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Ultimate Guide to the AP Research Course and Assessment

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The Advanced Placement (AP) curriculum is administered by the College Board and serves as a standardized set of year-long high school classes that are roughly equivalent to one semester of college-level coursework. Although most students enroll in an actual course to prepare for their AP exams, many others will self-study for the exams without enrolling in the actual AP class.

AP classes are generally stand-alone subjects that easily translate to traditional college courses. Typically, they culminate in a standardized exam on which students are graded using a 5-point scale, which colleges and universities will use to determine credit or advanced standing. Starting in fall of 2014, though, this traditional AP course and exam format has begun to adapt in efforts by the College Board to reflect less stringent rote curriculum and a heavier emphasis on critical thinking skills.

The AP Capstone program is at the center of these changes, and its culmination course is AP Research. If you are interested in learning more about the AP Research Course and Assessment, and how they can prepare you for college-level work, read on for CollegeVine’s Ultimate Guide to the AP Research Course and Assessment.

About the Course and Assessment

The AP Research course is the second of two classes required for the AP Capstone™ Diploma . In order to enroll in this course you need to have completed the AP Seminar course during a previous year. Through that course, you will have learned to collect and analyze information with accuracy and precision, developed arguments based on facts, and effectively communicated your conclusions. During the AP Research course, you apply these skills on a larger platform. In the AP Research course, you can expect to learn and apply research methods and practices to address a real-world topic of your choosing, with the end result being the production and defense of a scholarly academic paper. Students who receive a score of 3 or higher on both the AP Seminar and AP Research courses earn an AP Seminar and Research Certificate™. Students who receive a score of 3 or higher on both courses and on four additional AP exams of their choosing receive the AP Capstone Diploma™.    

The AP Research course will guide you through the design, planning, and implementation of a year-long, research-based investigation to address a research question of interest to you. While working with an expert advisor, chosen by you with the help of your teacher, you will explore an academic topic, problem, or issue of your choosing and cultivate the skills and discipline necessary to conduct independent research and produce and defend a scholarly academic paper. Through explicit instruction in research methodology, ethical research practices, and documentation processes, you will develop a portfolio of scholarly work to frame your research paper and subsequent presentation of it.

Although the core content and skills remain standardized for every AP Research course, the implementation of this instruction may vary. Some AP Research courses may have a specific disciplinary focus wherein the course content is rooted in a specific subject, such as AP Research STEM Inquiries or AP Research Performing and Visual Arts. Similarly, other AP Research courses are offered in conjunction with a separate and specific AP class, such as AP Research and AP Biology wherein students are concurrently enrolled in both AP courses and content is presented in a cross-curricular approach. Alternatively, AP Research may be presented in the form of an internship wherein students who are already working with a discipline-specific expert adviser conduct independent studies and research of the student’s choosing while taking the AP Research class. Finally, some AP Research courses are delivered independently as a research methods class. In this style of class, students develop inquiry methods for the purpose of determining which method best fits their chosen topic of inquiry/research question, and each student then uses a selected method to complete his or her investigation.    

Only schools that currently offer the AP Capstone Diploma may offer the AP Research course. Because it is a part of a larger comprehensive, skills-based program, students may not self-study for the AP Research course or final paper. At this time, home-schooled students, home-school organizations, and online providers are not eligible to participate in AP Capstone.

Your performance in the AP Research course is assessed through two performance tasks. The first is the Academic Paper, which accounts for 75% of your total AP score. In this paper, you will present the findings of your yearlong research in 4,000-5,000 words. Although the official submission deadline for this task is April 30, the College Board strongly recommends that this portion of your assessment be completed by April 15 in order to allow enough time for the second of your performance tasks.

The second performance task is your Presentation and Oral Defense, which accounts for the remaining 25% of your total AP score. Using your research topic, your will prepare a 15-20 minute presentation in an appropriate format with appropriate accompanying media. Your defense will include fielding three to four questions from a panel consisting of your AP Research teacher and two additional panel members chosen at the discretion of your teacher.    

In 2016, fewer than 3,000 students submitted an AP Research project, but enrollment is projected to grow rapidly, since 12,000 students took the AP Seminar assessment in 2016 and most will presumably go on to submit an AP Research project in 2017. Scores from the 2016 AP Research projects reveal a high pass rate (score of three or higher) but a difficult rate of mastery. While 67.1% of students taking the assessments scored a three or higher, only 11.6% received the highest score of a five, while nearly 40% received a three. Only 2% of students submitting research projects received the lowest score of one.    

A full course description that can help to guide your planning and understanding of the knowledge required for the AP Research course and assessments can be found in the College Board course description .

Read on for tips for successfully completing the AP Research course.

How Should I Prepare for the AP Research Course?

As you undertake the AP Research course and performance tasks, you will be expected to conduct research, write a scholarly paper, and defend your work in a formal presentation.   Having already completed the AP Seminar course, these skills should be familiar to you. You should use your scores on the AP Seminar performance task to help guide your preparations for the AP Research performance tasks.

Carefully review your scores from AP Seminar. Make sure you understand where points were lost and why. It may be helpful to schedule a meeting with your AP Seminar teacher to review your work. Alternatively, your AP Research teacher may be willing to go over your AP Seminar projects with you. You might also ask a classmate to review your projects together to get a better idea of where points were earned and where points were lost. Use this review as a jumping point for your AP Research studies. You should go into the course with a good idea of where your strengths lie, and where you need to focus on improving.

A sample timeline for the AP Research course is available on page 36 of the course description . One detail worth noting is that the recommended timeline actually begins not in September with the start of the new school year, but instead begins in May with the completion of the AP Seminar course during the previous school year. It is then that you should begin to consider research topics, problems, or ideas. By September of the following school year, it is recommended that you have already finalized a research question and proposal, completed an annotated bibliography, and prepared to begin a preliminary inquiry proposal for peer review.    

What Content Will I Be Held Accountable For During the AP Research Course?

To be successful in the AP Research class, you will begin with learning to investigate relevant topics, compose insightful problem statements, and develop compelling research questions, with consideration of scope, to extend your thinking.   Your teacher will expect you to demonstrate perseverance through setting goals, managing time, and working independently on a long-term project. Specifically, you will prepare for your research project by:

• Identifying, applying, and implementing appropriate methods for research and data collection
• Accessing information using effective strategies
• Evaluating the relevance and credibility of information from sources and data
• Reading a bibliography for the purpose of understanding that it is a source for other research and for determining context, credibility, and scope
• Attributing knowledge and ideas accurately and ethically, using an appropriate citation style
• Evaluating strengths and weaknesses of others’ inquiries and studies

As in the AP Research course, you will continue to investigate real-world issues from multiple perspectives, gathering and analyzing information from various sources in order to develop credible and valid evidence- based arguments. You will accomplish this through instruction in the AP Research Big Ideas, also called the QUEST Framework. These include:

• Question and Explore: Questioning begins with an initial exploration of complex topics or issues. Perspectives and questions emerge that spark one’s curiosity, leading to an investigation that challenges and expands the boundaries of one’s current knowledge.
• Understand and Analyze Arguments: Understanding various perspectives requires contextualizing arguments and evaluating the authors’ claims and lines of reasoning.
• Evaluate Multiple Perspectives: Evaluating an issue involves considering and evaluating multiple perspectives, both individually and in comparison to one another.
• Synthesize Ideas: Synthesizing others’ ideas with one’s own may lead to new understandings and is the foundation of a well-reasoned argument that conveys one’s perspective.
• Team, Transform, and Transmit: Teaming allows one to combine personal strengths and talents with those of others to reach a common goal. Transformation and growth occur upon thoughtful reflection. Transmitting requires the adaptation of one’s message based on audience and context.

In addition, you will use four distinct reasoning processes as you approach your research. The reasoning processes are situating, choosing, defending , and connecting . When you situate ideas, you are aware of their context in your own perspective and the perspective of others, ensuring that biases do not lead to false assumptions. When you make choices about ideas and themes, you recognize that these choices will have both intended and unintentional consequences. As you defend your choices, you explain and justify them using a logical line of reasoning. Finally, when you connect ideas you see intersections within and/or across concepts, disciplines, and cultures.

For a glossary of research terms that you should become familiar with, see page 62 of the course description .

How Will I Know If I’m Doing Well in the AP Research Course?

Because your entire score for the AP Research course is determined by your research paper and presentation, which come at the very end of the course, it can be difficult to gauge your success until that point. Do yourself a favor and do not wait until your final scores come back to determine how successful you have been in the course.

As you undertake the AP Research course, there will be many opportunities for formative assessments throughout the semester. These assessments are used to give both you and your teacher an idea of the direction of instruction needed for you to master the skills required in the AP Research course. You should use these assessments to your advantage and capitalize on the feedback you receive through each. A list of possible activities used for these assessments can be found on page 41 of the course description .

Another way that you and your teacher will track your progress is through your Process and Reflection Portfolio (PREP). The PREP serves to document your development as you investigate your research questions, thereby providing evidence that you have demonstrated a sustained effort during the entire inquiry process. You will review your PREP periodically with your teacher, who will use it as a formative assessment to evaluate your progress.

Throughout the course, you will be assigned prompts and questions to respond to in your PREP. You will use this portfolio to document your research or artistic processes, communication with your expert adviser, and reflections on your thought processes. You should also write freely, journaling about your strengths and weaknesses with regard to implementing such processes and developing your arguments or aesthetic rationales. 

Your final PREP should include:

• Table of contents
• Completed and approved proposal form
• Specific pieces of work selected by the student to represent what he or she considers to be the best showcase for his or her work. (Examples might include: in-class (teacher-directed) free-writing about the inquiry process, resource list, annotated bibliography of any source important to the student’s work, photographs, charts, spreadsheets, and/or links to videos or other relevant visual research/project artifacts, draft versions of selected sections of the academic paper, or notes in preparation for presentation and oral defense.)
• Documentation of permission(s) received from primary sources, if required — for example, permission(s) from an IRB or other agreements with individuals, institutions, or organizations that provide primary and private data such as interviews, surveys, or investigations
• Documentation or log of the student’s interaction with expert adviser(s) and the role the expert adviser(s) played in the student’s learning and inquiry process (e.g., What areas of expertise did the expert adviser have that the student needed to draw from? Did the student get the help he or she needed — and if not, what did he or she do to ensure that the research process was successful? Which avenues of exploration did the expert adviser help the student to discover?)
• Questions asked to and feedback received from peer and adult reviewers both in the initial stages and at key points along the way
• Reflection on whether or not the feedback was accepted or rejected and why
• Attestation signed by the student which states, “I hereby affirm that the work contained in this Process and Reflection Portfolio is my own and that I have read and understand the AP Capstone TM Policy on Plagiarism and Falsification or Fabrication of Information”

It cannot be stressed enough how important it is to maintain strong communications with your teacher as you progress through the AP Research course. Not only is your teacher your best resource for learning new skills and knowledge, but also it is your teacher who will be responsible for grading your final performance tasks and as such, you should always have a strong understanding of how your work is being assessed and the ways in which you can improve it. Remember, your teacher wants you to succeed just as much as you do; work together as a team to optimize your chances.

How Should I Choose a Research Topic?

You will begin to consider research topics before the school year even starts. If your AP Research class is offered in conjunction with another course, such as those rooted in a specific subject or linked to another concurrent AP course, you will have some idea of the direction in which your research should head. Regardless of whether you know the precise subject matter of your topic, you should begin by asking yourself what you want to know, learn, or understand. The AP Research class provides a unique opportunity for you to guide your own learning in a direction that is genuinely interesting to you. You will find your work more engaging, exciting, and worthwhile if you choose a topic that you want to learn more about.

As you begin to consider research topics, you should:

• Develop a list of topics and high-level questions that spark your interest to engage in an individual research project
• Identify potential expert advisers to guide you in the planning and development of your research project (For tips on how to find a mentor, read CollegeVine’s “ How to Choose a Winning Science Fair Project Idea ”)
• Identify potential opportunities (if you are interested) to perform primary research with an expert adviser during the summer, via internships or summer research projects for high school students offered in the community and local higher education institutions
• Discuss research project planning skills and ideas with students who are currently taking or have already taken the AP Research course

You might also find inspiration from reading about past AP Research topics. One list of potential research questions can be found here and another can be found here . Keep in mind that these lists make great starting points and do a good job of getting you thinking about important subjects, but your research topic should ultimately be something that you develop independently as the result of careful introspection, discussions with your teacher and peers, and your own preliminary research.

Finally, keep in mind that if you pursue a research project that involves human subjects, your proposal will need to be reviewed and approved by an institutional review board (IRB) before experimentation begins. Talk with your teacher to decide if this is the right path for you before you get too involved in a project that may not be feasible.

Once you have decided on a research topic, complete an Inquiry Proposal Form. This will be distributed by your teacher and can also be found on page 55 of the course description .

How Do I Conduct My Research?

By the time you begin your AP Research course, you will have already learned many of the basics about research methods during your AP Seminar course. You should be comfortable collecting and analyzing information with accuracy and precision, developing arguments based on facts, and effectively communicating your point of view. These will be essential skills as you move forward in your AP Research project.

As you undertake your work, remember the skills you’ve already learned about research:

• Use strategies to aid your comprehension as you tackle difficult texts.
• Identify the author’s main idea and the methods that he or she uses to support it.
• Think about biases and whether other perspectives are acknowledged.
• Assess the strength of research, products, and arguments.
• Look for patterns and trends as you strive to make connections between multiple arguments.
• Think about what other issues, questions, or topics could be explored further.

You should be certain to keep track of all sources used in your research and cite them appropriately. The College Board has a strict policy against plagiarism. You can read more about its specifics on page 60 of the course description .

How Do I Write My Paper?

Before you begin writing your final paper, make sure to thoroughly read the Task Overview handout which will be distributed by your teacher. If you would like to see it beforehand, it can be found on page 56 of the course description . You should also review the outline of required paper sections on page 49 of the course description .

Your paper must contain the following sections:

› Introduction

› Method, Process, or Approach

› Results, Product, or Findings

› Discussion, Analysis, and/or Evaluation

› Conclusion and Future Directions

› Bibliography

Before you begin writing, organize your ideas and findings into an outline using the sections listed above. Be sure to consider how you can connect and analyze the evidence in order to develop an argument and support a conclusion. Also think about if there are any alternate conclusions that could be supported by your evidence and how you can acknowledge and account for your own biases and assumptions. 

Begin your paper by introducing and contextualizing your research question or problem. Make sure to include your initial assumptions and/or hypothesis. Next, include a literature review of previous work in the field and various perspectives on your topic. Use the literature review to highlight the gap in the current field of knowledge to be addressed by your research project. Then, explain and justify your methodology, present your findings, evidence, or data, and interpret the significance of these findings. Discuss implications for further research or limitations of your existing project. Finally, reflect on the project, how it could impact its field, and any possible next steps. Your paper should conclude with a comprehensive bibliography including all of the sources used in your process.

Make sure to proofread and edit your paper yourself, have it proofread and edited by a friend, and then proofread and edit it again before you complete your final draft.

How Do I Prepare For My Oral Defense?

Once your paper is finished, you may be tempted to sit back and rest on your laurels. Although you’ve no doubt expended a tremendous about of energy in producing a final product you can be proud of, don’t forget that the work is not over yet. Your oral defense accounts for 25% of your total score so it should be taken seriously.

Your oral defense is a 15-20 minute presentation that uses appropriate media to present your findings to an oral defense panel. You may choose any appropriate format for your presentation, as long as the presentation reflects the depth of your research. If your academic paper was accompanied by an additional piece of scholarly work (e.g., performance, exhibit, product), you should arrange with your teacher for him or her, along with the panelists, to view the scholarly work prior to your presentation.

As you plan your presentation, consider how you can best appeal to your audience. Consider different mediums for your presentation, and how those mediums might affect your credibility as a presenter. You want to be engaging to your audience while still being taken seriously.

Following your presentation, you will field three or four questions from your panelists. These will include one question pertaining to your research or inquiry process, one question focused on your depth of understanding, and one question about your reflection throughout the inquiry process as evidenced in your PREP. The fourth question and any follow-up questions are at the discretion of the panel. A list of sample oral defense questions begins on page 52 of the course description . For a complete outline of the oral defense, see page 49 of the course description . 

How Will My Work Be Assessed?

Because this assessment is only available to students enrolled in the AP Capstone program, your teacher will register you for the assessment when you enroll in the course. You should confirm with your teacher that you are registered for the assessment no later than March 1. 

You will submit your final paper and complete your oral presentation no later than April 30, at which point your teacher will submit your work and scores through an AP Digital Portfolio. Your presentation will be scored by your teacher alone. Your paper will be scored by your teacher and validated by the College Board.

You may find the scoring rubric from the 2016 performance tasks available here . You may find a collection authentic student research papers and scoring explanations available here .

Preparing for any AP assessment can be a stressful process. Having a specific plan of attack and a firm grasp of how your work is assessed will help you to feel prepared and score well. Use CollegeVine’s Ultimate Guide to the AP Research Course and Assessment to help shape your understanding of the course and how to complete your performance tasks effectively. When submission day arrives, you should feel better prepared and informed about the work you have produced.

For more about information about APs, check out these CollegeVine posts:

• Can AP Tests Actually Save You Thousands of Dollars?

• Should I Take AP/IB/Honors Classes?

• How to Choose Which AP Courses and Exams to Take

• What If My School Doesn’t Offer AP or IB Courses?

• Are All APs Created Equal in Admissions?

Want access to expert college guidance — for free? When you create your free CollegeVine account, you will find out your real admissions chances, build a best-fit school list, learn how to improve your profile, and get your questions answered by experts and peers—all for free. Sign up for your CollegeVine account today to get a boost on your college journey.

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The Ultimate Guide to Acing the AP Research Exam

By Eric Eng

Are you looking for tips and strategies to conquer the AP Research Exam? Look no further! This comprehensive guide will break down everything you need to know to ace this challenging test. From understanding the importance of the exam to studying effectively, we’ve got you covered. Let’s dive in!

What is the AP Research Exam?

The AP Research Exam is a rigorous assessment administered by the College Board . It is part of the Advanced Placement (AP) Program, which offers college-level courses and exams to high school students. AP Research is the culmination of the AP Capstone Diploma program and is designed to provide students with valuable research skills that are applicable across various disciplines.

The exam is typically taken in the final year of high school and requires students to complete a major academic research project. This project allows students to explore a research question or problem of their choice, design a study, analyze data, and present their findings in a written report and an oral presentation.

Undertaking the AP Research Exam is a significant endeavor that requires students to demonstrate their ability to think critically, analyze complex information, and communicate their findings effectively. The exam is divided into the academic paper and the presentation. The academic paper is a written document that showcases the student’s research process, including the research question, methodology, data analysis, and conclusions. The presentation, on the other hand, allows students to present their research findings concisely and engagingly.

One of the key aspects of the AP Research Exam is the freedom it offers students in choosing their research topic. This allows students to explore their interests and passions, making the research process more engaging and meaningful. Whether it’s investigating the impact of climate change on local ecosystems, analyzing the effectiveness of educational policies, or exploring the cultural significance of art forms, students can delve into a subject they are truly passionate about.

Students are encouraged to think critically and problem-solve throughout the research process. They must identify gaps in existing research, develop research questions that address them, and design appropriate methodologies to gather and analyze data. This enhances their research skills and fosters a deeper understanding of the subject matter they are studying.

Moreover, the AP Research Exam equips students with valuable skills that extend beyond the classroom. The ability to conduct independent research, analyze data, and present findings is highly valued in college and professional settings. By successfully completing the AP Research Exam, students demonstrate their readiness for higher education and the workforce challenges.

In conclusion, the AP Research Exam is a comprehensive assessment that allows high school students to showcase their research skills and explore a topic of their choice. Through completing a major academic research project, students develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills essential for college success and beyond. The exam provides a valuable learning experience and prepares students for the rigors of higher education and the demands of the modern workforce.

What is on the AP Research Exam?

The AP Research Exam includes an academic paper, presentation, and oral defense. The academic paper is a written report that outlines your research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions. The presentation and oral defense require you to present a summary of your research and answer questions from a panel of evaluators.

It is crucial to thoroughly understand and demonstrate proficiency in the following skills to excel in the AP Research Exam:

• Formulating a research question
• Conducting literature reviews
• Designing and executing a research plan
• Analyzing and interpreting data
• Communicating research findings effectively

Formulating a research question is the first step in conducting any research. It involves identifying a specific problem or topic of interest and formulating a clear and concise question you seek to answer through your research. This skill requires critical thinking and identifying gaps in existing knowledge.

Conducting literature reviews is an essential part of any research project. It involves searching for and reviewing relevant academic articles, books, and other information sources related to your research question. This skill requires strong research skills and synthesizing information from multiple sources.

Designing and executing a research plan involves developing a detailed plan for how you will collect and analyze data to answer your research question . This includes selecting appropriate research methods, determining the sample size, and ensuring that ethical considerations are considered. This skill requires careful planning and attention to detail.

Analyzing and interpreting data is a critical skill in research. It involves organizing and summarizing data, identifying patterns and trends, and drawing meaningful conclusions. This skill requires proficiency in statistical analysis and critically evaluating the findings’ significance.

Communicating research findings effectively is the final step in the research process. It involves presenting your findings clearly and concisely in writing and orally. This skill requires strong communication skills and the ability to convey complex information to various audiences effectively.

Following the Understanding by Design (Wiggins and McTighe) model, the curriculum framework aims to offer a precise and comprehensive outline of the necessary course requirements for achieving student success. This conceptual approach will direct the creation and arrangement of learning outcomes, progressing from broad to specific, ultimately resulting in focused statements concerning the content knowledge and skills essential for excelling in the course.

The AP Research curriculum comprises five overarching concepts. As always, you can structure the course content as you see fit.

• Big Idea 1: Question and Explore
• Big Idea 2: Understand and Analyze 
• Big Idea 3: Evaluate Multiple Perspectives
• Big Idea 4: Synthesize Ideas
• Big Idea 5: Team, Transform, and Transmit

The course and exam description for AP Research delineates specific abilities, referred to as transferable skills and proficiencies, which students are encouraged to cultivate and apply consistently throughout the academic year.

AP Research Exam Scoring Breakdown

The AP Research Exam is an important assessment that allows students to showcase their research skills and academic abilities. It is scored on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest score. The exam consists of three major components: the academic paper, the presentation, and the oral defense. Each component is evaluated based on specific criteria and rubrics provided by the College Board.

The academic paper, which accounts for 75% of the total score, is a comprehensive research document that demonstrates a student’s ability to conduct independent research, analyze data, and draw meaningful conclusions. This paper is a culmination of months of hard work and dedication, and it is crucial for students to carefully review the scoring guidelines to understand what the evaluators are looking for.

These components contribute to the remaining 25% of the total score regarding the presentation and oral defense. The presentation allows students to communicate their research findings to an audience effectively. It requires strong public speaking skills and creating visually engaging and informative slides. On the other hand, the oral defense is a chance for students to defend their research and respond to questions from a panel of evaluators.

Students need to approach the AP Research Exam with a strategic mindset. By thoroughly understanding the scoring breakdown and the expectations set by the College Board, students can tailor their preparation to maximize their scores. This may involve seeking feedback from teachers or mentors, conducting practice presentations, and revising the academic paper to ensure it meets the highest standards.

Furthermore, the AP Research Exam is an opportunity for students to earn college credit and develop valuable skills that will benefit them in their future academic and professional endeavors. Through conducting research, students learn how to formulate research questions, gather and analyze data, and present their findings clearly and concisely. These highly transferable skills will serve students well in college and beyond.

The AP Research Exam is a comprehensive assessment that evaluates students’ research skills and academic abilities. Students can increase their chances of earning a high score by understanding the scoring breakdown and investing time and effort into each component. Moreover, the skills developed throughout this process will prove valuable in future academic and professional pursuits.

Why is the AP Research Exam important?

The AP Research Exam holds significant value for students for several reasons. Firstly, successfully completing the AP Research course and exam signals to colleges and universities that you have demonstrated high research skills and academic rigor. This can give you a competitive edge in the college admissions process.

AP programs are designed to provide high school students with college-level content, allowing them to earn college credit and potentially skip introductory-level courses when they enter college. Here are key aspects of Advanced Placement programs:

1. Course Offerings:

• AP courses cover a wide range of subjects, including but not limited to mathematics, sciences, social sciences, languages, arts, and humanities. Each AP course is designed to reflect the content and difficulty of a comparable introductory college-level course.

2. Curriculum Rigor:

• AP courses are known for their challenging curriculum. They go beyond the depth and complexity of typical high school courses, requiring students to engage in critical thinking, analysis, and application of knowledge.

3. Exam Structure:

• Each AP course culminates in a standardized exam administered by the College Board. The exams typically consist of a multiple-choice section and a free-response section. The exams are scored on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest possible score.

4. College Credit and Placement:

• A primary incentive for students to take AP courses is the opportunity to earn college credit. Many colleges and universities in the United States and worldwide recognize high AP exam scores and may grant credit or advanced placement to students who perform well.

5. College Admissions:

• Completing AP courses and performing well on the exams can enhance a student’s college application. Colleges often view participation in AP programs as an indicator of a student’s commitment to academic excellence and preparedness for the challenges of higher education.

6. Flexibility and Choice:

• Students can take one or more AP courses based on their interests and academic goals. The program’s flexibility allows students to tailor their coursework to align with their intended college majors or career paths.

7. Global Recognition:

• AP programs are recognized globally, and students from various countries participate in AP courses and exams. This international recognition can be advantageous for students considering higher education abroad.

8. AP Capstone Program:

• The AP Capstone Program is a set of two courses, AP Seminar and AP Research, designed to develop students’ research, collaboration, and presentation skills. Completion of the AP Capstone Program is recognized by colleges as a significant academic accomplishment.

9. Professional Development for Teachers:

• The College Board provides professional development opportunities for teachers who instruct AP courses. This training ensures that educators are well-prepared to deliver the rigorous content of AP programs.

Important Notes:

• Student Choice: While participation in AP programs is encouraged, students must choose courses that align with their interests and academic strengths.
• Preparation: Success in AP courses often requires strong study habits, time management, and dedication. Adequate preparation is crucial for performing well on AP exams.
• College Policies: College credit policies vary, and students need to research the credit-granting policies of the specific colleges they plan to apply to.

Here are other reasons why the AP Research exam is important:

• Opportunity to delve deep into a personally interesting topic.
• Focus on cultivating critical thinking skills.
• Emphasis on honing problem-solving abilities.
• Skills acquired are highly valued in higher education.
• Skills are transferable and beneficial in the workforce.
• The AP Research Exam contributes to personal growth and future success.
• Showcases the ability to conduct independent research.
• Demonstrates proficiency in analyzing complex information.
• Signals readiness to excel in a rigorous academic environment.
• Encourages the exploration of personal interests.
• Provides a structured and academic framework for pursuing passions.
• Allows the selection of a captivating research topic.
• Immersion in a subject of genuine passion.
• Facilitates a more fulfilling and rewarding learning journey.
• Encourages engagement and enthusiasm throughout the course.
• Challenge to analyze complex issues.
• Emphasis on evaluating evidence and drawing reasoned conclusions.
• Applicability of skills not only in academia but also in real-world scenarios.
• Opportunities for collaboration with peers.
• Development of effective communication skills through projects and presentations.
• Preparation for an interconnected world that values teamwork.
• Acquisition of valuable research skills.
• Ability to gather and analyze data.
• Proficiency in conducting literature reviews and presenting findings.
• Ethical Considerations in Research:
• Understanding the importance of ethical considerations.
• Learning about the responsible conduct of research.
• Ensuring integrity and respect for the rights and well-being of research participants.

The AP Research Exam is an important milestone for students, offering numerous benefits beyond earning college credit. It provides an opportunity to showcase research skills, explore personal interests, develop critical thinking abilities, foster collaboration, and acquire valuable research skills. By successfully completing the AP Research Exam, students enhance their college applications and gain a solid foundation for future academic and professional success.

Who should take the AP Research Exam?

The AP Research Exam is designed for students who have completed the AP Research course, which is part of the AP Capstone Program. Here are the key considerations for determining who should take the AP Research exam:

Enrollment in AP Research Course:

Students typically take the AP Research Exam after completing the AP Research course. This course is part of the AP Capstone Program and provides students with the opportunity to conduct independent research on a topic of their choice.

Completion of Prerequisites:

Students should have successfully completed any prerequisites for the AP Research course as determined by their school. Prerequisites may vary, but they often include completion of other AP courses or specific coursework in research-related skills .

Interest in Independent Research:

The AP Research Exam suits students who are genuinely interested in conducting independent research. Students should be motivated to explore a research question in depth and demonstrate their ability to design, implement, and present a research project.

Commitment to the Research Process:

Students taking the AP Research Exam should be willing to commit time and effort to the research process. This includes formulating a research question, conducting a literature review, designing a methodology, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting findings.

Effective Communication Skills:

The exam includes an oral presentation and defense, requiring students to communicate their research process and findings effectively. Students should be comfortable presenting their work and responding to questions from a panel of evaluators.

Academic Preparedness:

AP Research Exam students should be academically prepared to engage in a rigorous research project. This includes critically analyzing research literature, designing a research plan, and demonstrating a deep understanding of the subject matter.

Desire for College-Level Challenge:

The AP Capstone Program, including AP Research, is designed to provide students with a college-level academic experience. Students seeking a challenging and intellectually stimulating course beyond the typical high school curriculum may find the AP Research Exam suitable.

College and Career Goals:

Students considering the AP Research Exam should reflect on their college and career goals. If their intended field of study or future career involves research, critical analysis, and effective communication, the experience gained through the AP Research course and exam can be highly beneficial.

Do colleges care about the AP Research exam?

Colleges often view the AP Research Exam, part of the AP Capstone Program, as a valuable and rigorous academic achievement. The AP Capstone Program, consisting of AP Seminar and AP Research, is designed to cultivate students’ research, analysis, and effective communication skills. Here are several reasons why colleges may value the AP Research Exam:

1. Research and Inquiry Skills:

• The AP Research course focuses on research methodology, allowing students to design, execute, and present an academic research project. Colleges appreciate students who have honed these critical research and inquiry skills, as they are applicable across various academic disciplines.

2. Preparation for College-Level Work:

• Engaging in the AP Capstone Program, including AP Research, gives students a taste of college-level research and inquiry. The skills developed in the course can contribute to a smoother transition to the demands of higher education.

3. Interdisciplinary Approach:

• AP Research encourages an interdisciplinary research approach. Colleges often appreciate students who can bridge the gap between different fields of study, as this mirrors the collaborative nature of academic research.

4. Independent Learning:

• The nature of the AP Research course requires students to work independently on a research project. Colleges value students who can take initiative, manage their time effectively, and demonstrate self-directed learning.

5. Critical Thinking and Analysis:

• The AP Research Exam assesses students’ ability to analyze and synthesize information critically. These skills are highly transferable and crucial for success in college and beyond.

6. Communication Skills:

• Presenting research findings is a key component of the AP Research Exam. Colleges appreciate students who can effectively communicate their ideas, as strong communication skills are essential in academia and many professional fields.

7. Preparation for Advanced Courses:

• Completing the AP Capstone Program, including the AP Research Exam, can signal to colleges that students are prepared for more advanced and specialized courses in their chosen field of study.

8. Unique Accomplishment:

• The AP Research Exam is a unique accomplishment that sets students apart. Not all high school students have the opportunity to engage in such advanced research projects, making it a distinctive aspect of a student’s academic profile.
• College-Specific Policies: While many colleges recognize the value of the AP Research Exam, its importance may vary among institutions. Students are encouraged to research the specific policies of the colleges they are interested in.
• Holistic Admissions: Colleges typically use a holistic admissions process, considering a variety of factors in addition to standardized test scores and AP exams. The AP Research Exam is considered within the broader context of a student’s academic achievements, extracurricular activities, and personal qualities.

How hard is the AP Research Exam?

The difficulty level of the AP Research Exam varies from student to student. As with any challenging exam, the difficulty level depends on various factors, including your preparation, study habits, and prior research experience. However, you can overcome the challenges and succeed with the right approach and dedication.

Regarding the AP Research Exam, it is important to note that the content of the exam itself does not solely determine the difficulty level. The exam assesses your ability to conduct independent research and evaluate sources critically. Therefore, the difficulty lies in your ability to effectively apply research methods and analytical skills to a research question or problem.

One factor that can influence the difficulty level of the exam is your level of preparation. The AP Research course is designed to help you develop the necessary skills and knowledge to tackle the exam successfully. Through coursework, discussions, and practice assignments, you will learn how to formulate research questions, design studies, collect and analyze data, and communicate your findings effectively. The more time and effort you invest in your preparation, the better equipped you will be to handle the challenges of the exam.

Another factor that can impact the difficulty level is your study habits. Effective time management, organization, and self-discipline are crucial when preparing for the AP Research Exam. By creating a study schedule, breaking down the material into manageable chunks, and consistently reviewing and practicing, you can enhance your understanding of the content and improve your performance on the exam .

Prior research experience can also play a role in determining the difficulty level of the exam. Suppose you have had previous exposure to conducting research projects or have participated in science fairs, debates, or other research-oriented activities. In that case, you may find certain aspects of the exam more familiar and less challenging. However, even with limited research experience, the AP Research course is designed to provide you with the necessary skills and support to succeed.

It is important to remember that the AP Research Exam is not meant to be easy. It assesses your ability to think critically, conduct independent research, and effectively communicate your findings. The exam will require you to apply your knowledge and skills to real-world problems or questions, which can be intellectually demanding. However, with proper preparation, a strong work ethic, and a growth mindset, you can rise to the challenge and succeed on the AP Research Exam.

What factors affect the difficulty of the AP Research Exam?

Several factors can influence the difficulty of the AP Research Exam. Firstly, the complexity and scope of your research question or problem can play a significant role. Choosing a too broad or narrow topic can make the research process more challenging.

When selecting a research question, it is important to strike a balance between a topic that is too broad and one that is too narrow. If your research question is too broad, you may be overwhelmed with much information to sift through and analyze. On the other hand, if your research question is too narrow, you may struggle to find sufficient sources and data to support your findings. Therefore, it is crucial to carefully consider the scope of your research question to ensure that it is manageable and allows for in-depth analysis.

Additionally, your time and effort in your research project can impact the difficulty level. Adequate planning, organization, and consistent work throughout the course can help you manage the workload and reduce stress.

Embarking on an AP Research project requires a significant time commitment. It is essential to allocate enough time for conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and writing your final paper. By dedicating sufficient time to each stage of the research process, you can ensure that you produce a high-quality project that meets the rigorous standards of the AP Research Exam.

Furthermore, effective organization is key to successfully navigating the AP Research Exam. Keeping track of your sources, notes, and drafts can help you stay organized and avoid feeling overwhelmed. Creating a detailed timeline or schedule can also assist you in managing your time effectively and staying on track with your research goals.

Consistency is another crucial factor in determining the difficulty of the AP Research Exam. Regularly working on your research project and making steady progress can help you avoid last-minute cramming and reduce stress. By setting aside dedicated time each week to focus on your research, you can ensure ample time to refine your ideas, conduct a thorough analysis, and produce a well-structured final paper.

In conclusion, the difficulty of the AP Research Exam is influenced by various factors. The complexity and scope of your research question and the amount of time and effort you invest in your project play significant roles. By carefully selecting a manageable research question, planning and organizing your work effectively, and consistently working on your project, you can confidently navigate the AP Research Exam.

How long is the AP Research Exam?

The total time allotted for the AP Research Exam, including both the academic paper submission and the oral defense, is typically around 20 to 25 minutes. This time includes both the presentation and the question-and-answer session with the panel.

It’s important to note that specific details about the AP Research Exam, including format and timing, may be subject to change. Students are advised to check the most recent information on the College Board’s official website or consult their school’s AP coordinator for the latest and most accurate details regarding the AP Research Exam.

Is it a good idea to take the AP Research exam?

Taking the AP Research Exam can be a good idea for students interested in conducting independent research, developing strong analytical skills, and showcasing their abilities in academic inquiry. Here are some factors to consider when deciding whether to take the AP Research Exam:

1. Interest in Research:

• If you are genuinely interested in conducting research and exploring a topic in-depth, the AP Research course and exam provide an opportunity to pursue your passion. The course allows you to choose a research topic that aligns with your interests.

2. Academic Challenge:

• The AP Research Exam is designed to be academically challenging, offering a rigorous experience that goes beyond standard high school coursework. If you enjoy intellectual challenges and want to engage in advanced academic work, the AP Research Exam may be a good fit.

3. Development of Skills:

• The course emphasizes developing critical research skills, including formulating research questions, designing studies, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting findings. Regardless of your chosen field, these skills are valuable in college and beyond.

4. Preparation for College:

• Engaging in the AP Research program can provide a taste of college-level research and prepare you for the expectations of independent study and inquiry that you may encounter in higher education.

5. Communication Skills:

• The exam includes a presentation component, allowing you to communicate your research findings. If you want to hone your communication skills and effectively present complex information, the AP Research Exam offers a platform for this development.

6. College Credit and Recognition:

• Depending on the college, a high score on the AP Research Exam may earn you college credit or advanced placement. Additionally, colleges often view completion of the AP Capstone Program positively in the admissions process.

7. Personal Challenge and Growth:

• Undertaking the AP Research Exam is a personal challenge that can lead to significant intellectual and personal growth. It requires self-discipline, time management, and the ability to work independently.

Considerations:

• Time Commitment: The AP Research course and exam require a significant time commitment. Be sure to assess your schedule and ensure that you can dedicate the necessary time to conduct research and prepare for the exam.
• Availability of Resources: Ensure that your school offers the AP Research course and that you have access to the resources needed to conduct research, such as a mentor or advisor, library resources, and research materials.
• Individual Goals: Consider how the AP Research Exam aligns with your academic and career goals. If you are considering a field that values research and critical analysis, the experience gained in the AP Research program can be particularly beneficial.

What is the format of the AP Research Exam?

The AP Research Exam assesses students on their ability to design, plan, and conduct independent research and present and defend their findings. The exam consists of three major components:

1. Academic Paper:

• Format: The academic paper is a major written document that presents the student’s research. It should adhere to the guidelines specified in the AP Research Course and Exam Description.
• Length: The recommended length for the academic paper is around 4,000 to 5,000 words.
• Content: The paper should include an introduction, literature review, research question, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. It should be well-organized, clearly written, and properly cited.
• Submission: The academic paper is submitted electronically as a PDF through the AP Digital Portfolio. It is typically due in early May.

2. Presentation:

• Format: Students must create and deliver an oral presentation based on their research. The presentation should effectively communicate key aspects of the research project.
• Time Limit: The presentation is limited to a maximum of 15 minutes.
• Content: The presentation should cover the research question, methodology, results, and the significance of the findings. It should be well-organized, engaging, and clearly articulate the research process.
• Submission: The presentation file (usually a video recording) is submitted electronically as part of the AP Digital Portfolio.

3. Oral Defense:

• Format: Following the presentation, students participate in an oral defense. This is a question-and-answer session during which students respond to inquiries from a panel of evaluators.
• Time Limit: The oral defense typically lasts for about 10 minutes.
• Content: Students should be prepared to discuss various aspects of their research, including their research question, methodology, data analysis, and the implications of their findings.
• Evaluation: The oral defense is evaluated based on the student’s ability to articulate their research process, respond to questions, and demonstrate a deep understanding of the subject matter.

Additional Considerations:

Evaluation Criteria: The exam is scored by a panel of college professors and experienced high school teachers. They assess the academic paper, presentation, and oral defense based on predetermined criteria outlined by the College Board.

Use of Technology: The AP Research Exam involves using technology to submit the academic paper and presentation. Students should ensure that they are familiar with the technical requirements and guidelines for submission.

Digital Portfolio: All components of the AP Research Exam, including the academic paper, presentation, and oral defense, are submitted through the AP Digital Portfolio, an online platform provided by the College Board.

It’s important for students to carefully review the guidelines and requirements outlined in the AP Research Course and Exam Description and to stay updated on any additional information or changes provided by the College Board. Additionally, practicing presentations and participating in mock oral defenses can help students feel more confident and prepared for the exam.

How to study for the AP Research Exam

Preparing for the AP Research Exam requires research skills, critical thinking, and effective communication. Here’s a detailed guide on how to study for the AP Research Exam:

1. Understand the Exam Format:

• Familiarize yourself with the format of the AP Research Exam. Understand the components, including the written academic paper, presentation, and oral defense.

2. Review the AP Research Course and Exam Description:

• The College Board provides a detailed Course and Exam Description (CED) for AP Research. Review this document thoroughly to understand the expectations, assessment criteria, and exam structure.

3. Select a Research Topic:

• Choose a research topic that aligns with your interests and allows in-depth exploration. Ensure it is a genuinely passionate topic, as sustained interest will be crucial throughout the research process.

4. Develop a Research Question:

• Craft a well-defined research question that is specific, relevant, and aligned with your chosen topic. Your question should guide your research and provide a clear focus for your investigation.

5. Conduct a Comprehensive Literature Review:

• Research existing literature related to your topic. A thorough literature review establishes the context for your research and helps you identify gaps or areas where you can contribute new insights.

6. Design a Methodology:

• Clearly outline your research methodology, including data collection methods and analysis techniques. Justify your choices and demonstrate an understanding of research design principles.

7. Collect and Analyze Data:

• Implement your research plan, collecting relevant data. Apply appropriate analytical methods to interpret your findings. Ensure that your data collection aligns with the ethical standards outlined in the AP Research Exam guidelines.

8. Draft Your Academic Paper:

• Organize your research findings into a well-structured academic paper. Follow the guidelines provided by the College Board for formatting, citations, and overall presentation. Clearly articulate your research question, methodology, and results.

9. Peer Review and Revision:

• Seek feedback from peers, teachers, or mentors. Use their input to revise and refine your academic paper. Pay attention to clarity, coherence, and the overall persuasiveness of your argument.

10. Prepare for the Presentation:

• Develop a compelling presentation that effectively communicates your research. Practice delivering your presentation to ensure you can articulate your findings clearly within the allotted time.

11. Rehearse the Oral Defense:

• Familiarize yourself with the oral defense process. Be prepared to answer questions from your peers and the evaluation panel. Practice articulating your research methodology, results, and the significance of your findings.

12. Review Sample Questions and Rubrics:

• Practice with past exam questions and review the scoring rubrics the College Board provides. Understand how your work will be evaluated and tailor your preparation accordingly.

13. Time Management:

• Develop a study schedule that allocates sufficient time for each stage of the research process. Effective time management is crucial to completing your research, paper, and presentation.

14. Utilize AP Classroom Resources:

• Take advantage of resources provided on the AP Classroom platform, including practice exams, sample papers, and additional materials. These resources can help you become familiar with the exam format and expectations.

15. Stay Updated on Guidelines:

• Regularly check for updates or clarifications on exam guidelines and requirements. The College Board may release additional information or resources leading up to the exam.

16. Manage Stress:

• Prioritize self-care to manage stress. Adequate rest, healthy nutrition, and breaks are essential for maintaining focus and productivity during preparation.

17. Seek Support:

• Don’t hesitate to seek guidance from your teacher, mentor, or classmates. Collaborative discussions can provide valuable insights and perspectives on your research.

18. Reflect on Feedback:

• Use feedback from practice sessions, peer reviews, and teacher evaluations to improve your work continuously. Reflecting on feedback and making strategic revisions is part of the learning process.

19. Simulate Exam Conditions:

• As you approach the exam date, simulate exam conditions during practice sessions. This includes adhering to time limits for paper writing, presentation, and oral defense.

20. Confidence and Positive Mindset:

• Approach the exam with confidence in your preparation. Maintain a positive mindset and focus on showcasing the depth of your research, analytical skills, and communication abilities.

By following these steps and maintaining a systematic approach to your research and exam preparation, you can enhance your chances of success in the AP Research Exam. Remember that the AP Research Exam is an opportunity to demonstrate your research skills and ability to contribute meaningfully to academic discourse.

Tips on the day of the exam

On the AP Research Exam day, being well-prepared and staying focused is crucial. Here are some tips to help you perform your best:

• Get a good night’s sleep: Ensure you get enough rest the night before the exam. A well-rested mind will be more alert and capable of handling complex tasks.
• Eat a nutritious meal: Fuel your body and brain with a balanced meal before the exam. Avoid heavy or sugary foods that may cause energy crashes.
• Arrive early: Give yourself ample time to get to the exam venue. Arriving early will help you settle in, calm your nerves, and review any last-minute notes.
• Read instructions carefully: Pay close attention to the exam instructions and follow them precisely. Missing out on important details can cost you valuable points.
• Stay calm and focused: Maintain a positive mindset and avoid getting overwhelmed. Take deep breaths to relax and stay focused throughout the exam.

When is the AP Research exam in 2024?

The AP Research exam 2024 will be administered in the afternoon on April 30, 2024. It’s important to note that April 30, 2024 (11:59 p.m. ET) is the deadline for AP Research students to submit performance tasks as final and for their presentations to be scored by their AP Seminar or AP Research teachers.

For a complete list of the 2024 AP Exam dates, here’s a full list:

When do AP scores come out?

AP scores are typically released in early to mid-July of the year the exams were taken. The exact release date may vary slightly from year to year, but students who took their AP exams in May can generally expect their scores to become available.

You can check for updates on the College Board’s official AP scores website if you are waiting for your AP scores. They will also email you when your scores are added to your score report. If you haven’t received your scores by mid-August, contacting AP Services for Students is recommended for assistance.

Post-exam tips

Congratulations! You have completed the AP Research Exam. However, your journey does not end here. Here are some post-exam tips to make the most of your experience:

• Reflect on your performance: Take some time to reflect on your strengths and areas for improvement. Use this self-reflection as a learning opportunity to enhance your research skills further.
• Seek feedback from evaluators: If possible, request feedback from the panel of evaluators. Their insights can provide valuable guidance for future research projects or academic pursuits.
• Celebrate your accomplishment: Regardless of the outcome, acknowledge your hard work and celebrate your achievements. Completing the AP Research Exam is a commendable accomplishment.
• Apply your research skills: The research skills you have honed throughout the AP Research course and exam can be applied to future academic and professional endeavors. Utilize these skills to pursue your passions and contribute to society.

By following this ultimate guide and implementing effective strategies, you are well on your way to the AP Research Exam . Remember, it is not just about the exam itself – the knowledge and skills you gain along the way make the AP Research experience invaluable. Good luck!

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AP Research

Learn all about the course and assessment. Already enrolled? Join your class in My AP.

Not a Student?

Go to AP Central for resources for teachers, administrators, and coordinators.

About the Course

Build on what you learned in AP Seminar to deeply explore an academic topic, problem, or issue of individual interest. Through this exploration, you will design, plan, and conduct a year-long research based investigation to address a research question.

Skills You'll Learn

Conducting independent research

Analyzing sources and evidence

Applying context and perspective

Writing a college-level academic paper

Presenting research findings to an audience

Equivalency and Prerequisites

College course equivalent.

AP Research is an interdisciplinary course that encourages students to demonstrate critical thinking and academic research skills on a topic of the student’s choosing. To accommodate the wide range of student topics, typical college course equivalents include introductory research or general elective courses.

Recommended Prerequisites

Students must have successfully completed the AP Seminar course.

Assessment Date

APRIL 30, 2024, 11:59 PM ET

AP Research Performance Task Due Date

This is the deadline for you to submit your AP Research Academic Paper performance task as final in the AP Digital Portfolio.

Course Content

Big idea 1: question and explore.

You’ll learn about the first step of doing research: inquiry and investigation.

You’ll practice:

• Identifying a problem or issue and developing a question about it
• Finding and organizing the information you need to answer the question
• Evaluating the sources of information you use
• Looking at the problem or issue from different perspectives

Big Idea 2: Understand and Analyze

You’ll learn to read, comprehend, and explain a perspective or argument.

• Reading critically for a purpose
• Explaining and analyzing the line of reasoning of an argument
• Evaluating the evidence an author uses to support their argument
• Assessing potential resolutions, conclusions, or solutions raised by an argument

Big Idea 3: Evaluate Multiple Perspectives

You’ll learn to compare and contrast different perspectives on an issue, idea, or problem so you can understand its complexity.

• Identifying, comparing, and interpreting different perspectives on, or arguments about, an issue
• Evaluating objections, implications, and limitations of different perspectives or arguments

Big Idea 4: Synthesize Ideas

You’ll learn to take information you’ve gathered, analyzed, and evaluated and use it to form your own conclusions and build your own argument.

• Formulating a well-reasoned argument
• Using data and information from various sources to develop and support an argument
• Linking evidence to claims
• Offering resolutions, conclusions, or solutions based on evidence

Big Idea 5: Team, Transform, and Transmit

You’ll learn peer review practices and how to communicate your ideas to an audience.

• Planning, producing, and presenting an argument while considering audience, context, and purpose
• Communicating information through appropriate media
• Using effective techniques to engage an audience

Credit and Placement

Search AP Credit Policies

Find colleges that grant credit and/or placement for AP Exam scores in this and other AP courses.

Course Resources

Ap research course and exam description.

This is the core document for the course. It clearly lays out the course content and describes the assessment and the AP Program in general.

AP Daily Videos

Once you join your AP class section online, you’ll be able to access AP Daily videos in AP Classroom. AP Daily videos cover every proficiency and skill outlined in the AP Research Course and Exam Description. Sign in to access them.

What Are Project Based AP Courses?

Learn how project based AP courses take you beyond the textbook and into a world of learning through hands-on exploration.

• Go to College Board Blog

More About Your Course

Participate in the ap capstone diploma program.

Learn more about the AP Capstone Diploma Program, and how you can participate. Taking AP Seminar and AP Research lets you study topics you love, learn key academic skills, and stand out to colleges.

AP Capstone Diploma Program Policies

Understand policies on plagiarism, participation, extended absence, and more for AP Seminar and AP Research students.

See Where AP Can Take You

AP Research can lead to a wide range of careers and college majors

Additional Information

Implications & Limitations

In daily life, we often use evidence and pose solutions to problems but do we always consider the implications and limitations of ideas?  Probably not all the time.  Implications are possible future effects or results.  Limitations are boundaries or points at which an argument or generalization is no longer valid.

Implications

If we accept a piece of evidence, argument, or solution, how would it impact the stakeholders involved?

Which individuals or groups would be impacted positively?  What benefits would they experience as a result?

Which individuals or groups would be impacted negatively?  What disadvantages would they experience as a result?

Limitations

Is there any reasonable situation in which your evidence, argument, or solution might not be valid?

What are possible factors that limit the effectiveness of the evidence, argument, or solution?

College Board. (2023). AP Seminar Course . AP Central. Retrieved June 20, 2023, from https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-seminar

Kreger, J. (2018, November 15). Developing Solutions . AP Teacher Community: Seminar. Retrieved July 8, 2023, from https://apcommunity.collegeboard.org/group/apseminar/resource-details?p_p_id=contentItem_WAR_aptccontentitemportlet&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_col_id=column-1&p_p_col_count=1&p_r_p_1243656882_resourceId=145038515&pageQueryString=p_l_id%3D31612844%26p_v_l_s_g_id%3 

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Is AP Research worth it/should I take it?

I want to know how hard it was for a normal person, not an AP weirdo. I mean, I understand stuff but I’d like a scale. I took AP Seminar, got a 4 on the exam and had an awful experience. The teacher taught it horribly, explained nothing in detail and I feel as if I took it again, I’d be amazing at it.

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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How to Write Limitations of the Study (with examples)

This blog emphasizes the importance of recognizing and effectively writing about limitations in research. It discusses the types of limitations, their significance, and provides guidelines for writing about them, highlighting their role in advancing scholarly research.

Updated on August 24, 2023

No matter how well thought out, every research endeavor encounters challenges. There is simply no way to predict all possible variances throughout the process.

These uncharted boundaries and abrupt constraints are known as limitations in research . Identifying and acknowledging limitations is crucial for conducting rigorous studies. Limitations provide context and shed light on gaps in the prevailing inquiry and literature.

This article explores the importance of recognizing limitations and discusses how to write them effectively. By interpreting limitations in research and considering prevalent examples, we aim to reframe the perception from shameful mistakes to respectable revelations.

What are limitations in research?

In the clearest terms, research limitations are the practical or theoretical shortcomings of a study that are often outside of the researcher’s control . While these weaknesses limit the generalizability of a study’s conclusions, they also present a foundation for future research.

Sometimes limitations arise from tangible circumstances like time and funding constraints, or equipment and participant availability. Other times the rationale is more obscure and buried within the research design. Common types of limitations and their ramifications include:

• Theoretical: limits the scope, depth, or applicability of a study.
• Methodological: limits the quality, quantity, or diversity of the data.
• Empirical: limits the representativeness, validity, or reliability of the data.
• Analytical: limits the accuracy, completeness, or significance of the findings.
• Ethical: limits the access, consent, or confidentiality of the data.

Regardless of how, when, or why they arise, limitations are a natural part of the research process and should never be ignored . Like all other aspects, they are vital in their own purpose.

Why is identifying limitations important?

Whether to seek acceptance or avoid struggle, humans often instinctively hide flaws and mistakes. Merging this thought process into research by attempting to hide limitations, however, is a bad idea. It has the potential to negate the validity of outcomes and damage the reputation of scholars.

By identifying and addressing limitations throughout a project, researchers strengthen their arguments and curtail the chance of peer censure based on overlooked mistakes. Pointing out these flaws shows an understanding of variable limits and a scrupulous research process.

Showing awareness of and taking responsibility for a project’s boundaries and challenges validates the integrity and transparency of a researcher. It further demonstrates the researchers understand the applicable literature and have thoroughly evaluated their chosen research methods.

Presenting limitations also benefits the readers by providing context for research findings. It guides them to interpret the project’s conclusions only within the scope of very specific conditions. By allowing for an appropriate generalization of the findings that is accurately confined by research boundaries and is not too broad, limitations boost a study’s credibility .

Limitations are true assets to the research process. They highlight opportunities for future research. When researchers identify the limitations of their particular approach to a study question, they enable precise transferability and improve chances for reproducibility. 

Simply stating a project’s limitations is not adequate for spurring further research, though. To spark the interest of other researchers, these acknowledgements must come with thorough explanations regarding how the limitations affected the current study and how they can potentially be overcome with amended methods.

How to write limitations

Typically, the information about a study’s limitations is situated either at the beginning of the discussion section to provide context for readers or at the conclusion of the discussion section to acknowledge the need for further research. However, it varies depending upon the target journal or publication guidelines. 

Don’t hide your limitations

It is also important to not bury a limitation in the body of the paper unless it has a unique connection to a topic in that section. If so, it needs to be reiterated with the other limitations or at the conclusion of the discussion section. Wherever it is included in the manuscript, ensure that the limitations section is prominently positioned and clearly introduced.

While maintaining transparency by disclosing limitations means taking a comprehensive approach, it is not necessary to discuss everything that could have potentially gone wrong during the research study. If there is no commitment to investigation in the introduction, it is unnecessary to consider the issue a limitation to the research. Wholly consider the term ‘limitations’ and ask, “Did it significantly change or limit the possible outcomes?” Then, qualify the occurrence as either a limitation to include in the current manuscript or as an idea to note for other projects. 

Writing limitations

Once the limitations are concretely identified and it is decided where they will be included in the paper, researchers are ready for the writing task. Including only what is pertinent, keeping explanations detailed but concise, and employing the following guidelines is key for crafting valuable limitations:

1) Identify and describe the limitations : Clearly introduce the limitation by classifying its form and specifying its origin. For example:

• An unintentional bias encountered during data collection
• An intentional use of unplanned post-hoc data analysis

2) Explain the implications : Describe how the limitation potentially influences the study’s findings and how the validity and generalizability are subsequently impacted. Provide examples and evidence to support claims of the limitations’ effects without making excuses or exaggerating their impact. Overall, be transparent and objective in presenting the limitations, without undermining the significance of the research. 

3) Provide alternative approaches for future studies : Offer specific suggestions for potential improvements or avenues for further investigation. Demonstrate a proactive approach by encouraging future research that addresses the identified gaps and, therefore, expands the knowledge base.

Whether presenting limitations as an individual section within the manuscript or as a subtopic in the discussion area, authors should use clear headings and straightforward language to facilitate readability. There is no need to complicate limitations with jargon, computations, or complex datasets.

Examples of common limitations

Limitations are generally grouped into two categories , methodology and research process .

Methodology limitations

Methodology may include limitations due to:

• Sample size
• Lack of available or reliable data
• Lack of prior research studies on the topic
• Measure used to collect the data
• Self-reported data

The researcher is addressing how the large sample size requires a reassessment of the measures used to collect and analyze the data.

Research process limitations

Limitations during the research process may arise from:

• Access to information
• Longitudinal effects
• Cultural and other biases
• Language fluency
• Time constraints

The author is pointing out that the model’s estimates are based on potentially biased observational studies.

Final thoughts

Successfully proving theories and touting great achievements are only two very narrow goals of scholarly research. The true passion and greatest efforts of researchers comes more in the form of confronting assumptions and exploring the obscure.

In many ways, recognizing and sharing the limitations of a research study both allows for and encourages this type of discovery that continuously pushes research forward. By using limitations to provide a transparent account of the project's boundaries and to contextualize the findings, researchers pave the way for even more robust and impactful research in the future.

Charla Viera, MS

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WHO’s recommendation against the use of artificial sweeteners for weight loss leaves many questions unanswered

Assistant Professor of Biological Sciences, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Associate Professor of Biological Science, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Disclosure statement

Lindsey Schier receives funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIDCD).

Scott Kanoski receives funding from the National Institutes of Health.

USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences and University of Southern California provide funding as members of The Conversation US.

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Do low-calorie sweeteners help with weight management? And are they safe for long-term use?

This is among the most controversial topics in nutritional science. In early May 2023, the World Health Organization issued a statement that cautions against the use of nonsugar sweeteners for weight loss except for people who have preexisting diabetes.

The WHO based its new recommendation on a 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of scientific studies on nonsugar sweetener consumption in humans. This type of study reviews a large body of research to draw a broad conclusion.

Based on its interpretation of that large-scale review, the WHO recommended against using artificial sweeteners for weight control and concluded that there may be health risks associated with habitual consumption of nonsugar sweeteners over the long term. However, the WHO also acknowledged that the existing evidence is not conclusive and that more research needs to be done.

As neuroscientists, we study how dietary factors such as sweeteners affect the brain’s ability to perform critical functions, including metabolism, appetite , and learning and memory .

We found the WHO’s advisory surprising based on the study’s equivocal results. Determining the answers to these questions is immensely challenging, and public health messaging around recommendations can send mixed messages.

‘Healthy’ versus ‘unhealthy’ sugars

Natural sugars like glucose and fructose, together with fiber and other nutrients, are found in many food sources that are considered healthy, such as fruit. However, these simple carbohydrates have been increasingly added into manufactured food products, especially beverages. Sugar-sweetened beverages are usually high in calories and offer little else in the way of nutrition.

In the early 20th century, food and beverage manufacturers began incorporating naturally and chemically derived substances that satisfy sweet cravings but contain significantly fewer calories than natural sugars – and, in some cases, zero calories. Sugar substitutes became particularly widespread in the 1950s with the increasing popularity of diet sodas. Since then, consumers have increasingly turned to these sugar substitutes in their everyday lives.

Sugar substitutes go by many names, including high-intensity sweeteners, artificial sweeteners, nonnutritive sweeteners, low-calorie sweeteners and, as termed in the WHO report, nonsugar sweeteners.“ These include synthetic compounds like sucralose, acesulfame potassium and aspartame, and naturally derived ones, such as those from the plant Stevia rebaudiana , among many others.

Each nonsugar sweetener has a unique chemical structure, but they all activate sweet taste receptors at very low concentrations. This means that you need to add only a tiny amount of them to sweeten your coffee or tea, as opposed to heaping spoonfuls of natural sugar.

Sugar substitutes and the quest for weight loss

Obesity and its associated metabolic conditions, like diabetes and cardiovascular disease, are now among the leading causes of preventable death in the U.S. The obesity epidemic has been linked in part to an increase in added sugar consumption over the past century.

In order to help address it, in 2015 the WHO issued specific recommendations to reduce sugar intake and adopt healthier diets.

But humans are hard-wired to find the sweet taste of sugars pleasurable , and the tastiness of real sugar makes it difficult for most of us to remove it from our diets.

Sugar substitutes were designed to help. The math seems straightforward: Replacing your favorite 12-ounce sugar-sweetened beverage that contains 150 calories with an artificially sweetened beverage of the same volume that contains zero calories should allow you to reduce the number of calories you take in each day and reduce your body weight over time.

But the science is not so straightforward. Research from both animal models and humans indicates that habitual nonsugar sweetener consumption can lead to long-term negative metabolic outcomes and body weight gain .

However, there are conflicting studies from animal models and humans that have not found significant body weight gain associated with nonsugar sweeteners consumption.

Parsing the health impacts

Regardless of any potential benefits nonsugar sweeteners may have for weight control, their use must also be considered in the context of overall health.

Agencies like the WHO and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration periodically review available evidence and assess the safety of various food additives, including nonsugar sweeteners, for use in foods and beverages within what is called an acceptable daily intake limit. In this context, the acceptable daily intake is based on the estimated amount of a specific nonsugar sweetener that can be safely consumed daily over one’s entire life without adverse effects on health.

Each agency sets its own daily allowance based on the best available data. But because these experiments cannot account for all possible conditions in which these substances are used in real life, it is critical that scientists continue to investigate the health effects of food additives.

The authors of the WHO report relied on three main types of published research studies to determine whether nonsugar sweetener consumption was linked to adverse health effects. The gold standard for assessing causation is what are called randomized controlled trials .

In these studies, people are randomly assigned to either an experimental group – which receives the experimental substance, such as a nonsugar sweetener – or a control group – which receives a placebo or different substance. Participants in both groups are then tracked for a period of time, typically weeks or months. The majority of studies involving randomized controlled trials on nonsugar sweeteners to date involve this type of comparison, with nonsugar sweeteners replacing consumption of natural sugar-sweetened beverages.

The analysis of almost 50 randomized controlled trials on which the WHO based its recommendation found modest benefits of using nonsugar sweeteners for weight loss and determined that the habitual use of those nonsugar sweeteners did not lead to diabetes symptoms or indicators of cardiovascular disease. But it did find that the use of nonsugar sweeteners was associated with a higher ratio of total cholesterol to HDL, short for high-density lipoprotein, which is considered the "good cholesterol.”

That means that habitual consumers of artificial sweetener had more of the low-density lipoprotein, or LDL version, in their system. That form of “bad cholesterol” is a risk factor for heart disease .

However, other potential adverse consequences of consuming nonsugar sweeteners may take more time to appear than can be identified in the limited time frame of a randomized controlled trial.

The authors also evaluated what are called prospective cohort studies. Those studies track participants’ self-reported use of sweeteners alongside health outcomes, oftentimes over many years. They also took into account case-control studies, which identify people with or without a certain health issue, such as cancer, and then use available health records and interviews to determine the extent of nonsugar sweetener use in their past.

Examination of the cohort and case-control studies found that regular consumption of nonsugar sweetener was associated with increased fat accumulation, higher body mass index and increased incidence of Type 2 diabetes . Those findings differ from the outcomes of the randomized control studies.

Analysis of the cohort and case-control studies also concluded that a history of regular nonsugar sweetener use was linked to increased frequency of stroke, hypertension, other adverse cardiovascular events and, in pregnant people, an increased risk for premature birth. The frequency of cancer in nonsugar sweetener consumers was very low in general, though saccharin, an FDA-approved sweetener found in many food products, was associated with a bladder cancer.

Caveats and takeaways

On the face of it, these results are alarming, but they need to be taken with a grain of salt. As the WHO report points out, these studies have significant limitations that need to be considered.

Take, for example, in the cohort and case-control studies, that higher body mass index, or BMI , was associated with greater nonsugar sweetener intake and poorer health outcomes. One possibility is that people with obesity used nonsugar sweeteners to help cut calories more than others without obesity. This makes it difficult to determine whether the disease is caused by sustained artificial sweetener use or by the other underlying conditions associated with obesity.

Additionally, the way nonsugar sweeteners are consumed is not controlled in these types of studies. So negative health outcomes could be associated with other affiliated harmful behaviors, such as more sugar or fat in the diet.

The picture is very mixed on both the benefits of nonsugar sweeteners for weight loss and their ties to adverse health issues. The WHO’s recommendation seems to have weighed the cohort and case-control studies over the randomized controlled ones, a decision that we found puzzling in light of the limitations of these studies for assessing whether nonsugar sweeteners have a causal role in disease.

As with all health-related choices, the science is complex. In our view, grabbing a diet drink to offset the calories in a slice of chocolate cake every once in a while will likely not be harmful for your health or lead to a significant weight change.

• World Health Organization (WHO)
• Artificial sweeteners
• Low-calorie sweeteners
• Sugary foods

Head of School, School of Arts & Social Sciences, Monash University Malaysia

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Limitations

Limitations, in the context of freedom of speech, are restrictions or boundaries placed on this constitutional right to balance it with other important societal interests, such as public safety, national security, and preventing harm to others.

Related terms

Time, Place, and Manner Restrictions : These restrictions allow the government to regulate where and when certain types of expression can occur without violating the First Amendment.

Hate Speech : Hate speech refers to expressions that attack or demean individuals based on attributes such as race, religion, ethnicity, gender identity, etc. While it is generally protected under freedom of speech, there are limitations when it incites violence or poses a direct threat.

Obscenity : Obscenity refers to sexually explicit material that lacks serious literary, artistic, political value and appeals primarily to prurient interests. It is not protected by the First Amendment and can be subject to limitations.

" Limitations " appears in:

Subjects ( 3 ).

• AP European History
• AP Human Geography
• AP Research

Practice Questions ( 2 )

• In which cases has the Supreme Court allowed for limitations on freedom of speech according to the First Amendment?
• Under what circumstances can limitations be placed on Freedom of Speech according to Supreme Court decisions?

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Evaluating the impact of smart technology on academic eagerness, academic seriousness, and academic performance in elementary english language learners as a foreign language

• Izadpanah, Siros

The proliferation of smart devices in educational settings has prompted a need to investigate their influence on learners' attitudes and language learning outcomes. Recent advancements in smart technology (ST) have ignited curiosity regarding their impact on academic eagerness (AE), (AS), and academic performance (AP) among elementary English language learners. Despite this, there remains a dearth of comprehensive discussion in this area. This study encompasses all primary language students from the academic year 2023 as its sample. A multistage sampling method was employed for sample selection. The study introduced ST as an intervention over eight 45-minute sessions spanning two months. Data collection instruments included AE assessments adapted from Fredericks et al., an AS questionnaire developed by the researchers, and an AP questionnaire designed by Pham and Taylor. Data analysis incorporated statistical tests such as the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, Levene test, and univariate analysis of covariance. The findings yield valuable insights into the impact of ST on AE, AS, and AP, shedding light on its potential advantages and limitations in language learning. Notably, the experimental group (EG) outperformed the control group (CG). These results contribute to the growing body of knowledge concerning ST integration in education and its consequences on AP and learner attitudes. Ultimately, this research aims to provide evidence-based recommendations for enhancing language learning outcomes and experiences among elementary English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in the digital education era.

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, what is ap research should you take it.

Advanced Placement (AP)

AP Research is a class introduced by the College Board as a part of its new AP Capstone program. But what does it really involve? How can you do well?

In this article, I'll provide an overview of AP Research and give you some more information about whether you should take it and how you can be successful in the class.

What Is AP Research?

AP Research is the second course that students take in the AP Capstone program . It comes after AP Seminar.

If you take AP Seminar and AP Research, you will earn an AP Research and Seminar Certificate, and if you take both classes in addition to four other AP courses and exams, you will earn an AP Capstone Diploma. This program is very new (the College Board rolled out the full version in the fall of 2014), but you will most likely benefit from it in the college application process when schools see the types of advanced assignments you've completed in these research-focused classes.

In AP Research, students are encouraged to explore a topic or problem that interests them and design, plan, and conduct a year-long research project centered around it. The class represents the culmination of skills that students learn in AP Seminar, which include effectively analyzing sources, formulating coherent arguments backed up by evidence, and examining issues from differing points of view. Smaller research projects in AP Seminar will prepare you for the large-scale research project you will undertake in AP Research.

What Exactly Will You Do in AP Research?

AP Research consists entirely of a year-long research project. The end product is a 4000-5000 word academic paper and a 15-20 minute presentation with an oral defense. You will also be expected to compile the materials you used in your research into a portfolio. This piece of work is similar to a thesis project, so it’s good preparation for college academics. Topics for the research project are usually relatively open, but arguments for and against solutions to major problems in society tend to be the main focus. For example, you might investigate whether the government should invest more resources in finding and supporting sustainable energy sources.

In your academic paper, you will be expected to:

Introduce and contextualize your research question and your initial thoughts and hypotheses about it. In the case of my example, the research question might be "Should the government devote more resources to sustainable energy projects?" You would reflect on the question briefly here and share your initial uninformed opinions before diving into any research.

Review previous ideas and works on the subject and their arguments and perspectives. This is where you would address arguments for and against the adoption of policies to promote the use of sustainable energy. This section lays the groundwork for your arguments in later sections of the paper.

Explain your research method and why you approached the question this way. Here, you would discuss how you went about compiling sources for your research and how you collected the information. This lends credibility to your argument in the next section.

Present your findings and interpret their significance in connection to your research question. In this section, you would lay out your argument based on the evidence you discovered through your research. In the example, your argument might be that we should devote more resources to sustainable energy projects because the long term consequences of continuing to use non-renewable energy sources will be extremely dire. You could support this argument with research that you touched on in previous sections.

Discuss the implications and limitations of your findings and reflect on the process. This is where you would talk about any qualifiers related to your argument in the previous section. If you can't be absolutely sure of a conclusion that you drew or there is some speculation involved, you would go over those potential limitations. You would also talk about what your findings mean in a larger context.

Talk about potential next steps on the issue in view of these findings. Basically, this is the "so what?" section. This is where you would present your ideas for what practical steps the world might take based on your research. In the example, this could be something like providing better tax incentives for businesses that use renewable energy sources or rearranging money in the government's budget in a specific way so that more of it goes towards clean energy projects.

Provide a complete bibliography. This is pretty self-explanatory. You'll need to cite all your sources correctly and make sure that they're trustworthy.

After you turn in your paper, you will also deliver a 15-20 minute presentation to a panel of teachers in whatever format works best for your research. You'll be asked to give a defense of your findings after your presentation. Your AP Research teacher and two panel members chosen by your teacher will ask you three or four questions about your work, and you'll have to answer them based on your research. 

Should You Take AP Research?

First of all, you can only take AP Research if you take AP Seminar beforehand. Make sure you plan out your classes carefully if you want to end up in this class!

If you are looking to earn the AP Research and Seminar Certificate or the AP Capstone Diploma, you will need to take this class. Keep in mind that for the Capstone Diploma you’ll also need to take four more AP classes and exams.

Some colleges will offer you credit for taking these classes or will allow you to place out of introductory courses that are required for other students. This can make things a little easier on you during your freshman year.

You’ll also be better prepared for college academics if you take AP Research. You will already be familiar with the process of collecting research and using it to formulate an opinion on a topic. When you're assigned your first research paper, you’ll know exactly where to start.

Aside from those benefits, AP Research can be a fun way to explore a topic that genuinely interests you. You'll have a ton of freedom when it comes to choosing your topic, so you can explore almost any idea that you find compelling. AP Research is a good choice for students who are looking for a way to enrich their high school experience with independent research and enroll in competitive college programs.

How Can You Do Well in AP Research?

In AP Research, the most important rule for doing well is to avoid falling behind! ;Since your entire grade rests on one long-term project, you will need to make sure that you are diligent about staying on task throughout the year. It’s tempting to procrastinate when it seems like you have such a long time to complete the project, but you won’t get the most out of your research if you don’t spread out your work. You want to avoid turning in a sub-par project that you don’t believe in because you ran out of time.

I would also suggest that you finish doing all of your research before you start writing any part of your paper. It's hard to write a cohesive argument when you're adding to it piece by piece as you go along. It's best to compile all the information you need first, figure out your argument based on the evidence, and then start structuring your paper around it. This might seem obvious, but sometimes with these types of projects it's tempting to start working on the part that you actually have to turn in before you've fully explored all the background information.

In a related point, you should be flexible and accept that you may need to reframe your research question. You never know what dead ends you might hit or how you might need to change your project as you learn more about your topic. The best way to plan for these scenarios is to start your research early. The highest-quality projects will be those that adapt to new findings over time. You will have to defend your work, so you should be sure that you believe in the point of view that you’re selling and that it's backed up by solid evidence.

Finally, you should choose a research question that fascinates you. Working on a research project for a whole year can get tedious, and you don't want to be completely sick of your topic after a couple of months. Talk to your teacher about your interests so that you can work together to find a viable research question that will hold your focus.

AP Research is the second class in the AP Capstone program after AP Seminar. It's similar to an independent study class and consists entirely of one year-long research project on a topic of your choice. You will write a research paper summarizing your findings and then give an oral presentation followed by a defense of your argument.

AP Research can be a useful class for students who want to be well-prepared for college-level assignments. It's a great way to hone your skills in effectively conducting research and formulating arguments based on evidence. It also might be a nice break from your other classes because of the level of freedom it provides to students. It's an opportunity to learn more about nearly any topic or question that intrigues you!

What's Next?

Not sure if you can take AP Research at your school? Consult this article for a list of all the high schools that offer the AP Capstone program.

You should also take at this article for a detailed guide to which AP classes you should take in general.

If you're on the fence about AP classes in general, check out this article for more information on how AP classes and exams might benefit you.

Samantha is a blog content writer for PrepScholar. Her goal is to help students adopt a less stressful view of standardized testing and other academic challenges through her articles. Samantha is also passionate about art and graduated with honors from Dartmouth College as a Studio Art major in 2014. In high school, she earned a 2400 on the SAT, 5's on all seven of her AP tests, and was named a National Merit Scholar.

Ask a Question Below

Have any questions about this article or other topics? Ask below and we'll reply!

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Home » Limitations in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Limitations in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Limitations in Research

Limitations in research refer to the factors that may affect the results, conclusions , and generalizability of a study. These limitations can arise from various sources, such as the design of the study, the sampling methods used, the measurement tools employed, and the limitations of the data analysis techniques.

Types of Limitations in Research

Types of Limitations in Research are as follows:

Sample Size Limitations

This refers to the size of the group of people or subjects that are being studied. If the sample size is too small, then the results may not be representative of the population being studied. This can lead to a lack of generalizability of the results.

Time Limitations

Time limitations can be a constraint on the research process . This could mean that the study is unable to be conducted for a long enough period of time to observe the long-term effects of an intervention, or to collect enough data to draw accurate conclusions.

Selection Bias

This refers to a type of bias that can occur when the selection of participants in a study is not random. This can lead to a biased sample that is not representative of the population being studied.

Confounding Variables

Confounding variables are factors that can influence the outcome of a study, but are not being measured or controlled for. These can lead to inaccurate conclusions or a lack of clarity in the results.

Measurement Error

This refers to inaccuracies in the measurement of variables, such as using a faulty instrument or scale. This can lead to inaccurate results or a lack of validity in the study.

Ethical Limitations

Ethical limitations refer to the ethical constraints placed on research studies. For example, certain studies may not be allowed to be conducted due to ethical concerns, such as studies that involve harm to participants.

Examples of Limitations in Research

Some Examples of Limitations in Research are as follows:

Research Title: “The Effectiveness of Machine Learning Algorithms in Predicting Customer Behavior”

Limitations:

• The study only considered a limited number of machine learning algorithms and did not explore the effectiveness of other algorithms.
• The study used a specific dataset, which may not be representative of all customer behaviors or demographics.
• The study did not consider the potential ethical implications of using machine learning algorithms in predicting customer behavior.

Research Title: “The Impact of Online Learning on Student Performance in Computer Science Courses”

• The study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may have affected the results due to the unique circumstances of remote learning.
• The study only included students from a single university, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other institutions.
• The study did not consider the impact of individual differences, such as prior knowledge or motivation, on student performance in online learning environments.

Research Title: “The Effect of Gamification on User Engagement in Mobile Health Applications”

• The study only tested a specific gamification strategy and did not explore the effectiveness of other gamification techniques.
• The study relied on self-reported measures of user engagement, which may be subject to social desirability bias or measurement errors.
• The study only included a specific demographic group (e.g., young adults) and may not be generalizable to other populations with different preferences or needs.

How to Write Limitations in Research

When writing about the limitations of a research study, it is important to be honest and clear about the potential weaknesses of your work. Here are some tips for writing about limitations in research:

• Identify the limitations: Start by identifying the potential limitations of your research. These may include sample size, selection bias, measurement error, or other issues that could affect the validity and reliability of your findings.
• Be honest and objective: When describing the limitations of your research, be honest and objective. Do not try to minimize or downplay the limitations, but also do not exaggerate them. Be clear and concise in your description of the limitations.
• Provide context: It is important to provide context for the limitations of your research. For example, if your sample size was small, explain why this was the case and how it may have affected your results. Providing context can help readers understand the limitations in a broader context.
• Discuss implications : Discuss the implications of the limitations for your research findings. For example, if there was a selection bias in your sample, explain how this may have affected the generalizability of your findings. This can help readers understand the limitations in terms of their impact on the overall validity of your research.
• Provide suggestions for future research : Finally, provide suggestions for future research that can address the limitations of your study. This can help readers understand how your research fits into the broader field and can provide a roadmap for future studies.

Purpose of Limitations in Research

There are several purposes of limitations in research. Here are some of the most important ones:

• To acknowledge the boundaries of the study : Limitations help to define the scope of the research project and set realistic expectations for the findings. They can help to clarify what the study is not intended to address.
• To identify potential sources of bias: Limitations can help researchers identify potential sources of bias in their research design, data collection, or analysis. This can help to improve the validity and reliability of the findings.
• To provide opportunities for future research: Limitations can highlight areas for future research and suggest avenues for further exploration. This can help to advance knowledge in a particular field.
• To demonstrate transparency and accountability: By acknowledging the limitations of their research, researchers can demonstrate transparency and accountability to their readers, peers, and funders. This can help to build trust and credibility in the research community.
• To encourage critical thinking: Limitations can encourage readers to critically evaluate the study’s findings and consider alternative explanations or interpretations. This can help to promote a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of the topic under investigation.

When to Write Limitations in Research

Limitations should be included in research when they help to provide a more complete understanding of the study’s results and implications. A limitation is any factor that could potentially impact the accuracy, reliability, or generalizability of the study’s findings.

It is important to identify and discuss limitations in research because doing so helps to ensure that the results are interpreted appropriately and that any conclusions drawn are supported by the available evidence. Limitations can also suggest areas for future research, highlight potential biases or confounding factors that may have affected the results, and provide context for the study’s findings.

Generally, limitations should be discussed in the conclusion section of a research paper or thesis, although they may also be mentioned in other sections, such as the introduction or methods. The specific limitations that are discussed will depend on the nature of the study, the research question being investigated, and the data that was collected.

Examples of limitations that might be discussed in research include sample size limitations, data collection methods, the validity and reliability of measures used, and potential biases or confounding factors that could have affected the results. It is important to note that limitations should not be used as a justification for poor research design or methodology, but rather as a way to enhance the understanding and interpretation of the study’s findings.

Importance of Limitations in Research

Here are some reasons why limitations are important in research:

• Enhances the credibility of research: Limitations highlight the potential weaknesses and threats to validity, which helps readers to understand the scope and boundaries of the study. This improves the credibility of research by acknowledging its limitations and providing a clear picture of what can and cannot be concluded from the study.
• Facilitates replication: By highlighting the limitations, researchers can provide detailed information about the study’s methodology, data collection, and analysis. This information helps other researchers to replicate the study and test the validity of the findings, which enhances the reliability of research.
• Guides future research : Limitations provide insights into areas for future research by identifying gaps or areas that require further investigation. This can help researchers to design more comprehensive and effective studies that build on existing knowledge.
• Provides a balanced view: Limitations help to provide a balanced view of the research by highlighting both strengths and weaknesses. This ensures that readers have a clear understanding of the study’s limitations and can make informed decisions about the generalizability and applicability of the findings.

Advantages of Limitations in Research

Here are some potential advantages of limitations in research:

• Focus : Limitations can help researchers focus their study on a specific area or population, which can make the research more relevant and useful.
• Realism : Limitations can make a study more realistic by reflecting the practical constraints and challenges of conducting research in the real world.
• Innovation : Limitations can spur researchers to be more innovative and creative in their research design and methodology, as they search for ways to work around the limitations.
• Rigor : Limitations can actually increase the rigor and credibility of a study, as researchers are forced to carefully consider the potential sources of bias and error, and address them to the best of their abilities.
• Generalizability : Limitations can actually improve the generalizability of a study by ensuring that it is not overly focused on a specific sample or situation, and that the results can be applied more broadly.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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