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Student Research Papers

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Research Paper Examples

Research paper examples are of great value for students who want to complete their assignments timely and efficiently. If you are a student in the university, your first stop in the quest for research paper examples will be the campus library where you can get to view the research sample papers of lecturers and other professionals in diverse fields plus those of fellow students who preceded you in the campus. Many college departments maintain libraries of previous student work, including large research papers, which current students can examine.

Embark on a journey of academic excellence with iResearchNet, your premier destination for research paper examples that illuminate the path to scholarly success. In the realm of academia, where the pursuit of knowledge is both a challenge and a privilege, the significance of having access to high-quality research paper examples cannot be overstated. These exemplars are not merely papers; they are beacons of insight, guiding students and scholars through the complex maze of academic writing and research methodologies.

At iResearchNet, we understand that the foundation of academic achievement lies in the quality of resources at one’s disposal. This is why we are dedicated to offering a comprehensive collection of research paper examples across a multitude of disciplines. Each example stands as a testament to rigorous research, clear writing, and the deep understanding necessary to advance in one’s academic and professional journey.

Access to superior research paper examples equips learners with the tools to develop their own ideas, arguments, and hypotheses, fostering a cycle of learning and discovery that transcends traditional boundaries. It is with this vision that iResearchNet commits to empowering students and researchers, providing them with the resources to not only meet but exceed the highest standards of academic excellence. Join us on this journey, and let iResearchNet be your guide to unlocking the full potential of your academic endeavors.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

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Importance of Research Paper Examples

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A Sample Research Paper on Child Abuse

A research paper represents the pinnacle of academic investigation, a scholarly manuscript that encapsulates a detailed study, analysis, or argument based on extensive independent research. It is an embodiment of the researcher’s ability to synthesize a wealth of information, draw insightful conclusions, and contribute novel perspectives to the existing body of knowledge within a specific field. At its core, a research paper strives to push the boundaries of what is known, challenging existing theories and proposing new insights that could potentially reshape the understanding of a particular subject area.

The objective of writing a research paper is manifold, serving both educational and intellectual pursuits. Primarily, it aims to educate the author, providing a rigorous framework through which they engage deeply with a topic, hone their research and analytical skills, and learn the art of academic writing. Beyond personal growth, the research paper serves the broader academic community by contributing to the collective pool of knowledge, offering fresh perspectives, and stimulating further research. It is a medium through which scholars communicate ideas, findings, and theories, thereby fostering an ongoing dialogue that propels the advancement of science, humanities, and other fields of study.

Research papers can be categorized into various types, each with distinct objectives and methodologies. The most common types include:

• Analytical Research Paper: This type focuses on analyzing different viewpoints represented in the scholarly literature or data. The author critically evaluates and interprets the information, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.
• Argumentative or Persuasive Research Paper: Here, the author adopts a stance on a contentious issue and argues in favor of their position. The objective is to persuade the reader through evidence and logic that the author’s viewpoint is valid or preferable.
• Experimental Research Paper: Often used in the sciences, this type documents the process, results, and implications of an experiment conducted by the author. It provides a detailed account of the methodology, data collected, analysis performed, and conclusions drawn.
• Survey Research Paper: This involves collecting data from a set of respondents about their opinions, behaviors, or characteristics. The paper analyzes this data to draw conclusions about the population from which the sample was drawn.
• Comparative Research Paper: This type involves comparing and contrasting different theories, policies, or phenomena. The aim is to highlight similarities and differences, thereby gaining a deeper understanding of the subjects under review.
• Cause and Effect Research Paper: It explores the reasons behind specific actions, events, or conditions and the consequences that follow. The goal is to establish a causal relationship between variables.
• Review Research Paper: This paper synthesizes existing research on a particular topic, offering a comprehensive analysis of the literature to identify trends, gaps, and consensus in the field.

Understanding the nuances and objectives of these various types of research papers is crucial for scholars and students alike, as it guides their approach to conducting and writing up their research. Each type demands a unique set of skills and perspectives, pushing the author to think critically and creatively about their subject matter. As the academic landscape continues to evolve, the research paper remains a fundamental tool for disseminating knowledge, encouraging innovation, and fostering a culture of inquiry and exploration.

Browse Sample Research Papers

iResearchNet prides itself on offering a wide array of research paper examples across various disciplines, meticulously curated to support students, educators, and researchers in their academic endeavors. Each example embodies the hallmarks of scholarly excellence—rigorous research, analytical depth, and clear, precise writing. Below, we explore the diverse range of research paper examples available through iResearchNet, designed to inspire and guide users in their quest for academic achievement.

Anthropology Research Paper Examples

Our anthropology research paper examples delve into the study of humanity, exploring cultural, social, biological, and linguistic variations among human populations. These papers offer insights into human behavior, traditions, and evolution, providing a comprehensive overview of anthropological research methods and theories.

• Archaeology Research Paper
• Forensic Anthropology Research Paper
• Linguistics Research Paper
• Medical Anthropology Research Paper
• Social Problems Research Paper

Art Research Paper Examples

The art research paper examples feature analyses of artistic expressions across different cultures and historical periods. These papers cover a variety of topics, including art history, criticism, and theory, as well as the examination of specific artworks or movements.

• Performing Arts Research Paper
• Music Research Paper
• Architecture Research Paper
• Theater Research Paper
• Visual Arts Research Paper

Cancer Research Paper Examples

Our cancer research paper examples focus on the latest findings in the field of oncology, discussing the biological mechanisms of cancer, advancements in diagnostic techniques, and innovative treatment strategies. These papers aim to contribute to the ongoing battle against cancer by sharing cutting-edge research.

• Breast Cancer Research Paper
• Leukemia Research Paper
• Lung Cancer Research Paper
• Ovarian Cancer Research Paper
• Prostate Cancer Research Paper

Communication Research Paper Examples

These examples explore the complexities of human communication, covering topics such as media studies, interpersonal communication, and public relations. The papers examine how communication processes affect individuals, societies, and cultures.

• Advertising Research Paper
• Journalism Research Paper
• Media Research Paper
• Public Relations Research Paper
• Public Speaking Research Paper

Crime Research Paper Examples

The crime research paper examples provided by iResearchNet investigate various aspects of criminal behavior and the factors contributing to crime. These papers cover a range of topics, from theoretical analyses of criminality to empirical studies on crime prevention strategies.

• Computer Crime Research Paper
• Domestic Violence Research Paper
• Hate Crimes Research Paper
• Organized Crime Research Paper
• White-Collar Crime Research Paper

Criminal Justice Research Paper Examples

Our criminal justice research paper examples delve into the functioning of the criminal justice system, exploring issues related to law enforcement, the judiciary, and corrections. These papers critically examine policies, practices, and reforms within the criminal justice system.

• Capital Punishment Research Paper
• Community Policing Research Paper
• Corporal Punishment Research Paper
• Criminal Investigation Research Paper
• Criminal Justice System Research Paper
• Plea Bargaining Research Paper
• Restorative Justice Research Paper

Criminal Law Research Paper Examples

These examples focus on the legal aspects of criminal behavior, discussing laws, regulations, and case law that govern criminal proceedings. The papers provide an in-depth analysis of criminal law principles, legal defenses, and the implications of legal decisions.

• Actus Reus Research Paper
• Gun Control Research Paper
• Insanity Defense Research Paper
• International Criminal Law Research Paper
• Self-Defense Research Paper

Criminology Research Paper Examples

iResearchNet’s criminology research paper examples study the causes, prevention, and societal impacts of crime. These papers employ various theoretical frameworks to analyze crime trends and propose effective crime reduction strategies.

• Cultural Criminology Research Paper
• Education and Crime Research Paper
• Marxist Criminology Research Paper
• School Crime Research Paper
• Urban Crime Research Paper

Culture Research Paper Examples

The culture research paper examples examine the beliefs, practices, and artifacts that define different societies. These papers explore how culture shapes identities, influences behaviors, and impacts social interactions.

• Advertising and Culture Research Paper
• Material Culture Research Paper
• Popular Culture Research Paper
• Cross-Cultural Studies Research Paper
• Culture Change Research Paper

Economics Research Paper Examples

Our economics research paper examples offer insights into the functioning of economies at both the micro and macro levels. Topics include economic theory, policy analysis, and the examination of economic indicators and trends.

• Budget Research Paper
• Cost-Benefit Analysis Research Paper
• Fiscal Policy Research Paper
• Labor Market Research Paper

Education Research Paper Examples

These examples address a wide range of issues in education, from teaching methods and curriculum design to educational policy and reform. The papers aim to enhance understanding and improve outcomes in educational settings.

• Early Childhood Education Research Paper
• Information Processing Research Paper
• Multicultural Education Research Paper
• Special Education Research Paper
• Standardized Tests Research Paper

Health Research Paper Examples

The health research paper examples focus on public health issues, healthcare systems, and medical interventions. These papers contribute to the discourse on health promotion, disease prevention, and healthcare management.

• AIDS Research Paper
• Alcoholism Research Paper
• Disease Research Paper
• Health Economics Research Paper
• Health Insurance Research Paper
• Nursing Research Paper

History Research Paper Examples

Our history research paper examples cover significant events, figures, and periods, offering critical analyses of historical narratives and their impact on present-day society.

• Adolf Hitler Research Paper
• American Revolution Research Paper
• Ancient Greece Research Paper
• Apartheid Research Paper
• Christopher Columbus Research Paper
• Climate Change Research Paper
• Cold War Research Paper
• Columbian Exchange Research Paper
• Deforestation Research Paper
• Diseases Research Paper
• Earthquakes Research Paper
• Egypt Research Paper

Leadership Research Paper Examples

These examples explore the theories and practices of effective leadership, examining the qualities, behaviors, and strategies that distinguish successful leaders in various contexts.

• Implicit Leadership Theories Research Paper
• Judicial Leadership Research Paper
• Leadership Styles Research Paper
• Police Leadership Research Paper
• Political Leadership Research Paper
• Remote Leadership Research Paper

Mental Health Research Paper Examples

The mental health research paper examples provided by iResearchNet discuss psychological disorders, therapeutic interventions, and mental health advocacy. These papers aim to raise awareness and improve mental health care practices.

• ADHD Research Paper
• Anxiety Research Paper
• Autism Research Paper
• Depression Research Paper
• Eating Disorders Research Paper
• PTSD Research Paper
• Schizophrenia Research Paper
• Stress Research Paper

Political Science Research Paper Examples

Our political science research paper examples analyze political systems, behaviors, and ideologies. Topics include governance, policy analysis, and the study of political movements and institutions.

• American Government Research Paper
• Civil War Research Paper
• Communism Research Paper
• Democracy Research Paper
• Game Theory Research Paper
• Human Rights Research Paper
• International Relations Research Paper
• Terrorism Research Paper

Psychology Research Paper Examples

These examples delve into the study of the mind and behavior, covering a broad range of topics in clinical, cognitive, developmental, and social psychology.

• Artificial Intelligence Research Paper
• Assessment Psychology Research Paper
• Biological Psychology Research Paper
• Clinical Psychology Research Paper
• Cognitive Psychology Research Paper
• Developmental Psychology Research Paper
• Discrimination Research Paper
• Educational Psychology Research Paper
• Environmental Psychology Research Paper
• Experimental Psychology Research Paper
• Intelligence Research Paper
• Learning Disabilities Research Paper
• Personality Psychology Research Paper
• Psychiatry Research Paper
• Psychotherapy Research Paper
• Social Cognition Research Paper
• Social Psychology Research Paper

Sociology Research Paper Examples

The sociology research paper examples examine societal structures, relationships, and processes. These papers provide insights into social phenomena, inequality, and change.

• Family Research Paper
• Demography Research Paper
• Group Dynamics Research Paper
• Quality of Life Research Paper
• Social Change Research Paper
• Social Movements Research Paper
• Social Networks Research Paper

Technology Research Paper Examples

Our technology research paper examples address the impact of technological advancements on society, exploring issues related to digital communication, cybersecurity, and innovation.

• Computer Forensics Research Paper
• Genetic Engineering Research Paper
• History of Technology Research Paper
• Internet Research Paper
• Nanotechnology Research Paper

Other Research Paper Examples

• Abortion Research Paper
• Adoption Research Paper
• Animal Testing Research Paper
• Bullying Research Paper
• Diversity Research Paper
• Divorce Research Paper
• Drugs Research Paper
• Environmental Issues Research Paper
• Ethics Research Paper
• Evolution Research Paper
• Feminism Research Paper
• Food Research Paper
• Gender Research Paper
• Globalization Research Paper
• Juvenile Justice Research Paper
• Law Research Paper
• Management Research Paper
• Philosophy Research Paper
• Public Health Research Paper
• Religion Research Paper
• Science Research Paper
• Social Sciences Research Paper
• Statistics Research Paper
• Other Sample Research Papers

Each category of research paper examples provided by iResearchNet serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers seeking to deepen their understanding of a specific field. By offering a comprehensive collection of well-researched and thoughtfully written papers, iResearchNet aims to support academic growth and encourage scholarly inquiry across diverse disciplines.

Sample Research Papers: To Read or Not to Read?

When you get an assignment to write a research paper, the first question you ask yourself is ‘Should I look for research paper examples?’ Maybe, I can deal with this task on my own without any help. Is it that difficult?

Thousands of students turn to our service every day for help. It does not mean that they cannot do their assignments on their own. They can, but the reason is different. Writing a research paper demands so much time and energy that asking for assistance seems to be a perfect solution. As the matter of fact, it is a perfect solution, especially, when you need to work to pay for your studying as well.

Firstly, if you search for research paper examples before you start writing, you can save your time significantly. You look at the example and you understand the gist of your assignment within several minutes. Secondly, when you examine some sample paper, you get to know all the requirements. You analyze the structure, the language, and the formatting details. Finally, reading examples helps students to overcome writer’s block, as other people’s ideas can motivate you to discover your own ideas.

The significance of research paper examples in the academic journey of students cannot be overstated. These examples serve not only as a blueprint for structuring and formatting academic papers but also as a beacon guiding students through the complex landscape of academic writing standards. iResearchNet recognizes the pivotal role that high-quality research paper examples play in fostering academic success and intellectual growth among students.

Blueprint for Academic Success

Research paper examples provided by iResearchNet are meticulously crafted to demonstrate the essential elements of effective academic writing. These examples offer clear insights into how to organize a paper, from the introductory paragraph, through the development of arguments and analysis, to the concluding remarks. They showcase the appropriate use of headings, subheadings, and the integration of tables, figures, and appendices, which collectively contribute to a well-organized and coherent piece of scholarly work. By studying these examples, students can gain a comprehensive understanding of the structure and formatting required in academic papers, which is crucial for meeting the rigorous standards of academic institutions.

Sparking Ideas and Providing Evidence

Beyond serving as a structural guide, research paper examples act as a source of inspiration for students embarking on their research projects. These examples illuminate a wide array of topics, methodologies, and analytical frameworks, thereby sparking ideas for students’ own research inquiries. They demonstrate how to effectively engage with existing literature, frame research questions, and develop a compelling thesis statement. Moreover, by presenting evidence and arguments in a logical and persuasive manner, these examples illustrate the art of substantiating claims with solid research, encouraging students to adopt a similar level of rigor and depth in their work.

Enhancing Research Skills

Engagement with high-quality research paper examples is instrumental in improving research skills among students. These examples expose students to various research methodologies, from qualitative case studies to quantitative analyses, enabling them to appreciate the breadth of research approaches applicable to their fields of study. By analyzing these examples, students learn how to critically evaluate sources, differentiate between primary and secondary data, and apply ethical considerations in research. Furthermore, these papers serve as a model for effectively citing sources, thereby teaching students the importance of academic integrity and the avoidance of plagiarism.

In essence, research paper examples are a fundamental resource that can significantly enhance the academic writing and research capabilities of students. iResearchNet’s commitment to providing access to a diverse collection of exemplary papers reflects its dedication to supporting academic excellence. Through these examples, students are equipped with the tools necessary to navigate the challenges of academic writing, foster innovative thinking, and contribute meaningfully to the scholarly community. By leveraging these resources, students can elevate their academic pursuits, ensuring their research is not only rigorous but also impactful.

Custom Research Paper Writing Services

In the academic journey, the ability to craft a compelling and meticulously researched paper is invaluable. Recognizing the challenges and pressures that students face, iResearchNet has developed a suite of research paper writing services designed to alleviate the burden of academic writing and research. Our services are tailored to meet the diverse needs of students across all academic disciplines, ensuring that every research paper not only meets but exceeds the rigorous standards of scholarly excellence. Below, we detail the multifaceted aspects of our research paper writing services, illustrating how iResearchNet stands as a beacon of support in the academic landscape.

At iResearchNet, we understand the pivotal role that research papers play in the academic and professional development of students. With this understanding at our core, we offer comprehensive writing services that cater to the intricate process of research paper creation. Our services are designed to guide students through every stage of the writing process, from initial research to final submission, ensuring clarity, coherence, and scholarly rigor.

The Need for Research Paper Writing Services

Navigating the complexities of academic writing and research can be a daunting task for many students. The challenges of identifying credible sources, synthesizing information, adhering to academic standards, and articulating arguments cohesively are significant. Furthermore, the pressures of tight deadlines and the high stakes of academic success can exacerbate the difficulties faced by students. iResearchNet’s research paper writing services are crafted to address these challenges head-on, providing expert assistance that empowers students to achieve their academic goals with confidence.

Why Choose iResearchNet

Selecting the right partner for research paper writing is a pivotal decision for students and researchers aiming for academic excellence. iResearchNet stands out as the premier choice for several compelling reasons, each designed to meet the diverse needs of our clientele and ensure their success.

• Expert Writers : At iResearchNet, we pride ourselves on our team of expert writers who are not only masters in their respective fields but also possess a profound understanding of academic writing standards. With advanced degrees and extensive experience, our writers bring depth, insight, and precision to each paper, ensuring that your work is informed by the latest research and methodologies.
• Top Quality : Quality is the cornerstone of our services. We adhere to rigorous quality control processes to ensure that every paper we deliver meets the highest standards of academic excellence. Our commitment to quality means thorough research, impeccable writing, and meticulous proofreading, resulting in work that not only meets but exceeds expectations.
• Customized Solutions : Understanding that each research project has its unique challenges and requirements, iResearchNet offers customized solutions tailored to your specific needs. Whether you’re grappling with a complex research topic, a tight deadline, or specific formatting guidelines, our team is equipped to provide personalized support that aligns with your objectives.
• Affordable Prices : We believe that access to high-quality research paper writing services should not be prohibitive. iResearchNet offers competitive pricing structures designed to provide value without compromising on quality. Our transparent pricing model ensures that you know exactly what you are paying for, with no hidden costs or surprises.
• Timely Delivery : Meeting deadlines is critical in academic writing, and at iResearchNet, we take this seriously. Our efficient processes and dedicated team ensure that your paper is delivered on time, every time, allowing you to meet your academic deadlines with confidence.
• 24/7 Support : Our commitment to your success is reflected in our round-the-clock support. Whether you have a question about your order, need to communicate with your writer, or require assistance with any aspect of our service, our friendly and knowledgeable support team is available 24/7 to assist you.
• Money-Back Guarantee : Your satisfaction is our top priority. iResearchNet offers a money-back guarantee, ensuring that if for any reason you are not satisfied with the work delivered, you are entitled to a refund. This policy underscores our confidence in the quality of our services and our dedication to your success.

Choosing iResearchNet for your research paper writing needs means partnering with a trusted provider committed to excellence, innovation, and customer satisfaction. Our unparalleled blend of expert writers, top-quality work, customized solutions, affordability, timely delivery, 24/7 support, and a money-back guarantee makes us the ideal choice for students and researchers seeking to elevate their academic performance.

How It Works: iResearchNet’s Streamlined Process

Navigating the process of obtaining a top-notch research paper has never been more straightforward, thanks to iResearchNet’s streamlined approach. Our user-friendly system ensures that from the moment you decide to place your order to the final receipt of your custom-written paper, every step is seamless, transparent, and tailored to your needs. Here’s how our comprehensive process works:

• Place Your Order : Begin your journey to academic success by visiting our website and filling out the order form. Here, you’ll provide details about your research paper, including the topic, academic level, number of pages, formatting style, and any specific instructions or requirements. This initial step is crucial for us to understand your needs fully and match you with the most suitable writer.
• Make Payment : Once your order details are confirmed, you’ll proceed to the payment section. Our platform offers a variety of secure payment options, ensuring that your transaction is safe and hassle-free. Our transparent pricing policy means you’ll know exactly what you’re paying for upfront, with no hidden fees.
• Choose Your Writer : After payment, you’ll have the opportunity to choose a writer from our team of experts. Our writers are categorized based on their fields of expertise, academic qualifications, and customer feedback ratings. This step empowers you to select the writer who best matches your research paper’s requirements, ensuring a personalized and targeted approach to your project.
• Receive Your Work : Our writer will commence work on your research paper, adhering to the specified guidelines and timelines. Throughout this process, you’ll have the ability to communicate directly with your writer, allowing for updates, revisions, and clarifications to ensure the final product meets your expectations. Once completed, your research paper will undergo a thorough quality check before being delivered to you via your chosen method.
• Free Revisions : Your satisfaction is our priority. Upon receiving your research paper, you’ll have the opportunity to review the work and request any necessary revisions. iResearchNet offers free revisions within a specified period, ensuring that your final paper perfectly aligns with your academic requirements and expectations.

Our process is designed to provide you with a stress-free experience and a research paper that reflects your academic goals. From placing your order to enjoying the success of a well-written paper, iResearchNet is here to support you every step of the way.

Our Extras: Enhancing Your iResearchNet Experience

At iResearchNet, we are committed to offering more than just standard research paper writing services. We understand the importance of providing a comprehensive and personalized experience for each of our clients. That’s why we offer a range of additional services designed to enhance your experience and ensure your academic success. Here are the exclusive extras you can benefit from:

• VIP Service : Elevate your iResearchNet experience with our VIP service, offering you priority treatment from the moment you place your order. This service ensures your projects are given first priority, with immediate attention from our team, and direct access to our top-tier writers and editors. VIP clients also benefit from our highest level of customer support, available to address any inquiries or needs with utmost urgency and personalized care.
• Plagiarism Report : Integrity and originality are paramount in academic writing. To provide you with peace of mind, we offer a detailed plagiarism report with every research paper. This report is generated using advanced plagiarism detection software, ensuring that your work is unique and adheres to the highest standards of academic honesty.
• Text Messages : Stay informed about your order’s progress with real-time updates sent directly to your phone. This service ensures you’re always in the loop, providing immediate notifications about key milestones, writer assignments, and any changes to your order status. With this added layer of communication, you can relax knowing that you’ll never miss an important update about your research paper.
• Table of Contents : A well-organized research paper is key to guiding readers through your work. Our service includes the creation of a detailed table of contents, meticulously structured to reflect the main sections and subsections of your paper. This not only enhances the navigability of your document but also presents your research in a professional and academically appropriate format.
• Abstract Page : The abstract page is your research paper’s first impression, summarizing the essential points of your study and its conclusions. Crafting a compelling abstract is an art, and our experts are skilled in highlighting the significance, methodology, results, and implications of your research succinctly and effectively. This service ensures that your paper makes a strong impact from the very beginning.
• Editor’s Check : Before your research paper reaches you, it undergoes a final review by our team of experienced editors. This editor’s check is a comprehensive process that includes proofreading for grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors, as well as ensuring that the paper meets all your specifications and academic standards. This meticulous attention to detail guarantees that your paper is polished, professional, and ready for submission.

To ensure your research paper is of the highest quality and ready for submission, it undergoes a rigorous editor’s check. This final review process includes a thorough examination for any grammatical, punctuation, or spelling errors, as well as a verification that the paper meets all your specified requirements and academic standards. Our editors’ meticulous approach guarantees that your paper is polished, accurate, and exemplary.

By choosing iResearchNet and leveraging our extras, you can elevate the quality of your research paper and enjoy a customized, worry-free academic support experience.

A research paper is an academic piece of writing, so you need to follow all the requirements and standards. Otherwise, it will be impossible to get the high results. To make it easier for you, we have analyzed the structure and peculiarities of a sample research paper on the topic ‘Child Abuse’.

The paper includes 7300+ words, a detailed outline, citations are in APA formatting style, and bibliography with 28 sources.

To write any paper you need to write a great outline. This is the key to a perfect paper. When you organize your paper, it is easier for you to present the ideas logically, without jumping from one thought to another.

In the outline, you need to name all the parts of your paper. That is to say, an introduction, main body, conclusion, bibliography, some papers require abstract and proposal as well.

A good outline will serve as a guide through your paper making it easier for the reader to follow your ideas.

I. Introduction

Ii. estimates of child abuse: methodological limitations, iii. child abuse and neglect: the legalities, iv. corporal punishment versus child abuse, v. child abuse victims: the patterns, vi. child abuse perpetrators: the patterns, vii. explanations for child abuse, viii. consequences of child abuse and neglect, ix. determining abuse: how to tell whether a child is abused or neglected, x. determining abuse: interviewing children, xi. how can society help abused children and abusive families, introduction.

An introduction should include a thesis statement and the main points that you will discuss in the paper.

A thesis statement is one sentence in which you need to show your point of view. You will then develop this point of view through the whole piece of work:

‘The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood.’

Child abuse is a very real and prominent social problem today. The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood. Most children are defenseless against abuse, are dependent on their caretakers, and are unable to protect themselves from these acts.

Childhood serves as the basis for growth, development, and socialization. Throughout adolescence, children are taught how to become productive and positive, functioning members of society. Much of the socializing of children, particularly in their very earliest years, comes at the hands of family members. Unfortunately, the messages conveyed to and the actions against children by their families are not always the positive building blocks for which one would hope.

In 2008, the Children’s Defense Fund reported that each day in America, 2,421 children are confirmed as abused or neglected, 4 children are killed by abuse or neglect, and 78 babies die before their first birthday. These daily estimates translate into tremendous national figures. In 2006, caseworkers substantiated an estimated 905,000 reports of child abuse or neglect. Of these, 64% suffered neglect, 16% were physically abused, 9% were sexually abused, 7% were emotionally or psychologically maltreated, and 2% were medically neglected. In addition, 15% of the victims experienced “other” types of maltreatment such as abandonment, threats of harm to the child, and congenital drug addiction (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006). Obviously, this problem is a substantial one.

In the main body, you dwell upon the topic of your paper. You provide your ideas and support them with evidence. The evidence include all the data and material you have found, analyzed and systematized. You can support your point of view with different statistical data, with surveys, and the results of different experiments. Your task is to show that your idea is right, and make the reader interested in the topic.

In this example, a writer analyzes the issue of child abuse: different statistical data, controversies regarding the topic, examples of the problem and the consequences.

Several issues arise when considering the amount of child abuse that occurs annually in the United States. Child abuse is very hard to estimate because much (or most) of it is not reported. Children who are abused are unlikely to report their victimization because they may not know any better, they still love their abusers and do not want to see them taken away (or do not themselves want to be taken away from their abusers), they have been threatened into not reporting, or they do not know to whom they should report their victimizations. Still further, children may report their abuse only to find the person to whom they report does not believe them or take any action on their behalf. Continuing to muddy the waters, child abuse can be disguised as legitimate injury, particularly because young children are often somewhat uncoordinated and are still learning to accomplish physical tasks, may not know their physical limitations, and are often legitimately injured during regular play. In the end, children rarely report child abuse; most often it is an adult who makes a report based on suspicion (e.g., teacher, counselor, doctor, etc.).

Even when child abuse is reported, social service agents and investigators may not follow up or substantiate reports for a variety of reasons. Parents can pretend, lie, or cover up injuries or stories of how injuries occurred when social service agents come to investigate. Further, there is not always agreement about what should be counted as abuse by service providers and researchers. In addition, social service agencies/agents have huge caseloads and may only be able to deal with the most serious forms of child abuse, leaving the more “minor” forms of abuse unsupervised and unmanaged (and uncounted in the statistical totals).

While most laws about child abuse and neglect fall at the state levels, federal legislation provides a foundation for states by identifying a minimum set of acts and behaviors that define child abuse and neglect. The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), which stems from the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003, defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum, “(1) any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation; or (2) an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk or serious harm.”

Using these minimum standards, each state is responsible for providing its own definition of maltreatment within civil and criminal statutes. When defining types of child abuse, many states incorporate similar elements and definitions into their legal statutes. For example, neglect is often defined as failure to provide for a child’s basic needs. Neglect can encompass physical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary food or shelter, or lack of appropriate supervision), medical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary medical or mental health treatment), educational elements (e.g., failure to educate a child or attend to special educational needs), and emotional elements (e.g., inattention to a child’s emotional needs, failure to provide psychological care, or permitting the child to use alcohol or other drugs). Failure to meet needs does not always mean a child is neglected, as situations such as poverty, cultural values, and community standards can influence the application of legal statutes. In addition, several states distinguish between failure to provide based on financial inability and failure to provide for no apparent financial reason.

Statutes on physical abuse typically include elements of physical injury (ranging from minor bruises to severe fractures or death) as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning, or otherwise harming a child. Such injury is considered abuse regardless of the intention of the caretaker. In addition, many state statutes include allowing or encouraging another person to physically harm a child (such as noted above) as another form of physical abuse in and of itself. Sexual abuse usually includes activities by a parent or caretaker such as fondling a child’s genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, and exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials.

Finally, emotional or psychological abuse typically is defined as a pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or sense of self-worth. This may include constant criticism, threats, or rejection, as well as withholding love, support, or guidance. Emotional abuse is often the most difficult to prove and, therefore, child protective services may not be able to intervene without evidence of harm to the child. Some states suggest that harm may be evidenced by an observable or substantial change in behavior, emotional response, or cognition, or by anxiety, depression, withdrawal, or aggressive behavior. At a practical level, emotional abuse is almost always present when other types of abuse are identified.

Some states include an element of substance abuse in their statutes on child abuse. Circumstances that can be considered substance abuse include (a) the manufacture of a controlled substance in the presence of a child or on the premises occupied by a child (Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Virginia); (b) allowing a child to be present where the chemicals or equipment for the manufacture of controlled substances are used (Arizona, New Mexico); (c) selling, distributing, or giving drugs or alcohol to a child (Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Minnesota, and Texas); (d) use of a controlled substance by a caregiver that impairs the caregiver’s ability to adequately care for the child (Kentucky, New York, Rhode Island, and Texas); and (e) exposure of the child to drug paraphernalia (North Dakota), the criminal sale or distribution of drugs (Montana, Virginia), or drug-related activity (District of Columbia).

One of the most difficult issues with which the U.S. legal system must contend is that of allowing parents the right to use corporal punishment when disciplining a child, while not letting them cross over the line into the realm of child abuse. Some parents may abuse their children under the guise of discipline, and many instances of child abuse arise from angry parents who go too far when disciplining their children with physical punishment. Generally, state statutes use terms such as “reasonable discipline of a minor,” “causes only temporary, short-term pain,” and may cause “the potential for bruising” but not “permanent damage, disability, disfigurement or injury” to the child as ways of indicating the types of discipline behaviors that are legal. However, corporal punishment that is “excessive,” “malicious,” “endangers the bodily safety of,” or is “an intentional infliction of injury” is not allowed under most state statutes (e.g., state of Florida child abuse statute).

Most research finds that the use of physical punishment (most often spanking) is not an effective method of discipline. The literature on this issue tends to find that spanking stops misbehavior, but no more effectively than other firm measures. Further, it seems to hinder rather than improve general compliance/obedience (particularly when the child is not in the presence of the punisher). Researchers have also explained why physical punishment is not any more effective at gaining child compliance than nonviolent forms of discipline. Some of the problems that arise when parents use spanking or other forms of physical punishment include the fact that spanking does not teach what children should do, nor does it provide them with alternative behavior options should the circumstance arise again. Spanking also undermines reasoning, explanation, or other forms of parental instruction because children cannot learn, reason, or problem solve well while experiencing threat, pain, fear, or anger. Further, the use of physical punishment is inconsistent with nonviolent principles, or parental modeling. In addition, the use of spanking chips away at the bonds of affection between parents and children, and tends to induce resentment and fear. Finally, it hinders the development of empathy and compassion in children, and they do not learn to take responsibility for their own behavior (Pitzer, 1997).

One of the biggest problems with the use of corporal punishment is that it can escalate into much more severe forms of violence. Usually, parents spank because they are angry (and somewhat out of control) and they can’t think of other ways to discipline. When parents are acting as a result of emotional triggers, the notion of discipline is lost while punishment and pain become the foci.

In 2006, of the children who were found to be victims of child abuse, nearly 75% of them were first-time victims (or had not come to the attention of authorities prior). A slight majority of child abuse victims were girls—51.5%, compared to 48% of abuse victims being boys. The younger the child, the more at risk he or she is for child abuse and neglect victimization. Specifically, the rate for infants (birth to 1 year old) was approximately 24 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The victimization rate for children 1–3 years old was 14 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The abuse rate for children aged 4– 7 years old declined further to 13 per 1,000 children of the same age group. African American, American Indian, and Alaska Native children, as well as children of multiple races, had the highest rates of victimization. White and Latino children had lower rates, and Asian children had the lowest rates of child abuse and neglect victimization. Regarding living arrangements, nearly 27% of victims were living with a single mother, 20% were living with married parents, while 22% were living with both parents but the marital status was unknown. (This reporting element had nearly 40% missing data, however.) Regarding disability, nearly 8% of child abuse victims had some degree of mental retardation, emotional disturbance, visual or hearing impairment, learning disability, physical disability, behavioral problems, or other medical problems. Unfortunately, data indicate that for many victims, the efforts of the child protection services system were not successful in preventing subsequent victimization. Children who had been prior victims of maltreatment were 96% more likely to experience another occurrence than those who were not prior victims. Further, child victims who were reported to have a disability were 52% more likely to experience recurrence than children without a disability. Finally, the oldest victims (16–21 years of age) were the least likely to experience a recurrence, and were 51% less likely to be victimized again than were infants (younger than age 1) (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

Child fatalities are the most tragic consequence of maltreatment. Yet, each year, children die from abuse and neglect. In 2006, an estimated 1,530 children in the United States died due to abuse or neglect. The overall rate of child fatalities was 2 deaths per 100,000 children. More than 40% of child fatalities were attributed to neglect, but physical abuse also was a major contributor. Approximately 78% of the children who died due to child abuse and neglect were younger than 4 years old, and infant boys (younger than 1) had the highest rate of fatalities at 18.5 deaths per 100,000 boys of the same age in the national population. Infant girls had a rate of 14.7 deaths per 100,000 girls of the same age (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

One question to be addressed regarding child fatalities is why infants have such a high rate of death when compared to toddlers and adolescents. Children under 1 year old pose an immense amount of responsibility for their caretakers: they are completely dependent and need constant attention. Children this age are needy, impulsive, and not amenable to verbal control or effective communication. This can easily overwhelm vulnerable parents. Another difficulty associated with infants is that they are physically weak and small. Injuries to infants can be fatal, while similar injuries to older children might not be. The most common cause of death in children less than 1 year is cerebral trauma (often the result of shaken-baby syndrome). Exasperated parents can deliver shakes or blows without realizing how little it takes to cause irreparable or fatal damage to an infant. Research informs us that two of the most common triggers for fatal child abuse are crying that will not cease and toileting accidents. Both of these circumstances are common in infants and toddlers whose only means of communication often is crying, and who are limited in mobility and cannot use the toilet. Finally, very young children cannot assist in injury diagnoses. Children who have been injured due to abuse or neglect often cannot communicate to medical professionals about where it hurts, how it hurts, and so forth. Also, nonfatal injuries can turn fatal in the absence of care by neglectful parents or parents who do not want medical professionals to possibly identify an injury as being the result of abuse.

Estimates reveal that nearly 80% of perpetrators of child abuse were parents of the victim. Other relatives accounted for nearly 7%, and unmarried partners of parents made up 4% of perpetrators. Of those perpetrators that were parents, over 90% were biological parents, 4% were stepparents, and 0.7% were adoptive parents. Of this group, approximately 58% of perpetrators were women and 42% were men. Women perpetrators are typically younger than men. The average age for women abusers was 31 years old, while for men the average was 34 years old. Forty percent of women who abused were younger than 30 years of age, compared with 33% of men being under 30. The racial distribution of perpetrators is similar to that of victims. Fifty-four percent were white, 21% were African American, and 20% were Hispanic/Latino (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

There are many factors that are associated with child abuse. Some of the more common/well-accepted explanations are individual pathology, parent–child interaction, past abuse in the family (or social learning), situational factors, and cultural support for physical punishment along with a lack of cultural support for helping parents here in the United States.

The first explanation centers on the individual pathology of a parent or caretaker who is abusive. This theory focuses on the idea that people who abuse their children have something wrong with their individual personality or biological makeup. Such psychological pathologies may include having anger control problems; being depressed or having post-partum depression; having a low tolerance for frustration (e.g., children can be extremely frustrating: they don’t always listen; they constantly push the line of how far they can go; and once the line has been established, they are constantly treading on it to make sure it hasn’t moved. They are dependent and self-centered, so caretakers have very little privacy or time to themselves); being rigid (e.g., having no tolerance for differences—for example, what if your son wanted to play with dolls? A rigid father would not let him, laugh at him for wanting to, punish him when he does, etc.); having deficits in empathy (parents who cannot put themselves in the shoes of their children cannot fully understand what their children need emotionally); or being disorganized, inefficient, and ineffectual. (Parents who are unable to manage their own lives are unlikely to be successful at managing the lives of their children, and since many children want and need limits, these parents are unable to set them or adhere to them.)

Biological pathologies that may increase the likelihood of someone becoming a child abuser include having substance abuse or dependence problems, or having persistent or reoccurring physical health problems (especially health problems that can be extremely painful and can cause a person to become more self-absorbed, both qualities that can give rise to a lack of patience, lower frustration tolerance, and increased stress).

The second explanation for child abuse centers on the interaction between the parent and the child, noting that certain types of parents are more likely to abuse, and certain types of children are more likely to be abused, and when these less-skilled parents are coupled with these more difficult children, child abuse is the most likely to occur. Discussion here focuses on what makes a parent less skilled, and what makes a child more difficult. Characteristics of unskilled parents are likely to include such traits as only pointing out what children do wrong and never giving any encouragement for good behavior, and failing to be sensitive to the emotional needs of children. Less skilled parents tend to have unrealistic expectations of children. They may engage in role reversal— where the parents make the child take care of them—and view the parent’s happiness and well-being as the responsibility of the child. Some parents view the parental role as extremely stressful and experience little enjoyment from being a parent. Finally, less-skilled parents tend to have more negative perceptions regarding their child(ren). For example, perhaps the child has a different shade of skin than they expected and this may disappoint or anger them, they may feel the child is being manipulative (long before children have this capability), or they may view the child as the scapegoat for all the parents’ or family’s problems. Theoretically, parents with these characteristics would be more likely to abuse their children, but if they are coupled with having a difficult child, they would be especially likely to be abusive. So, what makes a child more difficult? Certainly, through no fault of their own, children may have characteristics that are associated with child care that is more demanding and difficult than in the “normal” or “average” situation. Such characteristics can include having physical and mental disabilities (autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], hyperactivity, etc.); the child may be colicky, frequently sick, be particularly needy, or cry more often. In addition, some babies are simply unhappier than other babies for reasons that cannot be known. Further, infants are difficult even in the best of circumstances. They are unable to communicate effectively, and they are completely dependent on their caretakers for everything, including eating, diaper changing, moving around, entertainment, and emotional bonding. Again, these types of children, being more difficult, are more likely to be victims of child abuse.

Nonetheless, each of these types of parents and children alone cannot explain the abuse of children, but it is the interaction between them that becomes the key. Unskilled parents may produce children that are happy and not as needy, and even though they are unskilled, they do not abuse because the child takes less effort. At the same time, children who are more difficult may have parents who are skilled and are able to handle and manage the extra effort these children take with aplomb. However, risks for child abuse increase when unskilled parents must contend with difficult children.

Social learning or past abuse in the family is a third common explanation for child abuse. Here, the theory concentrates not only on what children learn when they see or experience violence in their homes, but additionally on what they do not learn as a result of these experiences. Social learning theory in the context of family violence stresses that if children are abused or see abuse (toward siblings or a parent), those interactions and violent family members become the representations and role models for their future familial interactions. In this way, what children learn is just as important as what they do not learn. Children who witness or experience violence may learn that this is the way parents deal with children, or that violence is an acceptable method of child rearing and discipline. They may think when they become parents that “violence worked on me when I was a child, and I turned out fine.” They may learn unhealthy relationship interaction patterns; children may witness the negative interactions of parents and they may learn the maladaptive or violent methods of expressing anger, reacting to stress, or coping with conflict.

What is equally as important, though, is that they are unlikely to learn more acceptable and nonviolent ways of rearing children, interacting with family members, and working out conflict. Here it may happen that an adult who was abused as a child would like to be nonviolent toward his or her own children, but when the chips are down and the child is misbehaving, this abused-child-turned-adult does not have a repertoire of nonviolent strategies to try. This parent is more likely to fall back on what he or she knows as methods of discipline.

Something important to note here is that not all abused children grow up to become abusive adults. Children who break the cycle were often able to establish and maintain one healthy emotional relationship with someone during their childhoods (or period of young adulthood). For instance, they may have received emotional support from a nonabusing parent, or they received social support and had a positive relationship with another adult during their childhood (e.g., teacher, coach, minister, neighbor, etc.). Abused children who participate in therapy during some period of their lives can often break the cycle of violence. In addition, adults who were abused but are able to form an emotionally supportive and satisfying relationship with a mate can make the transition to being nonviolent in their family interactions.

Moving on to a fourth familiar explanation for child abuse, there are some common situational factors that influence families and parents and increase the risks for child abuse. Typically, these are factors that increase family stress or social isolation. Specifically, such factors may include receiving public assistance or having low socioeconomic status (a combination of low income and low education). Other factors include having family members who are unemployed, underemployed (working in a job that requires lower qualifications than an individual possesses), or employed only part time. These financial difficulties cause great stress for families in meeting the needs of the individual members. Other stress-inducing familial characteristics are single-parent households and larger family size. Finally, social isolation can be devastating for families and family members. Having friends to talk to, who can be relied upon, and with whom kids can be dropped off occasionally is tremendously important for personal growth and satisfaction in life. In addition, social isolation and stress can cause individuals to be quick to lose their tempers, as well as cause people to be less rational in their decision making and to make mountains out of mole hills. These situations can lead families to be at greater risk for child abuse.

Finally, cultural views and supports (or lack thereof) can lead to greater amounts of child abuse in a society such as the United States. One such cultural view is that of societal support for physical punishment. This is problematic because there are similarities between the way criminals are dealt with and the way errant children are handled. The use of capital punishment is advocated for seriously violent criminals, and people are quick to use such idioms as “spare the rod and spoil the child” when it comes to the discipline or punishment of children. In fact, it was not until quite recently that parenting books began to encourage parents to use other strategies than spanking or other forms of corporal punishment in the discipline of their children. Only recently, the American Academy of Pediatrics has come out and recommended that parents do not spank or use other forms of violence on their children because of the deleterious effects such methods have on youngsters and their bonds with their parents. Nevertheless, regardless of recommendations, the culture of corporal punishment persists.

Another cultural view in the United States that can give rise to greater incidents of child abuse is the belief that after getting married, couples of course should want and have children. Culturally, Americans consider that children are a blessing, raising kids is the most wonderful thing a person can do, and everyone should have children. Along with this notion is the idea that motherhood is always wonderful; it is the most fulfilling thing a woman can do; and the bond between a mother and her child is strong, glorious, and automatic—all women love being mothers. Thus, culturally (and theoretically), society nearly insists that married couples have children and that they will love having children. But, after children are born, there is not much support for couples who have trouble adjusting to parenthood, or who do not absolutely love their new roles as parents. People look askance at parents who need help, and cannot believe parents who say anything negative about parenthood. As such, theoretically, society has set up a situation where couples are strongly encouraged to have kids, are told they will love kids, but then society turns a blind or disdainful eye when these same parents need emotional, financial, or other forms of help or support. It is these types of cultural viewpoints that increase the risks for child abuse in society.

The consequences of child abuse are tremendous and long lasting. Research has shown that the traumatic experience of childhood abuse is life changing. These costs may surface during adolescence, or they may not become evident until abused children have grown up and become abusing parents or abused spouses. Early identification and treatment is important to minimize these potential long-term effects. Whenever children say they have been abused, it is imperative that they be taken seriously and their abuse be reported. Suspicions of child abuse must be reported as well. If there is a possibility that a child is or has been abused, an investigation must be conducted.

Children who have been abused may exhibit traits such as the inability to love or have faith in others. This often translates into adults who are unable to establish lasting and stable personal relationships. These individuals have trouble with physical closeness and touching as well as emotional intimacy and trust. Further, these qualities tend to cause a fear of entering into new relationships, as well as the sabotaging of any current ones.

Psychologically, children who have been abused tend to have poor self-images or are passive, withdrawn, or clingy. They may be angry individuals who are filled with rage, anxiety, and a variety of fears. They are often aggressive, disruptive, and depressed. Many abused children have flashbacks and nightmares about the abuse they have experienced, and this may cause sleep problems as well as drug and alcohol problems. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and antisocial personality disorder are both typical among maltreated children. Research has also shown that most abused children fail to reach “successful psychosocial functioning,” and are thus not resilient and do not resume a “normal life” after the abuse has ended.

Socially (and likely because of these psychological injuries), abused children have trouble in school, will have difficulty getting and remaining employed, and may commit a variety of illegal or socially inappropriate behaviors. Many studies have shown that victims of child abuse are likely to participate in high-risk behaviors such as alcohol or drug abuse, the use of tobacco, and high-risk sexual behaviors (e.g., unprotected sex, large numbers of sexual partners). Later in life, abused children are more likely to have been arrested and homeless. They are also less able to defend themselves in conflict situations and guard themselves against repeated victimizations.

Medically, abused children likely will experience health problems due to the high frequency of physical injuries they receive. In addition, abused children experience a great deal of emotional turmoil and stress, which can also have a significant impact on their physical condition. These health problems are likely to continue occurring into adulthood. Some of these longer-lasting health problems include headaches; eating problems; problems with toileting; and chronic pain in the back, stomach, chest, and genital areas. Some researchers have noted that abused children may experience neurological impairment and problems with intellectual functioning, while others have found a correlation between abuse and heart, lung, and liver disease, as well as cancer (Thomas, 2004).

Victims of sexual abuse show an alarming number of disturbances as adults. Some dislike and avoid sex, or experience sexual problems or disorders, while other victims appear to enjoy sexual activities that are self-defeating or maladaptive—normally called “dysfunctional sexual behavior”—and have many sexual partners.

Abused children also experience a wide variety of developmental delays. Many do not reach physical, cognitive, or emotional developmental milestones at the typical time, and some never accomplish what they are supposed to during childhood socialization. In the next section, these developmental delays are discussed as a means of identifying children who may be abused.

There are two primary ways of identifying children who are abused: spotting and evaluating physical injuries, and detecting and appraising developmental delays. Distinguishing physical injuries due to abuse can be difficult, particularly among younger children who are likely to get hurt or receive injuries while they are playing and learning to become ambulatory. Nonetheless, there are several types of wounds that children are unlikely to give themselves during their normal course of play and exploration. These less likely injuries may signal instances of child abuse.

While it is true that children are likely to get bruises, particularly when they are learning to walk or crawl, bruises on infants are not normal. Also, the back of the legs, upper arms, or on the chest, neck, head, or genitals are also locations where bruises are unlikely to occur during normal childhood activity. Further, bruises with clean patterns, like hand prints, buckle prints, or hangers (to name a few), are good examples of the types of bruises children do not give themselves.

Another area of physical injury where the source of the injury can be difficult to detect is fractures. Again, children fall out of trees, or crash their bikes, and can break limbs. These can be normal parts of growing up. However, fractures in infants less than 12 months old are particularly suspect, as infants are unlikely to be able to accomplish the types of movement necessary to actually break a leg or an arm. Further, multiple fractures, particularly more than one on a bone, should be examined more closely. Spiral or torsion fractures (when the bone is broken by twisting) are suspect because when children break their bones due to play injuries, the fractures are usually some other type (e.g., linear, oblique, compacted). In addition, when parents don’t know about the fracture(s) or how it occurred, abuse should be considered, because when children get these types of injuries, they need comfort and attention.

Head and internal injuries are also those that may signal abuse. Serious blows to the head cause internal head injuries, and this is very different from the injuries that result from bumping into things. Abused children are also likely to experience internal injuries like those to the abdomen, liver, kidney, and bladder. They may suffer a ruptured spleen, or intestinal perforation. These types of damages rarely happen by accident.

Burns are another type of physical injury that can happen by accident or by abuse. Nevertheless, there are ways to tell these types of burn injuries apart. The types of burns that should be examined and investigated are those where the burns are in particular locations. Burns to the bottom of the feet, genitals, abdomen, or other inaccessible spots should be closely considered. Burns of the whole hand or those to the buttocks are also unlikely to happen as a result of an accident.

Turning to the detection and appraisal of developmental delays, one can more readily assess possible abuse by considering what children of various ages should be able to accomplish, than by noting when children are delayed and how many milestones on which they are behind schedule. Importantly, a few delays in reaching milestones can be expected, since children develop individually and not always according to the norm. Nonetheless, when children are abused, their development is likely to be delayed in numerous areas and across many milestones.

As children develop and grow, they should be able to crawl, walk, run, talk, control going to the bathroom, write, set priorities, plan ahead, trust others, make friends, develop a good self-image, differentiate between feeling and behavior, and get their needs met in appropriate ways. As such, when children do not accomplish these feats, their circumstances should be examined.

Infants who are abused or neglected typically develop what is termed failure to thrive syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by slow, inadequate growth, or not “filling out” physically. They have a pale, colorless complexion and dull eyes. They are not likely to spend much time looking around, and nothing catches their eyes. They may show other signs of lack of nutrition such as cuts, bruises that do not heal in a timely way, and discolored fingernails. They are also not trusting and may not cry much, as they are not expecting to have their needs met. Older infants may not have developed any language skills, or these developments are quite slow. This includes both verbal and nonverbal means of communication.

Toddlers who are abused often become hypervigilant about their environments and others’ moods. They are more outwardly focused than a typical toddler (who is quite self-centered) and may be unable to separate themselves as individuals, or consider themselves as distinct beings. In this way, abused toddlers cannot focus on tasks at hand because they are too concerned about others’ reactions. They don’t play with toys, have no interest in exploration, and seem unable to enjoy life. They are likely to accept losses with little reaction, and may have age-inappropriate knowledge of sex and sexual relations. Finally, toddlers, whether they are abused or not, begin to mirror their parents’ behaviors. Thus, toddlers who are abused may mimic the abuse when they are playing with dolls or “playing house.”

Developmental delays can also be detected among abused young adolescents. Some signs include the failure to learn cause and effect, since their parents are so inconsistent. They have no energy for learning and have not developed beyond one- or two-word commands. They probably cannot follow complicated directions (such as two to three tasks per instruction), and they are unlikely to be able to think for themselves. Typically, they have learned that failure is totally unacceptable, but they are more concerned with the teacher’s mood than with learning and listening to instruction. Finally, they are apt to have been inadequately toilet trained and thus may be unable to control their bladders.

Older adolescents, because they are likely to have been abused for a longer period of time, continue to get further and further behind in their developmental achievements. Abused children this age become family nurturers. They take care of their parents and cater to their parents’ needs, rather than the other way around. In addition, they probably take care of any younger siblings and do the household chores. Because of these default responsibilities, they usually do not participate in school activities; they frequently miss days at school; and they have few, if any, friends. Because they have become so hypervigilant and have increasingly delayed development, they lose interest in and become disillusioned with education. They develop low self-esteem and little confidence, but seem old for their years. Children this age who are abused are still likely to be unable to control their bladders and may have frequent toileting accidents.

Other developmental delays can occur and be observed in abused and neglected children of any age. For example, malnutrition and withdrawal can be noticed in infants through teenagers. Maltreated children frequently have persistent or untreated illnesses, and these can become permanent disabilities if medical conditions go untreated for a long enough time. Another example can be the consequences of neurological damage. Beyond being a medical issue, this type of damage can cause problems with social behavior and impulse control, which, again, can be discerned in various ages of children.

Once child abuse is suspected, law enforcement officers, child protection workers, or various other practitioners may need to interview the child about the abuse or neglect he or she may have suffered. Interviewing children can be extremely difficult because children at various stages of development can remember only certain parts or aspects of the events in their lives. Also, interviewers must be careful that they do not put ideas or answers into the heads of the children they are interviewing. There are several general recommendations when interviewing children about the abuse they may have experienced. First, interviewers must acknowledge that even when children are abused, they likely still love their parents. They do not want to be taken away from their parents, nor do they want to see their parents get into trouble. Interviewers must not blame the parents or be judgmental about them or the child’s family. Beyond that, interviews should take place in a safe, neutral location. Interviewers can use dolls and role-play to help children express the types of abuse of which they may be victims.

Finally, interviewers must ask age-appropriate questions. For example, 3-year-olds can probably only answer questions about what happened and who was involved. Four- to five-year-olds can also discuss where the incidents occurred. Along with what, who, and where, 6- to 8-year-olds can talk about the element of time, or when the abuse occurred. Nine- to 10-year-olds are able to add commentary about the number of times the abuse occurred. Finally, 11-year-olds and older children can additionally inform interviewers about the circumstances of abusive instances.

A conclusion is not a summary of what a writer has already mentioned. On the contrary, it is the last point made. Taking every detail of the investigation, the researcher makes the concluding point. In this part of a paper, you need to put a full stop in your research. You need to persuade the reader in your opinion.

Never add any new information in the conclusion. You can present solutions to the problem and you dwell upon the results, but only if this information has been already mentioned in the main body.

Child advocates recommend a variety of strategies to aid families and children experiencing abuse. These recommendations tend to focus on societal efforts as well as more individual efforts. One common strategy advocated is the use of public service announcements that encourage individuals to report any suspected child abuse. Currently, many mandatory reporters (those required by law to report abuse such as teachers, doctors, and social service agency employees) and members of communities feel that child abuse should not be reported unless there is substantial evidence that abuse is indeed occurring. Child advocates stress that this notion should be changed, and that people should report child abuse even if it is only suspected. Public service announcements should stress that if people report suspected child abuse, the worst that can happen is that they might be wrong, but in the grander scheme of things that is really not so bad.

Child advocates also stress that greater interagency cooperation is needed. This cooperation should be evident between women’s shelters, child protection agencies, programs for at-risk children, medical agencies, and law enforcement officers. These agencies typically do not share information, and if they did, more instances of child abuse would come to the attention of various authorities and could be investigated and managed. Along these lines, child protection agencies and programs should receive more funding. When budgets are cut, social services are often the first things to go or to get less financial support. Child advocates insist that with more resources, child protection agencies could hire more workers, handle more cases, conduct more investigations, and follow up with more children and families.

Continuing, more educational efforts must be initiated about issues such as punishment and discipline styles and strategies; having greater respect for children; as well as informing the community about what child abuse is, and how to recognize it. In addition, Americans must alter the cultural orientation about child bearing and child rearing. Couples who wish to remain child-free must be allowed to do so without disdain. And, it must be acknowledged that raising children is very difficult, is not always gloriously wonderful, and that parents who seek help should be lauded and not criticized. These kinds of efforts can help more children to be raised in nonviolent, emotionally satisfying families, and thus become better adults.

Bibliography

When you write a paper, make sure you are aware of all the formatting requirements. Incorrect formatting can lower your mark, so do not underestimate the importance of this part.

Organizing your bibliography is quite a tedious and time-consuming task. Still, you need to do it flawlessly. For this reason, analyze all the standards you need to meet or ask professionals to help you with it. All the comas, colons, brackets etc. matter. They truly do.

Bibliography:

• American Academy of Pediatrics: https://www.aap.org/
• Bancroft, L., & Silverman, J. G. (2002). The batterer as parent. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, 42 U.S.C.A. § 5106g (1998).
• Childhelp: Child Abuse Statistics: https://www.childhelp.org/child-abuse-statistics/
• Children’s Defense Fund: https://www.childrensdefense.org/
• Child Stats.gov: https://www.childstats.gov/
• Child Welfare League of America: https://www.cwla.org/
• Crosson-Tower, C. (2008). Understanding child abuse and neglect (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• DeBecker, G. (1999). Protecting the gift: Keeping children and teenagers safe (and parents sane). New York: Bantam Dell.
• Family Research Laboratory at the University of New Hampshire: https://cola.unh.edu/family-research-laboratory
• Guterman, N. B. (2001). Stopping child maltreatment before it starts: Emerging horizons in early home visitation services. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Herman, J. L. (2000). Father-daughter incest. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Medline Plus, Child Abuse: https://medlineplus.gov/childabuse.html
• Myers, J. E. B. (Ed.). (1994). The backlash: Child protection under fire. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
• National Center for Missing and Exploited Children: https://www.missingkids.org/home
• National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. (2006). Child maltreatment 2006: Reports from the states to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.
• New York University Silver School of Social Work: https://socialwork.nyu.edu/
• Pitzer, R. L. (1997). Corporal punishment in the discipline of children in the home: Research update for practitioners. Paper presented at the National Council on Family Relations Annual Conference, Washington, DC.
• RAND, Child Abuse and Neglect: https://www.rand.org/topics/child-abuse-and-neglect.html
• Richards, C. E. (2001). The loss of innocents: Child killers and their victims. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources.
• Straus, M. A. (2001). Beating the devil out of them: Corporal punishment in American families and its effects on children. Edison, NJ: Transaction.
• Thomas, P. M. (2004). Protection, dissociation, and internal roles: Modeling and treating the effects of child abuse. Review of General Psychology, 7(15).
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/

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Harvard University Theses, Dissertations, and Prize Papers

The Harvard University Archives ’ collection of theses, dissertations, and prize papers document the wide range of academic research undertaken by Harvard students over the course of the University’s history.

Beyond their value as pieces of original research, these collections document the history of American higher education, chronicling both the growth of Harvard as a major research institution as well as the development of numerous academic fields. They are also an important source of biographical information, offering insight into the academic careers of the authors.

Spanning from the ‘theses and quaestiones’ of the 17th and 18th centuries to the current yearly output of student research, they include both the first Harvard Ph.D. dissertation (by William Byerly, Ph.D . 1873) and the dissertation of the first woman to earn a doctorate from Harvard ( Lorna Myrtle Hodgkinson , Ed.D. 1922).

Other highlights include:

• The collection of Mathematical theses, 1782-1839
• The 1895 Ph.D. dissertation of W.E.B. Du Bois, The suppression of the African slave trade in the United States, 1638-1871
• Ph.D. dissertations of astronomer Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (Ph.D. 1925) and physicist John Hasbrouck Van Vleck (Ph.D. 1922)
• Undergraduate honors theses of novelist John Updike (A.B. 1954), filmmaker Terrence Malick (A.B. 1966),  and U.S. poet laureate Tracy Smith (A.B. 1994)
• Undergraduate prize papers and dissertations of philosophers Ralph Waldo Emerson (A.B. 1821), George Santayana (Ph.D. 1889), and W.V. Quine (Ph.D. 1932)
• Undergraduate honors theses of U.S. President John F. Kennedy (A.B. 1940) and Chief Justice John Roberts (A.B. 1976)

What does a prize-winning thesis look like?

If you're a Harvard undergraduate writing your own thesis, it can be helpful to review recent prize-winning theses. The Harvard University Archives has made available for digital lending all of the Thomas Hoopes Prize winners from the 2019-2021 academic years.

Accessing These Materials

How to access materials at the Harvard University Archives

How to find and request dissertations, in person or virtually

How to find and request undergraduate honors theses

How to find and request Thomas Temple Hoopes Prize papers

How to find and request Bowdoin Prize papers

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Related Collections

Harvard faculty personal and professional archives, harvard student life collections: arts, sports, politics and social life, access materials at the harvard university archives.

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Writing the Research Paper Slowly

By  JT Torres

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The typical approach to the research paper -- the generic term for pretty much all academic writing -- is to assign it as a summative assessment at the end of the semester. Faculty members normally give students a couple of weeks to research a topic, acquire new knowledge and communicate that knowledge in a perfectly formatted 20-page paper. Not only is it virtually impossible for even professional researchers to be this productive in such a short time span, but this approach also does not accurately teach the research writing process .

As a member of Teaching College Writing , I have provided workshops and resources to faculty in the disciplines -- faculty who do not identify as writing teachers, but faculty who nonetheless assign significant amounts of writing. Invariably, the first recommendation is to do something radical: assign the summative research paper the second week of the semester, or even earlier. What TCW offers is a slow writing approach to research. The point is not to just give students more time but also to emphasize and promote, in the words of Michelle Tremmel in the Iowa State University English department, “ techniques in rhetorically real writing .”

Writing the research paper slowly allows us to meticulously scaffold for students all the complex steps that go into a process we often take for granted. Additionally, a slow writing approach can reinforce the learning of content, engaging students’ situational interest as well as helping them develop self-regulatory skills -- such as determining which information is relevant to their now semester-long projects. The latter is especially crucial when we consider that cramming (and dumping a bunch of first impressions into a last-minute final paper certainly counts as cramming) rarely results in retained knowledge . Self-regulation empowers students to take control of their learning, using writing as the medium. After all, it isn’t so much the research paper that’s important -- not every student aspires to become a scientist -- but the research process , which can benefit students in any situation.

For instance, TCW worked with faculty teaching a 100-level Integrated Plant Sciences course at Washington State University to design a semester-long writing project. In the first week, while introducing students to the research project, faculty invited them to select a topic related to the content the course would cover. Students identified a plant superpower -- an exceptional ability of a particular plant that would attract cultivation.

Faculty explicitly taught students how to begin exploring sources, such as using databases particular to Integrated Plant Sciences, and evaluating those various sources. Once they identified the best sources, students took notes about information that aligned with the required content -- for example, the biological processes of particular plants.

Thus, their reading and writing practices, once slowed down, reinforced their learning. Keeping self-regulated learning in mind, students were not just developing individual course content knowledge -- they were also practicing the skills that would enable them to continue developing content knowledge beyond that individual course. At the very least, they now knew how to acquire new information.

Next, faculty explicitly taught students how to organize and write their notes into a “scientific story.” Too often, the tactics for arranging information into a particular discipline’s story remain implicit. Student are expected to be familiar with the nuances of appropriate genres and modes of writing in, say, science or history because disciplinary faculty rely on first-year writing programs to teach this familiarity. However, many first-year writing courses are not taught by faculty with expertise beyond writing . As a result, while they can teach students generally how to write a paragraph, they can’t prepare students for the nuances of what makes a text a scientific story as opposed to a literary or historical one.

As I illustrated by the Integrated Plant Sciences example, learning to read and write texts specific to any course also promotes learning the content of that course when the connections are made explicit. For this phase of that course, faculty taught students how to storyboard the knowledge they constructed of their chosen plant. Students began by composing an opening hook -- for example, the plant’s superpower -- providing a background of the plant, stating the purpose of researching the plant’s cultivation potential, and then offering evidence of that potential. As their storyboard took the shape of an outline for their research paper, it also organized the new information they were acquiring into a more meaningful schema of knowledge than had they quickly skimmed sources in a time crunch.

Along the way, the course’s teaching assistants could quickly assess each phase of the project with simple observational checklists: Did the student summarize x number of sources? Did the student complete a storyboard? With multiple dichotomous (yes/no) checkpoints, teaching assistants could quickly identify when and where students needed help in the research process based on whether they accomplished each step.

By the point in the semester when most other classes were just introducing the final research paper, students in the Integrated Plant Sciences course essentially had a solid outline, a firm grasp of the knowledge they intended to communicate and a clear vision of what they would write. Their only remaining task was to ensure they were following proper citation styles and that their writing was generally error-free.

That level of preparation resulted in 75 percent of the students feeling confident they could complete a similar project without the scaffolded steps. To support students’ self-reported confidence, faculty observed that the final research papers’ overall quality had been “significantly improved” compared to past semesters. And as an added bonus, time spent grading final papers -- since they had been assessed at smaller, more frequent time intervals -- had been “significantly reduced.”

In surveys, students reported that the slow research writing process helped them “meaningfully engage” their topics, even though it required “more work” than simply “throwing ideas together and turning it in all at once.” Their responses emphasize that writing can be a powerful method of learning, not just a demonstration of knowledge. By slowing down the writing students do in the disciplines, we can make evident the important skills they need in a variety of situations, not just in the completion of the almighty research paper.

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Types of research papers

Analytical research paper

Argumentative or persuasive paper, definition paper, compare and contrast paper, cause and effect paper, interpretative paper, experimental research paper, survey research paper, frequently asked questions about the different types of research papers, related articles.

There are multiple different types of research papers. It is important to know which type of research paper is required for your assignment, as each type of research paper requires different preparation. Below is a list of the most common types of research papers.

➡️ Read more:  What is a research paper?

In an analytical research paper you:

• pose a question
• collect relevant data from other researchers
• analyze their different viewpoints

You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic. It is important to stay neutral and not show your own negative or positive position on the matter.

The argumentative paper presents two sides of a controversial issue in one paper. It is aimed at getting the reader on the side of your point of view.

You should include and cite findings and arguments of different researchers on both sides of the issue, but then favor one side over the other and try to persuade the reader of your side. Your arguments should not be too emotional though, they still need to be supported with logical facts and statistical data.

Tip: Avoid expressing too much emotion in a persuasive paper.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information. You should include facts from a variety of sources, but leave those facts unanalyzed.

Compare and contrast papers are used to analyze the difference between two:

Make sure to sufficiently describe both sides in the paper, and then move on to comparing and contrasting both thesis and supporting one.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students write. They trace probable or expected results from a specific action and answer the main questions "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes.

In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

An interpretative paper requires you to use knowledge that you have gained from a particular case study, for example a legal situation in law studies. You need to write the paper based on an established theoretical framework and use valid supporting data to back up your statement and conclusion.

This type of research paper basically describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like:

Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions. You need to describe your experiment with supporting data and then analyze it sufficiently.

This research paper demands the conduction of a survey that includes asking questions to respondents. The conductor of the survey then collects all the information from the survey and analyzes it to present it in the research paper.

➡️ Ready to start your research paper? Take a look at our guide on how to start a research paper .

In an analytical research paper, you pose a question and then collect relevant data from other researchers to analyze their different viewpoints. You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students are confronted with. The answer questions like "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes. In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

This type of research paper describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like biology, chemistry or physics. Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions.

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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How To Submit

Journal of Student Research (JSR) is a Multidisciplinary and Faculty-reviewed journal devoted to the Rapid Dissemination of current student research. The journal seeks papers that are novel, integrative, and written in a way that is accessible to a wide audience which includes an array of disciplines. The content of the journal ranges from Applied research to Theoretical research. In general, papers are welcomed from all topics.

The first author of the submission must be an Undergraduate or Graduate student currently enrolled or graduated from an accredited academic institution. In both cases, advisor's information must be listed at submission.

Students who have already graduated must submit a letter as a supplementary file from their advisor testifying of their attendance at the university and conducting the research at the time. Submitted manuscripts will not be eligible for publication without the advisor information listed as such during submission.

Only 5 authors including advisors are free of charge per manuscript submission. For additional author charges, see Article Processing Charge (APC) section.

High School Student Submissions: Please use the journal's High School Student Portal ( www.jsr.org/hs ) to submit.

We accept Manuscript Submissions of the Following Types:

• Research Articles : Submissions of a manuscript that is your original research.
• Review Articles : Original review or analysis on a topic of your choice.
• Other Articles (Non-Peer Reviewed) : Manuscripts that are Research Project, Analysis, Short Essay, Opinion, or an update on Current Affairs. These submissions will not be refereed by our faculty reviewers but will be subject to review by the editorial board before publication.

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• If you have any questions or concerns, please email us:  technical @jsr.org
• Professionalism is extremely important to us. Please be courteous in all your communication with the JSR staff.
• First and Last Name
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• Current Grade Level , or Educational status
• How or Where did you find out about the Journal
• Your Question or Concern

Table of Contents

Submission Requirements

Indexing & Metadata

Submissions Process

To create a new account, please click on Register and follow the instructions. Once Logged in using your username and password, the portal dashboard will open where you will see the Active Submissions queue. This page lists the submissions currently in the editorial process and has access to past submissions that have been made to the journal under the "Archives" Tab. The authors can submit a new article by clicking the appropriate link for " New Submission ".

The submission process for the Authors is broken down into five steps, with guidance provided at each step. Authors do not need to complete the five steps in one session but can return to what will be listed as on the submissions queue as " Incomplete ".

Authors must read and acknowledge that they have completed and are compliant with the requirements:

• Download the Submission Word Template (Dotx file) which will help you to get started: Template Link
• The manuscript text is single-spaced ; Page size 8.5" x 11" inches (Letter); 20 pages maximum , uses T imes New Roman Size 10-point black font text with 1-inch margins on all sides.
• Article Title : Font Bolded and Size 18
• Heading Level 1 : Font Bolded and Size 14
• Heading Level 2 :  Size 12
• Heading Level 3: Font italicized and Size 12
• Heading Level 4 : Text underlines and Size 10
• Article Title  can have a maximum length of 100 characters, including spaces.
• Manuscript Abstract can have a maximum length of 250 words .
• All illustrations, figures, graphs, charts, and tables are placed within the text at the appropriate points with their respective title and legend, rather than at the end of the manuscript. They must be all centered appropriately.
• All illustrations, figures, graphs, and charts should be inserted as image files in the word document (Only PNG and JPEG are acceptable) and must be individually uploaded as "Image File" during Step 2 of the submission along with the manuscript and other supplemental files. The title must be placed under the figure/graphs/charts.
• All image files uploaded must be named appropriately such as Fig1.png, Fig2.png, etc. Figures can only be labeled as whole numbers such as Fig 1, Fig 2, Fig 3, and NOT Fig 1a, Fig 1b, and so on.
• Multi-panel figures must be a single image file . Each panel must be labeled such as (1a), (1b), (1c), etc in the image; this figure must be labeled as Figure 1 and all individual panels described appropriately in the legend.
• Tables must be created in the word document. Do not insert and label an image as a table in the word document. All text color must be black, and the heading rows/columns must be shaded with light gray colors. The title must be placed over the Table.
• Equations must be created in the word document using the Insert Equation tool, and cannot be an inserted image file.
• Make use of the Bulleted and Numbered lists very minimally.
• We recommend the authors use the APA style guide for references, but you can use a discipline-specific reference style guide. References must be included at the end of the manuscript . Please leave one line spacing between each new reference and start on a new line .
• Where available, URLs or DOIs links for the references MUST be provided.
• The paper itself should only include the topic and the write up of the topic. All author/teacher/adviser names, email addresses, affiliations should be submitted in the Metadata (see below in the indexing and metadata section).
• Documentation of Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval or exemption, if required, was secured by the authors prior to submitting the manuscript and must be uploaded during Step 2 of the submission process.
• Supplemental files  such as a copy of the images, appendix, forms, surveys, etc. must be uploaded during Step 2 of the submission process.
• The submission has not been previously published, nor is it before another journal for consideration (or an explanation has been provided in Comments to the Editor). Despite the Plagiarism check that we do, if later there are any complaints of plagiarism with proof, the submission will immediately be removed.

Metadata Elements to include during submission

Title : Enter the topic of the paper (100 characters with spaces).

Abstract : Summary of your research/review from Intro to conclusion

List of Contributors : Main author’s name and email address and for each additional author click on add contributor and include their names and email addresses. Include your faculty/teacher/advisor name and email address here as well.

Categories : Select a grade classification of the first author (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior).

Discipline : What area of study the paper belongs to (psychology, mathematics, microbiology, chemistry, physics, etc.) Press Enter to separate each individual item in the text box.

Keywords : Keywords give your paper additional visibility when readers are searching for similar topics. If your topic is “AI in the high school classroom setting” Your keywords should say “artificial intelligence, high school, classroom setting” Press Enter to separate each individual item in the text box.

Supporting Agencies : Write the name of your University or College along with any other institution that had supported the authors in conducting their research/review. Press Enter to separate each individual item in the text box.

References or Bibliography : Please copy and insert all the citations for the manuscript in the text-box.

Advantages of indexing

Authors are encouraged to complete the indexing of their submission in Step 3 of the Submission process and will have the opportunity to review and revise the metadata as part of the editorial process. The metadata for this journal will be "harvested" by a number of research-dedicated search engines that create, in effect, a research index or guide. Work that is well indexed will be that much more easily found by those who need it and are more likely to cite it. While there are limits to the number of terms by which a work is indexed, Authors are encouraged to think about how their work is positioned and found by virtue of this detailed indexing.

The Author(s) will be contacted by the editors with their decision once the review process is completed.

Reviewers are selected by the Editorial Staff at the Journal of Student Research and the estimated time for the review process is 12-24 weeks. JSR follows the double-blinded closed reviewing policy where the identity of the author is not revealed to the reviewer and vice versa.

Following are the items that the referees evaluate as they review the manuscript:

• Are the main claims of the paper novel? If not, please specify papers that weaken the claims to the originality of this one.
• Do the results support the claims? If not, what other evidence is required, and will this additional information improve the paper?
• Does the paper offer enough details of its methodology that its experiments or its analyses could be reproduced?
• If the paper is considered unsuitable for publication in its present form, does the study itself show sufficient potential that the authors should be encouraged to resubmit a revised version?
• Is the manuscript clearly enough written so that it is understandable to non-specialists? If not, how could it be improved?
• Have the authors cited the previous literature appropriately?
• Referees rate the Significance, Originality, Quality, and Clarity of the manuscript.

Scholarly feedback upon reviewing the manuscript by the referees will be provided to the author. This feedback will not only help authors identify areas of improvement to their submission but help them better understand the process in order to be successful at publication.

Editor Decision

If a submission is accepted, it will then proceed to the Editing stage of the editorial process.

Resubmit for Review . If the Section Editor's decision is that the submission should be revised and then resubmitted for peer review, the Author should first indicate their willingness to undertake the revisions, using the Editor/Author Correspondence. Then, when the revisions have been completed, the Author uploads the version for the second round of reviews. The Section Editor will submit it to the same Reviewers or to one or more new Reviewers, and notify the Author when a decision has been reached in a similar manner to the initial review.

Article Processing Charge (APC)

Journal of Student Research utilizes an Open Access Model where all published articles are made freely available to anyone to read/download. We provide our authors and readers with high-quality services, such as editorial triaging of submissions, facilitating a collaborative faculty provided peer-review, plagiarism checks, quality assurance of articles, management of production services (i.e. copyediting, layout editing, and quality control checks), indexing, archiving, and long term preservation of published articles via professional preservation networks and the journal platform. To continue to provide these services the authors are required to pay the Article Processing Charge (APC).

The APC for Manuscripts is paid in Two Phases (additional service fee applicable):

• Pre-review APC: USD 50 for all students at submission.
• USD 250 for undergraduate and graduate Students.

ALL ARTICLE PROCESSING CHARGES AND JSR FEES ARE STRICTLY NON-REFUNDABLE

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Only 5 authors (including advisors) per submission are allowed to be included. To include any additional author/advisor to the manuscript's contributor list will cost a fee of $25 per individual. The authors will pay this fee only when accepted for publication.

FAST TRACK REVIEW

• Fast track review option allows us to expedite the publication process (5-6 weeks).
• If accepted for publication by the editorial board, the manuscript will be published in our current issue of the journal after necessary revisions are made if requested by the reviewers.
• Any fees associated with the Fast Track Review are strictly NON-REFUNDABLE .

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Call for papers: volume 14 issue 1.

If you are an undergraduate or graduate student at a college or university aspiring to publish, we are accepting submissions. Submit Your Article Now!

Deadline: 11:59 p.m. November 30, 2024

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• Knowledge Base
• Research paper
• Research Paper Format | APA, MLA, & Chicago Templates

Research Paper Format | APA, MLA, & Chicago Templates

Published on November 19, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on January 20, 2023.

The formatting of a research paper is different depending on which style guide you’re following. In addition to citations , APA, MLA, and Chicago provide format guidelines for things like font choices, page layout, format of headings and the format of the reference page.

Scribbr offers free Microsoft Word templates for the most common formats. Simply download and get started on your paper.

APA |  MLA | Chicago author-date | Chicago notes & bibliography

• Generate an automatic table of contents
• Generate a list of tables and figures
• Ensure consistent paragraph formatting
• Insert page numbering

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Table of contents

Formatting an apa paper, formatting an mla paper, formatting a chicago paper, frequently asked questions about research paper formatting.

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in APA Style are as follows:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial.
• Set 1 inch page margins.
• Apply double line spacing.
• If submitting for publication, insert a APA running head on every page.
• Indent every new paragraph ½ inch.

Watch the video below for a quick guide to setting up the format in Google Docs.

The image below shows how to format an APA Style title page for a student paper.

Running head

If you are submitting a paper for publication, APA requires you to include a running head on each page. The image below shows you how this should be formatted.

For student papers, no running head is required unless you have been instructed to include one.

APA provides guidelines for formatting up to five levels of heading within your paper. Level 1 headings are the most general, level 5 the most specific.

Reference page

APA Style citation requires (author-date) APA in-text citations throughout the text and an APA Style reference page at the end. The image below shows how the reference page should be formatted.

Note that the format of reference entries is different depending on the source type. You can easily create your citations and reference list using the free APA Citation Generator.

Generate APA citations for free

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

The main guidelines for writing an MLA style paper are as follows:

• Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman.
• Use title case capitalization for headings .

Check out the video below to see how to set up the format in Google Docs.

On the first page of an MLA paper, a heading appears above your title, featuring some key information:

• Your full name
• Your instructor’s or supervisor’s name
• The course name or number
• The due date of the assignment

Page header

A header appears at the top of each page in your paper, including your surname and the page number.

Works Cited page

MLA in-text citations appear wherever you refer to a source in your text. The MLA Works Cited page appears at the end of your text, listing all the sources used. It is formatted as shown below.

You can easily create your MLA citations and save your Works Cited list with the free MLA Citation Generator.

Generate MLA citations for free

The main guidelines for writing a paper in Chicago style (also known as Turabian style) are:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman.
• Use 1 inch margins or larger.
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center.

Chicago doesn’t require a title page , but if you want to include one, Turabian (based on Chicago) presents some guidelines. Lay out the title page as shown below.

Bibliography or reference list

Chicago offers two citation styles : author-date citations plus a reference list, or footnote citations plus a bibliography. Choose one style or the other and use it consistently.

The reference list or bibliography appears at the end of the paper. Both styles present this page similarly in terms of formatting, as shown below.

To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial
• Set 1 inch page margins
• Apply double line spacing
• Include a title page
• If submitting for publication, insert a running head on every page
• Indent every new paragraph ½ inch
• Apply APA heading styles
• Cite your sources with APA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a reference page at the end

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:

• Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Include a four-line MLA heading on the first page
• Center the paper’s title
• Use title case capitalization for headings
• Cite your sources with MLA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a Works Cited page at the end

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Use 1 inch margins or larger
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center
• Cite your sources with author-date citations or Chicago footnotes
• Include a bibliography or reference list

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, January 20). Research Paper Format | APA, MLA, & Chicago Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved September 18, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/research-paper-format/

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• SIGCSE Top 10 Paper Awards

Top Ten Computer Science Education Research Papers of the Last 50 Years Recognized

At 50th anniversary sigcse symposium, leading computer science education group highlights research that has shaped the field.

New York, NY, March 2, 2019 – As a capstone to its 50th annual SIGCSE Technical Symposium , leaders of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Special Interest Group on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE) are celebrating the ideas that have shaped the field by recognizing a select group of publications with a “Top Ten Symposium Papers of All Time Award.” The top ten papers were chosen from among the best papers that were presented at the SIGCSE Technical Symposium over the last 49 years.

As part of the Top Ten announcement today in Minneapolis, the coauthors of each top paper will receive a plaque, free conference registration for one co-author to accept the award and up to a total of $2,000 that can be used toward travel for all authors of the top ranked paper.

“In 1969, the year of our first SIGCSE symposium, computing education was a niche specialty” explains SIGCSE Board Chair Amber Settle of DePaul University, of Chicago, USA. “Today, it is an essential skill students need to prepare for the workforce. Computing has become one of the most popular majors in higher education, and more and more students are being introduced to computing in K-12 settings. The Top Ten Symposium Papers of All Time Award will emphasize the outstanding research that underpins and informs how students of all ages learn computing. We also believe that highlighting excellent research will inspire others to enter the computing education field and make their own contributions.”

The Top Ten Symposium Papers are:

1. “ Identifying student misconceptions of programming ” (2010) Lisa C. Kaczmarczyk, Elizabeth R. Petrick, University of California, San Diego; Philip East, University of Northern Iowa; Geoffrey L. Herman, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Computing educators are often baffled by the misconceptions that their CS1 students hold. We need to understand these misconceptions more clearly in order to help students form correct conceptions. This paper describes one stage in the development of a concept inventory for Computing Fundamentals: investigation of student misconceptions in a series of core CS1 topics previously identified as both important and difficult. Formal interviews with students revealed four distinct themes, each containing many interesting misconceptions.

2. “ Improving the CS1 experience with pair programming ” (2003) Nachiappan Nagappan, Laurie Williams, Miriam Ferzli, Eric Wiebe, Kai Yang, Carol Miller, Suzanne Balik, North Carolina State University Pair programming is a practice in which two programmers work collaboratively at one computer, on the same design, algorithm, or code. Prior research indicates that pair programmers produce higher quality code in essentially half the time taken by solo programmers. The authors organized an experiment to assess the efficacy of pair programming in an introductory Computer Science course. Their results indicate that pair programming creates a laboratory environment conducive to more advanced, active learning than traditional labs; students and lab instructors report labs to be more productive and less frustrating.

3. “ Undergraduate women in computer science: experience, motivation and culture ” (1997) Allan Fisher, Jane Margolis, Faye Miller, Carnegie Mellon University During a year-long study, the authors examined the experiences of undergraduate women studying computer science at Carnegie Mellon University, with a specific eye toward understanding the influences and processes whereby they attach themselves to or detach themselves from the field. This report, midway through the two-year project, recaps the goals and methods of the study, reports on their progress and preliminary conclusions, and sketches their plans for the final year and the future beyond this particular project.

4. “ A Multi-institutional Study of Peer Instruction in Introductory Computing ” (2016) Leo Porter, Beth Simon, University of California, San Diego; Dennis Bouvier, Southern Illinois University; Quintin Cutts, University of Glasgow; Scott Grissom, Grand Valley State University; Cynthia Lee, Stanford University; Robert McCartney, University of Connecticut; Daniel Zingaro, University of Toronto Peer Instruction (PI) is a student-centric pedagogy in which students move from the role of passive listeners to active participants in the classroom. This paper adds to this body of knowledge by examining outcomes from seven introductory programming instructors: three novices to PI and four with a range of PI experience. Through common measurements of student perceptions, the authors provide evidence that introductory computing instructors can successfully implement PI in their classrooms.

5. " The introductory programming course in computer science: ten principles " (1978) G. Michael Schneider, University of Minnesota Schneider describes the crucial goals of any introductory programming course while leaving to the reader the design of a specific course to meet these goals. This paper presents ten essential objectives of an initial programming course in Computer Science, regardless of who is teaching or where it is being taught. Schneider attempts to provide an in-depth, philosophical framework for the course called CS1—Computer Programming 1—as described by the ACM Curriculum Committee on Computer Science.

6. “ Constructivism in computer science education ” (1998) Mordechai Ben-Ari, Weizmann Institute of Science Constructivism is a theory of learning which claims that students construct knowledge rather than merely receive and store knowledge transmitted by the teacher. Constructivism has been extremely influential in science and mathematics education, but not in computer science education (CSE). This paper surveys constructivism in the context of CSE, and shows how the theory can supply a theoretical basis for debating issues and evaluating proposals.

7. “ Using software testing to move students from trial-and-error to reflection-in-action ” (2004) Stephen H. Edwards, Virginia Tech Introductory computer science students have relied on a trial and error approach to fixing errors and debugging for too long. Moving to a reflection in action strategy can help students become more successful. Traditional programming assignments are usually assessed in a way that ignores the skills needed for reflection in action, but software testing promotes the hypothesis-forming and experimental validation that are central to this mode of learning. By changing the way assignments are assessed--where students are responsible for demonstrating correctness through testing, and then assessed on how well they achieve this goal--it is possible to reinforce desired skills. Automated feedback can also play a valuable role in encouraging students while also showing them where they can improve.

8. “ What should we teach in an introductory programming course ” (1974) David Gries, Cornell University Gries argues that an introductory course (and its successor) in programming should be concerned with three aspects of programming: 1. How to solve problems, 2. How to describe an algorithmic solution to a problem, and 3. How to verify that an algorithm is correct. In this paper he discusses mainly the first two aspects. He notes that the third is just as important, but if the first two are carried out in a systematic fashion, the third is much easier than commonly supposed.

9. “ Contributing to success in an introductory computer science course: a study of twelve factors ” (2001) Brenda Cantwell Wilson, Murray State University; Sharon Shrock, Southern Illinois University This study was conducted to determine factors that promote success in an introductory college computer science course. The model included twelve possible predictive factors including math background, attribution for success/failure (luck, effort, difficulty of task, and ability), domain specific self-efficacy, encouragement, comfort level in the course, work style preference, previous programming experience, previous non-programming computer experience, and gender. Subjects included 105 students enrolled in a CS1 introductory computer science course at a midwestern university. The study revealed three predictive factors in the following order of importance: comfort level, math, and attribution to luck for success/failure.

10. “ Teaching objects-first in introductory computer science ” (2003) Stephen Cooper, Saint Joseph's University; Wanda Dann, Ithaca College; Randy Pausch Carnegie Mellon University An objects-first strategy for teaching introductory computer science courses is receiving increased attention from CS educators. In this paper, the authors discuss the challenge of the objects-first strategy and present a new approach that attempts to meet this challenge. The approach is centered on the visualization of objects and their behaviors using a 3D animation environment. Statistical data as well as informal observations are summarized to show evidence of student performance as a result of this approach. A comparison is made of the pedagogical aspects of this new approach with that of other relevant work.

Annual Best Paper Award Announced Today SIGCSE officers also announced the inauguration of an annual SIGCSE Test of Time Award. The first award will be presented at the 2020 SIGCSE Symposium and recognize research publications that have had wide-ranging impact on the field.

About SIGCSE

The Special Interest Group on Computer Science Education of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM SIGCSE) is a community of approximately 2,600 people who, in addition to their specialization within computing, have a strong interest in the quality of computing education. SIGCSE provides a forum for educators to discuss the problems concerned with the development, implementation, and/or evaluation of computing programs, curricula, and courses, as well as syllabi, laboratories, and other elements of teaching and pedagogy.

ACM, the Association for Computing Machinery , is the world's largest educational and scientific computing society, uniting educators, researchers, and professionals to inspire dialogue, share resources, and address the field's challenges. ACM strengthens the computing profession's collective voice through strong leadership, promotion of the highest standards, and recognition of technical excellence. ACM supports the professional growth of its members by providing opportunities for life-long learning, career development, and professional networking.

Contact: Adrienne Decker 585-475-4653 [email protected]

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Beliefs of Undergraduate Mathematics Education Students in a Teacher Education Program about Visual Programming in Mathematics Classes

• Open access
• Published: 18 September 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Frederik Dilling   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5902-4275 1 ,
• Jacqueline Köster 1 &
• Amelie Vogler 2  

In the digital age, the range of digital technologies used in mathematics education grows. Since beliefs are affective-cognitive elements that significantly determine teachers' behavior in the classroom, they are an interesting field of research in mathematics education. A review of previous research has identified different groups of beliefs about the use of digital technologies in mathematics classes. These studies are not focused on specific digital technologies. In an empirical case study that is presented in this paper, the aim was to figure out how beliefs that can be described specifically about the use of visual programming relate to general beliefs about the use of digital technologies in mathematics education. A qualitative content analysis of the reflection journals of seven undergraduate mathematics education students on their work with Scratch, a visual programming environment, in a university seminar led to the formation of ten belief categories about the use of visual programming in mathematics classes. Most of the beliefs are associated with a positive attitude towards visual programming in mathematics education. However, some beliefs could also be identified that refer to the limits and challenges of using visual programming and thus demonstrate rather negative associations. Only a few of the categories identified match the list of belief groups about digital technologies in mathematics education identified in previous research. Some possible reasons for these results are discussed and further research interests in the field of beliefs about the use of digital technologies are suggested.

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Introduction

In many countries, the development of algorithmic thinking is emerging as an important goal of mathematics education in school. Definitions of algorithmic thinking usually describe it as a general skill that enables the use of (mathematical) algorithms by recognizing patterns and structures (e.g., Blannin & Symons, 2020 ; Hsu & Wang, 2018 ). Algorithms represent an important aspect of mathematics (cf. Weber et al., 2022 ) and therefore constitute a fundamental idea of mathematics (Winter, 2001 ).

Programming, which is the development of a program that a computer can execute automatically, offers a possibility to foster algorithmic thinking (cf. among others Futschek & Moschitz, 2010 ; Kolovou et al., 2008 ; Dilling & Vogler, 2022a ). A popular way of programming that is specifically developed for educational purposes is the so-called visual programming, which is a method in which code blocks are predefined and used for programming (Dilling & Vogler, 2022b ). While some empirical studies on the fostering of algorithmic thinking through visual programming by students in school already exist, there is a clear need for research on how mathematics teachers perceive this issue. Therefore, this article addresses the beliefs (Schoenfeld, 1985 , 1992 ) of undergraduate pre-service teachers about visual programming in mathematics classes. Beliefs represent an essential part of teachers' professional digital competencies (e.g., Dilling et al., 2024 ). In addition to general beliefs regarding the topic of digitization (e.g., Thurm & Barzel, 2022 ), specific beliefs emerge. These refer to individual technologies and influence their adequate use in the classroom (Dilling & Vogler, 2022c ) – in this case, domain-specific beliefs related to visual programming.

This article first presents an overview of research and defines these key concepts: mathematics-related beliefs, algorithmic thinking and visual programming in mathematics education. Then, a case study (Yin, 2013 ) examining a group of undergraduate students at a university in North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany) is presented. The undergraduate students were studying mathematics with a focus on mathematics education to become teachers for middle and high school. They participated in a university seminar on the use of digital technologies in mathematics classes. In the seminar, the students worked on various mathematical problem solving tasks with the use of visual programming and developed their own tasks (Dilling & Vogler, 2022d ). They recorded their results in a question-guided reflection journal, which forms the data basis for the empirical investigation. The students' documents are analyzed with a qualitative content analysis (Mayring, 2000 , 2010 ). In a conclusion, the empirically obtained findings are compared to the theoretical considerations and the current state of research, and an outlook will be given.

Teachers' Beliefs and the Use of Digital Technologies in the Classroom

Beliefs are psychological concepts that have been discussed in mathematics education research for many years. They are considered to be highly relevant for mathematical teaching–learning processes as emphasized by Goldin et al. ( 2009 ) in their well-known quote:

“To sum up, beliefs matter. Their influence ranges from the individual mathematical learner and problem solver and the classroom teacher, to the success or failure of massive curricular reform efforts across entire countries.“ (p. 14)

Despite the many publications in this area, there is no standard definition of the term belief, leading Pajares ( 1992 ) to speak of a messy construct. The common ground of the different definition approaches is that they attribute both an affective and a cognitive component to beliefs (Dilling, 2022 ; Furinghetti & Pehkonen, 2002 ). For this article, we use Schoenfeld's ( 1992 ) approach, who defines beliefs as "an individual's understandings and feelings that shape the ways that the individual conceptualizes and engages in mathematical behavior" (p. 358). Beliefs, along with other factors (knowledge, heuristic strategies, control decisions), guide a person's behavior in mathematical situations: "Beliefs establish the context within which resources, heuristics and control operate" (Schoenfeld, 1985 , p. 45).

Frank ( 1985 ) elaborates on the guiding role of beliefs described by Schoenfeld by explaining that a person's mathematical beliefs act as a kind of filter. Previous experience and knowledge can only influence behavior through beliefs. In addition, motivation and needs are often related to the beliefs. Thus, beliefs serve to structure perception and guide behavior (cf. Törner, 2002 ). The experiences of a person and the developed beliefs form a reciprocal relationship. On the one hand, experiences cause and form beliefs. On the other hand, the developed beliefs serve to structure the experiences and thus to guide the behavior (cf. Spangler, 1992 ).

A person's beliefs are not isolated mental components. Instead, it is assumed that beliefs are structured in so-called belief systems. This term was introduced by Thomas F. Green in his book The Activities of Teaching (Green, 1971 ). He distinguishes between three dimensions of belief systems.

The first dimension is the "quasi-logical structure" (p. 44), which is the arrangement of beliefs in a belief system in the sense that some beliefs depend on other beliefs. Green makes a distinction between primary and derived beliefs. The derivation of one belief from another does not follow an objective logical structure but is determined by the individual's belief system.

The second dimension according to Green is given by the "psychological centrality". According to this, some beliefs are more important for a person than others, although the person does not have to be aware of this. Beliefs within a belief system can therefore have different strengths. Green distinguishes between "core beliefs" and "peripheral beliefs" (p. 46). This classification is independent of their quasi-logical structure—accordingly, there does not have to be a correspondence between central and primary beliefs.

In the third dimension, Green describes the cluster structure of belief systems. According to this, beliefs in the belief system are organized in clusters isolated from each other, within which the beliefs are interconnected according to the quasi-logical structure: „[…] we tend to order our beliefs in little clusters encrusted about, as it were, with a protective shield that prevents any cross-fertilization among them or any confrontation between them “ (Green, 1971 , S. 47).

The cluster structure of beliefs helps to explain, why a person may has different contradictory beliefs (cf. Green, 1971 ). Inconsistencies between reconstructed beliefs of individual persons have been found in various empirical studies (e.g., Hoyles, 1992 ; Skott, 2001 ). Hoyles ( 1992 ) explains her findings in terms of the context-bound nature of beliefs, explaining that a person’s beliefs may differ and even contradict depending on the situation. In addition to inconsistencies between beliefs observed in different situations, the literature also widely reports inconsistencies between beliefs explicitly stated by a person, e.g. in an interview situation, and beliefs reconstructed from observations of behavior in practice (e.g., Goldin et al., 2016 ; Philipp, 2007 ). Goldin et al. ( 2016 ) refer to the "dialectic relationship between […] professed beliefs and beliefs inferred by the observed practice". Since both consistencies and inconsistencies were found, the authors assume a connection between explicitly held beliefs and beliefs reconstructed from practice. However, this connection does not have to be linear. This result can be attributed to methodological reasons as well as explained with the help of Green's ( 1971 ) cluster structure.

This article focuses on pre-service mathematics teachers' beliefs about digital technologies using the example of visual programming. Several empirical studies have found that technology-related beliefs significantly influence both the frequency and the quality of the use of digital technologies in the classroom (see overview in Thurm, 2020 ). A major goal of research on beliefs about digital technologies is to identify typical beliefs or belief clusters that are found in a number of different individuals. These typical beliefs and belief clusters can then be used, for example, as a starting point for professional development programs (Thurm & Barzel, 2020 ).

A well-known list of beliefs related to digital technology in mathematics education comes from Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ). Based on a literature review with reference to various empirical studies (including Doerr & Zangor, 2000 ; Duncan, 2010 ; Fleener, 1995 ; Handal et al., 2011 ; Pierce & Ball, 2009 ), they distinguish six groups of beliefs referring to technology use (p. 45):

Beliefs about the role of technology to support discovery learning : “[…] Beliefs about the value of technology to support student exploration of mathematical concepts”

Beliefs about the role of technology to support multiple representations : “[…] Beliefs about the value of technology to dynamically link different forms of representations”

Beliefs about time needed to teach with technology : “[…] Beliefs that teaching with technology requires additional time”

Beliefs about the loss of by-hand skills : “[…] Beliefs about the consequences of technology use on students’ basic by-hand skills like graphing or solving linear or quadratic equations”

Beliefs about mindless working when teaching with technology : “[…] Beliefs that technology use will lead to mindless ‘button pushing’ and is rather a substitute for thinking than a support for understanding”

Beliefs about the time point of technology use : “[…] Beliefs about whether technology should only be used after students have achieved conceptual mastery of the mathematics without technology or whether technology should also be used, for example, at the beginning of the learning process”

While the first two belief groups tend to reflect positive attitudes toward technology in mathematics education, the third through fifth belief groups have more negative connotations (Klinger et al., 2018 ). The last one contains rather neutral beliefs. The individual beliefs are directly related to epistemological beliefs and self-efficacy beliefs. For example, a person who is rather a constructivist is also more likely to see the potential of digital technologies to enhance discovery learning (Thurm & Barzel, 2022 ). In an empirical study, Thurm ( 2020 ) found that technology-related beliefs are determined in particular by epistemological beliefs – an influence in the other direction could not be detected. Klinger et al. ( 2018 ) add two more belief groups:

Beliefs about the principle of shifting: Belief, that “technology is used to execute certain procedures in the mathematics classroom, so that they are not done by hand anymore” (p. 238)

General positive beliefs regarding technology: “[…] General positive beliefs regarding technology, which are not tied to a specific part of mathematical instruction” (p. 239)

In addition to these global beliefs about technology use, there are also empirical studies that survey and classify beliefs about specific types of technology in mathematics education. For example, a study by Dilling and Vogler ( 2022c ) investigated and established beliefs and related descriptors for the use of online platforms in mathematics education. In many cases, these domain-specific beliefs show clear connections to the global beliefs of Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ) and Klinger et al. ( 2018 ). For example, beliefs about the time required for teachers in preparation and for students in class can also be found here. At the same time, there are a variety of specific beliefs, for example, concerning a decentralization of instruction, changes in teacher and student roles, and the structured presentation of content.

To summarize this section, it can be stated that beliefs are structured in belief systems and, like other psychological concepts, can be described as situated. Beliefs can refer to different objects and situations of experience and can be formulated in different degrees of specification. This article addresses the beliefs of pre-service mathematics teachers about visual programming. While research on beliefs in the context of digital technology has already surveyed concrete beliefs and belief clusters, as well as produced overarching findings, the context of programming has not yet been empirically investigated. Regarding the clustering of beliefs, there is the question of how superordinate beliefs about digital technologies from previous research unfold in this context and which specific beliefs are added. Dilling and Vogler ( 2022c ) investigated this question for online learning platforms as a digital tool.

Visual Programming in Mathematics Education

The integration of programming into mathematics education has long been discussed in research. As early as 1967, Seymour Papert, Wally Feurzeig, and Cynthia Solomon developed the computer language LOGO and suggested using it as a programming environment for learning mathematics, mathematical problem solving and logical thinking in general (Refvik & Opsal, 2023 ; Solomon et al., 2020 ). The idea was to help students to do mathematics themselves in a constructivist sense and to experience it as a process. The leading paradigm was: “Teaching children to be mathematicians versus teaching about mathematics.” (Papert, 1972 ).

Many empirical studies have been conducted using the Logo programming environment. These have provided many interesting insights into children's mathematical learning and thinking and have shown that Logo can be a useful tool for mathematical education (Yelland, 1995 ). In the field of mathematical problem solving, the case studies by Lawler ( 1981 ), Solomon and Papert ( 1976 ), and Papert et al. ( 1979 ) have shown among others that working with Logo can enhance reasoning and problem-solving skills due to the deep engagement with mathematical problems and planning activities, which could afterwards be transferred to other problem contexts with positive results.

Förster ( 2011 ) also emphasizes the importance of problem solving skills in his remarks on the use of programming in mathematics education, but not with a focus on the logo programming language. He cites the frequently observed difficulties of students at school in solving mathematical problems as a central justification for the use of programming in class. Programming can help by providing a common language, enabling personal experiences, and making it easier to talk about structure, development, and relationships of programs. In addition, programming is also helpful in verifying and evaluating complex mathematical models and promotes the ability to critically examine results. Lehmann ( 2004 ) notes that working methods used in computer science education are often also suitable for mathematics education. In this context, Lehmann describes programming as a process of experimentation and searching for the optimal implementation, despite thorough planning. One works with a solution idea and adjusts it through variations and improvements. This approach also enables the solution of complex mathematical problems by applying experimentation, conjecture, reasoning, and proof.

Kortenkamp ( 2005 ) emphasizes that concepts such as loops, procedures, and especially variables are indispensable and offer some educational opportunities. He stresses that it is just as important to use a programming language to understand these concepts as it is necessary to learn written addition as a structured procedure in primary school. Kortenkamp suggests for programming in mathematics education, not to set the mastery of a specific programming language as the primary goal, but to focus rather on the use of this language to develop an adequate understanding of computer science concepts such as loops, procedures, and variables. Furthermore, he calls for programming to be integrated into the mathematics curriculum as a creative and structuring activity and should therefore also be learned by mathematics teachers.

In this sense, programming can be seen as an adequate way of fostering so-called algorithmic thinking. According to Blannin and Symons ( 2020 ), algorithmic thinking has become a new kind of language:

“Algorithmic thinking invites learners to engage in deep thinking, in rationale, sequential processes, and in solution-testing and review. Learners who develop these skills may have increased opportunities in a wide range of career fields beyond school.” (Blannin & Symons, 2020 , p. 5)

There are numerous definitions of algorithmic thinking. A common definition describes algorithmic thinking as a general ability to use (mathematical) algorithms by recognizing patterns and structures (e.g., Blannin & Symons, 2020 ; Hsu & Wang, 2018 ). Futschek ( 2006 ) describes algorithmic thinking as a pool of skills associated with the construction and understanding of algorithms, i.e., a method for problem solving consisting of precisely defined instructions. He refers, among other things, to the abilities to analyze, specify, and solve problems. For Futschek, algorithmic thinking has a strong creative aspect, namely the ability to construct new algorithms to solve existing problems.

Programming offers a possibility to foster algorithmic thinking (cf. among others Futschek & Moschitz, 2010 ; Kolovou et al., 2008 ; Dilling & Vogler, 2022a ). In this context, it is also common to use the term computational thinking (Fanchamps et al., 2021 ). Lagrange and Laval ( 2023 ) explain that there are different approaches to programming in education and the concept of computational thinking. They distinguish between: ‘(1) the conceptual foundations of programming; (2) the conditions needed for students to develop cognitive abilities through programming; and (3) the value of programming for learning mathematics’ (p. 226). The connection to algorithmic thinking is in the first field – the conceptual foundations of programming. Lagrange and Laval ( 2023 ) show that learning environments for programming can enable both algorithmic and advanced mathematical learning.

When examining the field of visual programming, the introduction of Scratch in 2007 by the MIT Media Lab is considered a milestone, especially for children and adolescents (Resnick et al., 2009 ). Even though there were already approaches to make access to programming and the use of algorithms more accessible (e.g. analogue programming), prior to the availability of tools like Scratch, integrating programming into mathematics education was quite challenging. Students were often required to learn a programming language in order to process mathematical tasks. This required a substantial effort, which could only be managed in conjunction with the (non-mandatory) computer science lessons, as the time required would have exceeded the capacities of the mathematics lessons. However, certain approaches, such as that of Logo, have enabled the syntax of the language to be learnt while working on mathematical tasks. When using visual programming, which is understood in the context of this paper as programming by means of graphical blocks with specific functions, learning a special programming language for mathematics instruction is not necessary. Predefined blocks with codes are arranged in a specific order to control the execution of a program. One example of the integration of visual programming into mathematics lessons is the ScratchMaths project (Noss et al., 2020 ). This project conducted a two-year intervention in English schools to enhance computational thinking among 9–11-year-old students, aligning it with mathematical thinking through carefully structured Scratch programming activities. An independent evaluation of the project, as described by Noss et al. ( 2020 ), has shown that it has a positive impact on the students' mathematical thinking skills. However, ongoing teacher support and professional development are crucial to the successful implementation of ScratchMaths. Many other studies considered Scratch as a tool in mathematics education, especially with a focus on primary education. The results of the studies are mainly positive, but also report some challenges: For example, Rodríguez-Martínez et al. ( 2019 ) found in an intervention study in a six-grade class, that the use of Scratch can enrich the students’ mathematical ideas and computational thinking. Sjöberg et al. ( 2018 ) attended two teachers as they systematically implemented Scratch in primary school maths lessons over a period of two years. The teachers reported that collaboration and verbalising the results in communication were particularly beneficial to the learning of the students, but the learning process with Scratch had to be observed and partly controlled by the teacher in order to elicit genuine mathematical activities. Similar results were also found in a study by Olsson and Granberg ( 2022 ), who examined 10- to 11-year-old students solving geometric problems with Scratch and found that well-prepared general and task-specific questions can help students to overcome complexities of learning mathematics with Scratch.

In a previous case study of the authors of this paper, Dilling et al. ( 2022 ) stated that “[c]oding 3D models using the software BlocksCAD provides an opportunity in math classrooms for students to engage with a wide range of mathematical topics while promoting problem solving skills and algorithmic thinking “ (p. 226). The study observed mathematical problem solving processes using visual programming interfaces for the development of 3D models. That case study looked at the specific task of creating a building block generator. Dilling et al. ( 2022 ) explain how mathematical and computer science skills can be fostered using visual block-based programming environments. Similar results could be generated by a case study of Sáez-López et. al. ( 2016 ) who stated that elementary school students are capable to independently develop and explain code when using visual programming.

Despite these positive developments, it should be noted that the integration of visual programming in the classroom can also entail challenges, as advocated by Kalaš et al. ( 2022 ). Particularly for teachers who are less familiar with both the conceptual foundations of mathematics and programming, implementing visual programming can be a complex task and may impair their ability to effectively design instruction. Therefore, further research and support are needed to ensure that all teachers have the necessary skills and resources to successfully integrate visual programming into their teaching practices (Kalaš et. al., 2022 ).

In this article, we refer to visual programming using Scratch (MIT, 2007 ). Figure  1 shows the user interface of Scratch 3.0. The left-hand pane shows the blocks which can be combined to form a block-based code in the script area in the center of the interface. The right-hand pane shows includes the program preview area. The code illustrated in Fig.  1 , for example, makes the orange cat ask what is 4 plus 2 . The potential user of the program can then type in the answer. Below the program preview, settings for the cat as the main character of the program and for the stage background can be configured.

Programming interface of Scratch

Förster ( 2011 , 2014 ) emphasizes that Scratch offers the advantage of self-explanatory commands, the avoidance of syntax errors, and the support of locating logical errors. Scratch helps to bridge the gap between programming in computer science classes and programming in math classes by using a visual block-based approach. Jatzlau and Romeike ( 2017 ) emphasize that visual block-based programming deviates not only in its user interface but also on a conceptual level from traditional text-based programming. Text-based programming languages, unlike block-based ones, require direct input of code in textual form, with each instruction defined by specific syntax rules. These languages demand a deeper understanding of programming concepts and precise formulation to avoid errors. However, text-based languages like Python or Java offer greater flexibility and allow for more advanced programming concepts. Nonetheless, block-based languages such as Scratch remain popular among beginners due to the possibilities for explorative working and reduction of syntax errors. Students at school or university are empowered to construct algorithms even if they have minimal programming experiences, utilizing graphical symbols (so-called blocks) that represent the essential elements of the programming language.

A previous study of the authors investigated mathematics problem solving in the context of visual programming using Scratch in teacher education at a university in Germany (Dilling & Vogler, 2022d ). This case study involves the analysis of two exemplary problem solving processes of university students. None of the students had any prior experience in visual programming using Scratch. The task was to develop a program that sets two numbers and then asks the user which of the two numbers is larger. Furthermore, feedback for the correctness of a user answer had to be provided automatically by the developed program. In addition, the students were given the task of adapting the program to automatically generate new numbers. In their case study, Dilling and Vogler ( 2022d ) state that the results with respect to Schoenfeld’s ( 1985 ) problem solving categories indicate that students use basic mathematical concepts, such as their knowledge of natural numbers, and at the same time also the required basic computer science skills, such as the understanding of loops, to solve the problems. It became clear that Scratch, the visual programming software used in this study, seemed to encourage a more exploratory approach to programming, as students go through steps to develop an algorithm and implement it in the program at the same time.

As seen in the literature review above, there are already several empirical studies on the fostering of algorithmic thinking through visual programming by students in school. There is also a huge amount of research on teachers’ beliefs about the use of digital technologies in general in mathematics classes. Since the beliefs of teachers can strongly depend on the context, in this case visual programming, there is a clear need for research on how mathematics teachers perceive this issue. Therefore, this article addresses the beliefs (Schoenfeld, 1985 , 1992 ) of undergraduate pre-service teachers about visual programming in mathematics classes. The research questions guiding this article is:

Which beliefs about visual programming in mathematics education can be identified among undergraduate mathematics students in a teacher education program? How can those beliefs be clustered and related to general beliefs about technology in mathematics education?

In the following, a case study, using Yin’s definition ( 2013 ), about the beliefs of undergraduate students at a university in North-Rhein-Westphalia (Germany) about visual programming in mathematics education is presented. The undergraduate students were studying mathematics with a focus on mathematics education to become teachers for middle and high school (for 11–18 year-old students) and were in the third year of their study. The mathematics teacher education program at a German university includes both mathematical and pedagogical seminars. Furthermore, German teachers are trained in two subjects, but none of the students studied computer science as a future teaching subject. The undergraduate students of this study participated in a university seminar on the use of digital technologies in math classes conducted by one of the authors (F. D.). In this seminar, they worked on several digital technologies like 3D printing, Computer-Algebra-Systems, GeoGebra – and also Scratch (MIT, 2007 ) that is focused in this paper. The work with Scratch was one of the main topics of the seminar and was studied in four seminar sessions in a blended-learning format. At the beginning of the unit on Scratch, the students were introduced to the software in detail and took their first steps under the guidance of the lecturer. Subsequently, the students investigated various mathematical problem solving tasks with the use of Scratch on their own. They also created their own programming tasks and discussed the possibility of using visual programming in mathematics classes (Dilling & Vogler, 2022d ). The students documented their task solutions and analyses in a question-guided reflection journal, which forms the data basis for the empirical investigation reported in this section. The students’ written documents are analyzed with a qualitative content analysis (Mayring, 2000 ) in order to answer the research question.

In 4.1, the method of qualitative content analysis according to Mayring ( 2000 , 2010 ) and its conditions are described in detail, in 4.2., the results of the content analysis are presented as a system of belief categories, and in 4.3, these results are discussed with reference to the typical belief systems and belief clusters about digital technology in mathematics education from previous research described in “ Teachers' Beliefs and the Use of Digital Technologies in the Classroom ”. A particular issue being considered in the discussion of the results is how these superordinate beliefs about digital technologies unfold in the specific context of visual programming and which beliefs can be added based on the results of this case study.

Methodology and Conditions

The case study examines the beliefs of undergraduate pre-service teachers about visual programming in mathematics classes. Therefore, written reflection journals of seven undergraduate mathematics students who participated in the seminar described above were analyzed using the method of qualitative content analysis (Mayring, 2000 , 2010 ). In general, this is an interpretative analysis of larger text sets, distinguishing between three basic techniques: summarizing by inductive categorization to arrive at core statements of the text, explicating to clarify unclear passages by referring to the context of the passage, and structuring through deductive categorization to make transverse interpretations in the text material to highlight certain aspects (Mayring, 2010 ). The case study presented in this article aims to structure the undergraduate students’ written reflection journals (research data) and identify their beliefs about the use of visual programming environments in math classes. Since there has been no research on these beliefs of pre-service teachers, as mentioned in “ Teachers' Beliefs and the Use of Digital Technologies in the Classroom ”, the content analysis follows mainly an inductive category formation procedure, a combination of summarizing and structuring the text material. For this purpose, the process model illustrated in Fig.  2 was developed.

Process model of inductive category formation

To describe the type of research data in more detail, an exemplary task that the students worked on and the guiding questions of the reflection journal are presented. In the seminar sessions dealing with Scratch as a visual programming environment, the students worked on problems relating to basic operations in arithmetic, the comparison of two natural numbers, and other problems such as determining the sum of the digits of a natural number, distinguishing between even and odd numbers, and rounding decimal numbers. In addition to these rather simple mathematical tasks as a starting point for mathematical problem solving with Scratch, more complex tasks that focused on undergraduate mathematics were developed by the students. Figure  3 shows an excerpt from a program that was created by a participant in the study. It uses knowledge from the field of number theory. The specific task was as follows:

Create a program that displays an arbitrary natural number larger than one, asks whether it is a prime number or not and returns a response with “correct” or “incorrect”. After each task, a new task should be generated automatically with a different number. Think about different feedback depending on the way in which the wrong answer was given.

Excerpt of a code of a program which uses aspects from number theory to detect, if a given natural number is prime

In order to accomplish this task, a variable ‘x’ is first defined as a random number between 2 and 20. The range of the numbers under consideration can be increased without effort. The program then asks the user whether this number is a prime number. The user should answer with ‘P’ for yes and ‘N’ for no. The variable ‘answer’ is set accordingly as ‘P’ or ‘N’. The program then uses an algorithm to determine whether the number set for ‘x’ is a prime number. For this purpose, a variable ‘i’ is introduced, which is defined as half of ‘x’ rounded down to the next lower natural number. This is followed by a loop in which the variable ‘I’ decreases by one in each iteration. The loop should be executed until “x mod i = 0” applies, i.e. ‘i’ is a divisor of ‘x’. If this applies to a number greater than 1, ‘x’ is not a prime number. However, if the loop only terminates at “i = 1”, ‘x’ has no divisor other than 1 and is therefore a prime number. Depending on the user’s input, i.e. the value of the variable ‘answer’, a suitable response is given by distinguishing between four cases (two possible inputs and two ‘ossibl’ results), whereby only one of these cases can be seen in the excerpt in Fig.  3 . It is interesting that the student inserted the variable ‘i’ in his solution and did not test all numbers smaller than ‘x’ as divisors. With the knowledge that the largest divisor is at most half as large as the number he can roughly reduce the runtime of his program by half. This is particularly interesting when considering very large numbers.

Many of the tasks completed by the students, as shown in the example above, had the aim of creating a program that interacts with the user and provides randomly generated exercises. The idea behind this approach was that the students, in addition to their mathematical knowledge, could also contribute their pedagogical knowledge of assessment and feedback to the task solution. After each task performed with Scratch, the students documented their approach guided by questions in the reflection journal. At the end of the Scratch unit, a written overall reflection was carried out in the journal. The following open questions were to be answered:

In your opinion, which process-related mathematical competencies can be fostered with Scratch? Explain your answer!

What strategies did you use to solve the tasks when you got stuck?

How did you check your developed solutions and how did you check during the solution process whether you were on the “right track”?

Was content-related mathematical knowledge applied to solve the tasks? If yes, which knowledge did you apply?

What connection do you see between computer science and mathematics? In your answer, please refer to visual, block-based programming with Scratch!

A final conclusion: What opportunities and challenges do you see in the use of Scratch in mathematics classes?

The overall reflections in the written journals of the seven undergraduate mathematics students from the seminar constitute the data material for the qualitative content analysis. This selection was performed by taking into account the content richness of the documents. In addition, previous experience with programming should be explained on the first page of the reflection journal. Four students stated that they gained experience with the programming language Python in a previous university seminar. Three students mentioned that they acquired basic programming skills in computer science at school. Except for one student, the students had no experience with Scratch as a visual programming language. Only one of the seven students reported having no prior experience with programming at all.

The inductive category formation was established and the students’ statements of the written reflection journals were defined as the units of analysis. The minimum programming unit is a single formulated sentence (see step 3 in Fig.  2 ). In step 4, the categories were defined as follows: a category describes a belief about the use of Scratch in mathematics classes which can be reconstructed for the student(s) being investigated . As a condition for the formation of a category (see step 5 in Fig.  2 ), there have to be at least two different students holding this belief in order to restrict the number of categories. While steps 2 to 5 (see Fig.  2 ) were conducted by one author, the reanalysis of the data with the developed system of categories (see step 6 in Fig.  2 ) was conducted by each of the three authors. This subsequently provided the opportunity to compare analysis results and make possible revisions of this system of categories.

The results of the qualitative content analysis is presented in the following section by describing the category system that has been developed. In addition, the individual categories are analyzed in more detail, based on interpretations of exemplary students’ statements of the written reflection journals translated by the authors.

Presentation of the Results

The qualitative content analysis described in 4.2 produced the following ten categories:

Increasing importance of algorithms and programming

Challenges associated with the required technological resources

Challenges associated with the time needed to introduce the program interface and its functions

Visual programming offers an introduction to computer science and programming concepts

Visual programming demonstrates relations between mathematics and computer science

Visual programming fosters mathematical competencies of middle and high school students

Visual programming fosters digital competencies of students

Visual programming can request the application of mathematical knowledge

Visual programming enables individual, explorative, and creative working

Sophisticated mathematical topics cannot be treated with visual programming

Each category is now explained with one to three sample statements to show the variety of perspectives of the different belief-categories. The selected individual statements are interpreted in-depth in relation to the category definition by referring to the broader context of the reflection journals of the students. All statements were written in German by the students and were translated into English by the authors of this article.

Increasing importance of algorithms and programming (Category 1)

This category describes the belief that in the context of the ongoing digitization and the increasing importance of algorithms and programming in society and in school, visual programming in mathematics classes is legitimized and important to learn by the students. This sample statement shows this belief in relation to the importance of programming in society:

“It certainly makes sense to familiarize students with programming at an early stage, as this topic is becoming increasingly important in our world.” [Nils]

The student Nils notes this as the last sentence in his reflection journal. It is remarkable that he also expresses some statements beforehand that can be assigned to rather negative beliefs about the use of visual programming in mathematics classes, such as the (potentially) time-consuming introduction of the program interface (see Category 3) and the aspect that not all areas of mathematics classes, esp. more complex mathematical topics, can be treated with Scratch (see Category 10).

The next statement shows this belief with a focus on the importance of algorithms in school:

“Especially in times in which the graphing calculator and dynamic geometry software offer more and more possibilities and classical calculations and algorithms of calculus lessons lose their justification of existence [in the curriculum], the development of algorithms should be in the focus of the lessons instead of the application, as e.g., Danckwerts and Vogel demand it.” [Manuel]

The student Manuel expresses this belief about the increasing importance of learning how to develop algorithms due to the increasing opportunities of software used in mathematics classes, e.g., graphing calculators with integrated Computer-Algebra-Systems. He later also points out that algorithms are relevant in both subjects, mathematics and computer science. He explains this with reference to mathematical calculations that have an algorithmic character, like determination of extreme values of a function, and also with reference to the role of algorithm in computer programs. In the quote above, he also mentions two German mathematics educators who have been particularly engaged in teaching and learning of calculus at high school level.

Challenges associated with the required technological resources (Category 2)

Category 2 comprises the belief that required technological resources can be seen as a challenge for the implementation of visual programming in mathematics classes. Two sample statements for this category are the following:

“In addition, there may be technical difficulties or a lack of technical capabilities.” [Henri]

This statement comes from the student Henri who also holds the belief that the implementation of visual programming in mathematics classes is time-consuming (Category 3). He also claims that a large proportion of the students has no previous experience with programming. The lack of technical possibilities or difficulties would be added to this, although he does not explain these technical difficulties in more detail. Henri describes himself as a beginner in programming, he has no previous experience with it. At the end of his journal, he states that he does not want to draw a final conclusion about the use of Scratch in mathematics classes because he has too little experience of Scratch and its uses in mathematics classes.

“Challenges to Scratch, on one hand, is that the necessary hardware and software must be available for its use in the classroom, which is not always the case.” [Jens]

Jens notes this challenge in combination with the challenge to provide appropriate tasks for the opportunities that Scratch offers. In his journal, he continues with the simplicity of the visual programming language Scratch and its suitability for interdisciplinary lessons since students can use Scratch to represent mathematical problems. In his opinion, they do not need much prior knowledge from the field of computer science to be able to develop their own programs, but he emphasizes the use of appropriate tasks which provides many opportunities for visual programming in mathematics classes. Thus, it can be assumed that the belief about required technical resources expressed in this category plays a minor role in the belief-system of Jens.

Challenges associated with the time needed to introduce the program interface and its functions (Category 3)

This category is about time needed to introduce the program interface and its functions. Some students in this study see this as a challenge for the use of visual programming in mathematics classes. Two sample statements that underline this belief are the following:

“However, I see more difficulties, which is why I find it very difficult to imagine a meaningful use. It is nearly impossible to introduce the use of Scratch without spending a lot of time, but this time is usually not provided in the curriculum.” [Henri]

This is a statement of the student Henri, who characterizes himself as a beginner in programming as mentioned above. It is interesting that he writes, prior to this statement, that the use of Scratch in mathematics classes allows an alternative approach to mathematical problems and thus offers the possibility to make mathematics classes more varied. He adds that the students develop competencies that are fundamentally important and helpful in mathematics classes. He then comes up with the almost contradictory belief, which emphasizes the time required to introduce Scratch in class, which is not provided in the curriculum. He also claims in the same section that the mathematical learning progress is too small because the mathematical level of the tasks has to be adapted to a lower level, since the majority of the students have no previous experience in programming and can therefore only write simple programs.

“A crucial disadvantage of block-based programming with Scratch is the time required. Introducing students to Scratch’s programming interface might take too much time to illustrate the actual mathematical concepts.” [Nils]

Nils who also holds the belief that in the context of the ongoing digitization and the increasing importance of algorithms and programming in society and in school, visual programming in mathematics classes is legitimized (Category 1) and many other rather positive belief (Categories 4 to 9) holds the presented belief, which he explicates with emphasis – a crucial disadvantage is the time required. He continues that although Scratch is intuitive, it is still a programming language that students need to understand before they can work with it, so experimenting freely with Scratch would not achieve the intended learning outcome in mathematics classes.

Visual programming offers an introduction to computer science and programming concepts (Category 4)

Category 4 concerns the belief that visual programming offers as an introduction to computer science and programming concepts. This sample statement illustrates this category:

“Scratch is more or less simple due to its blocks, neither teachers nor the students need to know a programming language. So, it can be learned, taught, and used in a relatively simple way. As a teacher it is possible to provide the students with various tasks in a simple way. In addition, one can also give the student the task to develop their own programs and suitable tasks, since they do not need to know programming language as well, neither if they should write a program themselves nor if they are to examine a program for its correctness.” [Jens]

The student Jens holds this rather positive belief. He emphasizes in this statement that Scratch due to its block-based language is easy to learn for both teachers and students. He explains that it is easy for the teacher to give the student various tasks to complete. He mentions these two task variants: the development of one’s own program and the examination of a given program for correctness.

“Furthermore, I would like to state that this program shows large potential particularly for younger grades. It concerns namely a child-oriented programming language, which gets along without the memorization of commands and structures. The simple combination of blocks is already possible for younger students, so that they can also quickly achieve their first successes. This is also an advantage in that mathematics can […] inspire students for computer science.” [Benjamin]

This statement is mentioned by Benjamin who emphasizes the potential of Scratch to introduce younger students to programming and computer science. He describes the simple combination of blocks instead of complex written commands and structures which would be necessary for text-based programming. He notes that younger students can quickly succeed in creating a program and thus get excited about computer science.

“Scratch is a simple form of programming. Through the blocks it is […] as a start very nicely usable, because it shows the functionality, especially of the ’if, else’ blocks nicely, which play a huge role in programming.” [Larissa]

Larissa emphasizes the block-based language which can be used to introduce students to computer science and programming. It should be mentioned that this student also holds the belief that is assigned to category 1 because she says that she considers the development of simple programs and algorithms to be very important in the mathematics education of students, especially regarding digitization.

Visual programming demonstrates relations between mathematics and computer science (Category 5)

This category describes the belief that visual programming demonstrates relations between mathematics and computer science. For example, students in this case study stated:

“Above all, the logical structure is a similarity between computer science and mathematics. The individual blocks must follow one another in Scratch in a meaningful way so that the algorithm works and the program produces the correct output. In mathematics, logical reasoning is also used. Here, too, you must proceed step by step, for example when doing proofs, to be able to achieve results or to derive tasks. The structure of a working program runs thus similarly to the deduction of mathematical conclusions.” [Nils]

This is noted by Nils who was quoted in the description of category 1 as well. In the quote above, he explains the logical structure as a similarity between computer science and mathematics which becomes recognizable through the work with Scratch. He reports that blocks in Scratch must be arranged in a meaningful way so that the algorithm works, and the program produces the correct output. He also refers to the role of logical reasoning in mathematics. He compares the structure of a working program in computer science with the structure of a proof – a deduction of mathematical conclusions. He emphasizes the steps that must logically follow each other, which is important in both disciplines – in a mathematical proof and in a working program in computer science. However, it should be critically noted that an axiomatic approach and logical deductive proofs for the development of a mathematical theory cannot be regarded as equivalent to a sequence within an algorithm.

“In programming, many mathematical operators are used. Many blocks in Scratch are based on operators like = , < , > , … that compare values of variables. These variables are often defined numbers. This can be used, for example, to code how often a loop should be run.” [Nils]

In this statement, Nils explains that many blocks in Scratch are based on mathematical operators and that variables are used in programming. It is evident that the belief that visual programming demonstrates relation between mathematics and computer science is a very elaborated belief of Nils.

Visual programming fosters mathematical competencies of students (Category 6)

Category 6 covers the belief that the use of visual programming in mathematics classes fosters mathematical competencies of students. Process related competencies – modelling, problem solving, reasoning, and representing/communicating – are addressed by the undergraduate mathematics students investigated in this study. Here, the undergraduate students mostly refer to the core competencies listed in the German educational standards for mathematics (KMK, 2022 ). The following sample statements show this belief regarding problem solving, communicating, and reasoning:

“Mathematical problems can be worked on and solved by developing programs. A program must be created in small steps. This leads to the fact that the students must get involved exactly in the mathematical problem and have to think about it to the smallest detail. A programming interface also allows for systematic trial and error. By simply running the algorithm you have created, you can see how far you have progressed and how changes to the algorithm effect the output value or result. By reflecting on the output values, insights into mathematical relationships can be gained.” [Nils]

This statement as well as the following one describing the belief that visual programming fosters mathematical competencies is written by the student Nils who was already mentioned in the categories 1 and 5. He describes that creating programs with Scratch fosters solving mathematical problems. This belief does not seem to be independent of the procedure in the seminar, in which the students, as explained in 4.1, were supposed to create programs for different mathematical problems. In the following statement, he explicitly addresses the point that the programs represent his own process of thinking:

“A program is a great way to illustrate your own processes of thinking. By sharing their code with each other, students can meaningfully report on their procedures. This also promotes the use of technical, subject-specific language used in mathematics and computer science.” [Nils]

Nils considers the sharing and discussion of programs in mathematics classes with other students and the reporting on their own approaches and procedures as fostering communication and the use of technical, subject-specific language.

“If the students find a problem in their calculation through Scratch, they have to find the problem in their solution and solve it. Or, if they do not find an error in their calculation, they have to find the problem in the program code. Even if this is not easy, depending on the program code, the students learn to argue why their solution is correct. Their task is to justify why their solution must be correct and therefore the program’s solution must be wrong. So, they learn to reason mathematically, to justify, and to solve problems. From this point of view, it might even be conceivable to include an extra error I ’the program code to challenge the students in these competencies.” [Jens]

The student Jens expresses the belief that reasoning and problem solving as mathematical competencies can be fostered with the use of Scratch in mathematics classes by explaining that the students learn to argue, e.g. in situations in which they calculated a different solution or output value than the program and they have to justify why their program includes an error and not their calculation without the computer. To challenge the students’ competency of reasoning, Jens supposes the idea to include extra errors in the program code.

Visual programming fosters digital competencies of students (Category 7)

This category contains the belief that the implementation of visual programming in mathematics classes fosters digital competencies of students like analyzing programs and their possibilities of application and using digital tools efficiently. These two sample statements highlight this category:

“The Media Literacy Guidelines of North Rhine-Westphalia demand precisely this characteristic, that digital tools are not only used, but also reflected critically. In my opinion, this skill can also be learned and developed with such Scratch algorithms. In this way, one can evaluate the quality of different programs and derive the relevance of the application. This can then be transferred to digital technology in general in a subsequent step.” [Benjamin]

Benjamin refers to a guideline of the government of a German state which emphasizes that digital tools should not simply be used by students in class, but that their functionality should also be discussed critically and explored in detail. Benjamin believes that this can be achieved by developing algorithms with Scratch, e.g., students can evaluate the quality of different programs.

“Another competency of the students is that they learn how to use tools. This primarily involves the use of digital tools. The students can learn to use digital resources or tools efficiently with the right tasks in the right context. So, in terms of the question, what do I calculate in my head, what do I have to calculate digitally? Or also, does the solution of the digital calculator fit to the task or can I already determine that this solution can’t be correct by estimating. If it is not correct, were my inputs correct? With Scratch, the students can also learn how to use tools – in this case digital tools.” [Jens]

Jens also refers to the reflective use of digital tools that can be learned through the implementation of Scratch in mathematics classes. He mentions that students learn to evaluate for which tasks (in mathematics classes) the use of digital tools is appropriate.

Visual programming can request the application of mathematical knowledge (Category 8)

Category 8 outlines the belief that the use of visual programming in mathematics classes can request the application of mathematical knowledge. The following two statements are written by Benjamin. He describes a program solution to the problem of multiplication and a program solution to the comparison of two natural numbers.

“[…] the product of two numbers is to be formed. The first variant was on the one hand not mathematically demanding and on the other hand the multiplication function in Scratch could be used directly. For this part, the same evaluation applies as for the previous task. The second variant of this task is different. In this case, the multiplication function should be omitted. This then already requires a little mathematical knowledge. This is due to the fact that one must consider how to carry out the multiplication differently. This is not a big mathematical hurdle, but the idea that multiplication can also be expressed by addition must first be found. Thus, there is definitely a mathematical claim here.” [Benjamin]

In this description of the program that forms the product of two numbers, he explains that for some steps of programming there are blocks given in Scratch, which directly fulfill the intended function of the program to be created. But when, for example, one should modify the program so that one special block is not used, the user is encouraged to think about how the multiplication can be expressed differently in mathematics.

“Comparing two numbers is easy and does not require great mathematical skills. It is the same with the implementation. Since again only pre-installed functions are used, the mathematical requirement is limited. It is different again with the second subtask. Here a method must be developed how to compare three numbers with each other. This is an easy difference to calculate, but the idea requires a little mathematical understanding.” [Benjamin]

According to Benjamin’s second statement, these different levels of the application of mathematical knowledge that is required can also be transferred to the task in which at first a program is to be developed that compares two numbers regarding their size. Afterwards, one should develope a program that compares three numbers with each other. For this second task, the user must change the procedure and will need a mathematical understanding of the topic.

“Furthermore, the knowledge of the arrangement of the natural numbers was important. On the one hand, this was necessary in task 2 to write the required program. On the other hand, I could create the ≠ relation with the help of the = , < and > relations. For this I needed the knowledge of the trichotomy, which results from the order of the natural numbers.” [Nils]

Nils explicitly lists the mathematical knowledge required for the development of the programs with Scratch that is demanded by the tasks from the seminar. For example, he mentions knowledge about the trichotomy which is required to create the ≠ relation with the blocks in Scratch.

Visual programming enables individual, explorative, and creative working (Category 9)

This category describes the belief that the implementation of visual programming in mathematics classes enables individual, explorative, and creative working of the students. This sample statement demonstrates this category:

“Block-based programming offers the chance to foster the mathematical creativity of the students. By creating their own programs, students can create something new.” [Nils]

Nils writes in this statement that visual programming fosters the mathematical creativity of the students, he emphasizes that they can create something new by developing their own programs. He is referring to the individual and creative work that in his opinion is enabled by using Scratch.

“I would like to take a look at the independent development of such algorithms. In my opinion, there is also an immense potential. It must be considered that the creation of such ideas and the occupation with it usually let one think deeply. You deal with the content in more detail than when solving normal tasks. This is the largest potential of the creation of new Scratch-algorithms.” [Benjamin]

This is written by the student Benjamin. He points out that the creation of algorithms and the occupation with them leads to very in-depth thinking. In his opinion, the students would deal with the (mathematical) content in class in more detail in comparison to solving regular tasks of mathematics classes. It is to be mentioned that a view into the programs Benjamin developed in the seminar and his comments on his development processes show that he has dealt with the contents of the tasks and possible solution approaches in Scratch particularly in-depth.

“The programmer is enabled to realize and modify his own ideas. Even if programming is not yet so well-known [by the students], Scratch offers the possibility to test and experiment through the various given blocks.” [Jana]

The belief that visual programming enables individual, explorative, and creative working can also be reconstructed for Jana. She especially addresses the experimental approach made possible by the program interface of Scratch. The programmer, in her opinion, is enabled to realize and modify his own ideas of algorithms.

Sophisticated mathematical content cannot be treated with visual programming (Category 10)

This last category covers the belief that sophisticated mathematical content cannot be treated with Scratch. The belief is illustrated by the following two statements of the students:

“Especially for more difficult mathematical tasks such as more complicated calculations, tasks from geometry or graphical function investigations, there are better programs that can perform these tasks more efficiently (GeoGebra, Sage etc.).” [Jens]

This statement is written by Jens. He sees a clear limitation to the use of Scratch in mathematics classes and addresses programs such as GeoGebra and Sage, which could be used to perform complex calculations more efficiently. He emphasizes that Scratch is especially suitable for simpler (mathematical) tasks.

“[...] for more complex topics, I think the use of Scratch is inappropriate. Middle school students might benefit from block-based programming in some topics. High school students, however, take more complex material that is not easy to code.” [Nils]

In this statement, Nils also addresses more complex (mathematical) topics for which he does not consider the use of Scratch to be appropriate. He emphasizes that middle school students might benefit from visual programming.

Discussion of the Results

As described in the previous section, ten different belief categories were identified by applying the qualitative content analysis according to Mayring ( 2000 , 2010 ), which were expressed by the investigated seven university students of mathematics education in their reflection journals. Most of the beliefs are associated with a positive attitude towards visual programming in mathematics education. For example, category 1 emphasizes the importance of algorithms and programming for the digital society but also specifically for teaching and learning in the digital age. Other more positive beliefs refer to computer science, including category 4 on the introduction to computer science concepts and category 5 on the illustration of productive relationships between mathematics and computer science through visual programming. Another three positive groups of beliefs refer to fostering students’ competencies in process related mathematical skills such as problem solving (category 6), digital literacy (category 7), and to the application of mathematical content knowledge (category 8) when working with visual programming environments such as Scratch. Finally, category 9 refers to the specific way of working with visual programming and the associated methodological possibilities for teaching and learning mathematics.

In addition to these rather positive beliefs or groups of beliefs, it is also possible to find beliefs that refer to the limits and challenges of using visual programming in mathematics classes and thus have more negative associations. A challenge is seen in the required technical resources, which are not sufficiently available at every school (category 2). In addition, the time needed to introduce visual programming in the classroom is seen as a problem and is perceived as too long (category 3). Finally, the students identify limitations of visual programming when it comes to the representation of more complex mathematical topics. They see the use of Scratch rather for simpler mathematical content like mathematics in middle school (category 10). Although more categories could be identified in the analysis which describe positive statements towards visual programming in mathematics classes, this does not mean that in general more positive attitudes to the topic were held by the students. Certain beliefs such as the problems due to a large time requirement were held with particular emphasis by some students. According to Green ( 1971 ), these beliefs represent core beliefs held by the students while other categories represent more peripheral beliefs.

In general, the students' beliefs are in line with the overall positive picture from the research literature on Scratch in mathematics education, for example with regard to the parallel fostering of mathematical and algorithmic thinking (e.g. Noss et al., 2020 ; Rodríguez-Martínez et al., 2019 ), which is reflected in categories 6 and 7. At the same time, challenges are identified, as in the studies by Sjöberg et al. ( 2018 ) and Olsson and Granberg ( 2022 ).

The different groups of beliefs identified in the context of visual programming have a varying relationship to the general belief clusters about digital technology in mathematics education described in Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ) and Klinger et al. ( 2018 ). Three general beliefs could be found in the data material with reference to visual programming. For example, category 3 on ‘Time-consuming introduction of the program interface and functions as a challenge’ largely corresponds to the group ‘Beliefs about time needed to teach with technology’ according to Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ). The group ‘Beliefs about the time point of technology use’ (Thurm & Barzel, 2022 ) can be associated with category 8 ‘Visual programming can request the application of mathematical knowledge’. This category 8 suggests that students working in visual programming environments tend to focus on the application of mathematical knowledge and therefore the practice rather than the introduction of new mathematical topics and concepts. In addition, a connection can be made between category 9 ‘Visual programming enables individual, explorative, and creative working’ and the group ‘Beliefs about the role of technology to support discovery learning’ (Thurm & Barzel, 2022 ), since in both cases student-centered education and an explorative approach to learning are emphasized.

The remaining mathematics related categories highlighting the relevance of algorithms and programming (category 1), the relation to computer science (categories 4, 5), and the opportunities and limitations of fostering students’ competencies (categories 6, 7, 10) are not found in the list of general groups of beliefs established by Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ) and Klinger et al. ( 2018 ). However, the rather general group ‘General positive beliefs regarding technology’ according to Klinger et al. ( 2018 ) could be taken as a subordinate category for the programming-specific beliefs. A transfer to other mathematics teaching technologies is conceivable, particularly for the fostering of mathematical and digital competences (categories 6, 7).

Finally, in the qualitative content analysis of the reflection journals, a very general and non-mathematics-specific belief could be identified. This belief emphasizes the required technological resources as a challenge (category 2). Such a general belief was presumably not the focus of the studies examined in Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ) and Klinger et al. ( 2018 ). Therefore, it is not found in their listing of belief groups. Thus, several of the belief groups from the meta-study could not be found in this study on beliefs about visual programming, including the beliefs related to the principle of shifting, the loss of by-hand skills, mindless working when teaching with technology, and the role of technology to support multiple representations. An overview of the comparison with general beliefs about digital technologies in mathematics education can be seen in Fig.  4 .

Classification of the categories according to: general beliefs about digital technologies in mathematics education (blue), non-mathematics-specific beliefs about digital technologies in education (yellow) and beliefs specific to (visual) programming or Scratch in mathematics education (green)

In addition to the comparison with the general beliefs about digital technologies in mathematics education, the extent to which the identified belief categories can be transferred to programming in general, in particular to text-based programming, should also be discussed. As the students' in the reflection journals only rarely made comparisons with text-based programming, only hypotheses can be formulated in this regard. The classification is based in particular on the distinction made by Lagrange and Laval ( 2023 ), who distinguish conceptual aspects (e.g. programming and algorithms) from environmental aspects (e.g. a specific programming language or environment). Conceptual aspects occur in particular in the following categories and are therefore possibly transferable to other forms of programming: It can be assumed that the increasing importance of algorithms and programming (category 1), the demonstration of the relations between mathematics and programming (category 5) and the fostering of mathematical and digital competences (categories 6, 7) could also occur in relation to text-based programming or other forms of implementation. On the other side, the following categories reflect more the environmental aspects and might be specific for visual programming or more concrete Scratch: The presentation of sophisticated mathematical topics (category 10) is easier to implement with other programming environments, especially those more aligned to mathematics, such as LOGO or Maple. Therefore, depending on the programming environment used, this category could be omitted. Similarly, the possibility of an introduction to computer science (category 4) is presumably specific to visual programming and does not occur with text-based programming, as these are not specifically designed for educational purposes, as described above and also reflected by the students. The transferability of the results to other block-based programming environments depends on the respective range of functions and the suitability for mathematics, but might be higher than for textual programming.

Conclusion and Outlook

This article focused on the beliefs of undergraduate mathematics education students about visual programming in mathematics classes. Beliefs are affective-cognitive elements that significantly determine the behavior of teachers in the classroom. In relation to the use of digital technologies in mathematics education, different groups of beliefs have already been identified, which are clustered in Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ) and Klinger et al. ( 2018 ). In the empirical study of the present article, the aim was to figure out how the beliefs that can be described specifically about the use of visual programming relate to the general beliefs about the use of digital technologies in mathematics education.

For this purpose, a qualitative case study was conducted with seven selected undergraduate mathematics students. The participants of the study participated in a university seminar about the use of digital technologies with a blended-learning unit on the use of Scratch in mathematics over several weeks. Each student wrote a reflection journal on his or her experiences which were analyzed in this study using the method of structuring qualitative content analysis according to Mayring ( 2000 , 2010 ). The following research questions guided this qualitative analysis:

Regarding the first research question, it can be noted that a total of ten categories could be formed that represent beliefs or groups of beliefs referring to the use of visual programming in the mathematics classes. Each of these groups of beliefs was shared by at least two of the students studied, many of the belief categories could be identified for more than two participants. The results of this qualitative study regarding the second research question are more interesting. Only three of the categories identified in this study matched the list of belief groups about digital technologies in mathematics education identified in previous research. While another category had only a marginal connection to visual programming (‘Required technological resources as a challenge’, category 2), the remaining six categories refer specifically to the use of visual programming or Scratch. Five of the belief groups mentioned by Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ) and Klinger et al. ( 2018 ) could not be assigned to any of the categories of this study. Therefore, the question arises how such large differences in the identified beliefs can arise.

This question cannot be answered entirely based on the qualitative data from this empirical study. We can only make hypotheses about how this result occurred. One reasonable hypothesis might be the focus of mathematics education research in the past decades on traditional mathematics specific tools such as graphing calculators, computer algebra systems, dynamic geometry software, or spreadsheets. The belief clusters of Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ) and Klinger et al. ( 2018 ) apply well to these specific technologies, and it is obvious that they emerged from research on this type of technologies. However, the range of digital technologies used in mathematics education has grown rapidly in recent years. In addition to traditional tools, new mathematics specific digital technologies and learning environments as well as general subject-independent learning technologies are coming to the center of attention. The visual programming discussed in this article using the example of Scratch does not belong to traditional mathematical tools, even though it is an established software in the field of computer science. Thus, it is also not surprising that the belief groups established in previous research are not easily transferable to the use of this digital tool. Furthermore, the results show how a specific learning environment influences the beliefs of teachers: while some of the beliefs expressed by the pre-service teachers concern conceptual aspects of programming, others clearly relate to visual programming and, more specifically, to Scratch (cf. Lagrange & Laval, 2023 ). Another reason for the differences could be the sample group. While the studies by Thurm and Barzel ( 2022 ) and Klinger et al. ( 2018 ) looked at in-service teachers, the participants in this article are pre-service teachers. In-service teachers probably have different beliefs about the opportunities and challenges of visual coding and technology in general due to their school-based practical experience.

The results of the case study can be understood as an impulse for mathematics education research on digital technologies not to focus only on traditional digital tools for mathematics education, but to include the changed conditions concerning the range of digital technologies. An example of such a switch to innovative digital technologies is shown in the dissertation of Saunders ( 2022 ), who investigates how to describe the knowledge of primary school teachers for teaching mathematics through programming.

The case study in this paper could only take a first step towards this goal, which was to highlight the relevance of different forms of digital technologies for mathematics education and to explicate the differences in undergraduate mathematics education students’ beliefs in the context of visual programming. However, the study has some limitations, so there is a strong need for further research in this area. The study was only able to examine seven participants due to the in-depth qualitative analysis. Considering this, it seems important to explore larger numbers of participants in further studies and possibly conduct a standardized quantitative survey of beliefs. For this purpose, the results of the present case study can form a useful basis. In addition, it would be interesting to shift the focus from undergraduate students as pre-service teachers to in-service teachers to be able to include the participants’ practical experiences to a greater extent. Furthermore, a longer intervention would be useful, including the actual use of Scratch in classroom practice. Another difficulty of the case study design lies in the dependency relationship between the students studied and the researchers conducted the study that might have led to socially desirable responses by the students. A final limitation is the use of Scratch as a programming environment. Scratch is very popular in the field of education, but it only allows limited mathematical operations, especially in the context of undergraduate mathematics. As can be read in the discussion section, the use of another mathematics-specific programming environment could also produce other belief categories. The results should therefore not be transferred directly to other areas in the context of programming in mathematics education.

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Dilling, F., Köster, J. & Vogler, A. Beliefs of Undergraduate Mathematics Education Students in a Teacher Education Program about Visual Programming in Mathematics Classes. Int. J. Res. Undergrad. Math. Ed. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40753-024-00248-0

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How to collaborate with students on research projects

Students and academic staff collaborating on research projects offers many benefits for everyone involved. Here’s how to do it

Louise Owusu-Kwarteng

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.css-1txxx8u{overflow:hidden;max-height:81px;text-indent:0px;} Change is coming, whether higher education likes it or not

Is it worth paying for genai, emotions and learning: what role do emotions play in how and why students learn, teaching international students about academic integrity, ai and assessment redesign: a four-step process.

When academics and students collaborate on research projects, it can enhance the quality of the research and boost student success. Additionally, it can also promote a sense of student belonging . 

Students need to be ready for a real-world environment where change is the constant. Research knowledge and enterprise are often required to develop rapidly to meet these challenges, and collaborating with students is an effective way to teach them this. 

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Together with BA Hons Animation students and staff in the faculty of liberal arts and sciences at the University of Greenwich, we are undertaking a collaborative project entitled “Our Kid from the North of the South of the M1 River”. It fuses together animation and sociological autobiography as a pedagogical approach to exploring lived experience. 

The project charts my journey to professorship, as one of very few Black female professors in the UK. It also seeks to raise awareness of the leaky pipelines faced by global majority women in academia and encourage institutions to recognise the importance of our retention and progression. I also wish to highlight academia as a possible career for young global majority women. Drawing on our work so far, and other collaborative work undertaken, such as our Student Stories Project, I’ll share valuable insights on collaborating with students on research projects.

How to create opportunities to collaborate

At the University of Greenwich, we have an Office of Undergraduate Research hub, which I set up in 2018 and ran until 2021. It has gone from strength to strength, thanks to innovative work undertaken by one of our colleagues within the faculty. This has helped to enhance our research environment, because it’s fostered a culture in which staff and students can work together in scoping out research collaborations and undertaking funding applications . These transferable skills also benefit students’ employability .

Collaborative opportunities may occur through existing projects, as was the case with “Our Kid from the North of the South of the M1 River” .   While staff will need to steer the overall direction of the projects, students should be encouraged to identify and work on areas that best reflect their interests and strengths. 

Conversely, staff and students can start from scratch and develop ideas for projects together. Perhaps these ideas are in line with world issues, or affect their everyday experiences. For instance, I received funding centrally from the university to collaborate with students and my counterpart in another faculty on a Student Stories project. It centred on issues impacting student experience at our institution.  

Student co-researchers were encouraged to develop key themes and shape the overall project direction. They touched on the cost of living crisis , student poverty and balancing work and study, which affected their experiences. 

As a way of recording their stories, we co-created podcasts. This research has informed guidance around student experience at the university, and also in framing our institution’s Black and Minority Ethnic Awarding Difference theory of change. It also contributed to our access and participation plan for the Office of Students.

Mapping and matching skills to the relevant parts of the project

The skills the students are acquiring in their studies will come in useful on this research project. “Our Kid from the North of the South of the M1 River” needed animators, filming and sound producers, as well as project management, all skills that feature in their degrees. Work with students to identify and map out their particular strengths, so that they can focus on relevant areas. 

We found that some students were keen to go beyond their comfort zone and try new skills or technologies. Encourage this, and organise training if needed. 

They were then divided into subgroups based on skill sets. Although we facilitated these groups, we encouraged students’ creativity as much as possible, which they embraced fully. This has resulted in a fantastic animation of my story.

Co-creating milestones and agreeing updates

A core facet of the project management stage was setting of timelines and regular progress reviews, which took into account staff and student availability. We established the most appropriate times to meet, deciding on weekly Friday touch point meetings, and agreed task completion dates, as well as points to review. We also ensured flexibility, should issues arise – such as additional work shifts for students, urgent staff meetings, etc.

Recognising students’ work

Students should always receive full recognition for their work. Not only will this build their confidence in their abilities, but it increases their likelihood of wanting to undertake further projects. Recognition can include many forms, including identifying opportunities to showcase their work at events within and beyond the institution. “Our Kid from the North of the South of the M1 River”, for example, will be shown at various festivals externally, and at Stephen Lawrence’s 50th birthday commemoration at the University of Greenwich. If papers are produced on the back of the research, students should be named as co-producers, alongside tutors.

Since students have donated time, energy and skills to projects, we ensured that they received payment at the going rate, and extra for any additional work on the project. This is especially important, given that many are facing the brunt of the cost of living crisis. Failure to do so is exploitative, unethical and undermines their experiences.

Louise Owusu-Kwarteng is associate dean of student success and professor in applied sociology in the faculty of liberal arts and sciences at the University of Greenwich.

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Teaching Students How to Research

Discover how the SLICE method can help students find, critically evaluate, and cite sources.

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Teaching research skills to students is one of the most important jobs of an educator, as it allows young people to take a much more proactive role in their own learning. Good researchers know how to learn , a skill they can use in school and beyond.

It is essential that students become adept at finding and evaluating sources, vetting arguments, and learning how to navigate both print and digital media. The SLICE method of teaching research, which I devised, is a simple, memorable way for teachers and students who want to better understand the research process. SLICE stands for Sources, Library, Integrity, Citation, and Evaluation.

What’s the difference between a dictionary, encyclopedia, journal, newspaper, and magazine? Students often don’t know these differentiations, and analyzing the types of sources is an important first step for the novice researcher.

I suggest bringing in physical examples of the sources. Show students hard copies of dictionaries and encyclopedias (which they may not have ever seen). Discuss how many of these resources have migrated to the internet, such as Encyclopaedia Britannica , The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , and Oxford Research Encyclopedias . 

Next, discuss with the students the different parts of any source (i.e., title, author, publication information, pagination, or abstract in the case of a journal article). This is the anatomy of sources, about which I have written before . Students should know the parts of both books and articles in order to maximize their research efficiency.

Understanding the components of sources allows them to access information quickly via the index or table of contents. While many students rely on citation-generators, it is helpful for them to understand how to write a works-cited page or bibliography without the aid of a website. Knowing the parts of their sources can help them with this.

Another key element of any discussion about sources is delving into the variety of digital sources now available. First, I like to teach them how to use Wikipedia wisely , as it is an online source that many young people turn to first. Demonstrate to students how much of the research has already been done for them on Wikipedia (i.e., through the references, sources, and external links). Then, we look at open-access databases online, such as medical websites ( PubMed , Trip medical database ), journals ( Nature Portfolio , JSTOR ), reputable polling sources ( Pew Research , Gallup , 538 , The Quinnipiac University Poll ), Google Scholar, and others. Talk to your librarian about open-access websites.

Library 

Being a good researcher means knowing how to navigate a library, be it a public library, academic library, or school library. There’s simply no way around that— especially with the staggering breadth of information in our society. Libraries are more important than ever, and it is critical that students become confident and proficient library users. 

First, teach students the role of libraries in organizing, disseminating, and, in many cases, preserving valuable digital and physical information. Some students may have never even visited a library!

Next, present a lesson on the different library classification systems, such as the Library of Congress system or the Dewey Decimal System. Couple this with a visit to your own school library or a field trip to a public or academic library . Take a tour of a library, getting students to explore its physical space and offerings. Additionally, invite a librarian to speak to your class, and make sure they review the digital resources and electronic databases offered through their library. A librarian would be glad to help students register for library cards, too.

I review with students the integrity of the source. Teach students, for instance, the definition of “peer review,” the peer review process, and how a peer-reviewed source often represents the gold standard of sources. A few examples of high-quality, peer-reviewed journals are Science , The New England Journal of Medicine , American Historical Review , and American Sociological Review .

Then, I usually transition to the integrity of using those sources. Here is where I introduce students to the philosophy and purpose of proper citation. We cite sources to be honest and transparent with our readers, as well as provide “bread crumbs” to readers and other scholars who wish to further examine our topic. 

What’s more, I have discovered that students often don’t realize that they need to cite more than just a direct quote.

Next up, I delve into different types of citation methods, making clear that certain citation guides are used for certain fields of study: MLA ( Modern Language Association ) for the humanities, APA ( American Psychological Association ) usually for medical or scientific fields, and The Chicago Manual of Style for business, history, and the arts).      

Citation, I explain, is also a road map for students to discover further research. If they read something helpful or compelling in a book or journal article, they can find its source by delving into the citations. I implore students to raid footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographies to find more sources.

Lastly, I try to have students assess sources critically. The CRAAP method— Currency, Relevancy, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose—is one of various techniques educators can use.

Ask the students, “How does the source fit into your research project?” Thinking about this early on can help students plan ahead. Annotated bibliographies can be one way that students answer this important, but often overlooked, question. 

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A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, Ninth Edition: Chicago Style for Students and Researchers (Chicago Guides to Writing, Editing, and Publishing) Ninth Edition

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• The best interpretation of Chicago style for higher education students and researchers
• Definitive, clear, and easy to read, with plenty of examples
• Shows how to compose a strong research question, construct an evidence-based argument, cite sources, and structure work in a logical way
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What Research Is and How Researchers Think about It

1.1 What Research Is

1.2 How Researchers Think about Their Aims

1.3 Conversing with Your Readers

Whenever we read about a scientific breakthrough or a crisis in world affairs, we benefit from the research of others, who likewise benefited from the research of countless others before them. When we walk into a library, we are surrounded by more than twenty-five centuries of research. When we go on the internet, we can read the work of millions of researchers who have posed questions beyond number, gathered untold amounts of information from the research of others to answer them, and then shared their answers with the rest of us. We can carry on their work by asking and, we hope, answering new questions in turn. Governments spend billions on research, businesses even more. Research goes on in laboratories and libraries, in jungles and ocean depths, in caves and in outer space, in offices and, in the information age, even in our own homes. Research is in fact the world's biggest industry.

So what, exactly, is it?

You already have a basic understanding of research: answering a question by obtaining information. In this sense, research can be as simple as choosing a new phone or as complex as discovering the origin of life. In this book we use research in a specific way to mean a process of systematic inquiry to answer a question that not only the researcher but also others want to solve. Research thus includes the steps involved in presenting or reporting it. To be a true researcher, as we are using the term, you must share your findings and conclusions with others.

If you are new to research, you may think that your paper will add little to the world's knowledge. But done well, it will add a lot to your knowledge and to your ability to communicate that knowledge. As you learn to do your own research, you also learn to use and judge that of others. In every profession, researchers must read and evaluate the work of others before they make a decision. This is a job you will do better after you have learned how others judge yours.

This book focuses on research in the academic world, but every day we read or hear about research that affects our lives. Often we get news of research secondhand, and it can be difficult to know what reasoning and evidence support a claim. But research doesn't ask for our blind trust or that we accept something on the basis of authority. It invites readers to think critically about evidence and reasoning.

That is how research-based writing differs from other kinds of persuasive writing: it must rest on shared facts that readers accept as truths independent of your feelings and beliefs. Your readers must be able to follow your reasoning from evidence they accept to the claim you draw from it. Your success as a researcher thus depends not just on how well you gather and analyze data but also on how clearly you report your reasoning so that your readers can test and judge it before making your claims part of their knowledge and understanding.

All researchers collect information, what we're calling data. But researchers do not merely gather facts on a topic — stories about the Battle of the Alamo, for example. They look for specific data to test and support an answer to a question that their topic inspired them to ask, such as Why has the Alamo story become a national legend? In doing so, they also imagine a community of readers who they believe will share their interest and help them test and support an answer to that question.

Experienced researchers, however, know that they must do more than convince us that their answer is sound. They must also show us why their question was worth asking, how its answer helps us understand some bigger issue in a new way. If we can figure out why the Alamo story has become a national legend, we might then answer a larger question: how have regional myths shaped the American character?

You can judge how closely your thinking tracks that of an experienced researcher by describing your project in a sentence like this:

1. 1. Topic: I am working on X ( stories about the Battle of the Alamo )

2. Question: because I want to find out Y ( why its story became a national legend )

3. Significance: so that I can help others understand Z ( how such regional myths have shaped the American character ).

That sentence is worth a close look, because it describes not just the progress of your research but your personal growth as a researcher.

1. 1. Topic: "I am working on X ...": Those new to research often begin with a simple topic like the Battle of the Alamo. But too often they stop there, with nothing but a broad topic to guide their work. Beginning this way, they may pile up dozens or hundreds of notes but then can't decide what data to keep or discard. When it comes time to write, their papers become "data dumps" that leave readers wondering what all those data add up to.

2. Question: "... because I want to find out Y ...": More experienced researchers begin not just with a topic but with a research question, such as Why has the story of the Alamo become a national legend? They know that readers will think their data add up to something only when they serve as evidence to support an answer. Indeed, only with a question can a researcher know what information to look for and, once obtained, what to keep — and not just data that support a particular answer but also data that test or discredit it. With sufficient evidence to support an answer, a researcher can respond to data that seem to contradict it. In writing a paper, the researcher tests that answer and invites others to test it too.

3. Significance: "... so that I can help others understand Z": The best researchers understand that readers want to know not only that an answer is sound but also why the question is worth asking: So what? Why should I care why the Alamo story has become a national legend? Think of it this way: what will be lost if you don't answer your question? Your answer might be Nothing. I just want to know. Good enough to start but not to finish, because eventually your readers will want an answer beyond Just curious.

Answering So what? is tough for all researchers, beginning and experienced alike, because when you only have a question stemming from a topic of personal interest, it's hard to predict whether others will find its answer significant. Some researchers therefore work backwards: they begin not by following their own curiosity but by crafting questions with implications for bigger ones that others in their field already care about. But many researchers, including us, find that they cannot address that third step until they finish a first draft. So it's fine to begin your research without being able to answer So what?, and if you are a student, your teacher may even let you skip that last step. But if you are doing advanced research, you must take it, because your answer to So what? is what makes your research matter to others.

In short, not all questions are equally good. We might ask how manycats slept in the Alamo the night before the battle, but so what if we find out? It is hard to see how an answer would help us think about any larger issue worth understanding, so it's a question that's probably not worth asking (though as we'll see, we could be wrong about that).

How good a question is depends on its significance to some community of readers. Exactly what community depends on your field but also on how you frame your research. You can try to expand your potential readership by connecting Z to even broader questions: And if we can understand what has shaped the American character, we might understand better who Americans think they are. And when we know that, we might better understand why others in the world judge them as they do. Now perhaps political scientists will be as interested in this research as historians. On the other hand, if you try to widen your audience too much, you risk losing it altogether. Sometimes it's better to address a smaller community of specialists.

We can't tell you the right choice, but we can tell you two wrong ones: trying to interest everyone (some people just won't care no matter how you frame your research) or not trying to interest anyone at all.

When you can explain the significance of your research, you enter into a kind of conversation with your research community. Some people, when they think of research, imagine a lone scholar or scientist in a hushed library or lab. But no places are more crowded with the presence of others than these. When you read a book or an article or a report, you silently converse with its authors — and through them with everyone else they have read. In fact, every time you go to a written source for information, you join a conversation between writers and readers that began millennia ago. And when you report your own research, you add your voice and hope that other voices will respond to you, so that you can in turn respond to them. And so it goes.

Experienced researchers understand that they are participating in such conversations and that genuine research must matter not only to the researcher but also to others. That is why our formula — I am working on X to find out Y so that others can better understand Z — is so powerful: because it makes informing others the end of research.

But these silent conversations differ from the face-to-face conversations we have every day. We can judge how well everyday conversations are going as we have them, and we can adjust our statements and behavior to repair mistakes and misunderstandings as they occur. But in writing we don't have that opportunity: readers have to imagine writers in conversation with one another, as well as with themselves, and writers have to imagine their readers and their relationship to them. In other words, writers have to offer readers a social contract: I'll play my part if you play yours.

Doing this is one of the toughest tasks for beginning researchers: get that relationship wrong and your readers will think you are naive or, worse, won't read your work at all. Too many beginning researchers offer their readers a relationship that caricatures a bad classroom: Teacher, I know less than you. So my role is to show you how many facts I can dig up. Yours is to say whether I've found enough to give me a good grade. Do that and you turn your project into a pointless drill, casting yourself in a role exactly opposite to that of a true researcher. In true research, you must switch the roles of student and teacher. You must imagine a relationship that goes beyond Here are some facts I've dug up about fourteenth-century Tibetan weaving. Are they enough of the right ones?

There are three better reasons to share what you've found. You could say to your reader, Here is some information that you may find interesting. This offer assumes, of course, that your reader wants to know. You could also say not just Here is something that should interest you but Here is something that will help you remedy a situation that troubles you. People do this kind of research every day in business, government, and the professions when they try to figure out how to address problems ranging from insomnia to falling profits to climate change. In chapter 2 we call such situations and their consequences practical problems. When academic researchers address such practical problems, we say they are doing applied research. Most commonly, though, academic researchers do pure research that addresses what we call conceptual problems — that is, not troubling situations in the world but the limitations of our understanding of it (again see chapter 2). In this case, you say to your readers, Here is something that will help you better understand something you care about. When you make this last sort of appeal, you imagine your readers as a community of receptive but also skeptical colleagues who are open to learning from you and even changing their minds — if you can make the case.

We now understand the goal of research, at least in its pure form: it is not to have the last word but to keep the conversation going. The best questions are those whose answers raise several more. When that happens, everyone in the research community benefits.

2 Defining a Project: Topic, Question, Problem, Working Hypothesis

2.1 Find a Question in Your Topic 2.1.1 Search Your Interests 2.1.2 Make Your Topic Manageable 2.1.3 Question Your Topic 2.1.4 Evaluate Your Questions 2.2 Understanding Research Problems 2.2.1 Understanding Practical and Conceptual Problems 2.2.2 Distinguishing Pure and Applied Research 2.3 Propose a Working Hypothesis 2.3.1 Beware the Risks in a Working Hypothesis 2.3.2 If You Can't Find an Answer, Argue for Your Question 2.4 Build a Storyboard to Plan and Guide Your Work 2.4.1 State Your Question and Working Hypotheses 2.4.2 State Your Reasons 2.4.3 Sketch in the Kind of Evidence You Should Look For 2.4.4 Look at the Whole 2.5 Join or Organize a Writing Group

A research project begins well before you search the internet or head for the library and continues long after you have collected all the data you think you need. Every project involves countless specific tasks, so it is easy to get overwhelmed. But in all research projects, you have just five general aims:

* Ask a question worth answering.

* Find an answer that you can support with good reasons.

* Find good data that you can use as reliable evidence to support your reasons.

* Draft an argument that makes a good case for your answer.

* Revise that draft until readers will think you met the first four goals.

You might even post those five goals in your workspace.

Research projects would be much easier if we could march straight through these steps. But you will discover (if you have not already) that the research process is not so straightforward. Each task overlaps with others, and frequently you must go back to an earlier one. The truth is, research is messy and unpredictable. But that's also what makes it exciting and ultimately rewarding.

2.1 Find a Question in Your Topic

Researchers begin projects in different ways. Many experienced researchers begin with a question that others in their field want to answer: What caused the extinction of most large North American mammals? Others begin with just basic curiosity, a vague intellectual itch that they have to scratch. They might not know what puzzles them about a topic, but they're willing to spend time to find out whether that topic can yield a question worth answering.

They realize, moreover, that the best research question is not one whose answer they want to know just for its own sake; it is one that helps them and others understand some larger issue. For example, if we knew why North American sloths disappeared, we might be able to answer a larger question that puzzles many historical anthropologists: Did early Native Americans live in harmony with nature, as some believe, or did they hunt its largest creatures to extinction? And if we knew that, then we might also understand ... ( So what? again. See 1.2.)

Then there are those questions that just pop into a researcher's mind with no hint of where they'll lead, sometimes about matters so seemingly trivial that only the researcher thinks they're worth answering: Why does a coffee spill dry up in the form of a ring? Such a question might lead nowhere, but you can't know that until you see its answer. In fact, the scientist puzzled by coffee rings made discoveries about the behavior of fluids that others in his field thought important — and that paint manufacturers found valuable. If you cultivate the ability to see what's odd in the commonplace, you'll never lack for research projects as either a student or a professional.

If you already have a focused topic, you might skip to 2.1.3 and begin asking questions about it. If you already have some questions, skip to 2.1.4 to test them using the criteria listed there. Otherwise, here's a plan to help you search for a topic.

2.1.1 Search Your Interests

Beginning researchers often find it hard to pick a topic or believe they lack the expertise to research a topic they have. But a research topic is an interest stated specifically enough for you to imagine becoming a local expert on it. That doesn't mean you already know a lot about it or that you'll know more about it than others, including a teacher or advisor. You just want to know more about it than you do now.

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ University of Chicago Press; Ninth edition (April 16, 2018)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 464 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 022643057X
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0226430577
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.35 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 8.9 x 6 x 1.1 inches
• #1 in Research Reference Books
• #9 in Words, Language & Grammar Reference
• #10 in Fiction Writing Reference (Books)

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• Where do I find Open Data?
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Head, Open Scholarship Services

Open data is data made available to the public free of financial and technical access barriers. Like open access publications, open data can be published using a variety of platforms, repositories, and methods and there are a variety of ways that you can retain ownership, control reuse, and track citations of your data. 

In order for data to be discoverable, useful, and available long term, good open data should follow certain principles. 

Data should be presented in a standard, structured format 

Descriptive metadata and documentation should accompany datasets to help others find and use it

Data should be linked, traceable, and available long term, providing transparency about the source of the information and reliability for citation and future use

Why is open data important? 

Sharing data in addition to published results increases transparency and reproducibility in research. Amid concerns about the quality of research in a rapidly publishing scholarly record, having access to the data that scholars used to experiment and make their findings can help assure us of the underlying quality of the research project and allow us to reproduce and build on their results.  

As an aspect of information equity, sharing data can benefit researchers who lack funding or resources to access expensive datasets or conduct their own research. 

For researchers sharing data alongside or in addition to digital projects or written scholarly outputs offers an additional publishing opportunity and may provide greater research impacts through citations of the dataset or report. Open data publishing may also help authors to find and attract collaborators who are conducting research on similar topics, or to combine and increase useful datasets to the benefit of the community at large. 

Can I use open data in my classroom, research, or project? 

In many cases, yes, since open data has been shared for the benefit of other researchers, students, and educators. However, like all questions about reusing other people’s research outputs, this is always determined on a case by case basis.  

Some things to consider: 

Data is not copyrightable, since it is considered factual. Therefore, data are not subject to the same copyright protections that control the use of other kinds of intellectual property. Even if the open data you find is not subject to copyright, the creators may have requests, like citation or attribution, which we should comply with to the best of our ability. 

Although data is not copyrightable, certain databases, reports, and other presentations of data may be copyrightable, so the format in which you are viewing or using the data is important in understanding what kinds of restrictions you will be subject to if you would like to reuse it. 

Although data is not copyrightable, it can still be owned. If you encounter data that has been accessed through a paid database, or is otherwise access-restricted, you should assume that this data will need to be licensed or that you will need to seek permission from the owner. The owner may be the original researcher, a lab or institution, such as a university, or a commercial entity, like a company or a data licensing firm.

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• Last Updated: Sep 17, 2024 11:52 AM
• URL: https://lib.guides.umd.edu/c.php?g=1425331

Diego Román’s research on how multilingual communities experience climate change comes “from a place of humbleness”

This article, by Sarah Matysiak, is part of a series highlighting members of the Office of Sustainability’s Experts Database . In a collaboration with instructor Hannah Monroe’s course, LSC 561: Writing Science for the Public, students interviewed campus sustainability experts and produced short feature stories.  

Growing up in Quito, Ecuador’s bustling capital city of 1.7 million people, Diego Román didn’t have the same opportunity to connect with nature’s quiet side that many other environmentalists have from a young age. Although he found a way to connect with nature when visiting his uncle’s farm, even those deeply appreciated trips were infrequent. This, however, didn’t stop Román from pursuing a career in environmental protection. If anything, it propelled him down that path and solidified his advocacy for sustainability.  

Finding a way to combine his affection for nature with his other values of culture and language, Román researches conversations around environmental protection and inequity for multilingual communities. For Román, a faculty member in Department of Curriculum and Instruction at UW–Madison, sustainability in his research concerns how people incorporate all the communities living in a region to protect the environment: He wants to give them a say and a voice that they are seldom given in environmental initiative discussions. For instance, he recognized that many multilingual communities — especially those in rural Wisconsin, where much of his current research takes place — are excluded from conversations about environmental initiatives that directly impact them and their livelihood. Román hopes he can help fellow educators find ways of teaching multilingual students about environmental topics that impact their daily lives.  

This is especially important when it comes to climate change. Often, multilingual and Indigenous communities experience land appropriation or displacement from one region to another due to climate change.  

“If you have less money, you are not able to move if flooding, for example, impacts your neighborhood,” Román said. “Usually, migrant communities or communities of color are impacted by these phenomena that are mostly due to environmental injustice.”    

To conduct his research and collect data, Romàn interviews people from multilingual communities, makes observations in the field, goes on school visits, and arranges workshops. The workshops are particularly important, as they allow him to evaluate the impact on teachers and students of multilingual backgrounds.     

In rural Wisconsin, as well as in the communities he’s worked with in Ecuador, he aims to create “spaces in which everyone is invited” and open discussions of nature, the challenges and inequities that happen around accessing nature, and a range of environmental issues.  

“Language — the way we talk about things or the stories we tell — is the most powerful way in which we express our love for nature,” Román said. “And every community, every person, connects with nature in different ways.”   

It’s amazing, he emphasized, the many different ways people can experience the same thing.  

Román expressed that doing this research makes him feel that “I am contributing something meaningful to our planet, the different communities, and the different peoples that live on our planet.” Interacting with these different communities both in Wisconsin and beyond allows a “window into their worldview of nature and now nature is central to who they are.”