authors and medical reviewers who contributed to previous versions of the article. Read more about  our editorial policies here .

Your Voice Matters

Can't find what you're looking for.

Request an article! Tell ChoosingTherapy.com’s editorial team what questions you have about mental health, emotional wellness, relationships, and parenting. The therapists who write for us love answering your questions!

Leave your feedback for our editors.

Share your feedback on this article with our editors. If there’s something we missed or something we could improve on, we’d love to hear it.

Our writers and editors love compliments, too. :)

FOR IMMEDIATE HELP CALL:

Medical Emergency: 911

Suicide Hotline: 988

© 2024 Choosing Therapy, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Solving problems the cognitive-behavioral way, problem solving is another part of behavioral therapy..

Posted February 2, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• What Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy?
• Take our Your Mental Health Today Test
• Find a therapist who practices CBT
• Problem-solving is one technique used on the behavioral side of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
• The problem-solving technique is an iterative, five-step process that requires one to identify the problem and test different solutions.
• The technique differs from ad-hoc problem-solving in its suspension of judgment and evaluation of each solution.

As I have mentioned in previous posts, cognitive behavioral therapy is more than challenging negative, automatic thoughts. There is a whole behavioral piece of this therapy that focuses on what people do and how to change their actions to support their mental health. In this post, I’ll talk about the problem-solving technique from cognitive behavioral therapy and what makes it unique.

The problem-solving technique

While there are many different variations of this technique, I am going to describe the version I typically use, and which includes the main components of the technique:

The first step is to clearly define the problem. Sometimes, this includes answering a series of questions to make sure the problem is described in detail. Sometimes, the client is able to define the problem pretty clearly on their own. Sometimes, a discussion is needed to clearly outline the problem.

The next step is generating solutions without judgment. The "without judgment" part is crucial: Often when people are solving problems on their own, they will reject each potential solution as soon as they or someone else suggests it. This can lead to feeling helpless and also discarding solutions that would work.

The third step is evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. This is the step where judgment comes back.

Fourth, the client picks the most feasible solution that is most likely to work and they try it out.

The fifth step is evaluating whether the chosen solution worked, and if not, going back to step two or three to find another option. For step five, enough time has to pass for the solution to have made a difference.

This process is iterative, meaning the client and therapist always go back to the beginning to make sure the problem is resolved and if not, identify what needs to change.

Advantages of the problem-solving technique

The problem-solving technique might differ from ad hoc problem-solving in several ways. The most obvious is the suspension of judgment when coming up with solutions. We sometimes need to withhold judgment and see the solution (or problem) from a different perspective. Deliberately deciding not to judge solutions until later can help trigger that mindset change.

Another difference is the explicit evaluation of whether the solution worked. When people usually try to solve problems, they don’t go back and check whether the solution worked. It’s only if something goes very wrong that they try again. The problem-solving technique specifically includes evaluating the solution.

Lastly, the problem-solving technique starts with a specific definition of the problem instead of just jumping to solutions. To figure out where you are going, you have to know where you are.

One benefit of the cognitive behavioral therapy approach is the behavioral side. The behavioral part of therapy is a wide umbrella that includes problem-solving techniques among other techniques. Accessing multiple techniques means one is more likely to address the client’s main concern.

Salene M. W. Jones, Ph.D., is a clinical psychologist in Washington State.

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Self Tests NEW
• Therapy Center
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

It’s increasingly common for someone to be diagnosed with a condition such as ADHD or autism as an adult. A diagnosis often brings relief, but it can also come with as many questions as answers.

• Emotional Intelligence
• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

Problem-Solving Therapy

Streaming options.

• Description
• Contributor bios
• Suggested resources
• Video details

In Problem-Solving Therapy , Drs. Arthur Nezu and Christine Maguth Nezu demonstrate their positive, goal-oriented approach to treatment. Problem-solving therapy is a cognitive–behavioral intervention geared to improve an individual's ability to cope with stressful life experiences. The underlying assumption of this approach is that symptoms of psychopathology can often be understood as the negative consequences of ineffective or maladaptive coping.

Problem-solving therapy aims to help individuals adopt a realistically optimistic view of coping, understand the role of emotions more effectively, and creatively develop an action plan geared to reduce psychological distress and enhance well-being. Interventions include psychoeducation, interactive problem-solving exercises, and motivational homework assignments.

In this session, Christine Maguth Nezu works with a woman in her 50s who is depressed and deeply concerned about her son's drug addiction. Dr. Nezu first assesses her strengths and weaknesses and then helps her to clarify the problem she is facing so she can begin to move toward a solution.

The overarching goal of problem-solving therapy (PST) is to enhance the individual's ability to cope with stressful life experiences and to foster general behavioral competence. The major assumption underlying this approach, which emanates from a cognitive–behavioral tradition, is that much of what is viewed as "psychopathology" can be understood as consequences of ineffective or maladaptive coping behaviors. In other words, failure to adequately resolve stressful problems in living can engender significant emotional and behavioral problems.

Such problems in living include major negative events (e.g., undergoing a divorce, dealing with the death of a spouse, getting fired from a job, experiencing a major medical illness), as well as recurrent daily problems (e.g., continued arguments with a coworker, limited financial resources, diminished social support). How people resolve or cope with such situations can, in part, determine the degree to which they will likely experience long-lasting psychopathology and behavioral problems (e.g., clinical depression, generalized anxiety, pain, anger, relationship difficulties).

For example, successfully dealing with stressful problems will likely lead to a reduction of immediate emotional distress and prevent long-term psychological problems from occurring. Alternatively, maladaptive or unsuccessful problem resolution, either due to the overwhelming nature of events (e.g., severe trauma) or as a function of ineffective coping attempts, will likely increase the probability that long-term negative affective states and behavioral difficulties will emerge.

Social Problem Solving and Psychopathology

According to this therapy approach, social problem solving (SPS) is considered a key set of coping abilities and skills. SPS is defined as the cognitive–behavioral process by which individuals attempt to identify or discover effective solutions for stressful problems in living. In doing so, they direct their problem-solving efforts at altering the stressful nature of a given situation, their reactions to such situations, or both. SPS refers more to the metaprocess of understanding, appraising, and adapting to stressful life events, rather than representing a single coping strategy or activity.

Problem-solving outcomes in the real world have been found to be determined by two general but partially independent processes—problem orientation and problem-solving style.

Problem orientation refers to the set of generalized thoughts and feelings a person has concerning problems in living, as well as his or her ability to successfully resolve them. It can either be positive (e.g., viewing problems as opportunities to benefit in some way, perceiving oneself as able to solve problems effectively), which serves to enhance subsequent problem-solving efforts, or negative (e.g.,viewing problems as a major threat to one's well-being, overreacting emotionally when problems occur), which functions to inhibit attempts to solve problems.

Problem-solving style refers to specific cognitive–behavioral activities aimed at coping with stressful problems. Such styles are either adaptive, leading to successful problem resolution, or dysfunctional, leading to ineffective coping, which then can generate myriad negative consequences, including emotional distress and behavioral problems. Rational problem solving is the constructive style geared to identify an effective solution to the problem and involves the systematic and planful application of specific problem-solving tasks. Dysfunctional problem-solving styles include (a) impulsivity/carelessness (i.e., impulsive, hurried, and incomplete attempts to solve a problem), and (b) avoidance (i.e.,avoiding problems, procrastinating, and depending on others to solve one's problems).

Important differences have been identified between individuals characterized as "effective" versus "ineffective" problem solvers. In general, when compared to effective problem solvers, persons characterized by ineffective problem solving report a greater number of life problems, more health and physical symptoms, more anxiety, more depression, and more psychological maladjustment. In addition, a negative problem orientation has been found to be associated with negative moods under both routine and stressful conditions, as well as pessimism, negative emotional experiences, and clinical depression. Further, persons with negative orientations tend to worry and complain more about their health.

Problem-Solving Therapy Goals

PST teaches individuals to apply adaptive coping skills to both prevent and cope with stressful life difficulties. Specific PST therapy objectives include

• enhancing a person's positive orientation
• fostering his or her application of specific rational problem-solving tasks (i.e., accurately identifying why a situation is a problem, generating solution alternatives, conducting a cost-benefit analysis in order to decide which ideas to choose to include as part of an overall solution plan, implementing the solution, monitoring its effects, and evaluating the outcome)
• reducing his or her negative orientation
• minimizing one's tendency to engage in dysfunctional problem-solving style activities (i.e., impulsively attempting to solve the problem or avoiding the problem)

PST interventions involve psychoeducation, interactive problem-solving training exercises, practice opportunities, and homework assignments intended to motivate patients to apply the problem-solving principles outside of the therapy sessions.

PST has been shown to be effective regarding a wide range of clinical populations, psychological problems, and the distress associated with chronic medical disorders. Scientific evaluations have focused on unipolar depression, geriatric depression, distressed primary-care patients, social phobia, agoraphobia, obesity, coronary heart disease, adult cancer patients, adults with schizophrenia, mentally retarded adults with concomitant psychiatric problems, HIV-risk behaviors, drug abuse, suicide, childhood aggression, and conduct disorder.

Moreover, PST is flexible with regard to treatment goals and methods of implementation. For example, it can be conducted in a group format, on an individual and couples basis, as part of a larger cognitive–behavioral treatment package, over the phone, as well as on the Internet. It can also be applied as a means of helping patients to overcome barriers associated with successful adherence to other medical or psychosocial treatment protocols (e.g., adhering to weight-loss programs, diabetes regulation).

Arthur M. Nezu, PhD, ABPP, is currently professor of psychology, medicine, and community health and prevention at Drexel University in Philadelphia. He is one of the codevelopers of a cognitive–behavioral approach to teaching social problem-solving skills and has conducted multiple RCTs testing its efficacy across a variety of populations. These populations include clinically depressed adults, depressed geriatric patients, adults with mental retardation and concomitant psychopathology, distressed cancer patients and their spousal caregivers, individuals in weight-loss programs, breast cancer patients, and adult sexual offenders.

Dr. Nezu has contributed to more than 175 professional and scientific publications, including the books Solving Life's Problems: A 5-Step Guide to Enhanced Well-Being , Helping Cancer Patients Cope: A Problem-Solving Approach , and Problem-Solving Therapy: A Positive Approach to Clinical Intervention . He also codeveloped the self-report measure Social Problem-Solving Inventory—Revised . Dr. Nezu is on numerous editorial boards of scientific and professional journals and a member of the Interventions Research Review Committee of the National Institute of Mental Health.

An award-winning psychologist, he was previously president of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, the Behavioral Psychology Specialty Council, the World Congress of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, and the American Board of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology. He is a fellow of the American Psychological Association, the Association for Psychological Science, the Society for Behavior Medicine, the Academy of Cognitive Therapy, and the Academy of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology. Dr. Nezu was awarded the diplomate in Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology from the American Board of Professional Psychology and currently serves as a trustee of that board.

He has been in private practice for over 25 years, and is currently conducting outcome studies to evaluate the efficacy of problem-solving therapy to treat depression among adults with heart disease.

Christine Maguth Nezu, PhD, ABPP, is currently professor of psychology, associate professor of medicine, and director of the masters programs in psychology at Drexel University in Philadelphia. She previously served as director of the APA-accredited Internship/Residency in Clinical Psychology, as well as the Cognitive–Behavioral Postdoctoral Fellowship Program, at the Medical College of Pennsylvania/Hahnemann University.

She is the coauthor or editor of more than 100 scholarly publications, including 15 books. Her publications cover a wide range of topics in mental health and behavioral medicine, many of which have been translated into a variety of foreign languages.

Dr. Maguth Nezu is currently the president-elect of the American Board of Professional Psychology, on the board of directors for the American Board of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology, and on the board of directors for the American Academy of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology. She is the recipient of numerous grant awards supporting her research and program development, particularly in the area of clinical interventions. She serves as an accreditation site visitor for APA for clinical training programs and is on the editorial boards of several leading psychology and health journals.

Dr. Maguth Nezu has conducted workshops on clinical interventions and case formulation both nationally and internationally. She is currently the North American representative to the World Congress of Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies. She holds a diplomate in Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology from the American Board of Professional Psychology and has been active in private practice for more than 20 years.

Her current areas of interest include the treatment of depression in medical patients, the integration of cognitive and behavioral therapies with patients' spiritual beliefs and practices, interventions directed toward stress, coping, and health, and cognitive behavior therapy and problem-solving therapy for individuals with personality disorders.

• D'Zurilla, T. J., & Nezu, A. M. (2007). Problem-solving therapy: A positive approach to clinical intervention (3rd ed.). New York: Springer Publishing Co.
• D'Zurilla, T. J., Nezu, A. M., & Maydeu-Olivares, A. (2002). Social Problem-Solving Inventory—Revised (SPSI-R): Technical manual . North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
• Nezu, A. M. (2004). Problem solving and behavior therapy revisited. Behavior Therapy, 35 , 1–33.
• Nezu, A. M., & Nezu, C. M. (in press). Problem-solving therapy. In S. Richards & M. G. Perri (Eds.), Relapse prevention for depression . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., & Clark, M. (in press). Problem solving as a risk factor for depression. In K. S. Dobson & D. Dozois (Eds.), Risk factors for depression . New York: Elsevier Science.
• Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., & Perri, M. G. (2006). Problem solving to promote treatment adherence. In W. T. O'Donohue & E. Livens (Eds.), Promoting treatment adherence: A practical handbook for health care providers (pp. 135–148). New York: Sage Publications.
• Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., & D'Zurilla, T. J. (2007). Solving life's problems: A 5-step guide to enhanced well-being . New York: Springer Publishing Co.
• Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., Friedman, S. H., Faddis, S., & Houts, P. S. (1998). Helping cancer patients cope: A problem-solving approach . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Nezu, C. M., D'Zurilla, T. J., & Nezu, A. M. (2005). Problem-solving therapy: Theory, practice, and application to sex offenders. In M. McMurran & J. McGuire (Eds.), Social problem solving and offenders: Evidence, evaluation and evolution (pp. 103–123). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
• Nezu, C. M., Palmatier, A., & Nezu, A. M. (2004). Social problem-solving training for caregivers. In E. C. Chang, T. J. D'Zurilla, & L. J. Sanna (Eds.), Social problem solving: Theory, research, and training (pp. 223–238). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Cognitive–Behavioral Relapse Prevention for Addictions G. Alan Marlatt
• Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy With Donald Meichenbaum Donald Meichenbaum
• Depression With Older Adults Peter A. Lichtenberg
• Depression Michael D. Yapko
• Emotion-Focused Therapy for Depression Leslie S. Greenberg
• Relapse Prevention Over Time G. Alan Marlatt
• Behavioral Interventions in Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Practical Guidance for Putting Theory Into Action, Second Edition Richard F. Farmer and Alexander L. Chapman
• Experiences of Depression: Theoretical, Clinical, and Research Perspectives Sidney J. Blatt
• Preventing Youth Substance Abuse: Science-Based Programs for Children and Adolescents Edited by Patrick Tolan, José Szapocznik, and Soledad Sambrano

You may also like

Existential–Humanistic Case Formulation

Strengths and Flourishing in Psychotherapy

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Depression

The Basics of Group Therapy

Constructive Therapy in Practice

Legal Notice

Not a mental health professional.

View APA videos for the public

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Problem-solving interventions and depression among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review of the effectiveness of problem-solving interventions in preventing or treating depression

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Centre for Evidence and Implementation, London, United Kingdom

Roles Data curation

Roles Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology

Roles Conceptualization, Project administration, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Centre for Evidence and Implementation, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Social Work, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

• Kristina Metz, 
• Jane Lewis, 
• Jade Mitchell, 
• Sangita Chakraborty, 
• Bryce D. McLeod, 
• Ludvig Bjørndal, 
• Robyn Mildon, 
• Aron Shlonsky

• Published: August 29, 2023
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285949
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Problem-solving (PS) has been identified as a therapeutic technique found in multiple evidence-based treatments for depression. To further understand for whom and how this intervention works, we undertook a systematic review of the evidence for PS’s effectiveness in preventing and treating depression among adolescents and young adults. We searched electronic databases ( PsycINFO , Medline , and Cochrane Library ) for studies published between 2000 and 2022. Studies meeting the following criteria were included: (a) the intervention was described by authors as a PS intervention or including PS; (b) the intervention was used to treat or prevent depression; (c) mean or median age between 13–25 years; (d) at least one depression outcome was reported. Risk of bias of included studies was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2.0 tool. A narrative synthesis was undertaken given the high level of heterogeneity in study variables. Twenty-five out of 874 studies met inclusion criteria. The interventions studied were heterogeneous in population, intervention, modality, comparison condition, study design, and outcome. Twelve studies focused purely on PS; 13 used PS as part of a more comprehensive intervention. Eleven studies found positive effects in reducing depressive symptoms and two in reducing suicidality. There was little evidence that the intervention impacted PS skills or that PS skills acted as a mediator or moderator of effects on depression. There is mixed evidence about the effectiveness of PS as a prevention and treatment of depression among AYA. Our findings indicate that pure PS interventions to treat clinical depression have the strongest evidence, while pure PS interventions used to prevent or treat sub-clinical depression and PS as part of a more comprehensive intervention show mixed results. Possible explanations for limited effectiveness are discussed, including missing outcome bias, variability in quality, dosage, and fidelity monitoring; small sample sizes and short follow-up periods.

Citation: Metz K, Lewis J, Mitchell J, Chakraborty S, McLeod BD, Bjørndal L, et al. (2023) Problem-solving interventions and depression among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review of the effectiveness of problem-solving interventions in preventing or treating depression. PLoS ONE 18(8): e0285949. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285949

Editor: Thiago P. Fernandes, Federal University of Paraiba, BRAZIL

Received: January 2, 2023; Accepted: May 4, 2023; Published: August 29, 2023

Copyright: © 2023 Metz et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant methods and data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: This work was commissioned by Wellcome Trust and was conducted independently by the evaluators (all named authors). No grant number is available. Wellcome Trust had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript. The authors declare no financial or other competing interests, including their relationship and ongoing work with Wellcome Trust. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Depression among adolescents and young adults (AYA) is a serious, widespread problem. A striking increase in depressive symptoms is seen in early adolescence [ 1 ], with rates of depression being estimated to almost double between the age of 13 (8.4%) and 18 (15.4%) [ 2 ]. Research also suggests that the mean age of onset for depressive disorders is decreasing, and the prevalence is increasing for AYA. Psychosocial interventions, such as cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and interpersonal therapy (IPT), have shown small to moderate effects in preventing and treating depression [ 3 – 6 ]. However, room for improvement remains. Up to half of youth with depression do not receive treatment [ 7 ]. When youth receive treatment, studies indicate that about half of youth will not show measurable symptom reduction across 30 weeks of routine clinical care for depression [ 8 ]. One strategy to improve the accessibility and effectiveness of mental health interventions is to move away from an emphasis on Evidence- Based Treatments (EBTs; e.g., CBT) to a focus on discrete treatment techniques that demonstrate positive effects across multiple studies that meet certain methodological standards (i.e., common elements; 9). Identifying common elements allows for the removal of redundant and less effective treatment content, reducing treatment costs, expanding available service provision and enhancing scability. Furthermore, introducing the most effective elements of treatment early may improve client retention and outcomes [ 9 – 13 ].

A potential common element for depression intervention is problem-solving (PS). PS refers to how an individual identifies and applies solutions to everyday problems. D’Zurilla and colleagues [ 14 – 17 ] conceptualize effective PS skills to include a constructive attitude towards problems (i.e., a positive problem-solving orientation) and the ability to approach problems systematically and rationally (i.e., a rational PS style). Whereas maladaptive patterns, such as negative problem orientation and passively or impulsively addressing problems, are ineffective PS skills that may lead to depressive symptoms [ 14 – 17 ]. Problem Solving Therapy (PST), designed by D’Zurilla and colleagues, is a therapeutic approach developed to decrease mental health problems by improving PS skills [ 18 ]. PST focuses on four core skills to promote adaptive problem solving, including: (1) defining the problem; (2) brainstorming possible solutions; (3) appraising solutions and selecting the best one; and (4) implementing the chosen solution and assessing the outcome [ 14 – 17 ]. PS is also a component in other manualized approaches, such as CBT and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT), as well as imbedded into other wider generalized mental health programming [ 19 , 20 ]. A meta-analysis of over 30 studies found PST, or PS skills alone, to be as effective as CBT and IPT and more effective than control conditions [ 21 – 23 ]. Thus, justifying its identification as a common element in multiple prevention [ 19 , 24 ] and treatment [ 21 , 25 ] programs for adult depression [ 9 , 26 – 28 ].

PS has been applied to youth and young adults; however, no manuals specific to the AYA population are available. Empirical studies suggest maladaptive PS skills are associated with depressive symptoms in AYA [ 5 , 17 – 23 ]. Furthermore, PS intervention can be brief [ 29 ], delivered by trained or lay counsellors [ 30 , 31 ], and provided in various contexts (e.g., primary care, schools [ 23 ]). Given PS’s versatility and effectiveness, PS could be an ideal common element in treating AYA depression; however, to our knowledge, no reviews or meta-analyses on PS’s effectiveness with AYA specific populations exist. This review aimed to examine the effectiveness of PS as a common element in the prevention and treatment of depression for AYA within real-world settings, as well as to ascertain the variables that may influence and impact PS intervention effects.

Identification and selection of studies

Searches were conducted using PsycInfo , Medline , and Cochrane Library with the following search terms: "problem-solving", “adolescent”, “youth”, and” depression, ” along with filters limiting results to controlled studies looking at effectiveness or exploring mechanisms of effectiveness. Synonyms and derivatives were employed to expand the search. We searched grey literature using Greylit . org and Opengrey . eu , contacted experts in the field and authors of protocols, and searched the reference lists of all included studies. The search was undertaken on 4 th June 2020 and updated on 11 th June 2022.

Studies meeting the following criteria were included: (a) the intervention was described by authors as a PS intervention or including PS; (b) the intervention was used to treat or prevent depression; (c) mean or median age between 13–25 years; and (d) at least one depression outcome was reported. Literature in electronic format published post 2000 was deemed eligible, given the greater relevance of more recent usage of PS in real-world settings. There was no exclusion for gender, ethnicity, or country setting; only English language texts were included. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-experimental designs (QEDs), systematic reviews/meta-analyses, pilots, or other studies with clearly defined comparison conditions (no treatment, treatment as usual (TAU), or a comparator treatment) were included. We excluded studies of CBT, IPT, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT), and modified forms of these treatments. These treatments include PS and have been shown to demonstrate small to medium effects on depression [ 13 , 14 , 32 ], but the unique contribution of PS cannot be disentangled. The protocol for this review was not registered; however, all data collection forms, extraction, coding and analyses used in the review are available upon inquiry from the first author.

Study selection

All citations were entered into Endnote and uploaded to Covidence for screening and review against the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Reviewers with high inter-rater reliability (98%) independently screened the titles and abstracts. Two reviewers then independently screened full text of articles that met criteria. Duplicates, irrelevant studies, and studies that did not meet the criteria were removed, and the reason for exclusion was recorded (see S1 File for a list of excluded studies). Discrepancies were resolved by discussion with the team leads.

Data extraction

Two reviewers independently extracted data that included: (i) study characteristics (author, publication year, location, design, study aim), (ii) population (age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, family income, depression status), (iii) setting, (iv) intervention description (therapeutic or preventative, whether PS was provided alone or as part of a more comprehensive intervention, duration, delivery mode), (v) treatment outcomes (measures used and reported outcomes for depression, suicidality, and PS), and (vi) fidelity/implementation outcomes. For treatment outcomes, we included the original statistical analyses and/or values needed to calculate an effect size, as reported by the authors. If a variable was not included in the study publication, we extracted the information available and made note of missing data and subsequent limitations to the analyses.

RCTs were assessed for quality (i.e., confidence in the study’s findings) using the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2.0 tool [ 33 ] which includes assessment of the potential risk of bias relating to the process of randomisation; deviations from the intended intervention(s); missing data; outcome measurement and reported results. Risk of bias pertaining to each domain is estimated using an algorithm, grouped as: Low risk; Some concerns; or High risk. Two reviewers independently assessed the quality of included studies, and discrepancies were resolved by consensus.

We planned to conduct one or more meta-analyses if the studies were sufficiently similar. Data were entered into a summary of findings table as a first step in determining the theoretical and practical similarity of the population, intervention, comparison condition, outcome, and study design. If there were sufficiently similar studies, a meta-analysis would be conducted according to guidelines contained in the Cochrane Collaboration Handbook of Systematic Reviews, including tests of heterogeneity and use of random effects models where necessary.

The two searches yielded a total number of 874 records (after the removal of duplicates). After title and abstract screening, 184 full-text papers were considered for inclusion, of which 25 studies met the eligibility criteria and were included in the systematic review ( Fig 1 ). Unfortunately, substantial differences (both theoretical and practical) precluded any relevant meta-analyses, and we were limited to a narrative synthesis.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285949.g001

Risk of bias assessment

Risk of bias assessments were conducted on the 23 RCTs ( Fig 2 ; assessments by study presented in S1 Table ). Risk of bias concerns were moderate, and a fair degree of confidence in the validity of study findings is warranted. Most studies (81%) were assessed as ‘some concerns’ (N = 18), four studies were ‘low risk’, and one ‘high risk’. The most frequent areas of concern were the selection of the reported result (n = 18, mostly due to inadequate reporting of a priori analytic plans); deviations from the intended intervention (N = 17, mostly related to insufficient information about intention-to-treat analyses); and randomisation process (N = 13).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285949.g002

Study designs and characteristics

Study design..

Across the 25 studies, 23 were RCTs; two were QEDs. Nine had TAU or wait-list control (WLC) comparator groups, and 16 used active control groups (e.g., alternative treatment). Eleven studies described fidelity measures. The sample size ranged from 26 to 686 and was under 63 in nine studies.

Selected intervention.

Twenty interventions were described across the 25 studies ( Table 1 ). Ten interventions focused purely on PS. Of these 10 interventions: three were adaptations of models proposed by D’Zurilla and Nezu [ 20 , 34 ] and D’Zurilla and Goldfried [ 18 ], two were based on Mynors-Wallis’s [ 35 ] Problem-Solving Therapy (PST) guide, one was a problem-orientation video intervention adapted from D’Zurilla and Nezu [ 34 ], one was an online intervention adapted from Method of Levels therapy, and three did not specify a model. Ten interventions used PS as part of a larger, more comprehensive intervention (e.g., PS as a portion of cognitive therapy). The utilization and dose of PS steps included in these interventions were unclear. Ten interventions were primary prevention interventions–one of these was universal prevention, five were indicated prevention, and four were selective prevention. Ten interventions were secondary prevention interventions. Nine interventions were described as having been developed or adapted for young people.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285949.t001

Intervention delivery.

Of the 20 interventions, eight were delivered individually, eight were group-based, two were family-based, one was mixed, and in one, the format of delivery was unclear. Seventeen were delivered face-to-face and three online. Dosage ranged from a single session to 21, 50-minute sessions (12 weekly sessions, then 6 biweekly sessions); the most common session formar was once weekly for six weeks (N = 5).

Intervention setting and participants.

Seventeen studies were conducted in high-income countries (UK, US, Australia, Netherlands, South Korea), four in upper-middle income (Brazil, South Africa, Turkey), and four in low- and middle-income countries (Zimbabwe, Nigeria, India). Four studies included participants younger than 13 and four older than 25. Nine studies were conducted on university or high school student populations and five on pregnant or post-partum mothers. The remaining 11 used populations from mental health clinics, the community, a diabetes clinic, juvenile detention, and a runaway shelter.

Sixteen studies included participants who met the criteria for a depressive, bipolar, or suicidal disorder (two of these excluded severe depression). Nine studies did not use depression symptoms in the inclusion criteria (one of these excluded depression). Several studies excluded other significant mental health conditions.

Outcome measures.

Eight interventions targeted depression, four post/perinatal depression, two suicidal ideation, two resilience, one ‘problem-related distress’, one ‘diabetes distress’, one common adolescent mental health problem, and one mood episode. Those targeting post/perinatal depression used the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale as the outcome measure. Of the others, six used the Beck Depression Inventory (I or II), two the Children’s Depression Inventory, three the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21, three the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, one the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire, one the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, one the depression subscale on the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children, one the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, one the Youth Top Problems Score, one the Adolescent Longitudinal Interval Follow-up Evaluation and Psychiatric Status Ratings, one the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia, and one the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview.

Only eight studies measured PS skills or orientation outcomes. Three used the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised, one the Problem Solving Inventory, two measured the extent to which the nominated problem had been resolved, one observed PS in video-taped interactions, and one did not specify the measure.

The mixed findings regarding the effectiveness of PS for depression may depend on the type of intervention: primary (universal, selective, or indicated), secondary or tertiary prevention. Universal prevention interventions target the general public or a population not determined by any specific criteria [ 36 ]. Selective prevention interventions target specific populations with an increased risk of developing a disorder. Indicated prevention interventions target high-risk individuals with sub-clinical symptoms of a disorder. Secondary prevention interventions include those that target individuals diagnosed with a disorder. Finally, tertiary prevention interventions refer to follow-up interventions designed to retain treatment effects. Outcomes are therefore grouped by intervention prevention type and outcome. Within these groupings, studies with a lower risk of bias (RCTs) are presented first. According to the World Health Organisation guidelines, interventions were defined as primary, secondary or tertiary prevention [ 36 ].

Universal prevention interventions

One study reported on a universal prevention intervention targeting resilience and coping strategies in US university students. The Resilience and Coping Intervention, which includes PS as a primary component of the intervention, found a significant reduction in depression compared to TAU (RCT, N = 129, moderate risk of bias) [ 37 ].

Selective prevention interventions

Six studies, including five RCTs and one QED, tested PS as a selective prevention intervention. Two studies investigated the impact of the Manage Your Life Online program, which includes PS as a primary component of the intervention, compared with an online programme emulating Rogerian psychotherapy for UK university students (RCT, N = 213, moderate risk of bias [ 38 ]; RCT, N = 48, moderate risk of bias [ 39 ]). Both studies found no differences in depression or problem-related distress between groups.

Similarly, two studies explored the effect of adapting the Penn Resilience Program, which includes PS as a component of a more comprehensive intervention for young people with diabetes in the US (RCT, N = 264, moderate risk of bias) [ 40 , 41 ]. The initial study showed a moderate reduction in diabetes distress but not depression at 4-, 8-, 12- and 16-months follow-up compared to a diabetes education intervention [ 40 ]. The follow-up study found a significant reduction in depressive symptoms compared to the active control from 16- to 40-months; however, this did not reach significance at 40-months [ 41 ].

Another study that was part of wider PS and social skills intervention among juveniles in state-run detention centres in the US found no impacts (RCT, N = 296, high risk of bias) [ 42 ]. A QED ( N = 32) was used to test the effectiveness of a resilience enhancement and prevention intervention for runaway youth in South Korea [ 43 ]. There was a significant decrease in depression for the intervention group compared with the control group at post-test, but the difference was not sustained at one-month follow-up.

Indicated prevention interventions

Six studies, including five RCTs and one QED, tested PS as an indicated prevention intervention. Four of the five RCTs tested PS as a primary component of the intervention. A PS intervention for common adolescent mental health problems in Indian high school students (RCT, N = 251, low risk of bias) led to a significant reduction in psychosocial problems at 6- and 12 weeks; however, it did not have a significant impact on mental health symptoms or internalising symptoms compared to PS booklets without counsellor treatment at 6- and 12-weeks [ 31 ]. A follow-up study showed a significant reduction in overall psychosocial problems and mental health symptoms, including internalizing symptoms, over 12 months [ 44 ]. Still, these effects no longer reached significance in sensitivity analysis adjusting for missing data (RCT, N = 251, low risk of bias). Furthermore, a 2x2 factorial RCT ( N = 176, moderate risk of bias) testing PST among youth mental health service users with a mild mental disorder in Australia found that the intervention was not superior to supportive counselling at 2-weeks post-treatment [ 30 ]. Similarly, an online PS intervention delivered to young people in the Netherlands to prevent depression (RCT, N = 45, moderate risk of bias) found no significant difference between the intervention and WLC in depression level 4-months post-treatment [ 45 ].

One RCT tested PS approaches in a more comprehensive manualized programme for postnatal depression in the UK and found no significant differences in depression scores between intervention and TAU at 3-months post-partum (RCT, N = 292, moderate risk of bias) [ 46 ].

A study in Turkey used a non-equivalent control group design (QED, N = 62) to test a nursing intervention against a PS control intervention [ 47 ]. Both groups showed a reduction in depression, but the nursing care intervention demonstrated a larger decrease post-intervention than the PS control intervention.

Secondary prevention interventions

Twelve studies, all RCTs, tested PS as a secondary prevention intervention. Four of the 12 RCTs tested PS as a primary component of the intervention. An intervention among women in Zimbabwe (RCT, N = 58, moderate risk of bias) found a larger decrease in the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale score for the intervention group compared to control (who received the antidepressant amitriptyline and peer education) at 6-weeks post-treatment [ 48 ]. A problem-orientation intervention covering four PST steps and involving a single session video for US university students (RCT, N = 110, moderate risk of bias), compared with a video covering other health issues, resulted in a moderate reduction in depression post-treatment; however, results were no longer significant at 2-weeks, and 1-month follow up [ 49 ].

Compared to WLC, a study of an intervention for depression and suicidal proneness among high school and university students in Turkey (RCT, N = 46, moderate risk of bias) found large effect sizes on post-treatment depression scores for intervention participants post-treatment compared with WLC. At 12-month follow-up, these improvements were maintained compared to pre-test but not compared to post-treatment scores. Significant post-treatment depression recovery was also found in the PST group [ 12 ]. Compared to TAU, a small but high-quality (low-risk of bias) study focused on preventing suicidal risk among school students in Brazil (RCT, N = 100, low risk of bias) found a significant, moderate reduction in depression symptoms for the treatment group post-intervention that was maintained at 1-, 3- and 6-month follow-up [ 50 ].

Seven of the 12 RCTs tested PS as a part of a more comprehensive intervention. Two interventions targeted mood episodes and were compared to active control. These US studies focused on Family-Focused Therapy as an intervention for mood episodes, which included sessions on PS [ 51 , 52 ]. One of these found that Family-Focused Therapy for AYA with Bipolar Disorder (RCT, N = 145, moderate risk of bias) had no significant impact on mood or depressive symptoms compared to pharmacotherapy. However, Family-Focused Therapy had a greater impact on the proportion of weeks without mania/hypomania and mania/hypomania symptoms than enhanced care [ 53 ]. Alternatively, while the other study (RCT, N = 127, low risk of bias) found no significant impact on time to recovery, Family-Focused Therapy led to significantly longer intervals of wellness before new mood episodes, longer intervals between recovery and the next mood episode, and longer intervals of randomisation to the next mood episode in AYA with either Bipolar Disorder (BD) or Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), compared to family and individual psychoeducation [ 52 ].

Two US studies used a three-arm trial to compare Systemic-behavioural Family Therapy (SBFT) with elements of PS, to CBT and individual Non-directive Supportive therapy (NST) (RCT, N = 107, moderate risk of bias) [ 53 , 54 ]. One study looked at whether the PS elements of CBT and SFBT mediated the effectiveness of these interventions for the remission of MDD. It found that PS mediated the association between CBT, but not SFBT, and remission from depression. There was no significant association between SBFT and remission status, though there was a significant association between CBT and remission status [ 53 ]. The other study found no significant reduction in depression post-treatment or at 24-month follow-up for SBFT [ 54 ].

A PS intervention tested in maternal and child clinics in Nigeria RCT ( N = 686, moderate risk of bias) compared with enhanced TAU involving psychosocial and social support found no significant difference in the proportion of women who recovered from depression at 6-months post-partum [ 55 ]. However, there was a small difference in depression scores in favour of PS averaged across the 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-month follow-up points. Cognitive Reminiscence Therapy, which involved recollection of past PS experiences and drew on PS techniques used for 12-25-year-olds in community mental health services in Australia (RCT, N = 26, moderate risk of bias), did not reduce depression symptoms compared with a brief evidence-based treatment at 1- or 2-month follow-up [ 56 ]. Additionally, the High School Transition Program in the US (RCT, N = 497, moderate risk of bias) aimed to prevent depression, anxiety, and school problems in youth transitioning to high school [ 57 ]. There was no reduction in the percentage of intervention students with clinical depression compared to the control group. Similarly, a small study focused on reducing depression symptoms, and nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy in pregnant women with HIV in South Africa (RCT, N = 23, some concern) found a significant reduction in depression symptoms compared to TAU, with the results being maintained at the 3-month follow-up [ 58 ].

Reduction in suicidality

Three studies measured a reduction in suicidality. A preventive treatment found a large reduction in suicidal orientation in the PS group compared to control post-treatment. In contrast, suicidal ideation scores were inconsistent at 1-,3- and 6- month follow-up, they maintained an overall lower score [ 50 ]. Furthermore, at post-test, significantly more participants in the PS group were no longer at risk of suicide. No significant differences were found in suicide plans or attempts. In a PST intervention, post-treatment suicide risk scores were lower than pre-treatment for the PST group but unchanged for the control group [ 12 ]. An online treatment found a moderate decline in ideation for the intervention group post-treatment compared to the control but was not sustained at a one-month follow-up [ 49 ].

Mediators and moderators

Eight studies measured PS skills or effectiveness. In two studies, despite the interventions reducing depression, there was no improvement in PS abilities [ 12 , 52 ]. One found that change in global and functional PS skills mediated the relationship between the intervention group and change in suicidal orientation, but this was not assessed for depression [ 50 ]. Three other studies found no change in depression symptoms, PS skills, or problem resolution [ 38 – 40 ]. Finally, CBT and SBFT led to significant increases in PS behaviour, and PS was associated with higher rates of remission across treatments but did not moderate the relationship between SBFT and remission status [ 53 ]. Another study found no changes in confidence in the ability to solve problems or belief in personal control when solving problems. Furthermore, the intervention group was more likely to adopt an avoidant PS style [ 46 ].

A high-intensity intervention for perinatal depression in Nigeria had no treatment effect on depression remission rates for the whole sample. Still, it was significantly effective for participants with more severe depression at baseline [ 55 ]. A PS intervention among juvenile detainees in the US effectively reduced depression for participants with higher levels of fluid intelligence, but symptoms increased for those with lower levels [ 42 ].The authors suggest that individuals with lower levels of fluid intelligence may have been less able to cope with exploring negative emotions and apply the skills learned.

This review has examined the evidence on the effectiveness of PS in the prevention or treatment of depression among 13–25-year-olds. We sought to determine in what way, in which contexts, and for whom PS appears to work in addressing depression. We found 25 studies involving 20 interventions. Results are promising for secondary prevention interventions, or interventions targeting clinical level populations, that utilize PS as the primary intervention [ 12 , 47 – 49 ]. These studies not only found a significant reduction in depression symptoms compared to active [ 48 , 49 ] and non-active [ 12 , 47 ] controls but also found a significant reduction in suicidal orientation and ideation [ 12 , 47 , 49 ]. These findings are consistent with meta-analyses of adult PS interventions [ 21 , 22 , 23 ], highlighting that PS interventions for AYA can be effective in real-world settings.

For other types of interventions (i.e., universal, selective prevention, indicated prevention), results were mixed in reducing depression. The one universal program was found to have a small, significant effect in reducing depression symptoms compared to a non-active control [ 37 ]. Most selective prevention programs were not effective [ 39 , 40 , 56 ], and those that did show small, significant effects had mixed outcomes for follow-up maintenance [ 41 , 42 ]. Most indicated prevention programs were not effective [ 30 , 31 , 45 – 47 ], yet a follow-up study showed a significant reduction in internalizing symptoms at 12-month post-treatment compared to an active control [ 44 ]. Given that these studies targeted sub-clinical populations and many of them had small sample sizes, these mixed findings may be a result of not having sufficient power to detect a meaningful difference.

Our review found limited evidence about PS skills as mediator or moderator of depression. Few studies measured improvements in PS skills; fewer still found interventions to be effective. The absence of evidence for PS abilities as a pathway is puzzling. It may be that specific aspects of PS behaviours and processes, such as problem orientation [ 59 ], are relevant. Alternatively, there may be a mechanism other than PS skills through which PS interventions influence depression.

Studies with PS as part of a wider intervention also showed mixed results, even amongst clinical populations. Although there was no clear rationale for the discrepancies in effectiveness between the studies, it is possible that the wider program dilutes the focus and impact of efficacious therapeutic elements. However, this is difficult to discern given the heterogeneity in the studies and limited information on study treatments and implementation factors. A broad conclusion might be that PS can be delivered most effectively with clinical populations in its purest PS form and may be tailored to a range of different contexts and forms, a range of populations, and to address different types of problems; however, this tailoring may reduce effectiveness.

Although the scale of impact is broadly in line with the small to moderate effectiveness of other treatments for youth depression [ 6 ], our review highlights shortcomings in study design, methods, and reporting that would allow for a better understanding of PS effectiveness and pathways. Studies varied in how well PS was operationalised. Low dosage is consistent with usage described in informal conversations with practitioners but may be insufficient for effectiveness. Fidelity was monitored in only half the studies despite evidence that monitoring implementation improves effectiveness [ 60 ]. There were references to implementation difficulties, including attrition, challenges in operationalizing online interventions, and skills of those delivering. Furthermore, most of the studies had little information about comorbidity and no analysis of whether it influenced outcomes. Therefore, we were unable to fully examine and conceptualize the ways, how and for whom PS works. More information about study populations and intervention implementation is essential to understand the potential of PS for broader dissemination.

Our review had several limitations. We excluded studies that included four treatments known to be effective in treating depression among AYA (e.g., CBT) but where the unique contribution of PS to clinical outcome could not be disentangled. Furthermore, we relied on authors’ reporting to determine if PS was included: details about operationalization of PS were often scant. Little evidence addressing the fit, feasibility, or acceptability of PS interventions was found, reflecting a limited focus on implementation. We included only English-language texts: relevant studies in other languages may exist, though our post-2000 inclusion criteria may limit this potential bias due to improved translation of studies to English over the years. Finally, the heterogeneity of study populations, problem severity, comparison conditions, outcome measures, and study designs, along with a relatively small number of included studies, limits confidence in what we can say about implementation and treatment outcomes.

Overall, our review indicates that PS may have the best results when implemented its purest form as a stand-alone treatment with clinical level AYA populations; tailoring or imbedding PS into wider programming may dilute its effectiveness. Our review also points to a need for continued innovation in treatment to improve the operationalizing and testing of PS, especially when included as a part of a more comprehensive intervention. It also highlights the need for study methods that allow us to understand the specific effects of PS, and that measure the frequency, dosage, and timing of PS to understand what is effective for whom and in what contexts.

Supporting information

S1 file. list of excluded studies..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285949.s001

S2 File. PRISMA checklist.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285949.s002

S1 Table. Individual risk of bias assessments using cochrane RoB2 tool by domain (1–5) and overall (6).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285949.s003

Acknowledgments

All individuals that contributed to this paper are included as authors.

• 1. Dietz LJ, Silk J, Amole M. Depressive disorders. In: Ollendick TH, White SW, White BA, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY; 2019. p. 280–297.
• View Article
• PubMed/NCBI
• Google Scholar
• 14. Nezu AM, Nezu CM, D’Zurilla T. Problem-solving therapy: A treatment manual. Springer Publishing Company. 2012.
• 15. D’Zurilla TJ, Nezu AM. Problem-solving therapy. In: Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies. Third. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2010. p. 197–225.
• 17. D’Zurilla TJ, Nezu AM, Maydeu-Olivares A. Social Problem Solving: Theory and Assessment. In: Chang EC D’Zurilla TJ, Sanna LJ, editors. Social problem solving: Theory, research, and training: American Psychological Association; 2004. p. 11–27.
• 20. D’Zurilla TJ, Nezu AM. (2007). Problem-solving therapy: A positive approach to clinical intervention (3rd edition) New York: Spring Publishing Company.
• 34. D’Zurilla TJ, Nezu AM. Problem-solving therapy: A social competence approach to clinical intervention. 2nd ed. New York: Springer. 1999.
• 35. Mynors-Wallis LM. Problem-solving treatment for anxiety and depression: A practical guide. Oxford University Press: Oxford. 2005.
• 62. Brugha T. (1995). Social support and psychiatric disorder: Overview of evidence. In Brugha T. (Ed.), Social Support and Psychiatric Disorder : Research Findings and Guidelines for Clinical Practice (Studies in Social and Community Psychiatry, pp. 1–38). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511526749.002
• 66. Guerra N. G. (1995). Viewpoints : A Guide to Conflict Resolution and Decision Making for Adolescents . Research Press, 2612 North Mattis Avenue, Champaign, IL 61821.
• 67. Guerra N. G., & Williams K. R. (2012). Implementing evidence-based practices for juvenile justice prevention and treatment in communities. In Grigorenko E. L. (Ed.), Handbook of juvenile forensic psychology and psychiatry (pp. 297–308). New York: Springer
• 68. Nezu A. M., Maguth Nezu C., & D’Zurilla T. J. (2013). Problem-solving therapy : A treatment manual . Springer Publishing Co.
• 69. Robin A. L., & Foster S. L. (1989). Negotiating parent-adolescent conflict: A behavioral-family systems approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
• 70. VAZQUEZ F. L., OTERO P., BLANCO V., & TORRES A. (2015). Terapia de solucion de problemas para la depresion. Una breve guıa practica en grupo. [Problem-solving therapy for depression: A brife guide for group practice]. Madrid: Alianza Editorial.

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles

JGI / Jamie Grill / Getty Images

• Application
• Improvement

From deciding what to eat for dinner to considering whether it's the right time to buy a house, problem-solving is a large part of our daily lives. Learn some of the problem-solving strategies that exist and how to use them in real life, along with ways to overcome obstacles that are making it harder to resolve the issues you face.

What Is Problem-Solving?

In cognitive psychology , the term 'problem-solving' refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze, and solve problems.

A problem exists when there is a goal that we want to achieve but the process by which we will achieve it is not obvious to us. Put another way, there is something that we want to occur in our life, yet we are not immediately certain how to make it happen.

Maybe you want a better relationship with your spouse or another family member but you're not sure how to improve it. Or you want to start a business but are unsure what steps to take. Problem-solving helps you figure out how to achieve these desires.

The problem-solving process involves:

• Discovery of the problem
• Deciding to tackle the issue
• Seeking to understand the problem more fully
• Researching available options or solutions
• Taking action to resolve the issue

Before problem-solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem itself. If your understanding of the issue is faulty, your attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or flawed.

Problem-Solving Mental Processes

Several mental processes are at work during problem-solving. Among them are:

• Perceptually recognizing the problem
• Representing the problem in memory
• Considering relevant information that applies to the problem
• Identifying different aspects of the problem
• Labeling and describing the problem

Problem-Solving Strategies

There are many ways to go about solving a problem. Some of these strategies might be used on their own, or you may decide to employ multiple approaches when working to figure out and fix a problem.

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that, by following certain "rules" produces a solution. Algorithms are commonly used in mathematics to solve division or multiplication problems. But they can be used in other fields as well.

In psychology, algorithms can be used to help identify individuals with a greater risk of mental health issues. For instance, research suggests that certain algorithms might help us recognize children with an elevated risk of suicide or self-harm.

One benefit of algorithms is that they guarantee an accurate answer. However, they aren't always the best approach to problem-solving, in part because detecting patterns can be incredibly time-consuming.

There are also concerns when machine learning is involved—also known as artificial intelligence (AI)—such as whether they can accurately predict human behaviors.

Heuristics are shortcut strategies that people can use to solve a problem at hand. These "rule of thumb" approaches allow you to simplify complex problems, reducing the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.

If you find yourself sitting in a traffic jam, for example, you may quickly consider other routes, taking one to get moving once again. When shopping for a new car, you might think back to a prior experience when negotiating got you a lower price, then employ the same tactics.

While heuristics may be helpful when facing smaller issues, major decisions shouldn't necessarily be made using a shortcut approach. Heuristics also don't guarantee an effective solution, such as when trying to drive around a traffic jam only to find yourself on an equally crowded route.

Trial and Error

A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of potential solutions to a particular issue, then ruling out those that do not work. If you're not sure whether to buy a shirt in blue or green, for instance, you may try on each before deciding which one to purchase.

This can be a good strategy to use if you have a limited number of solutions available. But if there are many different choices available, narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving technique can be helpful before attempting trial and error.

In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. You are facing an issue in a relationship or your career when, out of nowhere, the solution appears in your mind and you know exactly what to do.

Insight can occur when the problem in front of you is similar to an issue that you've dealt with in the past. Although, you may not recognize what is occurring since the underlying mental processes that lead to insight often happen outside of conscious awareness .

Research indicates that insight is most likely to occur during times when you are alone—such as when going on a walk by yourself, when you're in the shower, or when lying in bed after waking up.

How to Apply Problem-Solving Strategies in Real Life

If you're facing a problem, you can implement one or more of these strategies to find a potential solution. Here's how to use them in real life:

• Create a flow chart . If you have time, you can take advantage of the algorithm approach to problem-solving by sitting down and making a flow chart of each potential solution, its consequences, and what happens next.
• Recall your past experiences . When a problem needs to be solved fairly quickly, heuristics may be a better approach. Think back to when you faced a similar issue, then use your knowledge and experience to choose the best option possible.
• Start trying potential solutions . If your options are limited, start trying them one by one to see which solution is best for achieving your desired goal. If a particular solution doesn't work, move on to the next.
• Take some time alone . Since insight is often achieved when you're alone, carve out time to be by yourself for a while. The answer to your problem may come to you, seemingly out of the blue, if you spend some time away from others.

Obstacles to Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is not a flawless process as there are a number of obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. These obstacles include:

• Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people can make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions. Thus, they may not even try some potential options.
• Functional fixedness : This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution.
• Irrelevant or misleading information: When trying to solve a problem, it's important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. The more complex the problem, the easier it is to focus on misleading or irrelevant information.
• Mental set: A mental set is a tendency to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.

How to Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills

In the end, if your goal is to become a better problem-solver, it's helpful to remember that this is a process. Thus, if you want to improve your problem-solving skills, following these steps can help lead you to your solution:

• Recognize that a problem exists . If you are facing a problem, there are generally signs. For instance, if you have a mental illness , you may experience excessive fear or sadness, mood changes, and changes in sleeping or eating habits. Recognizing these signs can help you realize that an issue exists.
• Decide to solve the problem . Make a conscious decision to solve the issue at hand. Commit to yourself that you will go through the steps necessary to find a solution.
• Seek to fully understand the issue . Analyze the problem you face, looking at it from all sides. If your problem is relationship-related, for instance, ask yourself how the other person may be interpreting the issue. You might also consider how your actions might be contributing to the situation.
• Research potential options . Using the problem-solving strategies mentioned, research potential solutions. Make a list of options, then consider each one individually. What are some pros and cons of taking the available routes? What would you need to do to make them happen?
• Take action . Select the best solution possible and take action. Action is one of the steps required for change . So, go through the motions needed to resolve the issue.
• Try another option, if needed . If the solution you chose didn't work, don't give up. Either go through the problem-solving process again or simply try another option.

You can find a way to solve your problems as long as you keep working toward this goal—even if the best solution is simply to let go because no other good solution exists.

Sarathy V. Real world problem-solving .  Front Hum Neurosci . 2018;12:261. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00261

Dunbar K. Problem solving . A Companion to Cognitive Science . 2017. doi:10.1002/9781405164535.ch20

Stewart SL, Celebre A, Hirdes JP, Poss JW. Risk of suicide and self-harm in kids: The development of an algorithm to identify high-risk individuals within the children's mental health system . Child Psychiat Human Develop . 2020;51:913-924. doi:10.1007/s10578-020-00968-9

Rosenbusch H, Soldner F, Evans AM, Zeelenberg M. Supervised machine learning methods in psychology: A practical introduction with annotated R code . Soc Personal Psychol Compass . 2021;15(2):e12579. doi:10.1111/spc3.12579

Mishra S. Decision-making under risk: Integrating perspectives from biology, economics, and psychology . Personal Soc Psychol Rev . 2014;18(3):280-307. doi:10.1177/1088868314530517

Csikszentmihalyi M, Sawyer K. Creative insight: The social dimension of a solitary moment . In: The Systems Model of Creativity . 2015:73-98. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9085-7_7

Chrysikou EG, Motyka K, Nigro C, Yang SI, Thompson-Schill SL. Functional fixedness in creative thinking tasks depends on stimulus modality .  Psychol Aesthet Creat Arts . 2016;10(4):425‐435. doi:10.1037/aca0000050

Huang F, Tang S, Hu Z. Unconditional perseveration of the short-term mental set in chunk decomposition .  Front Psychol . 2018;9:2568. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02568

National Alliance on Mental Illness. Warning signs and symptoms .

Mayer RE. Thinking, problem solving, cognition, 2nd ed .

Schooler JW, Ohlsson S, Brooks K. Thoughts beyond words: When language overshadows insight. J Experiment Psychol: General . 1993;122:166-183. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.2.166

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

22 Best Counseling Interventions & Strategies for Therapists

Counseling is highly beneficial, with “far-reaching effects in life functioning” (Cochran & Cochran, 2015, p. 7).

While therapeutic relationships are vital to a positive outcome, so too are the selection and use of psychological interventions targeting the clients’ capability, opportunity, motivation, and behavior (Michie et al., 2014).

This article introduces some of the best interventions while identifying the situations where they are likely to create value for the client, helping their journey toward meaningful, value-driven goals.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.

This Article Contains:

What is a counseling intervention, list of popular therapeutic interventions, how to craft a treatment plan 101, 13 helpful therapy strategies, interventions & strategies for career counseling, 2 best interventions for group counselors, resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

“Changing ingrained behavior patterns can be challenging” and must avoid or at least reduce the risk of reverting (Michie et al., 2014, p. 11).

The American Psychological Association (n.d., para. 1) describes an intervention as “any action intended to interfere with and stop or modify a process, as in treatment undertaken to halt, manage, or alter the course of the pathological process of a disease or disorder.”

Interventions are intentional behaviors or “change strategies” introduced by the counselor to help clients implement problem management and move toward goals (Nelson-Jones, 2014):

• Counselor-centered interventions are where the counselor does something to or for the client, such as providing advice.
• Client-centered interventions empower the client, helping them develop their capacity to intervene in their own problems (for example, monitoring and replacing unhelpful thinking).

Creating or choosing the most appropriate intervention requires a thorough assessment of the client’s behavioral targets, what is needed, and how best to achieve them (Michie et al., 2014).

The selection of the intervention is guided by the:

• Nature of the problem
• Therapeutic orientation of the counselor
• Willingness and ability of the client to proceed

During counseling, various interventions are likely to be needed at different times. For that reason, counselors will require a broad range of techniques that fit the client’s needs, values, and culture (Corey, 2013).

In recent years, an increased focus has been on the use of evidence-based practice, where the choice and use of interventions is based on the best available research to make a difference in the lives of clients (Corey, 2013).

“Clients are hypothesis makers and testers” who have the reflective capacity to think about how they think (Nelson-Jones, 2014, p. 261).

Helping clients attend to their thoughts and learn how to instruct themselves more effectively can help them break repetitive patterns of insufficiently strong mind skills while positively influencing their feelings.

The following list includes some of the most popular interventions used in a variety of therapeutic settings (modified from Magyar-Moe et al., 2015; Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015; Cochran & Cochran, 2015; Corey, 2013):

Detecting and disputing demanding rules

Rigid, demanding thinking is identified by ‘musts,’ ‘oughts,’ and ‘shoulds’ and is usually unhelpful to the client.

For example:

I must do well in this test, or I am useless. People must treat me in the way I want; otherwise, they are awful.

Clients can be helped to dispute such thinking using “reason, logic, and facts to support, negate or amend their rules” (Nelson-Jones, 2014, p. 265).

Such interventions include:

• Functional disputing Pointing out to clients that their thinking may stand in the way of achieving their goals
• Empirical disputing Encouraging clients to evaluate the facts behind their thoughts
• Logical disputing Highlighting the illogical jumps in their thinking from preferences to demands
• Philosophical disputing Exploring clients’ meaning and satisfaction outside of life issues

Identifying automatic perceptions

Our perceptions greatly influence how we think. Clients can benefit from recognizing they have choices in how they perceive things and avoiding jumping to conclusions.

• Creating self-talk Self-talk can be helpful for most clients and can target anger management, stress handling, and improving confidence. For example:

This is not the end of the world. I’ve done this before; I can do it well again.

• Creating visual perceptions Building on the client’s existing visual images can be helpful in understanding and working through problematic situations (and their solutions).

One simple exercise to help clients see the strong relationship between visualizing and feeling involves asking clients to think of someone they love. Almost always, they form a mental image along with a host of feelings.

Visual relaxation is a powerful self-helping skill involving clients taking time out of their busy life to find calm through vividly picturing a real or imagined relaxing scene.

Creating better expectations

Clients’ explanatory styles (such as expecting to fail) can create self-fulfilling prophecies. Interventions can help by:

• Assessing the likelihood of risks or rewards
• Increasing confidence in the potential for success
• Identifying coping skills and support factors
• Time projection Imagery can help by enabling the client to step into a possible future where they manage and overcome difficult times or worrying situations.

For example, the client can imagine rolling forward to a time when they are successful in a new role at work or a developing relationship.

Creating realistic goals

Goals can motivate clients to improve performance and transition from where they are now to where they would like to be. However, it is essential to make sure they are realistic, or they risk causing undue pressure and compromising wellbeing.

The following interventions can help (Nelson-Jones, 2014):

• Stating clear goals The following questions are helpful when clients are setting goals :

Does the goal reflect your values? Is the goal realistic and achievable? Is the goal specific? Is the goal measurable? Does the goal have a timeframe?

Helping clients to experience feelings

Counseling can influence clients’ emotions and their physical reactions to emotions by helping them (Nelson-Jones, 2014):

• Experience feelings
• Express feelings
• Manage feelings
• Empty chair dialogue This practical intervention involves the client engaging in an imaginary conversation with another person; it helps “clients experience feelings both of unresolved anger and also of weakness and victimization” (Nelson-Jones, 2014, p. 347).

The client may be asked to shift to the empty chair and play the other person’s part to explore conflict, interactions, and emotions more fully (Corey, 2013).

Download 3 Free Goals Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques for lasting behavior change.

Download 3 Free Goals Pack (PDF)

By filling out your name and email address below.

• Email Address *
• Your Expertise * Your expertise Therapy Coaching Education Counseling Business Healthcare Other
• Email This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged.

“Counselors and counseling trainees make choices both concerning specific interventions and about interventions used in combination” (Nelson-Jones, 2014, p. 223).

Through early and continued engagement with the client throughout the counseling approach , the counselor and client set specific, measurable, and achievable goals and create a treatment plan with a defined intervention strategy (Dobson, 2010).

The treatment plan becomes a map, combining interventions to reach client goals and overcome problems – to get from where they are now to where they want to be. However, no plan should be too fixed or risk preventing the client’s progress in their ‘wished-for’ direction. Rather, it must be open for regular revisit and modification (Nelson-Jones, 2014).

Counseling and therapeutic treatment plans vary according to the approaches used and the client’s specific needs but should be strength-based and collaborative. Most treatment plans typically consider the following points (modified from GoodTherapy, 2019):

• History and assessment – E.g., psychosocial history, symptom onset, past and present diagnoses, and treatment history
• Present concerns – The current concerns and issues that led the client to counseling
• Counseling contract – A summary of goals and desired changes, responsibility, and the counseling approach adopted
• Summary of strengths – It can be helpful to summarize the client’s strengths, empowering them for goal achievement.
• Goals – Measurable treatment goals are vital to the treatment plan.
• Objectives – Goals are broken down into smaller, achievable outcomes that support achievement during counseling.
• Interventions – Interventions should be planned early to support objectives and overall goals.
• Tracking progress and outcomes – Regular treatment plan review should include updating progress toward goals.

While a vital aspect of the counseling process is to ensure that treatment takes an appropriate direction for the client, it is also valuable and helpful for clients and insurance companies to understand likely timescales.

“Depression is one of the most common mental health disorders with a high burden of disease and the leading cause of years of life lost due to disability” (Hu et al., 2020, p. 1).

• Exercise interventions Research has shown that even low-to-moderate levels of exercise can help manage and treat depression (Hu et al., 2020).
• Gratitude Practicing gratitude can profoundly affect how we see our lives and those around us. Completing gratitude journals and reviewing three positive things that have happened at the end of the day have been shown to decrease depression and promote wellbeing (Shapiro, 2020).
• Behavioral activation Scheduling activities that result in positive emotions can help manage and overcome depression (Behavioral Activation for Depression, n.d.).

Anxiety can stop clients from living their lives fully and experiencing positive emotions. Many interventions can help, including:

• Understanding your anxiety triggers Interoceptive exposure techniques focus on reproducing sensations associated with anxiety and other difficult emotions. Clients benefit from learning to identify anxiety triggers, behavioral changes, and associated bodily sensations (Boettcher et al., 2016).
• Using a building image Clients are asked to form a mental image of themselves as a building. Their description of its state of repair and quality of foundation provides helpful insight into the client’s wellbeing and degree of anxiety (Thomas, 2016).

Grief therapy

Grief therapy helps clients accept reality, process the pain, and adjust to a new world following the loss of a loved one. Several techniques can help, including (modified from (Worden, 2018):

• Creating memory books Compiling a memory book containing photographs, memorabilia, stories, and poems can help families come together, share their grief, and reminisce.
• Directed imagery Like the ‘empty chair’ technique, through imagining the missing loved one in front of them, the grieving person is given the opportunity to talk to them.

Substance abuse

“There has been significant progress and expansion in the development of evidence-based psychosocial treatments for substance abuse and dependence” (Jhanjee, 2014, p. 1). Psychological interventions play a growing role in disorder treatment programs; they include:

• Brief optimistic interventions Brief advice is delivered following screening and assessment to at-risk individuals to reduce drinking and other harmful activities.
• Motivational interviewing This technique involves using targeted questioning while expressing empathy through reflective listening to resolve client ambivalence about their substance abuse.

Marriage therapy

Interventions are a vital aspect of marriage therapy, often targeting communication skills, problem-solving, and taking responsibility (Williams, 2012).

They can include the following interventions:

• Taking responsibility It is vital that clients take responsibility for their actions within a relationship. The counselor will work with the couple, asking the following questions, as required (modified from Williams, 2012):

How have you contributed to the relationship’s problems? What changes are needed to improve the relationship? Are you willing to make the changes needed?

• Create an action plan Once the couple agrees, the changes will be combined into a plan, with specific actions to help them achieve their goal.

Helping cancer patients

“There is no evidence to suggest that having counseling will help treat or cure your cancer”; however, it may help with coping, relationship issues, and dealing with practical problems (Cancer Research UK, 2019, para. 16).

Several counseling interventions that have proven helpful with the psychological burden include (Guo et al., 2013):

• Psychoeducation Sharing the importance of mental wellbeing and coping with the client and involving them in their cancer treatment can reduce anxiety and improve confidence.
• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Replacing incorrect or unhelpful beliefs can help the client achieve a more positive outlook regarding the treatment.

World’s Largest Positive Psychology Resource

The Positive Psychology Toolkit© is a groundbreaking practitioner resource containing over 500 science-based exercises , activities, interventions, questionnaires, and assessments created by experts using the latest positive psychology research.

Updated monthly. 100% Science-based.

“The best positive psychology resource out there!” — Emiliya Zhivotovskaya , Flourishing Center CEO

Career counselors help individuals or groups cope more effectively with career concerns, including (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2017):

• Career choice
• Managing career changes and transitions
• Job-related stress
• Looking for a job

While there are many interventions and strategies, the following are insightful and effective:

• Creating narratives Working with clients to build personal career narratives can help them see their movement through life with more meaning and coherence and better understand their decisions. Such an intervention can be valuable in looking forward and choosing the next steps.
• Group counseling Multiple group sessions can be arranged to cover different aspects of career-related issues and related emotional issues. They may include role-play or open discussion around specific topics.

The ultimate goals are usually to “help group members respond to each other with a combination of therapeutic attending, and sharing their own reactions and related experiences” (Cochran & Cochran, 2015, p. 329).

Examples of group interventions include:

• Circle of friends This group intervention involves gathering a child’s peers into a circle of friendly support to encourage and help them with problem-solving. The intervention has led to increased social acceptance of children with special needs (Magyar-Moe et al., 2015).
• Group mindfulness Mindfulness in group settings has been shown to be physically and mentally beneficial (Shapiro, 2020). New members may start by performing a body-scan meditation where they bring awareness to each part of their body before turning their attention to their breathing.

17 Tools To Increase Motivation and Goal Achievement

These 17 Motivation & Goal Achievement Exercises [PDF] contain all you need to help others set meaningful goals, increase self-drive, and experience greater accomplishment and life satisfaction.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

We have many free interventions, using various approaches and mediums, that support the counseling process and client goal achievement.

• Nudge Interventions in Groups The group provides a valuable setting for exploring the potential of ‘nudges’ to alter behavior in a predictable way.
• Developing Interoceptive Exposure Therapy Interventions This worksheet explores the sensations behind panic attacks and phobias.
• Therapist Interoceptive Exposure Record Use this helpful log to track interoceptive exposure interventions.
• Motivational Interviewing This template uses the five stages of change to consider the client’s readiness for change and the appropriate interventions to use.
• Breaking Out of the Comfort Zone Making changes typically requires clients to step out of their comfort zone. This worksheet identifies opportunities to embrace new challenges.

More extensive versions of the following tools are available with a subscription to the Positive Psychology Toolkit© , but they are described briefly below:

• Benefit finding

Psychological research has identified long-term benefits to using benefit finding, with individuals reporting new appreciation for their strengths and building resilience (e.g., Affleck & Tennen, 1996; Davis et al., 1998; McMillen et al., 1997).

• Begin by talking about a traumatic event.
• Focus on the positive aspects of the experience.
• Consider what the experience has taught you.
• Identify how the experience has helped you grow
• Self-compassion box

Self-compassion is a crucial aspect of our psychological wellbeing, made up of showing ourselves kindness, accepting imperfection, and paying attention to personal suffering with clarity and objectivity.

• Step one – Begin by recognizing the uncompassionate self.
• Step two – Select self-compassion reminders.
• Step three – Redirect attention to self-compassion.
• Step four – Reflect on creating more self-compassion in life.

Over time, the client should see the gaps closing between where they are now and where they want to be.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others reach their goals, check out this collection of 17 validated motivation & goal achievement tools for practitioners. Use them to help others turn their dreams into reality by applying the latest science-based behavioral change techniques.

Counseling uses interventions to create positive change in clients’ lives. They can be performed individually but typically form part of a treatment or intervention plan developed with the client.

Each intervention helps the client work toward their goals, strengthen their capabilities, identify opportunities, increase motivation, and modify behavior.

They aim to create sufficient momentum to support change and avoid the risk of the client reverting, transitioning the client (often one small step at a time) from where they are now to where they want to be.

While some interventions have value in multiple settings – individual, group, career, couples, family – others are specific and purposeful. Many interventions target unhelpful, repetitive thinking patterns and aim to replace harmful thoughts, unrealistic expectations, or biased thinking. Others create a possible future where the client can engage with what might be or could happen , coming to terms with change or their own negative emotions.

Use this article to explore the range of interventions available to counselors in sessions or as homework. Try them out in different settings, working with the client to identify their value or potential for modification.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

• Affleck, G., & Tennen, H. (1996). Construing benefits from adversity: Adaptational significance and dispositional underpinnings. Journal of Personality , 64 , 899–922.
• American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Intervention. In APA dictionary of psychology . Retrieved February 27, 2022, from https://dictionary.apa.org/intervention
• Behavioral Activation for Depression. (n.d.). Retrieved February 16, 2022, from https://medicine.umich.edu/sites/default/files/content/downloads/Behavioral-Activation-for-Depression.pdf
• Boettcher, H., Brake, C. A., & Barlow, D. H. (2016). Origins and outlook of interoceptive exposure. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry , 53 , 41–51.
• Cancer Research UK. (2019). How counselling can help . Retrieved February 28, 2022, from https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/coping/emotionally/talking-about-cancer/counselling/how-counselling-can-help
• Cochran, J. L., & Cochran, N. H. (2015). The heart of counseling: Counseling skills through therapeutic relationships . Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
• Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy . Cengage.
• Davis, C. G., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Larson, J. (1998). Making sense of loss and benefiting from the experience: Two construals of meaning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 75 , 561–574.
• Dobson, K. S. (Ed.) (2010). Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
• Guo, Z., Tang, H. Y., Li, H., Tan, S. K., Feng, K. H., Huang, Y. C., Bu, Q., & Jiang, W. (2013). The benefits of psychosocial interventions for cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes , 11 (1), 1–12.
• GoodTherapy. (2019, September 25). Treatment plan . Retrieved February 27, 2022, from https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/psychpedia/treatment-plan
• Hu, M. X., Turner, D., Generaal, E., Bos, D., Ikram, M. K., Ikram, M. A., Cuijpers, P., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2020). Exercise interventions for the prevention of depression: a systematic review of meta-analyses. BMC Public Health , 20 (1), 1255.
• Jhanjee, S. (2014). Evidence-based psychosocial interventions in substance use. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine , 36 (2), 112–118.
• Magyar-Moe, J. L., Owens, R. L., & Conoley, C. W. (2015). Positive psychological interventions in counseling. The Counseling Psychologist , 43 (4), 508–557.
• McMillen, J. C., Smith, E. M., & Fisher, R. H. (1997). Perceived benefit and mental health after three types of disaster. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 65 , 733–739.
• Michie, S., Atkins, L., & West, R. (2014). The behaviour change wheel: A guide to designing interventions . Silverback.
• Nelson-Jones, R. (2014). Practical counselling and helping skills . Sage.
• Niles, S. G., & Harris-Bowlsbey, J. (2017). Career development interventions . Pearson.
• Shapiro, S. L. (2020). Rewire your mind: Discover the science + practice of mindfulness . Aster.
• Sommers-Flanagan, J., & Sommers-Flanagan, R. (2015). Study guide for counseling and psychotherapy theories in context and practice: Skills, strategies, and techniques (2nd ed.). Wiley.
• Thomas, V. (2016). Using mental imagery in counselling and psychotherapy: A guide to more inclusive theory and practice . Routledge.
• Williams, M. (2012). Couples counseling: A step by step guide for therapists . Viale.
• Worden, J. W. (2018). Grief counseling and grief therapy: A handbook for the mental health practitioner . Springer.

Share this article:

Article feedback

What our readers think.

Hello wonderful staff members, I do hope you are well. I wanted to convey my sincerest gratitude for your free informative resource of brilliant information. I am an adult online psychology first year student as well as a sex therapy student, apart from my brilliant instructors with my sex therapy professors . I am on my own to teach myself with my psychology your resource have been my salvation as an independent psychology learning student. Your articles are all life enhancing written with comprehension and depth while not fraught with verbosity and complex language. I want you to know that your company’s generosity in making these articles free are the missing link in all students who would like to advance their academic careers. With profound appreciation Michelle

Let us know your thoughts Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Related articles

Youth Counseling: 17 Courses & Activities for Helping Teens

From a maturing body and brain to developing life skills and values, the teen years can be challenging, and mental health concerns may arise. Teens [...]

How To Plan Your Counseling Session: 6 Examples

Planning is crucial in a counseling session to ensure that time inside–and outside–therapy sessions is well spent, with the client achieving a successful outcome within [...]

65+ Counseling Methods & Techniques to Apply With Your Clients

Counselors have found it challenging to settle on a single definition of their profession or agree on the best counseling methods and techniques to treat [...]

Read other articles by their category

• Body & Brain (52)
• Coaching & Application (39)
• Compassion (23)
• Counseling (40)
• Emotional Intelligence (22)
• Gratitude (18)
• Grief & Bereavement (18)
• Happiness & SWB (40)
• Meaning & Values (26)
• Meditation (16)
• Mindfulness (40)
• Motivation & Goals (41)
• Optimism & Mindset (29)
• Positive CBT (28)
• Positive Communication (23)
• Positive Education (37)
• Positive Emotions (32)
• Positive Leadership (16)
• Positive Parenting (14)
• Positive Psychology (21)
• Positive Workplace (35)
• Productivity (16)
• Relationships (46)
• Resilience & Coping (39)
• Self Awareness (20)
• Self Esteem (37)
• Strengths & Virtues (29)
• Stress & Burnout Prevention (33)
• Theory & Books (42)
• Therapy Exercises (37)
• Types of Therapy (54)

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• My Bibliography
• Collections
• Citation manager

Save citation to file

Email citation, add to collections.

• Create a new collection
• Add to an existing collection

Add to My Bibliography

Your saved search, create a file for external citation management software, your rss feed.

• Search in PubMed
• Search in NLM Catalog
• Add to Search

Problem-solving interventions and depression among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review of the effectiveness of problem-solving interventions in preventing or treating depression

Affiliations.

• 1 Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States of America.
• 2 Centre for Evidence and Implementation, London, United Kingdom.
• 3 Department of Psychology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States of America.
• 4 Centre for Evidence and Implementation, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
• 5 Department of Social Work, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
• PMID: 37643196
• PMCID: PMC10464969
• DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0285949

Problem-solving (PS) has been identified as a therapeutic technique found in multiple evidence-based treatments for depression. To further understand for whom and how this intervention works, we undertook a systematic review of the evidence for PS's effectiveness in preventing and treating depression among adolescents and young adults. We searched electronic databases (PsycINFO, Medline, and Cochrane Library) for studies published between 2000 and 2022. Studies meeting the following criteria were included: (a) the intervention was described by authors as a PS intervention or including PS; (b) the intervention was used to treat or prevent depression; (c) mean or median age between 13-25 years; (d) at least one depression outcome was reported. Risk of bias of included studies was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2.0 tool. A narrative synthesis was undertaken given the high level of heterogeneity in study variables. Twenty-five out of 874 studies met inclusion criteria. The interventions studied were heterogeneous in population, intervention, modality, comparison condition, study design, and outcome. Twelve studies focused purely on PS; 13 used PS as part of a more comprehensive intervention. Eleven studies found positive effects in reducing depressive symptoms and two in reducing suicidality. There was little evidence that the intervention impacted PS skills or that PS skills acted as a mediator or moderator of effects on depression. There is mixed evidence about the effectiveness of PS as a prevention and treatment of depression among AYA. Our findings indicate that pure PS interventions to treat clinical depression have the strongest evidence, while pure PS interventions used to prevent or treat sub-clinical depression and PS as part of a more comprehensive intervention show mixed results. Possible explanations for limited effectiveness are discussed, including missing outcome bias, variability in quality, dosage, and fidelity monitoring; small sample sizes and short follow-up periods.

Copyright: © 2023 Metz et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Fig 1. PRISMA flow chart of the…

Fig 1. PRISMA flow chart of the study selection process.

Fig 2. Risk of bias summaries.

Similar articles

• Folic acid supplementation and malaria susceptibility and severity among people taking antifolate antimalarial drugs in endemic areas. Crider K, Williams J, Qi YP, Gutman J, Yeung L, Mai C, Finkelstain J, Mehta S, Pons-Duran C, Menéndez C, Moraleda C, Rogers L, Daniels K, Green P. Crider K, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Feb 1;2(2022):CD014217. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD014217. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022. PMID: 36321557 Free PMC article.
• Psychological and/or educational interventions for the prevention of depression in children and adolescents. Merry S, McDowell H, Hetrick S, Bir J, Muller N. Merry S, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(1):CD003380. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003380.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004. Update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Dec 07;(12):CD003380. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003380.pub3. PMID: 14974014 Updated. Review.
• E-Health interventions for anxiety and depression in children and adolescents with long-term physical conditions. Thabrew H, Stasiak K, Hetrick SE, Wong S, Huss JH, Merry SN. Thabrew H, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 15;8(8):CD012489. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012489.pub2. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018. PMID: 30110718 Free PMC article. Review.
• Behavioural modification interventions for medically unexplained symptoms in primary care: systematic reviews and economic evaluation. Leaviss J, Davis S, Ren S, Hamilton J, Scope A, Booth A, Sutton A, Parry G, Buszewicz M, Moss-Morris R, White P. Leaviss J, et al. Health Technol Assess. 2020 Sep;24(46):1-490. doi: 10.3310/hta24460. Health Technol Assess. 2020. PMID: 32975190 Free PMC article.
• Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), third-wave CBT and interpersonal therapy (IPT) based interventions for preventing depression in children and adolescents. Hetrick SE, Cox GR, Witt KG, Bir JJ, Merry SN. Hetrick SE, et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Aug 9;2016(8):CD003380. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003380.pub4. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016. PMID: 27501438 Free PMC article. Review.
• Dietz LJ, Silk J, Amole M. Depressive disorders. In: Ollendick TH, White SW, White BA, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. Oxford University Press, New York, NY; 2019. p. 280–297.
• Merikangas KR, He JP, Burstein M, Swanson SA, Avenevoli S, Cui L, et al.. Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication—Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2010; 49(10), 980–989. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017 - DOI - PMC - PubMed
• Johnsen TJ, Friborg O. The effects of cognitive behavioral therapy as an anti-depressive treatment is falling: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin. 2015; 141(4), 747–768. doi: 10.1037/bul0000015 - DOI - PubMed
• Stice E, Shaw H, Bohon C, Marti CN, Rohde P. A meta-analytic review of depression prevention programs for children and adolescents: factors that predict magnitude of intervention effects. Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology. 2009; 77(3), 486–503. doi: 10.1037/a0015168 - DOI - PMC - PubMed
• Weersing VR, Jeffreys M, Do MT, Schwartz KT, Bolano C. Evidence base update of psychosocial treatments for child and adolescent depression. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 2017; 46(1), 11–43. doi: 10.1080/15374416.2016.1220310 - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Publication types

• Search in MeSH

Related information

Grants and funding.

• WT_/Wellcome Trust/United Kingdom

LinkOut - more resources

Full text sources.

• Europe PubMed Central
• PubMed Central
• Public Library of Science
• MedlinePlus Health Information

Miscellaneous

• NCI CPTAC Assay Portal

• Citation Manager

NCBI Literature Resources

MeSH PMC Bookshelf Disclaimer

The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited.

Math Interventions

• Introduction
• Subitizing Interventions
• Counting Interventions: Whole Numbers Less Than 30
• Counting Interventions: Whole Numbers Greater Than 30 (Place Value)
• Counting Interventions: Fractions
• Counting Interventions: Decimals
• Composing and Decomposing Numbers Interventions
• Rounding Interventions
• Number Sense Lesson Plans
• Addition and Subtraction Facts
• Multiplication and Division Facts
• Computational Fluency Lesson Plans
• Understanding the Problem Interventions
• Planning and Executing a Solution Interventions
• Monitoring Progress & Reflecting on a Solution Interventions
• Problem-Solving Process Interventions

Problem-Solving Process

Response to error: using the problem-solving process, feedback during the lesson, strategies to try after the lesson.

• Problem-Solving Lesson Plans
• Identifying Essential Variables Interventions
• Direct Models Interventions
• Counting On/Back Interventions
• Deriving Interventions
• Interpreting the Results Interventions
• Mathematical Modeling Lesson Plans
• Math Rules and Concepts Interventions
• Math Rules and Concepts Lesson Plans

A student who has difficulty understanding the problem, planning and executing a solution , self-monitoring progress toward a goal, and evaluating a solution will benefit from intervention around the problem-solving process. The following interventions  support  students  in internalizing this process from start to finish. This page includes intervention strategies that you can use to support your students in this area. Remember, if you're teaching a full process from start to finish, you probably want to use the Self-Regulated Strategy Development approach, which spreads explicit instruction of a full process across a series of intervention lessons.  As you read, consider which of these interventions best aligns with your student's strengths and needs in the whole-learner domains.

Self-Regulated Strategy Development 

Self-Regulated Strategy Development (or SRSD) is one way to teach the problem-solving process. The SRSD model "requires teachers to explicitly teach students the use of the strategy, to model the strategy, to cue students to use the strategy, and to scaffold instruction to gradually allow the student to become an independent strategy user." (Reid, Leinemann, & Hagaman, 2013). The steps of teaching SRSD are slightly different from the steps of explicit instruction because, in SRSD, each step must be mastered before the next one is started. For example, you might spend an entire lesson on Developing Background Knowledge before moving on to Discuss It (see below). The longterm goal of SRSD is for students to be able carry out the strategy independently, and so time is dedicated to teaching each step of the strategy in such a manner as enables students to internalize the material. 

Teaching SRSD model requires six steps:

• Develop Background Knowledge. Define the key ideas that students need to know in order to apply the strategy.
• Discuss It. Tell the student what the strategy is called, and describe each step.
• Model It. Use a think-aloud to demonstrate the strategy.
• Memorize It . Internalize strategy.
• Support It. Gradually release responsibility to students.
• Independent performance. Give students opportunities to practice strategy without support.

SRSD Explicit Instruction Six-Step Model: 

To support your students' ability to apply SRSD, you should start by explicitly teaching the six-step model. Keep in mind that this type of explicit instruction may take place over a number of days. 

Step 1: Set the Context for Student Learning and Develop Background Knowledge.  

• Introduce Word Problem Mnemonics, and discuss the use of the mnemonic: "Today you will be learning a new trick to help you solve problems. This strategy is called CUBES." (Teacher gets out chart paper and markers and writes down C, U , B, E, and S vertically.) "CUBES is a self-regulated strategy, which means that you will learn to memorize the strategy and use it without my support. Let's go through each step of CUBES and see how it will help you go through the problem-solving process. First, C-Circle the Numbers" (Teacher write this next to C.) "U - Underline important words." (Teacher writes next to U.)  B- Box the question " (Teache r writes next to B). E- Eliminate unnecessary information. S - Solve and Check. (Teacher writes these terms next to E and S). "Now, what do we need to know when we are doing CUBES?  We need to know which words are important. We also need to eliminate unnecessary information" (Teacher goes on to define these terms.)

Step 2: Discuss It. 

• Discuss the significance and benefits of using CUBES. Discuss and determine goals for using the strategy. At this point, students can examine their past work to set an individual goal: "So, how is a self-regulated strategy going to help us? Well, it gives us an easy way to remember the five steps to solving the problem. How else does it help us?" (Teacher elicits student responses.) "When we are using a SRSD, we ask ourselves questions to make sure we are following the steps. We call these self-statements.  My self-statements are 'What's my first step?' and 'What am I supposed to do now?' I ask myself self-statements so I can make sure that I am using each step of the strategy, and that I don't miss any steps." (Teacher and students discuss benefits of self-statements.)  "Now let's take some time to set goals for using this strategy...." (Teacher and students set goals, such as "students will each have two self-statements they use when employing the CUBE strategy.")

Step 3: Model It.

• The teacher models the strategy using think alouds and self-statements: "Watch as I show you what CUBES looks like when I use it. See if you can notice my self-statements. What am I supposed to do? I'm supposed to to follow the five steps to solve a problem. What is my first step? C. That's right, C. I need to circle the numbers. I'll do that now, and then check that off my CUBE S  list. (Teacher circles numbers). Okay, I'm going to check my CUBES list again. I've already completed C. Now, on to U. I have to Underline important words. (Teacher continues to model the entire CUBES process with 1- 3 problems. The session ends. Teacher starts Model It with new problems on Day 2.)

Step 4: Memorize It . 

• Students memorize the mnemonic and each of the steps of CUBES. The idea is that the students will not be able to implement the strategy if they cannot recall the steps. "Next, we are are going to take some time to memorize each step. What is C?" "Circle the numbers!"What is U?" (Teacher completes this process for all the letters. At this time, students also write the mnemonic down so they can use it as a reference. If they need to, they can come up with a beat or a chant to remember the mnemonic.)

Step 5: Support It.

• In step 5, the teacher gradually releases responsibility to the students. This is the most important stage, especially for struggling readers. In order for students to be able to implement this strategy on their own, they must be supported as needed. Graham, Harris, Mason, and Friedlander (2008), SRSD experts and authors, often tell their teachers, "Please Don't P.E.E. in the Classroom - P ost, E xplain, E xpect. Success with SRSD depends on using all the stages for students who have difficulty with [reading]." SRSD instruction and implementation are only successful when students are given multiple opportunities to practice using their strategy with teacher support before trying it on their own.  "Let's read the next problem and do CUBES together this time..." Teacher follows the steps of gradual release to transfer responsibility to students. The teacher first engages students with guided support. She might read the problem and allow students to complete different parts of the strategy. Then, students might do CUBES in groups. This part of the strategy might take multiple days, until students are effectively completing the strategy by using self-statements. 

Step 6: Independent Practice

• In the final step, students practice using the strategy independently. "Now, you are ready to use CUBES on your own! Remember to use your self-statements, like What do I do next? and What am I supposed to do now? and I'll look at my CUBES sheet to see what I do next. as you employ this strategy!" Teacher circulates and provides support for students who are not yet ready to work independently.  

Activity A: Word Problem Mnemonics

One way to support your student's problem-solving ability is to teach her a mnemonic for a series of steps to take whenever she encounters a story problem. The following brief, developed by the Evidence Based Intervention Network at the University of Missouri, describes this strategy. As you read, consider how each mnemonic breaks down the problem-solving process.

Click here  to read the brief. 

Word Problem Mnemonics in Action

In the video below, Emily Art explicitly models how to use the word mnemonic, CUBES, to teach the problem solving process.

As you watch, consider: How do mnemonics support a student's ability to independently carry out the problem solving process?

Another strategy to use to teach your student the problem-solving process is called Self-Organizing Questions. Gifford (2005) advocates for teaching students a series of questions to ask themselves that will guide them through the problem-solving process. Read through each prompt below and consider its purpose. 

• Getting to Grips:  What are we trying to do?
• Connecting to Prior Knowledge:  Have we done anything like this before?
• Planning:  What do we need?
• Considering Alternative Methods:  Is there another way?
• Monitoring Progress:  How does it look so far?
• Evaluating Solutions:  Does it work?   How can we check? Can we make it better?

  Self-Organizing Questions in Action 

Give the student a problem. Then, go through the six self-organizing questions to guide the student through the problem-solving process. This example refers to the problem below. 

Lamont had 14 pumpkin seeds. He also had 32 apple seeds. He planted 41 of the seeds. How many seeds did Lamont have left?

Teacher: We are going to use the self-organizing questions to solve this problem. Frank, what are we trying to do?

Frank: We are trying to figure out how many seeds Lamont has left, after he plants the pumpkin and apple seeds.

Teacher: Let's think about similar problems we've had in the past. Have we done anything like this before?

Frank: Yes, yesterday, we solved a problem about how many baseball and soccer balls Jamie had. 

Teacher: So, what do we need to do to plan to solve this problem?

Frank: We need to add up the total number of seeds, and then subtract how many he planted.

Teacher: Is there another way to solve this problem?

Frank: We could probably draw it, or use manipulatives to help us. 

Teacher: Okay, go ahead and execute it! How does it look so far?

Frank: It's working for me. I added the types of seeds together, which gave me 46. Then, I subtracted the 41 seeds he planted. That gave me 5 seeds leftover, which seems about right. 

Teacher: How can we check our answer?

Frank: I'll see if I can add it back up. My solution was 5, so I'll add that to 41, which gives me 46. Then, I'll add the number of seeds he had total, which gives me 46! So, it matches!

Activity C: Solve It

If your student has particular struggles with understanding the problem, use Solve It, which is an explicit approach to teaching the problem-solving process, with an emphasis on understanding what the problem is about. The following brief, developed by the Evidence Based Intervention Network at the University of Missouri, describes this strategy. As you read, consider how this approach supports student understanding of problems.

Click  here  to read the brief. 

Solve It in Action Read the sample lesson plan (Montague, 2006) below to see what Solve It looks like in action. For your reference, click here to access a  self-regulation script  for students.

SolveItLesson.pdf

Gifford, S. (2005). Teaching mathematics 3-5: Developing learning in the foundation stage. Berkshire:  McGraw-Hill Education. Graham, S., & Harris, K.R. (2005).  Writing better: Effective strategies for teaching students with learning difficulties.  Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Hughes, E.M. (2011). Intervention Name: Solve It! Columbia, Mo: The Evidence Based Intervention Network, The University of Missouri. Retrieved from https://education.missouri.edu/ebi/math-acquisition/ Hughes, E.M. & Powell, S. (2011). Intervention Name: Word-Problem Mnemonics. Columbia, Mo: The Evidence Based Intervention Network, The University of Missouri. Retrieved from https://education.missouri.edu/ebi/math-acquisition/ Montague, Marjorie. (2006). Self-regulation strategies for better math performance in middle school. In M. Montague and A. Jistendra (Eds.), Teaching mathematics to middle school students with learning disabilities. New York: The Guilford Press.   Reid, R., Lienemann, T. O., & Hagaman, J. L. (2013). Strategy instruction for students with learning disabilities. New York: The Guilford Press.

Think about the following scenario, which takes place after a teacher has explicitly taught a student to use the problem-solving process. The following example refers to the problem below. 

Lamont had 14 pumpkin seeds. He also had 32 apple seeds. He planted 41 of the seeds. How many seeds did Lamont have left?      Teacher: "Now that you understand the problem, what are you doing to do next?"      Student: "Solve it! 41-32 = 9. He had nine seeds left." 

In such a case, what might you do? 

When you are planning your lessons, you should anticipate that your student will make errors throughout. Here are a series of prompts that you can use to respond to errors. Keep in mind that all students are different, and that students might respond better to some types of feedback than to others.

If your student struggles to meet your objective, there are various techniques that you might try in order to adjust the activity so as best to meet your student's needs. 

• << Previous: Monitoring Progress & Reflecting on a Solution Interventions
• Next: Problem-Solving Lesson Plans >>
• Last Updated: Jul 30, 2024 10:23 AM
• URL: https://relay.libguides.com/math-interventions

Problem Solving and Response to Intervention

• First Online: 01 January 2010

Cite this chapter

• William P. Erchul 3 &
• Brian K. Martens 4  

Part of the book series: Issues in Clinical Child Psychology ((ICCP))

4581 Accesses

The practice of school consultation today is quite different from that of the 1990s. Why is that the case? How has school consultation changed? It is the goal of this chapter to explore these complex questions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

APA Presidential Task Force on Evidence-based Practice. (2006). Evidence-based practice in psychology. American Psychologist, 61 , 271-285.

Article   Google Scholar  

Bahr, M. W., Whitten, E., Dieker, L., Kocarek, C. E., & Manson, D. (1999). A comparison of school-based intervention teams: Implications for legal and ethical reforms. Exceptional Children, 66 , 67-83.

Google Scholar  

Bergan, J. R. (1977). Behavioral consultation . Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Bergan, J. R., & Kratochwill, T. R. (1990). Behavioral consultation and therapy . New York: Plenum.

Brown, D., Pryzwansky, W. B., & Schulte, A. C. (2006). Psychological consultation and collaboration: Introduction to theory and practice (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Buffum, A., Mattos, M., & Weber, C. (2009). Pyramid response to intervention: RTI, professional learning communities, and how to respond when kids don’t learn . Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree.

Burns, M. K., Deno, S. L., & Jimerson, S. R. (2007). Toward a unified response-to-intervention model. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 428-440). New York: Springer.

Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools: Procedures to assure scientific-based practices . New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Burns, M. K., Peters, R., & Noell, G. H. (2008). Using performance feedback to enhance implementation fidelity of the problem-solving team process. Journal of School Psychology, 46 , 537-550.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Burns, M., & Symington, T. (2002). A meta-analysis of prereferral intervention teams: Student and systemic outcomes. Journal of School Psychology, 40 , 437-447.

Burns, M. K., Wiley, H. I., & Viglietta, E. (2008). Best practices in effective problem-solving teams. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-V (pp. 1633-1644). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Caplan, G. (1963). Types of mental health consultation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 3 , 470-481.

Caplan, G. (1964). Principles of preventive psychiatry . New York: Basic Books.

Caplan, G., Caplan, R. B., & Erchul, W. P. (1995). A contemporary view of mental health consultation: Comments on “Types of mental health consultation” by Gerald Caplan (1963). Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6 , 23-30.

Conoley, J. C. (1981b). The process of change: The agent of change. In J. C. Conoley (Ed.), Consultation in schools: Theory, research, procedures (pp. 1-10). New York: Academic Press.

Daly, E. J., Witt, J. C., Martens, B. K., & Dool, E. J. (1997). A model for conducting a functional analysis of academic performance problems. School Psychology Review, 26 , 554-574.

Duhon, G. J., Mesmer, E. M., Gregerson, L., & Witt, J. C. (2009). Effects of public feedback during RTI team meetings on teacher implementation integrity and student academic performance. Journal of School Psychology, 47 , 19-37.

Erchul, W. P., & Schulte, A. C. (2009). Behavioral consultation. In A. Akin-Little, S. G. Little, M. A. Bray, & T. J. Kehle (Eds.), Behavioral interventions in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies (pp. 13-25). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Erchul, W. P., & Sheridan, S. M. (2008b). Overview: The state of scientific research in school consultation. In W. P. Erchul & S. M. Sheridan (Eds.), Handbook of research in school consultation: Empirical foundations for the field (pp. 3-12). New York: Taylor & Francis Group/Routledge.

Good, R. H., & Kaminski, R. (2002). Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (6th ed.). Eugene, OR: Institute for Development Development of Educational Achievement. Retrieved from http://dibels.uoregon.edu/

Graden, J. L., Casey, A., & Christenson, S. L. (1985). Implementing a prereferral intervention system: I. The model. Exceptional Children, 51 , 377-384.

Graden, J. L., Stollar, S. A., & Poth, R. L. (2007). The Ohio Integrated Systems Model: Overview and lessons learned. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 288-299). New York: Springer.

Gravois, T. A., Groff, S., & Rosenfield, S. (2009). Teams as value-added consultation services. In T. B. Gutkin & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of school psychology (4th ed., pp. 808-820). New York: Wiley.

Gresham, F. M. (2007). Evolution of the response-to-intervention concept: Empirical foundations and recent developments. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 10-24). New York: Springer.

Gresham, F. M. (2009). Using response to intervention for identification of specific learning disabilities. In A. Akin-Little, S. G. Little, M. A. Bray, & T. J. Kehle (Eds.), Behavioral interventions in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies (pp. 205-220). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Gutkin, T. B., & Curtis, M. J. (2009). School-based consultation: The science and practice of indirect service delivery. In T. B. Gutkin & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of school psychology (4th ed., pp. 591-635). New York: Wiley.

Ikeda, M. J., Neessen, E., & Witt, J. C. (2008). Best practices in universal screening. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-V (pp. 103-114). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (2007). Response to intervention at school: The science and practice of assessment and intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 3-9). New York: Springer.

Knoff, H. M. (2008). Best practices in implementing statewide positive behavioral support systems. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-V (pp. 749-763). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Kratochwill, T. R., Clements, M. A., & Kalymon, K. M. (2007). Response to intervention: Conceptual and methodological issues in implementation. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 25-52). New York: Springer.

Kratochwill, T. R., Hoagwood, K. E., Levitt, J. M., Olin, S., Romanelli, L. H., Frank, J. L., et al. (2009). Evidence-based intervention and practices in school psychology: Challenges and opportunities for the profession. In T. B. Gutkin & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of school psychology (4th ed., pp. 497-521). New York: Wiley.

Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2007). Social behavior assessment and response to intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 161-171). New York: Springer.

Martens, B. K., & DiGennaro, F. D. (2008). Behavioral consultation. In W. P. Erchul & S. M. Sheridan (Eds.), Handbook of research in school consultation: Empirical foundations for the field (pp. 147-170). New York: Taylor & Francis Group/Routledge.

Martens, B. K., & McIntyre, L. L. (2009). The importance of treatment integrity in school-based behavioral intervention. In A. Akin-Little, S. G. Little, M. A. Bray, & T. J. Kehle (Eds.), Behavioral interventions in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies (pp. 59-71). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Merrell, K. W., Ervin, R. A., & Gimpel, G. A. (2006). School psychology for the 21st century: Foundations and practices . New York: Guilford.

Morris, R. J., & Mather, N. (Eds.). (2008). Evidence-based interventions for students with learning and behavioral challenges . New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2009). Digest of educational statistics, 2008 . Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education. Retrieved July 30, 2009 from http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/

Norcross, J. C., Beutler, L. E., & Levant, R. F. (Eds.). (2006). Evidence-based practices in mental health: Debate and dialogue on the fundamental questions . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Ponti, C. R., Zins, J. E., & Graden, J. L. (1988). Implementing a consultation-based service delivery system to decrease referrals for special education: A case study of organizational considerations. School Psychology Review, 17 , 89-100.

Rathvon, N. (2008). Effective school interventions: Evidence-based strategies for improving student outcomes (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.

Reschly, D. J. (2008). School psychology paradigm shift and beyond. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-V (pp. 3-16). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Reschly, D. J., & Bergstrom, M. K. (2009). Response to intervention. In T. B. Gutkin & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of school psychology (4th ed., pp. 434-460). New York: Wiley.

Reynolds, C. R., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2009). Response to intervention: Ready or not? Or, from wait-to-fail to watch-them-fail. School Psychology Quarterly, 34 , 130-145.

Simonsen, B., & Sugai, G. (2009). School-wide positive behavior support: A systems-level application of behavioral principles. In A. Akin-Little, S. G. Little, M. A. Bray, & T. J. Kehle (Eds.), Behavioral interventions in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies (pp. 125-140). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Slonski-Fowler, K. E., & Truscott, S. D. (2004). General education teachers’ perceptions of the prereferral intervention team process. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 15 , 1-39.

Steege, M. W., & Watson, T. S. (2008). Best practices in functional behavioral assessment. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-V (pp. 337-347). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Tilly, W. D. (2008). The evolution of school psychology to science-based practice: Problem solving and the three-tiered model. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-V (pp. 17-35). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Truscott, S. D., Cohen, C. E., Sams, D. P., Sanborn, K. J., & Frank, A. J. (2005). The current state(s) of prereferral intervention teams. Remedial & Special Education, 26 , 130-140.

Witt, J. C., Daly, E. M., & Noell, G. (2000). Functional assessments: A step-by-step guide to solving academic and behavior problems . Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Zins, J. E., & Erchul, W. P. (2002). Best practices in school consultation. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-IV . Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Psychology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695-7650, USA

William P. Erchul

Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, 13244-2340, USA

Brian K. Martens

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to William P. Erchul .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Erchul, W.P., Martens, B.K. (2010). Problem Solving and Response to Intervention. In: School Consultation. Issues in Clinical Child Psychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-5747-4_2

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-5747-4_2

Published : 02 February 2010

Publisher Name : Springer, New York, NY

Print ISBN : 978-1-4419-5746-7

Online ISBN : 978-1-4419-5747-4

eBook Packages : Behavioral Science Behavioral Science and Psychology (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

How to improve your problem solving skills and build effective problem solving strategies

Design your next session with SessionLab

Join the 150,000+ facilitators 
using SessionLab.

Recommended Articles

A step-by-step guide to planning a workshop, 54 great online tools for workshops and meetings, how to create an unforgettable training session in 8 simple steps.

• 18 Free Facilitation Resources We Think You’ll Love

Effective problem solving is all about using the right process and following a plan tailored to the issue at hand. Recognizing your team or organization has an issue isn’t enough to come up with effective problem solving strategies. 

To truly understand a problem and develop appropriate solutions, you will want to follow a solid process, follow the necessary problem solving steps, and bring all of your problem solving skills to the table.   We’ll forst look at what problem solving strategies you can employ with your team when looking for a way to approach the process. We’ll then discuss the problem solving skills you need to be more effective at solving problems, complete with an activity from the SessionLab library you can use to develop that skill in your team.

Let’s get to it! 

Problem solving strategies

What skills do i need to be an effective problem solver, how can i improve my problem solving skills.

Problem solving strategies are methods of approaching and facilitating the process of problem-solving with a set of techniques , actions, and processes. Different strategies are more effective if you are trying to solve broad problems such as achieving higher growth versus more focused problems like, how do we improve our customer onboarding process?

Broadly, the problem solving steps outlined above should be included in any problem solving strategy though choosing where to focus your time and what approaches should be taken is where they begin to differ. You might find that some strategies ask for the problem identification to be done prior to the session or that everything happens in the course of a one day workshop.

The key similarity is that all good problem solving strategies are structured and designed. Four hours of open discussion is never going to be as productive as a four-hour workshop designed to lead a group through a problem solving process.

Good problem solving strategies are tailored to the team, organization and problem you will be attempting to solve. Here are some example problem solving strategies you can learn from or use to get started.

Use a workshop to lead a team through a group process

Often, the first step to solving problems or organizational challenges is bringing a group together effectively. Most teams have the tools, knowledge, and expertise necessary to solve their challenges – they just need some guidance in how to use leverage those skills and a structure and format that allows people to focus their energies.

Facilitated workshops are one of the most effective ways of solving problems of any scale. By designing and planning your workshop carefully, you can tailor the approach and scope to best fit the needs of your team and organization. 

Problem solving workshop

• Creating a bespoke, tailored process
• Tackling problems of any size
• Building in-house workshop ability and encouraging their use

Workshops are an effective strategy for solving problems. By using tried and test facilitation techniques and methods, you can design and deliver a workshop that is perfectly suited to the unique variables of your organization. You may only have the capacity for a half-day workshop and so need a problem solving process to match. 

By using our session planner tool and importing methods from our library of 700+ facilitation techniques, you can create the right problem solving workshop for your team. It might be that you want to encourage creative thinking or look at things from a new angle to unblock your groups approach to problem solving. By tailoring your workshop design to the purpose, you can help ensure great results.

One of the main benefits of a workshop is the structured approach to problem solving. Not only does this mean that the workshop itself will be successful, but many of the methods and techniques will help your team improve their working processes outside of the workshop. 

We believe that workshops are one of the best tools you can use to improve the way your team works together. Start with a problem solving workshop and then see what team building, culture or design workshops can do for your organization!

Run a design sprint

Great for: 

• aligning large, multi-discipline teams
• quickly designing and testing solutions
• tackling large, complex organizational challenges and breaking them down into smaller tasks

By using design thinking principles and methods, a design sprint is a great way of identifying, prioritizing and prototyping solutions to long term challenges that can help solve major organizational problems with quick action and measurable results.

Some familiarity with design thinking is useful, though not integral, and this strategy can really help a team align if there is some discussion around which problems should be approached first. 

The stage-based structure of the design sprint is also very useful for teams new to design thinking.  The inspiration phase, where you look to competitors that have solved your problem, and the rapid prototyping and testing phases are great for introducing new concepts that will benefit a team in all their future work. 

It can be common for teams to look inward for solutions and so looking to the market for solutions you can iterate on can be very productive. Instilling an agile prototyping and testing mindset can also be great when helping teams move forwards – generating and testing solutions quickly can help save time in the long run and is also pretty exciting!

Break problems down into smaller issues

Organizational challenges and problems are often complicated and large scale in nature. Sometimes, trying to resolve such an issue in one swoop is simply unachievable or overwhelming. Try breaking down such problems into smaller issues that you can work on step by step. You may not be able to solve the problem of churning customers off the bat, but you can work with your team to identify smaller effort but high impact elements and work on those first.

This problem solving strategy can help a team generate momentum, prioritize and get some easy wins. It’s also a great strategy to employ with teams who are just beginning to learn how to approach the problem solving process. If you want some insight into a way to employ this strategy, we recommend looking at our design sprint template below!

Use guiding frameworks or try new methodologies

Some problems are best solved by introducing a major shift in perspective or by using new methodologies that encourage your team to think differently.

Props and tools such as Methodkit , which uses a card-based toolkit for facilitation, or Lego Serious Play can be great ways to engage your team and find an inclusive, democratic problem solving strategy. Remember that play and creativity are great tools for achieving change and whatever the challenge, engaging your participants can be very effective where other strategies may have failed.

LEGO Serious Play

• Improving core problem solving skills
• Thinking outside of the box
• Encouraging creative solutions

LEGO Serious Play is a problem solving methodology designed to get participants thinking differently by using 3D models and kinesthetic learning styles. By physically building LEGO models based on questions and exercises, participants are encouraged to think outside of the box and create their own responses. 

Collaborate LEGO Serious Play exercises are also used to encourage communication and build problem solving skills in a group. By using this problem solving process, you can often help different kinds of learners and personality types contribute and unblock organizational problems with creative thinking. 

Problem solving strategies like LEGO Serious Play are super effective at helping a team solve more skills-based problems such as communication between teams or a lack of creative thinking. Some problems are not suited to LEGO Serious Play and require a different problem solving strategy.

Card Decks and Method Kits

• New facilitators or non-facilitators 
• Approaching difficult subjects with a simple, creative framework
• Engaging those with varied learning styles

Card decks and method kids are great tools for those new to facilitation or for whom facilitation is not the primary role. Card decks such as the emotional culture deck can be used for complete workshops and in many cases, can be used right out of the box. Methodkit has a variety of kits designed for scenarios ranging from personal development through to personas and global challenges so you can find the right deck for your particular needs.

Having an easy to use framework that encourages creativity or a new approach can take some of the friction or planning difficulties out of the workshop process and energize a team in any setting. Simplicity is the key with these methods. By ensuring everyone on your team can get involved and engage with the process as quickly as possible can really contribute to the success of your problem solving strategy.

Source external advice

Looking to peers, experts and external facilitators can be a great way of approaching the problem solving process. Your team may not have the necessary expertise, insights of experience to tackle some issues, or you might simply benefit from a fresh perspective. Some problems may require bringing together an entire team, and coaching managers or team members individually might be the right approach. Remember that not all problems are best resolved in the same manner.

If you’re a solo entrepreneur, peer groups, coaches and mentors can also be invaluable at not only solving specific business problems, but in providing a support network for resolving future challenges. One great approach is to join a Mastermind Group and link up with like-minded individuals and all grow together. Remember that however you approach the sourcing of external advice, do so thoughtfully, respectfully and honestly. Reciprocate where you can and prepare to be surprised by just how kind and helpful your peers can be!

Mastermind Group

• Solo entrepreneurs or small teams with low capacity
• Peer learning and gaining outside expertise
• Getting multiple external points of view quickly

Problem solving in large organizations with lots of skilled team members is one thing, but how about if you work for yourself or in a very small team without the capacity to get the most from a design sprint or LEGO Serious Play session? 

A mastermind group – sometimes known as a peer advisory board – is where a group of people come together to support one another in their own goals, challenges, and businesses. Each participant comes to the group with their own purpose and the other members of the group will help them create solutions, brainstorm ideas, and support one another. 

Mastermind groups are very effective in creating an energized, supportive atmosphere that can deliver meaningful results. Learning from peers from outside of your organization or industry can really help unlock new ways of thinking and drive growth. Access to the experience and skills of your peers can be invaluable in helping fill the gaps in your own ability, particularly in young companies.

A mastermind group is a great solution for solo entrepreneurs, small teams, or for organizations that feel that external expertise or fresh perspectives will be beneficial for them. It is worth noting that Mastermind groups are often only as good as the participants and what they can bring to the group. Participants need to be committed, engaged and understand how to work in this context. 

Coaching and mentoring

• Focused learning and development
• Filling skills gaps
• Working on a range of challenges over time

Receiving advice from a business coach or building a mentor/mentee relationship can be an effective way of resolving certain challenges. The one-to-one format of most coaching and mentor relationships can really help solve the challenges those individuals are having and benefit the organization as a result.

A great mentor can be invaluable when it comes to spotting potential problems before they arise and coming to understand a mentee very well has a host of other business benefits. You might run an internal mentorship program to help develop your team’s problem solving skills and strategies or as part of a large learning and development program. External coaches can also be an important part of your problem solving strategy, filling skills gaps for your management team or helping with specific business issues. 

Now we’ve explored the problem solving process and the steps you will want to go through in order to have an effective session, let’s look at the skills you and your team need to be more effective problem solvers.

Problem solving skills are highly sought after, whatever industry or team you work in. Organizations are keen to employ people who are able to approach problems thoughtfully and find strong, realistic solutions. Whether you are a facilitator , a team leader or a developer, being an effective problem solver is a skill you’ll want to develop.

Problem solving skills form a whole suite of techniques and approaches that an individual uses to not only identify problems but to discuss them productively before then developing appropriate solutions.

Here are some of the most important problem solving skills everyone from executives to junior staff members should learn. We’ve also included an activity or exercise from the SessionLab library that can help you and your team develop that skill. 

If you’re running a workshop or training session to try and improve problem solving skills in your team, try using these methods to supercharge your process!

Active listening

Active listening is one of the most important skills anyone who works with people can possess. In short, active listening is a technique used to not only better understand what is being said by an individual, but also to be more aware of the underlying message the speaker is trying to convey. When it comes to problem solving, active listening is integral for understanding the position of every participant and to clarify the challenges, ideas and solutions they bring to the table.

Some active listening skills include:

• Paying complete attention to the speaker.
• Removing distractions.
• Avoid interruption.
• Taking the time to fully understand before preparing a rebuttal.
• Responding respectfully and appropriately.
• Demonstrate attentiveness and positivity with an open posture, making eye contact with the speaker, smiling and nodding if appropriate. Show that you are listening and encourage them to continue.
• Be aware of and respectful of feelings. Judge the situation and respond appropriately. You can disagree without being disrespectful.   
• Observe body language. 
• Paraphrase what was said in your own words, either mentally or verbally.
• Remain neutral. 
• Reflect and take a moment before responding.
• Ask deeper questions based on what is said and clarify points where necessary.   

Active Listening   #hyperisland   #skills   #active listening   #remote-friendly   This activity supports participants to reflect on a question and generate their own solutions using simple principles of active listening and peer coaching. It’s an excellent introduction to active listening but can also be used with groups that are already familiar with it. Participants work in groups of three and take turns being: “the subject”, the listener, and the observer.

Analytical skills

All problem solving models require strong analytical skills, particularly during the beginning of the process and when it comes to analyzing how solutions have performed.

Analytical skills are primarily focused on performing an effective analysis by collecting, studying and parsing data related to a problem or opportunity. 

It often involves spotting patterns, being able to see things from different perspectives and using observable facts and data to make suggestions or produce insight. 

Analytical skills are also important at every stage of the problem solving process and by having these skills, you can ensure that any ideas or solutions you create or backed up analytically and have been sufficiently thought out.

Nine Whys   #innovation   #issue analysis   #liberating structures   With breathtaking simplicity, you can rapidly clarify for individuals and a group what is essentially important in their work. You can quickly reveal when a compelling purpose is missing in a gathering and avoid moving forward without clarity. When a group discovers an unambiguous shared purpose, more freedom and more responsibility are unleashed. You have laid the foundation for spreading and scaling innovations with fidelity.

Collaboration

Trying to solve problems on your own is difficult. Being able to collaborate effectively, with a free exchange of ideas, to delegate and be a productive member of a team is hugely important to all problem solving strategies.

Remember that whatever your role, collaboration is integral, and in a problem solving process, you are all working together to find the best solution for everyone. 

Marshmallow challenge with debriefing   #teamwork   #team   #leadership   #collaboration   In eighteen minutes, teams must build the tallest free-standing structure out of 20 sticks of spaghetti, one yard of tape, one yard of string, and one marshmallow. The marshmallow needs to be on top. The Marshmallow Challenge was developed by Tom Wujec, who has done the activity with hundreds of groups around the world. Visit the Marshmallow Challenge website for more information. This version has an extra debriefing question added with sample questions focusing on roles within the team.

Communication  

Being an effective communicator means being empathetic, clear and succinct, asking the right questions, and demonstrating active listening skills throughout any discussion or meeting. 

In a problem solving setting, you need to communicate well in order to progress through each stage of the process effectively. As a team leader, it may also fall to you to facilitate communication between parties who may not see eye to eye. Effective communication also means helping others to express themselves and be heard in a group.

Bus Trip   #feedback   #communication   #appreciation   #closing   #thiagi   #team   This is one of my favourite feedback games. I use Bus Trip at the end of a training session or a meeting, and I use it all the time. The game creates a massive amount of energy with lots of smiles, laughs, and sometimes even a teardrop or two.

Creative problem solving skills can be some of the best tools in your arsenal. Thinking creatively, being able to generate lots of ideas and come up with out of the box solutions is useful at every step of the process. 

The kinds of problems you will likely discuss in a problem solving workshop are often difficult to solve, and by approaching things in a fresh, creative manner, you can often create more innovative solutions.

Having practical creative skills is also a boon when it comes to problem solving. If you can help create quality design sketches and prototypes in record time, it can help bring a team to alignment more quickly or provide a base for further iteration.

The paper clip method   #sharing   #creativity   #warm up   #idea generation   #brainstorming   The power of brainstorming. A training for project leaders, creativity training, and to catalyse getting new solutions.

Critical thinking

Critical thinking is one of the fundamental problem solving skills you’ll want to develop when working on developing solutions. Critical thinking is the ability to analyze, rationalize and evaluate while being aware of personal bias, outlying factors and remaining open-minded.

Defining and analyzing problems without deploying critical thinking skills can mean you and your team go down the wrong path. Developing solutions to complex issues requires critical thinking too – ensuring your team considers all possibilities and rationally evaluating them. 

Agreement-Certainty Matrix   #issue analysis   #liberating structures   #problem solving   You can help individuals or groups avoid the frequent mistake of trying to solve a problem with methods that are not adapted to the nature of their challenge. The combination of two questions makes it possible to easily sort challenges into four categories: simple, complicated, complex , and chaotic .  A problem is simple when it can be solved reliably with practices that are easy to duplicate.  It is complicated when experts are required to devise a sophisticated solution that will yield the desired results predictably.  A problem is complex when there are several valid ways to proceed but outcomes are not predictable in detail.  Chaotic is when the context is too turbulent to identify a path forward.  A loose analogy may be used to describe these differences: simple is like following a recipe, complicated like sending a rocket to the moon, complex like raising a child, and chaotic is like the game “Pin the Tail on the Donkey.”  The Liberating Structures Matching Matrix in Chapter 5 can be used as the first step to clarify the nature of a challenge and avoid the mismatches between problems and solutions that are frequently at the root of chronic, recurring problems.

Data analysis 

Though it shares lots of space with general analytical skills, data analysis skills are something you want to cultivate in their own right in order to be an effective problem solver.

Being good at data analysis doesn’t just mean being able to find insights from data, but also selecting the appropriate data for a given issue, interpreting it effectively and knowing how to model and present that data. Depending on the problem at hand, it might also include a working knowledge of specific data analysis tools and procedures. 

Having a solid grasp of data analysis techniques is useful if you’re leading a problem solving workshop but if you’re not an expert, don’t worry. Bring people into the group who has this skill set and help your team be more effective as a result.

Decision making

All problems need a solution and all solutions require that someone make the decision to implement them. Without strong decision making skills, teams can become bogged down in discussion and less effective as a result. 

Making decisions is a key part of the problem solving process. It’s important to remember that decision making is not restricted to the leadership team. Every staff member makes decisions every day and developing these skills ensures that your team is able to solve problems at any scale. Remember that making decisions does not mean leaping to the first solution but weighing up the options and coming to an informed, well thought out solution to any given problem that works for the whole team.

Lightning Decision Jam (LDJ)   #action   #decision making   #problem solving   #issue analysis   #innovation   #design   #remote-friendly   The problem with anything that requires creative thinking is that it’s easy to get lost—lose focus and fall into the trap of having useless, open-ended, unstructured discussions. Here’s the most effective solution I’ve found: Replace all open, unstructured discussion with a clear process. What to use this exercise for: Anything which requires a group of people to make decisions, solve problems or discuss challenges. It’s always good to frame an LDJ session with a broad topic, here are some examples: The conversion flow of our checkout Our internal design process How we organise events Keeping up with our competition Improving sales flow

Dependability

Most complex organizational problems require multiple people to be involved in delivering the solution. Ensuring that the team and organization can depend on you to take the necessary actions and communicate where necessary is key to ensuring problems are solved effectively.

Being dependable also means working to deadlines and to brief. It is often a matter of creating trust in a team so that everyone can depend on one another to complete the agreed actions in the agreed time frame so that the team can move forward together. Being undependable can create problems of friction and can limit the effectiveness of your solutions so be sure to bear this in mind throughout a project. 

Team Purpose & Culture   #team   #hyperisland   #culture   #remote-friendly   This is an essential process designed to help teams define their purpose (why they exist) and their culture (how they work together to achieve that purpose). Defining these two things will help any team to be more focused and aligned. With support of tangible examples from other companies, the team members work as individuals and a group to codify the way they work together. The goal is a visual manifestation of both the purpose and culture that can be put up in the team’s work space.

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is an important skill for any successful team member, whether communicating internally or with clients or users. In the problem solving process, emotional intelligence means being attuned to how people are feeling and thinking, communicating effectively and being self-aware of what you bring to a room. 

There are often differences of opinion when working through problem solving processes, and it can be easy to let things become impassioned or combative. Developing your emotional intelligence means being empathetic to your colleagues and managing your own emotions throughout the problem and solution process. Be kind, be thoughtful and put your points across care and attention. 

Being emotionally intelligent is a skill for life and by deploying it at work, you can not only work efficiently but empathetically. Check out the emotional culture workshop template for more!

Facilitation

As we’ve clarified in our facilitation skills post, facilitation is the art of leading people through processes towards agreed-upon objectives in a manner that encourages participation, ownership, and creativity by all those involved. While facilitation is a set of interrelated skills in itself, the broad definition of facilitation can be invaluable when it comes to problem solving. Leading a team through a problem solving process is made more effective if you improve and utilize facilitation skills – whether you’re a manager, team leader or external stakeholder.

The Six Thinking Hats   #creative thinking   #meeting facilitation   #problem solving   #issue resolution   #idea generation   #conflict resolution   The Six Thinking Hats are used by individuals and groups to separate out conflicting styles of thinking. They enable and encourage a group of people to think constructively together in exploring and implementing change, rather than using argument to fight over who is right and who is wrong.

Flexibility 

Being flexible is a vital skill when it comes to problem solving. This does not mean immediately bowing to pressure or changing your opinion quickly: instead, being flexible is all about seeing things from new perspectives, receiving new information and factoring it into your thought process.

Flexibility is also important when it comes to rolling out solutions. It might be that other organizational projects have greater priority or require the same resources as your chosen solution. Being flexible means understanding needs and challenges across the team and being open to shifting or arranging your own schedule as necessary. Again, this does not mean immediately making way for other projects. It’s about articulating your own needs, understanding the needs of others and being able to come to a meaningful compromise.

The Creativity Dice   #creativity   #problem solving   #thiagi   #issue analysis   Too much linear thinking is hazardous to creative problem solving. To be creative, you should approach the problem (or the opportunity) from different points of view. You should leave a thought hanging in mid-air and move to another. This skipping around prevents premature closure and lets your brain incubate one line of thought while you consciously pursue another.

Working in any group can lead to unconscious elements of groupthink or situations in which you may not wish to be entirely honest. Disagreeing with the opinions of the executive team or wishing to save the feelings of a coworker can be tricky to navigate, but being honest is absolutely vital when to comes to developing effective solutions and ensuring your voice is heard. 

Remember that being honest does not mean being brutally candid. You can deliver your honest feedback and opinions thoughtfully and without creating friction by using other skills such as emotional intelligence. 

Explore your Values   #hyperisland   #skills   #values   #remote-friendly   Your Values is an exercise for participants to explore what their most important values are. It’s done in an intuitive and rapid way to encourage participants to follow their intuitive feeling rather than over-thinking and finding the “correct” values. It is a good exercise to use to initiate reflection and dialogue around personal values.

Initiative 

The problem solving process is multi-faceted and requires different approaches at certain points of the process. Taking initiative to bring problems to the attention of the team, collect data or lead the solution creating process is always valuable. You might even roadtest your own small scale solutions or brainstorm before a session. Taking initiative is particularly effective if you have good deal of knowledge in that area or have ownership of a particular project and want to get things kickstarted.

That said, be sure to remember to honor the process and work in service of the team. If you are asked to own one part of the problem solving process and you don’t complete that task because your initiative leads you to work on something else, that’s not an effective method of solving business challenges.

15% Solutions   #action   #liberating structures   #remote-friendly   You can reveal the actions, however small, that everyone can do immediately. At a minimum, these will create momentum, and that may make a BIG difference.  15% Solutions show that there is no reason to wait around, feel powerless, or fearful. They help people pick it up a level. They get individuals and the group to focus on what is within their discretion instead of what they cannot change.  With a very simple question, you can flip the conversation to what can be done and find solutions to big problems that are often distributed widely in places not known in advance. Shifting a few grains of sand may trigger a landslide and change the whole landscape.

Impartiality

A particularly useful problem solving skill for product owners or managers is the ability to remain impartial throughout much of the process. In practice, this means treating all points of view and ideas brought forward in a meeting equally and ensuring that your own areas of interest or ownership are not favored over others. 

There may be a stage in the process where a decision maker has to weigh the cost and ROI of possible solutions against the company roadmap though even then, ensuring that the decision made is based on merit and not personal opinion. 

Empathy map   #frame insights   #create   #design   #issue analysis   An empathy map is a tool to help a design team to empathize with the people they are designing for. You can make an empathy map for a group of people or for a persona. To be used after doing personas when more insights are needed.

Being a good leader means getting a team aligned, energized and focused around a common goal. In the problem solving process, strong leadership helps ensure that the process is efficient, that any conflicts are resolved and that a team is managed in the direction of success.

It’s common for managers or executives to assume this role in a problem solving workshop, though it’s important that the leader maintains impartiality and does not bulldoze the group in a particular direction. Remember that good leadership means working in service of the purpose and team and ensuring the workshop is a safe space for employees of any level to contribute. Take a look at our leadership games and activities post for more exercises and methods to help improve leadership in your organization.

Leadership Pizza   #leadership   #team   #remote-friendly   This leadership development activity offers a self-assessment framework for people to first identify what skills, attributes and attitudes they find important for effective leadership, and then assess their own development and initiate goal setting.

In the context of problem solving, mediation is important in keeping a team engaged, happy and free of conflict. When leading or facilitating a problem solving workshop, you are likely to run into differences of opinion. Depending on the nature of the problem, certain issues may be brought up that are emotive in nature. 

Being an effective mediator means helping those people on either side of such a divide are heard, listen to one another and encouraged to find common ground and a resolution. Mediating skills are useful for leaders and managers in many situations and the problem solving process is no different.

Conflict Responses   #hyperisland   #team   #issue resolution   A workshop for a team to reflect on past conflicts, and use them to generate guidelines for effective conflict handling. The workshop uses the Thomas-Killman model of conflict responses to frame a reflective discussion. Use it to open up a discussion around conflict with a team.

Planning 

Solving organizational problems is much more effective when following a process or problem solving model. Planning skills are vital in order to structure, deliver and follow-through on a problem solving workshop and ensure your solutions are intelligently deployed.

Planning skills include the ability to organize tasks and a team, plan and design the process and take into account any potential challenges. Taking the time to plan carefully can save time and frustration later in the process and is valuable for ensuring a team is positioned for success.

3 Action Steps   #hyperisland   #action   #remote-friendly   This is a small-scale strategic planning session that helps groups and individuals to take action toward a desired change. It is often used at the end of a workshop or programme. The group discusses and agrees on a vision, then creates some action steps that will lead them towards that vision. The scope of the challenge is also defined, through discussion of the helpful and harmful factors influencing the group.

Prioritization

As organisations grow, the scale and variation of problems they face multiplies. Your team or is likely to face numerous challenges in different areas and so having the skills to analyze and prioritize becomes very important, particularly for those in leadership roles.

A thorough problem solving process is likely to deliver multiple solutions and you may have several different problems you wish to solve simultaneously. Prioritization is the ability to measure the importance, value, and effectiveness of those possible solutions and choose which to enact and in what order. The process of prioritization is integral in ensuring the biggest challenges are addressed with the most impactful solutions.

Impact and Effort Matrix   #gamestorming   #decision making   #action   #remote-friendly   In this decision-making exercise, possible actions are mapped based on two factors: effort required to implement and potential impact. Categorizing ideas along these lines is a useful technique in decision making, as it obliges contributors to balance and evaluate suggested actions before committing to them.

Project management

Some problem solving skills are utilized in a workshop or ideation phases, while others come in useful when it comes to decision making. Overseeing an entire problem solving process and ensuring its success requires strong project management skills. 

While project management incorporates many of the other skills listed here, it is important to note the distinction of considering all of the factors of a project and managing them successfully. Being able to negotiate with stakeholders, manage tasks, time and people, consider costs and ROI, and tie everything together is massively helpful when going through the problem solving process. 

Record keeping

Working out meaningful solutions to organizational challenges is only one part of the process.  Thoughtfully documenting and keeping records of each problem solving step for future consultation is important in ensuring efficiency and meaningful change. 

For example, some problems may be lower priority than others but can be revisited in the future. If the team has ideated on solutions and found some are not up to the task, record those so you can rule them out and avoiding repeating work. Keeping records of the process also helps you improve and refine your problem solving model next time around!

Personal Kanban   #gamestorming   #action   #agile   #project planning   Personal Kanban is a tool for organizing your work to be more efficient and productive. It is based on agile methods and principles.

Research skills

Conducting research to support both the identification of problems and the development of appropriate solutions is important for an effective process. Knowing where to go to collect research, how to conduct research efficiently, and identifying pieces of research are relevant are all things a good researcher can do well. 

In larger groups, not everyone has to demonstrate this ability in order for a problem solving workshop to be effective. That said, having people with research skills involved in the process, particularly if they have existing area knowledge, can help ensure the solutions that are developed with data that supports their intention. Remember that being able to deliver the results of research efficiently and in a way the team can easily understand is also important. The best data in the world is only as effective as how it is delivered and interpreted.

Customer experience map   #ideation   #concepts   #research   #design   #issue analysis   #remote-friendly   Customer experience mapping is a method of documenting and visualizing the experience a customer has as they use the product or service. It also maps out their responses to their experiences. To be used when there is a solution (even in a conceptual stage) that can be analyzed.

Risk management

Managing risk is an often overlooked part of the problem solving process. Solutions are often developed with the intention of reducing exposure to risk or solving issues that create risk but sometimes, great solutions are more experimental in nature and as such, deploying them needs to be carefully considered. 

Managing risk means acknowledging that there may be risks associated with more out of the box solutions or trying new things, but that this must be measured against the possible benefits and other organizational factors. 

Be informed, get the right data and stakeholders in the room and you can appropriately factor risk into your decision making process. 

Decisions, Decisions…   #communication   #decision making   #thiagi   #action   #issue analysis   When it comes to decision-making, why are some of us more prone to take risks while others are risk-averse? One explanation might be the way the decision and options were presented.  This exercise, based on Kahneman and Tversky’s classic study , illustrates how the framing effect influences our judgement and our ability to make decisions . The participants are divided into two groups. Both groups are presented with the same problem and two alternative programs for solving them. The two programs both have the same consequences but are presented differently. The debriefing discussion examines how the framing of the program impacted the participant’s decision.

Team-building 

No single person is as good at problem solving as a team. Building an effective team and helping them come together around a common purpose is one of the most important problem solving skills, doubly so for leaders. By bringing a team together and helping them work efficiently, you pave the way for team ownership of a problem and the development of effective solutions. 

In a problem solving workshop, it can be tempting to jump right into the deep end, though taking the time to break the ice, energize the team and align them with a game or exercise will pay off over the course of the day.

Remember that you will likely go through the problem solving process multiple times over an organization’s lifespan and building a strong team culture will make future problem solving more effective. It’s also great to work with people you know, trust and have fun with. Working on team building in and out of the problem solving process is a hallmark of successful teams that can work together to solve business problems.

9 Dimensions Team Building Activity   #ice breaker   #teambuilding   #team   #remote-friendly   9 Dimensions is a powerful activity designed to build relationships and trust among team members. There are 2 variations of this icebreaker. The first version is for teams who want to get to know each other better. The second version is for teams who want to explore how they are working together as a team.

Time management 

The problem solving process is designed to lead a team from identifying a problem through to delivering a solution and evaluating its effectiveness. Without effective time management skills or timeboxing of tasks, it can be easy for a team to get bogged down or be inefficient.

By using a problem solving model and carefully designing your workshop, you can allocate time efficiently and trust that the process will deliver the results you need in a good timeframe.

Time management also comes into play when it comes to rolling out solutions, particularly those that are experimental in nature. Having a clear timeframe for implementing and evaluating solutions is vital for ensuring their success and being able to pivot if necessary.

Improving your skills at problem solving is often a career-long pursuit though there are methods you can use to make the learning process more efficient and to supercharge your problem solving skillset.

Remember that the skills you need to be a great problem solver have a large overlap with those skills you need to be effective in any role. Investing time and effort to develop your active listening or critical thinking skills is valuable in any context. Here are 7 ways to improve your problem solving skills.

Share best practices

Remember that your team is an excellent source of skills, wisdom, and techniques and that you should all take advantage of one another where possible. Best practices that one team has for solving problems, conducting research or making decisions should be shared across the organization. If you have in-house staff that have done active listening training or are data analysis pros, have them lead a training session. 

Your team is one of your best resources. Create space and internal processes for the sharing of skills so that you can all grow together. 

Ask for help and attend training

Once you’ve figured out you have a skills gap, the next step is to take action to fill that skills gap. That might be by asking your superior for training or coaching, or liaising with team members with that skill set. You might even attend specialized training for certain skills – active listening or critical thinking, for example, are business-critical skills that are regularly offered as part of a training scheme.

Whatever method you choose, remember that taking action of some description is necessary for growth. Whether that means practicing, getting help, attending training or doing some background reading, taking active steps to improve your skills is the way to go.

Learn a process 

Problem solving can be complicated, particularly when attempting to solve large problems for the first time. Using a problem solving process helps give structure to your problem solving efforts and focus on creating outcomes, rather than worrying about the format. 

Tools such as the seven-step problem solving process above are effective because not only do they feature steps that will help a team solve problems, they also develop skills along the way. Each step asks for people to engage with the process using different skills and in doing so, helps the team learn and grow together. Group processes of varying complexity and purpose can also be found in the SessionLab library of facilitation techniques . Using a tried and tested process and really help ease the learning curve for both those leading such a process, as well as those undergoing the purpose.

Effective teams make decisions about where they should and shouldn’t expend additional effort. By using a problem solving process, you can focus on the things that matter, rather than stumbling towards a solution haphazardly. 

Create a feedback loop

Some skills gaps are more obvious than others. It’s possible that your perception of your active listening skills differs from those of your colleagues. 

It’s valuable to create a system where team members can provide feedback in an ordered and friendly manner so they can all learn from one another. Only by identifying areas of improvement can you then work to improve them. 

Remember that feedback systems require oversight and consideration so that they don’t turn into a place to complain about colleagues. Design the system intelligently so that you encourage the creation of learning opportunities, rather than encouraging people to list their pet peeves.

While practice might not make perfect, it does make the problem solving process easier. If you are having trouble with critical thinking, don’t shy away from doing it. Get involved where you can and stretch those muscles as regularly as possible. 

Problem solving skills come more naturally to some than to others and that’s okay. Take opportunities to get involved and see where you can practice your skills in situations outside of a workshop context. Try collaborating in other circumstances at work or conduct data analysis on your own projects. You can often develop those skills you need for problem solving simply by doing them. Get involved!

Use expert exercises and methods

Learn from the best. Our library of 700+ facilitation techniques is full of activities and methods that help develop the skills you need to be an effective problem solver. Check out our templates to see how to approach problem solving and other organizational challenges in a structured and intelligent manner.

There is no single approach to improving problem solving skills, but by using the techniques employed by others you can learn from their example and develop processes that have seen proven results. 

Try new ways of thinking and change your mindset

Using tried and tested exercises that you know well can help deliver results, but you do run the risk of missing out on the learning opportunities offered by new approaches. As with the problem solving process, changing your mindset can remove blockages and be used to develop your problem solving skills.

Most teams have members with mixed skill sets and specialties. Mix people from different teams and share skills and different points of view. Teach your customer support team how to use design thinking methods or help your developers with conflict resolution techniques. Try switching perspectives with facilitation techniques like Flip It! or by using new problem solving methodologies or models. Give design thinking, liberating structures or lego serious play a try if you want to try a new approach. You will find that framing problems in new ways and using existing skills in new contexts can be hugely useful for personal development and improving your skillset. It’s also a lot of fun to try new things. Give it a go!

Encountering business challenges and needing to find appropriate solutions is not unique to your organization. Lots of very smart people have developed methods, theories and approaches to help develop problem solving skills and create effective solutions. Learn from them!

Books like The Art of Thinking Clearly , Think Smarter, or Thinking Fast, Thinking Slow are great places to start, though it’s also worth looking at blogs related to organizations facing similar problems to yours, or browsing for success stories. Seeing how Dropbox massively increased growth and working backward can help you see the skills or approach you might be lacking to solve that same problem. Learning from others by reading their stories or approaches can be time-consuming but ultimately rewarding.

A tired, distracted mind is not in the best position to learn new skills. It can be tempted to burn the candle at both ends and develop problem solving skills outside of work. Absolutely use your time effectively and take opportunities for self-improvement, though remember that rest is hugely important and that without letting your brain rest, you cannot be at your most effective. 

Creating distance between yourself and the problem you might be facing can also be useful. By letting an idea sit, you can find that a better one presents itself or you can develop it further. Take regular breaks when working and create a space for downtime. Remember that working smarter is preferable to working harder and that self-care is important for any effective learning or improvement process.

Want to design better group processes?

Over to you

Now we’ve explored some of the key problem solving skills and the problem solving steps necessary for an effective process, you’re ready to begin developing more effective solutions and leading problem solving workshops.

Need more inspiration? Check out our post on problem solving activities you can use when guiding a group towards a great solution in your next workshop or meeting. Have questions? Did you have a great problem solving technique you use with your team? Get in touch in the comments below. We’d love to chat!

James Smart is Head of Content at SessionLab. He’s also a creative facilitator who has run workshops and designed courses for establishments like the National Centre for Writing, UK. He especially enjoys working with young people and empowering others in their creative practice.

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Going from a mere idea to a workshop that delivers results for your clients can feel like a daunting task. In this piece, we will shine a light on all the work behind the scenes and help you learn how to plan a workshop from start to finish. On a good day, facilitation can feel like effortless magic, but that is mostly the result of backstage work, foresight, and a lot of careful planning. Read on to learn a step-by-step approach to breaking the process of planning a workshop into small, manageable chunks.  The flow starts with the first meeting with a client to define the purposes of a workshop.…

Effective online tools are a necessity for smooth and engaging virtual workshops and meetings. But how do you choose the right ones? Do you sometimes feel that the good old pen and paper or MS Office toolkit and email leaves you struggling to stay on top of managing and delivering your workshop? Fortunately, there are plenty of great workshop tools to make your life easier when you need to facilitate a meeting and lead workshops. In this post, we’ll share our favorite online tools you can use to make your life easier and run better workshops and meetings. In fact, there are plenty of free online workshop tools and meeting…

How does learning work? A clever 9-year-old once told me: “I know I am learning something new when I am surprised.” The science of adult learning tells us that, in order to learn new skills (which, unsurprisingly, is harder for adults to do than kids) grown-ups need to first get into a specific headspace.  In a business, this approach is often employed in a training session where employees learn new skills or work on professional development. But how do you ensure your training is effective? In this guide, we'll explore how to create an effective training session plan and run engaging training sessions. As team leader, project manager, or consultant,…

Design your next workshop with SessionLab

Join the 150,000 facilitators using SessionLab

Sign up for free