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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process. 

Table of Contents

• What is the purpose of literature review? 
• a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction: 
• b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes: 
• c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: 
• d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts: 

How to write a good literature review 

• Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question: 
• Decide on the Scope of Your Review: 
• Select Databases for Searches: 
• Conduct Searches and Keep Track: 
• Review the Literature: 
• Organize and Write Your Literature Review: 
• How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal? 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2  

1. Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge. 

2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field. 

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3. Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research. 

4. Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered. 

5. Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research. 

6. Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature. 

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic. 

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies: 

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements. 

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources. 

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. 

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning. 

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Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements. 

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review. 

• Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field. 
• Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address. 
• Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research. 
• Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic. 
• Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review. 

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria. 

• Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement. 
• Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic. 
• Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature. 
• Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps. 
• Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review. 

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Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research. 

• Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective. 
• Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field. 
• Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice. 
• Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field. 
• Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community. 

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1  

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

• Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study. 
• Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore? 

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

• Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview? 
• Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region? 
• Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude? 

Select Databases for Searches:

• Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. 
• Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic. 

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

• Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques. 
• Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability. 
• Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references. 

Review the Literature:

• Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies. 
• Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research. 
• Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives. 
• Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions. 
• Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research? 

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

• Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches. 
• Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered. 
• Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). 
• Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research. 

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How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal?

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• Cite with Confidence: Paperpal makes it easy to incorporate relevant citations and references into your writing, ensuring your arguments are well-supported by credible sources. This translates to a polished, well-researched literature review. 

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a good literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. By combining effortless research with an easy citation process, Paperpal Research streamlines the literature review process and empowers you to write faster and with more confidence. Try Paperpal Research now and see for yourself.  

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.  

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic. 

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods. 

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers.  Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved.  Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic.  Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings.  Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject.  It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review:  Introduction:   Provide an overview of the topic.  Define the scope and purpose of the literature review.  State the research question or objective.  Body:   Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology.  Critically analyze and evaluate each source.  Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.  Highlight any methodological limitations or biases.  Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research.  Conclusion:   Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review.  Highlight the research gap.  Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction.  Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows: 

References 

• Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234. 
• Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis. 
• Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center . 

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• University of Texas Libraries

Literature Reviews

• What is a literature review?
• Steps in the Literature Review Process
• Define your research question
• Determine inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Choose databases and search
• Review Results
• Synthesize Results
• Analyze Results
• Librarian Support

What is a Literature Review?

A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important past and current research and practices. It provides background and context, and shows how your research will contribute to the field. 

A literature review should: 

• Provide a comprehensive and updated review of the literature;
• Explain why this review has taken place;
• Articulate a position or hypothesis;
• Acknowledge and account for conflicting and corroborating points of view

From  S age Research Methods

Purpose of a Literature Review

A literature review can be written as an introduction to a study to:

• Demonstrate how a study fills a gap in research
• Compare a study with other research that's been done

Or it can be a separate work (a research article on its own) which:

• Organizes or describes a topic
• Describes variables within a particular issue/problem

Limitations of a Literature Review

Some of the limitations of a literature review are:

• It's a snapshot in time. Unlike other reviews, this one has beginning, a middle and an end. There may be future developments that could make your work less relevant.
• It may be too focused. Some niche studies may miss the bigger picture.
• It can be difficult to be comprehensive. There is no way to make sure all the literature on a topic was considered.
• It is easy to be biased if you stick to top tier journals. There may be other places where people are publishing exemplary research. Look to open access publications and conferences to reflect a more inclusive collection. Also, make sure to include opposing views (and not just supporting evidence).

Source: Grant, Maria J., and Andrew Booth. “A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types and Associated Methodologies.” Health Information & Libraries Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, June 2009, pp. 91–108. Wiley Online Library, doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x.

Meryl Brodsky : Communication and Information Studies

Hannah Chapman Tripp : Biology, Neuroscience

Carolyn Cunningham : Human Development & Family Sciences, Psychology, Sociology

Larayne Dallas : Engineering

Janelle Hedstrom : Special Education, Curriculum & Instruction, Ed Leadership & Policy ​

Susan Macicak : Linguistics

Imelda Vetter : Dell Medical School

For help in other subject areas, please see the guide to library specialists by subject .

Periodically, UT Libraries runs a workshop covering the basics and library support for literature reviews. While we try to offer these once per academic year, we find providing the recording to be helpful to community members who have missed the session. Following is the most recent recording of the workshop, Conducting a Literature Review. To view the recording, a UT login is required.

• October 26, 2022 recording
• Last Updated: Oct 26, 2022 2:49 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.utexas.edu/literaturereviews

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• Dissertation
• What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

• Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
• Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

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• UConn Library
• Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide
• Introduction

Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide — Introduction

• Getting Started
• How to Pick a Topic
• Strategies to Find Sources
• Evaluating Sources & Lit. Reviews
• Tips for Writing Literature Reviews
• Writing Literature Review: Useful Sites
• Citation Resources
• Other Academic Writings

What are Literature Reviews?

So, what is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries." Taylor, D.  The literature review: A few tips on conducting it . University of Toronto Health Sciences Writing Centre.

Goals of Literature Reviews

What are the goals of creating a Literature Review?  A literature could be written to accomplish different aims:

• To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
• To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews .  Review of General Psychology , 1 (3), 311-320.

What kinds of sources require a Literature Review?

• A research paper assigned in a course
• A thesis or dissertation
• A grant proposal
• An article intended for publication in a journal

All these instances require you to collect what has been written about your research topic so that you can demonstrate how your own research sheds new light on the topic.

Types of Literature Reviews

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.

• Example : Predictors and Outcomes of U.S. Quality Maternity Leave: A Review and Conceptual Framework:  10.1177/08948453211037398  

Systematic review : "The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find." (p. 139). Nelson, L. K. (2013). Research in Communication Sciences and Disorders . Plural Publishing.

• Example : The effect of leave policies on increasing fertility: a systematic review:  10.1057/s41599-022-01270-w

Meta-analysis : "Meta-analysis is a method of reviewing research findings in a quantitative fashion by transforming the data from individual studies into what is called an effect size and then pooling and analyzing this information. The basic goal in meta-analysis is to explain why different outcomes have occurred in different studies." (p. 197). Roberts, M. C., & Ilardi, S. S. (2003). Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . Blackwell Publishing.

• Example : Employment Instability and Fertility in Europe: A Meta-Analysis:  10.1215/00703370-9164737

Meta-synthesis : "Qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic." (p.312). Zimmer, L. (2006). Qualitative meta-synthesis: A question of dialoguing with texts .  Journal of Advanced Nursing , 53 (3), 311-318.

• Example : Women’s perspectives on career successes and barriers: A qualitative meta-synthesis:  10.1177/05390184221113735

Literature Reviews in the Health Sciences

• UConn Health subject guide on systematic reviews Explanation of the different review types used in health sciences literature as well as tools to help you find the right review type
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Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

Libraries | Research Guides

Literature reviews, what is a literature review, learning more about how to do a literature review.

• Planning the Review
• The Research Question
• Choosing Where to Search
• Organizing the Review
• Writing the Review

A literature review is a review and synthesis of existing research on a topic or research question. A literature review is meant to analyze the scholarly literature, make connections across writings and identify strengths, weaknesses, trends, and missing conversations. A literature review should address different aspects of a topic as it relates to your research question. A literature review goes beyond a description or summary of the literature you have read. 

• Sage Research Methods Core Collection This link opens in a new window SAGE Research Methods supports research at all levels by providing material to guide users through every step of the research process. SAGE Research Methods is the ultimate methods library with more than 1000 books, reference works, journal articles, and instructional videos by world-leading academics from across the social sciences, including the largest collection of qualitative methods books available online from any scholarly publisher. – Publisher

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How to Write a Literature Review

What is a literature review.

• What Is the Literature
• Writing the Review

A literature review is much more than an annotated bibliography or a list of separate reviews of articles and books. It is a critical, analytical summary and synthesis of the current knowledge of a topic. Thus it should compare and relate different theories, findings, etc, rather than just summarize them individually. In addition, it should have a particular focus or theme to organize the review. It does not have to be an exhaustive account of everything published on the topic, but it should discuss all the significant academic literature and other relevant sources important for that focus.

This is meant to be a general guide to writing a literature review: ways to structure one, what to include, how it supplements other research. For more specific help on writing a review, and especially for help on finding the literature to review, sign up for a Personal Research Session .

The specific organization of a literature review depends on the type and purpose of the review, as well as on the specific field or topic being reviewed. But in general, it is a relatively brief but thorough exploration of past and current work on a topic. Rather than a chronological listing of previous work, though, literature reviews are usually organized thematically, such as different theoretical approaches, methodologies, or specific issues or concepts involved in the topic. A thematic organization makes it much easier to examine contrasting perspectives, theoretical approaches, methodologies, findings, etc, and to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of, and point out any gaps in, previous research. And this is the heart of what a literature review is about. A literature review may offer new interpretations, theoretical approaches, or other ideas; if it is part of a research proposal or report it should demonstrate the relationship of the proposed or reported research to others' work; but whatever else it does, it must provide a critical overview of the current state of research efforts. 

Literature reviews are common and very important in the sciences and social sciences. They are less common and have a less important role in the humanities, but they do have a place, especially stand-alone reviews.

Types of Literature Reviews

There are different types of literature reviews, and different purposes for writing a review, but the most common are:

• Stand-alone literature review articles . These provide an overview and analysis of the current state of research on a topic or question. The goal is to evaluate and compare previous research on a topic to provide an analysis of what is currently known, and also to reveal controversies, weaknesses, and gaps in current work, thus pointing to directions for future research. You can find examples published in any number of academic journals, but there is a series of Annual Reviews of *Subject* which are specifically devoted to literature review articles. Writing a stand-alone review is often an effective way to get a good handle on a topic and to develop ideas for your own research program. For example, contrasting theoretical approaches or conflicting interpretations of findings can be the basis of your research project: can you find evidence supporting one interpretation against another, or can you propose an alternative interpretation that overcomes their limitations?
• Part of a research proposal . This could be a proposal for a PhD dissertation, a senior thesis, or a class project. It could also be a submission for a grant. The literature review, by pointing out the current issues and questions concerning a topic, is a crucial part of demonstrating how your proposed research will contribute to the field, and thus of convincing your thesis committee to allow you to pursue the topic of your interest or a funding agency to pay for your research efforts.
• Part of a research report . When you finish your research and write your thesis or paper to present your findings, it should include a literature review to provide the context to which your work is a contribution. Your report, in addition to detailing the methods, results, etc. of your research, should show how your work relates to others' work.

A literature review for a research report is often a revision of the review for a research proposal, which can be a revision of a stand-alone review. Each revision should be a fairly extensive revision. With the increased knowledge of and experience in the topic as you proceed, your understanding of the topic will increase. Thus, you will be in a better position to analyze and critique the literature. In addition, your focus will change as you proceed in your research. Some areas of the literature you initially reviewed will be marginal or irrelevant for your eventual research, and you will need to explore other areas more thoroughly. 

Examples of Literature Reviews

See the series of Annual Reviews of *Subject* which are specifically devoted to literature review articles to find many examples of stand-alone literature reviews in the biomedical, physical, and social sciences. 

Research report articles vary in how they are organized, but a common general structure is to have sections such as:

• Abstract - Brief summary of the contents of the article
• Introduction - A explanation of the purpose of the study, a statement of the research question(s) the study intends to address
• Literature review - A critical assessment of the work done so far on this topic, to show how the current study relates to what has already been done
• Methods - How the study was carried out (e.g. instruments or equipment, procedures, methods to gather and analyze data)
• Results - What was found in the course of the study
• Discussion - What do the results mean
• Conclusion - State the conclusions and implications of the results, and discuss how it relates to the work reviewed in the literature review; also, point to directions for further work in the area

Here are some articles that illustrate variations on this theme. There is no need to read the entire articles (unless the contents interest you); just quickly browse through to see the sections, and see how each section is introduced and what is contained in them.

The Determinants of Undergraduate Grade Point Average: The Relative Importance of Family Background, High School Resources, and Peer Group Effects , in The Journal of Human Resources , v. 34 no. 2 (Spring 1999), p. 268-293.

This article has a standard breakdown of sections:

• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Some discussion sections

First Encounters of the Bureaucratic Kind: Early Freshman Experiences with a Campus Bureaucracy , in The Journal of Higher Education , v. 67 no. 6 (Nov-Dec 1996), p. 660-691.

This one does not have a section specifically labeled as a "literature review" or "review of the literature," but the first few sections cite a long list of other sources discussing previous research in the area before the authors present their own study they are reporting.

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Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide: Literature Reviews?

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What is a Literature Review?

So, what is a literature review .

"A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available or a set of summaries." - Quote from Taylor, D. (n.d)."The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting it".

• Citation: "The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting it"

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Each field has a particular way to do reviews for academic research literature. In the social sciences and humanities the most common are:

• Narrative Reviews: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific research topic and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weaknesses, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section that summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.
• Book review essays/ Historiographical review essays : A type of literature review typical in History and related fields, e.g., Latin American studies. For example, the Latin American Research Review explains that the purpose of this type of review is to “(1) to familiarize readers with the subject, approach, arguments, and conclusions found in a group of books whose common focus is a historical period; a country or region within Latin America; or a practice, development, or issue of interest to specialists and others; (2) to locate these books within current scholarship, critical methodologies, and approaches; and (3) to probe the relation of these new books to previous work on the subject, especially canonical texts. Unlike individual book reviews, the cluster reviews found in LARR seek to address the state of the field or discipline and not solely the works at issue.” - LARR

What are the Goals of Creating a Literature Review?

• To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
• To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 
• Baumeister, R.F. & Leary, M.R. (1997). "Writing narrative literature reviews," Review of General Psychology , 1(3), 311-320.

When do you need to write a Literature Review?

• When writing a prospectus or a thesis/dissertation
• When writing a research paper
• When writing a grant proposal

In all these cases you need to dedicate a chapter in these works to showcase what has been written about your research topic and to point out how your own research will shed new light into a body of scholarship.

Where I can find examples of Literature Reviews?

Note:  In the humanities, even if they don't use the term "literature review", they may have a dedicated  chapter that reviewed the "critical bibliography" or they incorporated that review in the introduction or first chapter of the dissertation, book, or article.

• UCSB electronic theses and dissertations In partnership with the Graduate Division, the UC Santa Barbara Library is making available theses and dissertations produced by UCSB students. Currently included in ADRL are theses and dissertations that were originally filed electronically, starting in 2011. In future phases of ADRL, all theses and dissertations created by UCSB students may be digitized and made available.

Where to Find Standalone Literature Reviews

Literature reviews are also written as standalone articles as a way to survey a particular research topic in-depth. This type of literature review looks at a topic from a historical perspective to see how the understanding of the topic has changed over time. 

• Find e-Journals for Standalone Literature Reviews The best way to get familiar with and to learn how to write literature reviews is by reading them. You can use our Journal Search option to find journals that specialize in publishing literature reviews from major disciplines like anthropology, sociology, etc. Usually these titles are called, "Annual Review of [discipline name] OR [Discipline name] Review. This option works best if you know the title of the publication you are looking for. Below are some examples of these journals! more... less... Journal Search can be found by hovering over the link for Research on the library website.

Social Sciences

• Annual Review of Anthropology
• Annual Review of Political Science
• Annual Review of Sociology
• Ethnic Studies Review

Hard science and health sciences:

• Annual Review of Biomedical Data Science
• Annual Review of Materials Science
• Systematic Review From journal site: "The journal Systematic Reviews encompasses all aspects of the design, conduct, and reporting of systematic reviews" in the health sciences.
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Literature Review - what is a Literature Review, why it is important and how it is done

What are literature reviews, goals of literature reviews, types of literature reviews, about this guide/licence.

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 What is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries. " - Quote from Taylor, D. (n.d) "The literature review: A few tips on conducting it"

Source NC State University Libraries. This video is published under a Creative Commons 3.0 BY-NC-SA US license.

What are the goals of creating a Literature Review?

• To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
• To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 

- Baumeister, R.F. & Leary, M.R. (1997). "Writing narrative literature reviews," Review of General Psychology , 1(3), 311-320.

When do you need to write a Literature Review?

• When writing a prospectus or a thesis/dissertation
• When writing a research paper
• When writing a grant proposal

In all these cases you need to dedicate a chapter in these works to showcase what have been written about your research topic and to point out how your own research will shed a new light into these body of scholarship.

Literature reviews are also written as standalone articles as a way to survey a particular research topic in-depth. This type of literature reviews look at a topic from a historical perspective to see how the understanding of the topic have change through time.

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

• Narrative Review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.
• Book review essays/ Historiographical review essays : This is a type of review that focus on a small set of research books on a particular topic " to locate these books within current scholarship, critical methodologies, and approaches" in the field. - LARR
• Systematic review : "The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find." (p. 139). Nelson, L.K. (2013). Research in Communication Sciences and Disorders . San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing.
• Meta-analysis : "Meta-analysis is a method of reviewing research findings in a quantitative fashion by transforming the data from individual studies into what is called an effect size and then pooling and analyzing this information. The basic goal in meta-analysis is to explain why different outcomes have occurred in different studies." (p. 197). Roberts, M.C. & Ilardi, S.S. (2003). Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.
• Meta-synthesis : "Qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic." (p.312). Zimmer, L. (2006). "Qualitative meta-synthesis: A question of dialoguing with texts," Journal of Advanced Nursing , 53(3), 311-318.

Guide adapted from "Literature Review" , a guide developed by Marisol Ramos used under CC BY 4.0 /modified from original.

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What Is A Literature Review?

A plain-language explainer (with examples).

By:  Derek Jansen (MBA) & Kerryn Warren (PhD) | June 2020 (Updated May 2023)

If you’re faced with writing a dissertation or thesis, chances are you’ve encountered the term “literature review” . If you’re on this page, you’re probably not 100% what the literature review is all about. The good news is that you’ve come to the right place.

Literature Review 101

• What (exactly) is a literature review
• What’s the purpose of the literature review chapter
• How to find high-quality resources
• How to structure your literature review chapter
• Example of an actual literature review

What is a literature review?

The word “literature review” can refer to two related things that are part of the broader literature review process. The first is the task of  reviewing the literature  – i.e. sourcing and reading through the existing research relating to your research topic. The second is the  actual chapter  that you write up in your dissertation, thesis or research project. Let’s look at each of them:

Reviewing the literature

The first step of any literature review is to hunt down and  read through the existing research  that’s relevant to your research topic. To do this, you’ll use a combination of tools (we’ll discuss some of these later) to find journal articles, books, ebooks, research reports, dissertations, theses and any other credible sources of information that relate to your topic. You’ll then  summarise and catalogue these  for easy reference when you write up your literature review chapter. 

The literature review chapter

The second step of the literature review is to write the actual literature review chapter (this is usually the second chapter in a typical dissertation or thesis structure ). At the simplest level, the literature review chapter is an  overview of the key literature  that’s relevant to your research topic. This chapter should provide a smooth-flowing discussion of what research has already been done, what is known, what is unknown and what is contested in relation to your research topic. So, you can think of it as an  integrated review of the state of knowledge  around your research topic. 

What’s the purpose of a literature review?

The literature review chapter has a few important functions within your dissertation, thesis or research project. Let’s take a look at these:

Purpose #1 – Demonstrate your topic knowledge

The first function of the literature review chapter is, quite simply, to show the reader (or marker) that you  know what you’re talking about . In other words, a good literature review chapter demonstrates that you’ve read the relevant existing research and understand what’s going on – who’s said what, what’s agreed upon, disagreed upon and so on. This needs to be  more than just a summary  of who said what – it needs to integrate the existing research to  show how it all fits together  and what’s missing (which leads us to purpose #2, next). 

Purpose #2 – Reveal the research gap that you’ll fill

The second function of the literature review chapter is to  show what’s currently missing  from the existing research, to lay the foundation for your own research topic. In other words, your literature review chapter needs to show that there are currently “missing pieces” in terms of the bigger puzzle, and that  your study will fill one of those research gaps . By doing this, you are showing that your research topic is original and will help contribute to the body of knowledge. In other words, the literature review helps justify your research topic.  

Purpose #3 – Lay the foundation for your conceptual framework

The third function of the literature review is to form the  basis for a conceptual framework . Not every research topic will necessarily have a conceptual framework, but if your topic does require one, it needs to be rooted in your literature review. 

For example, let’s say your research aims to identify the drivers of a certain outcome – the factors which contribute to burnout in office workers. In this case, you’d likely develop a conceptual framework which details the potential factors (e.g. long hours, excessive stress, etc), as well as the outcome (burnout). Those factors would need to emerge from the literature review chapter – they can’t just come from your gut! 

So, in this case, the literature review chapter would uncover each of the potential factors (based on previous studies about burnout), which would then be modelled into a framework. 

Purpose #4 – To inform your methodology

The fourth function of the literature review is to  inform the choice of methodology  for your own research. As we’ve  discussed on the Grad Coach blog , your choice of methodology will be heavily influenced by your research aims, objectives and questions . Given that you’ll be reviewing studies covering a topic close to yours, it makes sense that you could learn a lot from their (well-considered) methodologies.

So, when you’re reviewing the literature, you’ll need to  pay close attention to the research design , methodology and methods used in similar studies, and use these to inform your methodology. Quite often, you’ll be able to  “borrow” from previous studies . This is especially true for quantitative studies , as you can use previously tried and tested measures and scales. 

How do I find articles for my literature review?

Finding quality journal articles is essential to crafting a rock-solid literature review. As you probably already know, not all research is created equally, and so you need to make sure that your literature review is  built on credible research . 

We could write an entire post on how to find quality literature (actually, we have ), but a good starting point is Google Scholar . Google Scholar is essentially the academic equivalent of Google, using Google’s powerful search capabilities to find relevant journal articles and reports. It certainly doesn’t cover every possible resource, but it’s a very useful way to get started on your literature review journey, as it will very quickly give you a good indication of what the  most popular pieces of research  are in your field.

One downside of Google Scholar is that it’s merely a search engine – that is, it lists the articles, but oftentimes  it doesn’t host the articles . So you’ll often hit a paywall when clicking through to journal websites. 

Thankfully, your university should provide you with access to their library, so you can find the article titles using Google Scholar and then search for them by name in your university’s online library. Your university may also provide you with access to  ResearchGate , which is another great source for existing research. 

Remember, the correct search keywords will be super important to get the right information from the start. So, pay close attention to the keywords used in the journal articles you read and use those keywords to search for more articles. If you can’t find a spoon in the kitchen, you haven’t looked in the right drawer. 

Need a helping hand?

How should I structure my literature review?

Unfortunately, there’s no generic universal answer for this one. The structure of your literature review will depend largely on your topic area and your research aims and objectives.

You could potentially structure your literature review chapter according to theme, group, variables , chronologically or per concepts in your field of research. We explain the main approaches to structuring your literature review here . You can also download a copy of our free literature review template to help you establish an initial structure.

In general, it’s also a good idea to start wide (i.e. the big-picture-level) and then narrow down, ending your literature review close to your research questions . However, there’s no universal one “right way” to structure your literature review. The most important thing is not to discuss your sources one after the other like a list – as we touched on earlier, your literature review needs to synthesise the research , not summarise it .

Ultimately, you need to craft your literature review so that it conveys the most important information effectively – it needs to tell a logical story in a digestible way. It’s no use starting off with highly technical terms and then only explaining what these terms mean later. Always assume your reader is not a subject matter expert and hold their hand through a journe y of the literature while keeping the functions of the literature review chapter (which we discussed earlier) front of mind.

Example of a literature review

In the video below, we walk you through a high-quality literature review from a dissertation that earned full distinction. This will give you a clearer view of what a strong literature review looks like in practice and hopefully provide some inspiration for your own. 

Wrapping Up

In this post, we’ve (hopefully) answered the question, “ what is a literature review? “. We’ve also considered the purpose and functions of the literature review, as well as how to find literature and how to structure the literature review chapter. If you’re keen to learn more, check out the literature review section of the Grad Coach blog , as well as our detailed video post covering how to write a literature review . 

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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16 Comments

Thanks for this review. It narrates what’s not been taught as tutors are always in a early to finish their classes.

Thanks for the kind words, Becky. Good luck with your literature review 🙂

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Timothy T. Chol [email protected]

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So helpful to me as a student

GradCoach is a fantastic site with brilliant and modern minds behind it.. I spent weeks decoding the substantial academic Jargon and grounding my initial steps on the research process, which could be shortened to a couple of days through the Gradcoach. Thanks again!

This is an amazing talk. I paved way for myself as a researcher. Thank you GradCoach!

Well-presented overview of the literature!

This was brilliant. So clear. Thank you

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is a critical analysis of the literature related to your research topic. It evaluates and critiques the literature to establish a theoretical framework for your research topic and/or identify a gap in the existing research that your research will address.

A literature review is not a summary of the literature. You need to engage deeply and critically with the literature. Your literature review should show your understanding of the literature related to your research topic and lead to presenting a rationale for your research.

A literature review focuses on:

• the context of the topic
• key concepts, ideas, theories and methodologies
• key researchers, texts and seminal works
• major issues and debates
• identifying conflicting evidence
• the main questions that have been asked around the topic
• the organisation of knowledge on the topic
• definitions, particularly those that are contested
• showing how your research will advance scholarly knowledge (generally referred to as identifying the ‘gap’).

This module will guide you through the functions of a literature review; the typical process of conducting a literature review (including searching for literature and taking notes); structuring your literature review within your thesis and organising its internal ideas; and styling the language of your literature review.

The purposes of a literature review

A literature review serves two main purposes:

1) To show awareness of the present state of knowledge in a particular field, including:

• seminal authors
• the main empirical research
• theoretical positions
• controversies
• breakthroughs as well as links to other related areas of knowledge.

2) To provide a foundation for the author’s research. To do that, the literature review needs to:

• help the researcher define a hypothesis or a research question, and how answering the question will contribute to the body of knowledge;
• provide a rationale for investigating the problem and the selected methodology;
• provide a particular theoretical lens, support the argument, or identify gaps.

Before you engage further with this module, try the quiz below to see how much you already know about literature reviews.

Research and Writing Skills for Academic and Graduate Researchers Copyright © 2022 by RMIT University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Literature Reviews and Annotated Bibliographies

Initial databases for a literature review.

What is a Literature Review?

• How to Write a Literature Review?
• Graduate Research and the Literature Review
• What is an Annotated Bibliography?
• How to Evaluate Sources?
• Citation & Avoiding Plagiarism

The databases listed here are interdisciplinary and suitable for most disciplines. For databases specific to your discipline see our Research Guides  

Academic Search Ultimate  Includes some full text

A great place to start to search for magazine and journal articles on almost all topics. Tip : Check "peer reviewed" box to limit your search to scholarly journals.

Dissertations and Theses   (1861+) Indexes dissertations accepted for doctoral degrees by accredited North American educational institutions and over 200 other institutions. Also covers masters theses since 1962. Starting in the early to mid-1900's, the full text is included for an increasingly comprehensive number of dissertations and theses. 

Google Scholar   Enables you to search specifically for scholarly literature, including peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, preprints, abstracts and technical reports from all broad areas of research. Use Google Scholar to find articles from a widevariety of academic publishers, professional societies, preprint repositories and universities, as well as scholarly articles available across the web

Humanities and Social Science Retrospective   Bibliographic database that provides citations to articles in a wide range of English language journals in the humanities and social sciences for the period 1907-1984.

  JSTOR Includes full text Includes long runs of backfiles of scholarly journals. Subjects covered include Anthropology, Asian Studies, Ecology, Economics, Education, Finance, History, Mathematics, Philosophy, Political Science, Population Studies, and Sociology.

Periodical Archives Online- (1770-1995) Includes full text; Full text archive of hundreds of periodicals in the humanities and social sciences from their first issues to 1995 Allows date-limited searching. Periodical Index Online, 1665 - 1995

"A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. Occasionally you will be asked to write one as a separate assignment, ..., but more often it is part of the introduction to an essay, research report, or thesis. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries."

--Written by Dena Taylor, Health Sciences Writing Centre and available at http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review (Accessed August 8th, 2011)

Writing the Literature Review sites :

  Literature Reviews: UNC - Chapel Hill

Write a Literature Review: UC-Santa Cruz  

Writing a Literature Review: Perdue OWL

Methods Map: Literature Review

What are the goals of creating a Literature Review?

• To develop a new theory
• To evaluate a theory or theories
• To survey what’s known about a topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 
• Provide a historical overview of the development of a topic

Type of Literature Reviews:

• Mature and/or established topic: Topic is well-known and the purpose of this type of review is to analyze and synthesize this accumulated body of research.
• Emerging Topic: The purpose of this type of review to identify understudy or new emerging research area.
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• Next: How to Write a Literature Review? >>
• Last updated: Jan 8, 2024 2:52 PM
• URL: https://libguides.asu.edu/LiteratureReviews

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 5. The Literature Review
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
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• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
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• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
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• Bibliography

A literature review surveys prior research published in books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have used in researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within existing scholarship about the topic.

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

• Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
• Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
• Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or
• Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

Given this, the purpose of a literature review is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011; Knopf, Jeffrey W. "Doing a Literature Review." PS: Political Science and Politics 39 (January 2006): 127-132; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012.

Types of Literature Reviews

It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally among scholars that become part of the body of epistemological traditions within the field.

In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.

Argumentative Review This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply embedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].

Integrative Review Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

Systematic Review This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem . Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social sciences.

Theoretical Review The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

NOTE: Most often the literature review will incorporate some combination of types. For example, a review that examines literature supporting or refuting an argument, assumption, or philosophical problem related to the research problem will also need to include writing supported by sources that establish the history of these arguments in the literature.

Baumeister, Roy F. and Mark R. Leary. "Writing Narrative Literature Reviews."  Review of General Psychology 1 (September 1997): 311-320; Mark R. Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147; Petticrew, Mark and Helen Roberts. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2006; Torracro, Richard. "Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples." Human Resource Development Review 4 (September 2005): 356-367; Rocco, Tonette S. and Maria S. Plakhotnik. "Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions." Human Ressource Development Review 8 (March 2008): 120-130; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Thinking About Your Literature Review

The structure of a literature review should include the following in support of understanding the research problem :

• An overview of the subject, issue, or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of the literature review,
• Division of works under review into themes or categories [e.g. works that support a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative approaches entirely],
• An explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others,
• Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research.

The critical evaluation of each work should consider :

• Provenance -- what are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence [e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings]?
• Methodology -- were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data appropriate to addressing the research problem? Was the sample size appropriate? Were the results effectively interpreted and reported?
• Objectivity -- is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
• Persuasiveness -- which of the author's theses are most convincing or least convincing?
• Validity -- are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?

II.  Development of the Literature Review

Four Basic Stages of Writing 1.  Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? 2.  Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored. 3.  Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic. 4.  Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.

Consider the following issues before writing the literature review: Clarify If your assignment is not specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification from your professor by asking these questions: 1.  Roughly how many sources would be appropriate to include? 2.  What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus popular sources)? 3.  Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue? 4.  Should I evaluate the sources in any way beyond evaluating how they relate to understanding the research problem? 5.  Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history? Find Models Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read, such as required readings in the course syllabus, are also excellent entry points into your own research. Narrow the Topic The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's available about the topic, but you'll make the act of reviewing easier if you first limit scope of the research problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the USC Libraries Catalog for recent books about the topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text. Consider Whether Your Sources are Current Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.

III.  Ways to Organize Your Literature Review

Chronology of Events If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. By Publication Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies. Thematic [“conceptual categories”] A thematic literature review is the most common approach to summarizing prior research in the social and behavioral sciences. Thematic reviews are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time, although the progression of time may still be incorporated into a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it would still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The difference in this example between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: themes related to the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point being made. Methodological A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Other Sections of Your Literature Review Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. However, only include what is necessary for the reader to locate your study within the larger scholarship about the research problem.

Here are examples of other sections, usually in the form of a single paragraph, you may need to include depending on the type of review you write:

• Current Situation : Information necessary to understand the current topic or focus of the literature review.
• Sources Used : Describes the methods and resources [e.g., databases] you used to identify the literature you reviewed.
• History : The chronological progression of the field, the research literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.
• Selection Methods : Criteria you used to select (and perhaps exclude) sources in your literature review. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed [i.e., scholarly] sources.
• Standards : Description of the way in which you present your information.
• Questions for Further Research : What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

IV.  Writing Your Literature Review

Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section. When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.

Use Evidence A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid. Be Selective Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related items that provide additional information, but that are not key to understanding the research problem, can be included in a list of further readings . Use Quotes Sparingly Some short quotes are appropriate if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, is not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for using your own words in reviewing the literature. Summarize and Synthesize Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work and the work of others. Keep Your Own Voice While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording. Use Caution When Paraphrasing When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation to that work.

V.  Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.

• Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem;
• You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem;
• Relies exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or data;
• Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
• Does not describe the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review;
• Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods; and,
• Only includes research that validates assumptions and does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature.

Cook, Kathleen E. and Elise Murowchick. “Do Literature Review Skills Transfer from One Course to Another?” Psychology Learning and Teaching 13 (March 2014): 3-11; Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . London: SAGE, 2011; Literature Review Handout. Online Writing Center. Liberty University; Literature Reviews. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2016; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012; Randolph, Justus J. “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review." Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation. vol. 14, June 2009; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016; Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Writing a Literature Review. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra.

Writing Tip

Break Out of Your Disciplinary Box!

Thinking interdisciplinarily about a research problem can be a rewarding exercise in applying new ideas, theories, or concepts to an old problem. For example, what might cultural anthropologists say about the continuing conflict in the Middle East? In what ways might geographers view the need for better distribution of social service agencies in large cities than how social workers might study the issue? You don’t want to substitute a thorough review of core research literature in your discipline for studies conducted in other fields of study. However, particularly in the social sciences, thinking about research problems from multiple vectors is a key strategy for finding new solutions to a problem or gaining a new perspective. Consult with a librarian about identifying research databases in other disciplines; almost every field of study has at least one comprehensive database devoted to indexing its research literature.

Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Just Review for Content!

While conducting a review of the literature, maximize the time you devote to writing this part of your paper by thinking broadly about what you should be looking for and evaluating. Review not just what scholars are saying, but how are they saying it. Some questions to ask:

• How are they organizing their ideas?
• What methods have they used to study the problem?
• What theories have been used to explain, predict, or understand their research problem?
• What sources have they cited to support their conclusions?
• How have they used non-textual elements [e.g., charts, graphs, figures, etc.] to illustrate key points?

When you begin to write your literature review section, you'll be glad you dug deeper into how the research was designed and constructed because it establishes a means for developing more substantial analysis and interpretation of the research problem.

Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1 998.

Yet Another Writing Tip

When Do I Know I Can Stop Looking and Move On?

Here are several strategies you can utilize to assess whether you've thoroughly reviewed the literature:

• Look for repeating patterns in the research findings . If the same thing is being said, just by different people, then this likely demonstrates that the research problem has hit a conceptual dead end. At this point consider: Does your study extend current research?  Does it forge a new path? Or, does is merely add more of the same thing being said?
• Look at sources the authors cite to in their work . If you begin to see the same researchers cited again and again, then this is often an indication that no new ideas have been generated to address the research problem.
• Search Google Scholar to identify who has subsequently cited leading scholars already identified in your literature review [see next sub-tab]. This is called citation tracking and there are a number of sources that can help you identify who has cited whom, particularly scholars from outside of your discipline. Here again, if the same authors are being cited again and again, this may indicate no new literature has been written on the topic.

Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

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1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

• use the tabs on this guide
• Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
• More on the Medical Library web page
• ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

• Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
• Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Ask your librarian for help at any time.
• Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
• Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
• Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
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Title: a structured review of literature on uncertainty in machine learning & deep learning.

Abstract: The adaptation and use of Machine Learning (ML) in our daily lives has led to concerns in lack of transparency, privacy, reliability, among others. As a result, we are seeing research in niche areas such as interpretability, causality, bias and fairness, and reliability. In this survey paper, we focus on a critical concern for adaptation of ML in risk-sensitive applications, namely understanding and quantifying uncertainty. Our paper approaches this topic in a structured way, providing a review of the literature in the various facets that uncertainty is enveloped in the ML process. We begin by defining uncertainty and its categories (e.g., aleatoric and epistemic), understanding sources of uncertainty (e.g., data and model), and how uncertainty can be assessed in terms of uncertainty quantification techniques (Ensembles, Bayesian Neural Networks, etc.). As part of our assessment and understanding of uncertainty in the ML realm, we cover metrics for uncertainty quantification for a single sample, dataset, and metrics for accuracy of the uncertainty estimation itself. This is followed by discussions on calibration (model and uncertainty), and decision making under uncertainty. Thus, we provide a more complete treatment of uncertainty: from the sources of uncertainty to the decision-making process. We have focused the review of uncertainty quantification methods on Deep Learning (DL), while providing the necessary background for uncertainty discussion within ML in general. Key contributions in this review are broadening the scope of uncertainty discussion, as well as an updated review of uncertainty quantification methods in DL.

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African American Review : Black Literature+: African American Literature in Dialogue with the Other Arts

Due date: 12-15-2025.

This special issue will examine the rich interplay between African American literature and the other arts. As a field, African American literary studies has long embraced interdisciplinarity. Yet there is still more work to be done to understand fully the histories and aesthetics of African American literature’s ties to other art forms. In particular, the still-dominant paradigm is to stress Black literature’s debt to music, though recent scholars have begun mapping African American literature’s entanglement with other mediums, such as visual art (e.g., Stephen Best, Evie Shockley), architecture (e.g., Adrienne Brown), film (e.g., Pardis Dabashi, Autumn Womack), and photography (e.g., Sara Blair, Miriam Thaggert). Expanding on such methodological approaches, this issue encourages contributors to consider African American literature’s relationship with a broad repertoire of arts that might include photography, film, television, painting, sculpture, installation art, video games, visual design, architecture, dance, performance, quilting, or crafts.

This issue will take an expansive historical approach. We welcome contributions about literature and art from any period ranging from the eighteenth to the twenty-first centuries. By doing so, we hope to trace the historical interplay between African American literature and other arts and to engage with questions like the following: How might emphasizing cross-arts constellations shift our conceptions of literary history and periodization? How have broader artistic movements and histories shaped literary styles, genres, practices, and ambitions? What logics of connection define the links between literature and the other arts? Conversely, in what ways does medium specificity divide literature from the other arts? To what extent have technological changes in fields like film, television, and photography affected literary production? And what methods might scholars productively use to think about literature and literary cultures together with the other arts?

Contributors may focus on specific case studies, such as assessing how individual literary texts or authors engage with different art forms, or how artists in other fields engage with literature. Or contributors may choose to foreground broader methodological or theoretical questions. We likewise welcome new approaches to Black print culture and book history studies; the use of coterie studies and a focus on artistic and social networks; or the construction of larger institutional histories of, for example, higher education, the publishing industry, museums, and so on. Regardless of contributors’ methodological approaches, this issue ultimately invites contributors to read anew for the themes, histories, and styles that link African American literature with the wider artistic world.

Proposals should include an abstract of approximately 300 words and a short bio. All proposals must be submitted no later than 15 June 2024 to guest editors Brittney Michelle Edmonds and Hayley O’Malley . Contributors will be notified in early July. Article drafts will be due by 15 December 2024 and then will be sent out for anonymous peer review. Final articles must be between 6,000–8,500 words (excluding notes and bibliography). Please feel free to reach out to the guest editors with any questions.

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• Published: 30 May 2024

Early marriage of girls in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: a literature review

• Shah Md Atiqul Haq   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9121-4028 1 ,
• Mufti Nadimul Quamar Ahmed 2 ,
• Shamim Al Aziz Lalin 3 ,
• Arnika Tabassum Arno 1 &
• Khandaker Jafor Ahmed 4  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  697 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The COVID-19 pandemic has had far-reaching consequences worldwide and has also led to significant changes in people’s lifestyles, resulting in an increase in social problems, such as early marriages for girls in different contexts. This study aimed to examine the relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and early marriage among girls. Our analysis of 36 studies published between 2020 and 2023 shows that the pandemic has accelerated the number of early marriages for girls in several ways. In many countries, early marriages often result from social disintegration, loss of social support, inability to pay for basic needs, prolonged school closures, economic collapse, and parental death due to COVID-19. Although people in different contexts have different opinions about early marriages for girls due to COVID-19, there is evidence that early marriages for girls are sometimes seen as a solution to ease the financial burden and reduce stress for parents. However, there was a significant decline in traditional marriages in developed countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, including the United States, Mexico, Japan, Korea, and Indonesia. Early marriage can have serious consequences for young adolescents, including mental health problems, such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and feelings of powerlessness. Mixed results, such as an increase or decrease in early marriage among girls, indicate a need for detailed contextual empirical research. It is known that actions are being taken to reduce the prevalence of early marriages, especially in developing countries, but certain situations may accelerate or reverse trends in girls’ early marriages because of various social, economic, and cultural influences. This study suggests further consideration of strategic planning for emergencies, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, that people may face again in the future. Therefore, it is necessary to implement appropriate support for abused and mistreated girls by raising awareness to reduce the psychological and physiological consequences of early marriage due to the pandemic in the near past.

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Background and introduction.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been a devastating global catastrophe in recent years (Ahmed et al., 2023 ). This global crisis has had far-reaching consequences for people’s lives in a variety of areas. According to UNESCO ( 2020 ), the pandemic has had a disproportionate impact on children, particularly those living in low-income countries. Due to significant job losses and economic insecurity, the pandemic has increased concerns regarding child labor, early marriage, and child trafficking (Gupta and Jawanda, 2020 ).

Global attempts to end the early marriage of girls are at risk owing to the COVID-19 pandemic. Nigeria, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Brazil, and India are the five nations in which the pandemic has had a particularly negative effect on early marriages. If action is not taken to address the issue, estimates indicate that the number of child brides in these nations might climb by 3.5 million over the course of the next ten years (Yukich et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, studies conducted in several countries have shown an increase in the number of adolescent marriages (Jones et al., 2020 ; Pathak and Frayer 2020 ). According to UNICEF’s projections, COVID-19 will put an extra 10 million girls at risk of being married as children (UNICEF, 2021a ). According to Save the Children, by 2025, COVID-19 may increase the number of girls at risk of child marriage by 2.5 million (Cousins, 2020 ). Furthermore, the organization assumed that 500,000 more girls, including 200,000 from South Asia, have been married against their will in 2020, with an extra one million child brides facing the risk of pregnancy as a result (Save the Children, 2020 ). The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNDP, 2015 ) call for all governments to work together to eliminate human rights breaches and promote global equality by 2030.

According to UNICEF ( 2023 ), “child marriage” or “early marriage” is the act of getting married to or starting an “informal union” Footnote 1 with a girl or boy who is younger than 18. This practice, commonly defined as marriage before the age of 18, is against the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) because it takes place before the girl reaches the age at which she is expected to be physically, biologically, and psychologically mature enough to take on the responsibilities of marriage and motherhood.

Early or child marriage is a common occurrence in many nations and is frequently excused by cultural customs that violate the rights of women and girls. As children cannot provide informed permission, it might be considered a type of forced marriage. Within a community, sociological, cultural, and political conditions affect the occurrence of child marriages. The annual rate of child marriages varies by nation and time period, and both industrialized and developing countries face this problem. However, even within a country, the proportion may vary based on the demographic, social, and political situations of various communities (UNICEF, 2005 ). UNICEF ( 2021b ) identified five channels through which the pandemic has accelerated the rate of child marriage: school closures, economic insecurity, healthcare service disruptions, orphanhood due to parental death, and disruptions in programs and services targeting the eradication of child marriage.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a notable increase in the incidence of early marriages in a number of nations worldwide. It is well acknowledged that South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa have the highest rates of early marriages. Nonetheless, it should be mentioned that people who follow traditional lifestyles frequently marry during or shortly after puberty in places such as the Middle East, North Africa, and some parts of Asia. Furthermore, prepubescent marriages are common in many parts of South Asia, West Africa, and East Africa. In some parts of Eastern Europe and some parts of Latin America, it is common for girls under the age of eighteen to marry (UNICEF, 2001 ). Conversely, it is crucial to understand that not all countries have experienced an equal rise in the number of early marriages; therefore, this trend has not been widespread. The number of weddings during the pandemic has decreased in comparison to pre-pandemic times in a number of nations, including Korea (Kim and Kim, 2021 ), Japan (Ghaznavi et al., 2022 ), Indonesia (Nursetiawati et al., 2022 ), Mexico (Hoehn-Velasco et al., 2023 ), and the USA (Manning and Payne, 2021 ).

This study aims to examine how COVID-19 contributes to the early marriage of girls in particular and what factors are involved in the increase or decrease in marriages due to the effects of the pandemic in different regions, including Nigeria and Bangladesh. This study draws on current published studies and illustrates these links. Synthesizing the many results demonstrating the convergence and divergence of COVID-19’s influence on early marriage from research conducted in different contexts would guide policymakers and help them prevent an increase in early marriages should a similar pandemic arise in the future. The results of this study will help to understand population dynamics, which require a detailed study based on a large dataset of population surveys and COVID-19 infections. The main findings of this study can help policymakers understand how COVID-19 leads to early marriage and negatively affects girls’ mental health. The study also suggests how to ensure support for young girls during critical periods and increase counseling for their mental well-being.

This paper is organized as follows: the section “Background and introduction” presents the background and introduction, and the section “Methodology” presents the methodology. Section “Nexus of COVID-19 pandemic and early marriage” provides an overview of the global scenario of early marriage and its associated factors. This section also discuss the relationship between early marriage and the COVID-19 pandemic, with two important subsections. The first subsection explores how the COVID-19 pandemic has led to marriages among young people worldwide. The second subsection examines how the pandemic has slowed down young marriages worldwide. Section “Mental health status of early married girls” briefly discusses the impact of early marriage on girls’ mental health during the pandemic period. Next, in the section “Global scenarios of early marriage and associated factors” we briefly summarizes both developed and developing countires experiences of marriage along with their socio-cultural perspectives. Finally, we end with a “Concluding discussion”section where we summarized our findings with other relevant literature. We also acknowledge some limitations of our study and suggest areas for future research.

Methodology

Searching for relevant articles.

In this research, we sought to investigate the global impact of COVID-19 on early marriages. To this end, we utilized reputable databases, such as Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, which offer diverse perspectives on contemporary issues (Malinen, 2015 ) and have been employed in numerous previous studies (Ahmed et al., 2022 ; Haq et al., 2021 ; Wan et al., 2021 ). Our search strategy primarily entailed employing keywords such as “COVID-19 and early marriage”, “marriage during COVID-19”, “child marriage during the pandemic”, and “COVID-19 and child marriage”.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria and final article selection

The participating authors independently searched for relevant articles in the databases, using specific keywords. The search was performed in online libraries, and 70 articles that focused on the link between COVID-19 and early marriage in any country were identified as potentially relevant to the study. These articles were downloaded and reviewed for abstracts and full text, with strict adherence to the inclusion criteria of this study. In both the abstract and full text, we examined two main aspects: (a) the impact of COVID-19 on the prevalence of early or child marriage, and (b) the characteristics or variables associated with COVID-19 that influence the occurrence of early or child marriage. Initially, we sought solutions to these inquiries in the abstract. If we discovered they were not present, we examined the full text. Only peer-reviewed English articles published between 2020 and early 2023 were considered, and those that found no link between COVID-19 and early marriage were excluded. Moreover, editorials, letters, meeting reports, and non-English studies were excluded to avoid complications and confusion related to translations. Following the selection process, 36 peer-reviewed articles in academic journals were included in the literature review. The article selection process used in this study is illustrated in Fig. 1 .

Selection process of articles included in this review.

Nexus of COVID-19 pandemic and early marriage

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in the widespread closure of schools, which has significantly contributed to an increase in child marriages during this period. Research conducted by Jones et al. ( 2020 ) shows that girls who do not attend school are more likely to accept marriage proposals from their guardians, whereas those who attend school are more likely to resist such arrangements with the support of their peers and educators. This finding is corroborated by the findings of the BRAC ( 2020 ).

Another concern is the growing fear among the population due to rising incidents of rape and other forms of violence against women (Sifat, 2020 ). With schools closed, young men in the area may resort to verbal harassment or even violent assault to pass the time. As a result, many families opt to marry their daughters to keep them safe, rather than seek justice for sexual assault. The research conducted by Paul and Mondal ( 2020 ) supports this observation.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a decrease in the monitoring of child marriages as local government personnel are preoccupied with related matters. Mahato ( 2016 ) identifies several factors contributing to child marriage in Nepalese society, such as a lack of education, inadequate access to information, and a fear of remaining unmarried. Similarly, Khanom and Islam Laskar ( 2015 ) linked factors such as low parental education, social norms, and adolescent cell phone and Internet use to the increase in child marriage in the Assam Province of India.

Existing literature suggests that financial hardship during the COVID-19 pandemic can both hasten and delay marriages. When a family struggles to meet their basic needs, girls may marry to alleviate financial pressure (Bahl et al., 2021 ; Chowdhury, 2021 ; Deane, 2021 ; Rahiem, 2021 ; Baird et al., 2022 ). Conversely, economic pressure caused by financial difficulties may delay marriages (Banati et al., 2020 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ). Furthermore, the death of parents due to the virus has led some couples to marry for the sake of their children’s safety and security, with the spouse assuming a guardian role for orphans (Deane, 2021 ).

According to Esho et al. ( 2022 ), the COVID-19 pandemic has had the effect of accelerated marriages owing to a variety of factors. The financial conditions of many families were disrupted by the pandemic, which increased the likelihood of early forced marriage of girls to reduce family burden (Bahl et al., 2021 ; Chowdhury, 2021 ; Rahiem, 2021 ; Deane, 2021 ; Baird et al., 2022 ; Banati et al., 2020 ). As COVID-19 generated financial problems, families were eager to marry off their sons for dowry (Musa et al., 2021 ). The same factor also decelerated the marriages of males, as their marriage would increase family burden (Banati et al., 2020 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ). Deane ( 2021 ), Amin et al. ( 2020 ), Musa et al. ( 2021 ), Carter et al. ( 2022 ), and Esho et al. ( 2022 ) found that long-term school closures are contributing factors to early marriage. Additionally, the deaths of parents during the pandemic have caused children to marry early to ensure their security (Deane, 2021 ). Raheim ( 2021 ) and McNulty et al. ( 2023 ) explored marriage as a strategy for escaping from boredom, stress, studying, household tasks, and loneliness and found that young people were willing to marry during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, intimate couples tended to marry quickly to maintain their relationships during unstable times (Komura and Ogawa, 2022 ). Furthermore, a lack of social support and these laws have contributed to an increase in the marriage rate during the pandemic (Jones et al., 2020 ; Rahiem, 2021 ; Banati et al., 2020 ; Esho et al., 2022 ; Deane, 2021 ; Bahl et al., 2021 ; Musa et al., 2021 ). Factors that decrease the marriage rate include limitations on wedding services (Wagner et al., 2020 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Nursetiawati et al., 2022 ), restrictions on public gatherings (Kim and Kim, 2021 ), closure of wedding venues (Wagner et al., 2020 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Komura and Ogawa, 2022 ), and economic breakdown of families (Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Banati et al., 2020 ).

The following sections describe how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected early marriages worldwide.

COVID-19 accelerated the marriages of young

The ongoing global COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in the number of cases of early marriage, as per the research conducted by Esho et al. ( 2022 ). The crisis has exacerbated various social and economic factors that influence early marriage and has opened new avenues for children and early marriages, as per Deane ( 2021 ). Rahiem ( 2021 ) highlighted that financial concerns are a significant reason behind early marriage during the pandemic, as guardians marry off their children at younger ages because of the belief that marriage provides an escape from the boredom and stress of being at home during the pandemic. Additionally, traditional laws, peer pressure, and a lack of knowledge about the consequences of early marriage are other factors that have contributed to the rise in early marriage during the pandemic.

Candel and Jitaru ( 2021 ) state that the pandemic has affected the desire to enter into a marital relationship, with concerns about COVID-19 impacting the stigma associated with being single and increasing the awareness of the importance of stability and familial ties. For example, prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a prevailing belief among many individuals that being unmarried did not necessarily indicate a state of unhappiness. It is not a matter that necessitates resolution. It is indeed an exceptional opportunity to bring joy to someone’s life. On the contrary, being married entails prioritizing the well-being of others over one’s happiness. Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous individuals modified their beliefs as they recognized that unmarried individuals were considered lacking, isolated, and unhappy, while marriage was granted more fulfillment and social status. More importantly, deep interpersonal relationships during the early stages of the pandemic provided a framework for self-affirmation and emotional elevation. Couples who perceived their lives to be in danger due to the pandemic understood the value of the family and the sharing of risks, which influenced their decision to marry during the crisis, as per Komura and Ogawa ( 2022 ).

Before the COVID outbreak, teenagers spent an excessive amount of time with friends. However, during the pandemic, adolescents communicated and engaged only online. Some teenagers decided to marry during the pandemic due to loneliness, as per Rahiem ( 2021 ).

Adolescents have historically resorted to marriage as a means of escaping household chores and academic responsibilities, a phenomenon observed by Rahiem ( 2021 ). McNulty et al. ( 2023 ) further highlighted that acute stressors have been found to be correlated with a higher likelihood of marriage and increased satisfaction. This may be attributed to the fact that stress can prompt individuals to rely on their natural behaviors, which may be advantageous for achieving a state of happiness and well-being.

The following sections discuss how COVID-19 promotes early marriage in numerous ways.

Interruptions to schooling

Paul and Mondal ( 2020 ) cautioned that the probability of child marriage, mistreatment, sexual assault, and domestic violence would rise if educational institutions, such as elementary schools and high schools, were forced to shut down during this unfortunate situation. The ongoing closure of schools continues to have a detrimental effect, as noted by Amin et al. ( 2020 ). COVID-19-related school closures have affected the education of over 1.6 billion children globally, as reported by Musa et al. ( 2021 ). Moreover, school closures in the Democratic Republic of Congo have increased the risk of early marriage for females, as seen in studies by Deane ( 2021 ), Carter et al. ( 2022 ), and Esho et al. ( 2022 ).

Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the teaching and learning process has undergone significant changes that have proven challenging to implement remotely. Consequently, parents are increasingly expected to explain the learning process to their children, with many doing so in a frustrating manner. In particular, high school seniors may choose to tie the knot because of their frustration with online classes, unwavering trust in their partners, and overall dissatisfaction with their lives (Rahiem, 2021 ). Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted school systems and exacerbated educational inequality by reducing Opportunities and resources for disadvantaged children, thereby increasing the likelihood of early marriages (Deane, 2021 ). UNICEF estimates that the probability of marriage due to school closures and dropouts is 27.5% annually, increasing by 25% each time a school is closed (Musa et al., 2021 ).

Some young people marry to avoid taking online courses as they lack the necessary technology or face other barriers to accessing online education (Rahiem, 2021 ). Parents may also lack the financial resources to support their daughters’ schooling because of the economic loss caused by the pandemic (Chowdhury, 2021 ). Teachers often cite teenage girls’ marriages as the primary reason for their absence during school closures (Carter et al., 2022 ). In a study by Amin et al. ( 2020 ), one in ten girls indicated that they might not return to school after it reopened because of factors such as learning gaps, financial difficulties at home, and marriage. The most frequently cited factor by Ethiopians, who believed that the number of child-forced marriage cases was rising during the pandemic, was individuals spending more time at home, including potential victims of child-forced marriage (80%) (Esho et al., 2022 ).

Financial difficulties

The financial impact of COVID-19 on families (Deane, 2021 ; Rahiem, 2021 ) has led to the perception that marriage could alleviate financial difficulties (Bahl et al., 2021 ; Chowdhury, 2021 ; Rahiem, 2021 ). Many families face financial hardship, making it difficult for parents to afford to send their children to school (Rahiem, 2021 ). Economic challenges in impoverished families pose a risk and play a significant role in marrying young girls to ease the financial burden on the family and provide a better future for their offspring (Mehra et al., 2018 ). Additionally, financial hardships resulting from COVID-19 led many girls to marry young people, and many parents believed that education was a waste of money. Parents and girls believed that marriage would improve economic prospects and the overall quality of life. The economic consequences of COVID-19, including reduced income, job loss, and travel restrictions, have contributed to household poverty and increased economic insecurity, which may hinder parents’ ability to meet their children’s needs (Deane, 2021 ). Many teenagers reported that their families experienced negative economic shocks due to COVID-19, such as the inability to afford necessities or job loss (Baird et al., 2022 ). These changes have resulted in decreased well-being outcomes in mental health, hunger, and financial management (Baird et al., 2022 ). The pandemic has exacerbated the difficulties faced by girls, making the situation more challenging (Musa et al., 2021 ). For instance, the financial crisis caused by COVID-19 has led to an increase in weddings among Syrian women (Banati et al., 2020 ).

The demise of a parent

One contributing factor to adolescent females getting married during the pandemic is the death of a parent. Mangeli et al. ( 2017 ) find that young people marry early to settle family issues and contribute to the family’s financial stability after the loss of a parent. McDougal et al. ( 2018 ) also noted that adolescent girls who have experienced the loss of a parent are more likely to marry at a young age in search of a loving and supportive partner. Additionally, some local customs and beliefs encourage couples to marry and start families at a young age after the death of their parents (Rahiem, 2021 ). A study by Deane ( 2021 ) found that the likelihood of a female orphan dropping out of school to care for younger siblings or being married increases after losing both parents, as close relatives may find it difficult to support them. This increases the likelihood of female orphans marrying at a younger age. Furthermore, orphaned females were more likely to be married than orphaned males.

Malfunctions in awareness programs

Parents reportedly exert pressure on their daughters to marry even in the early stages of adolescence. This trend can be attributed, in part, to the fact that there are fewer local government officials and teachers around, as many have returned to their hometowns (Banati et al., 2020 ). Additionally, the lack of safe spaces and protection for girls, which are typically provided by institutions and rescue centers, may contribute to the rise in child-forced marriages (Esho et al., 2022 ). The scarcity of local government representatives is another significant factor that increases the likelihood of child marriages (Jones et al., 2020 ). Adolescent males and girls in Ethiopia stated that they felt more pressure to marry because of the absence of educational institutions, particularly during the regular marriage season in three of the six towns where the study was conducted (Banati et al., 2020 ). Consequently, during the pandemic, monitoring potential child marriages was hindered, and adolescent girls lost their important roles in educational institutions for sharing information against forced marriages.

Anti-child marriage campaigns in India were halted during the lockdown period. Research indicates that a one-year delay in anti-child marriage campaigns globally might result in 13 million additional child marriages worldwide between 2020 and 2030 due to the economic slump and other factors (Bahl et al., 2021 ). The pandemic created two additional reasons for child marriage. Girls and women may find it challenging to access programs and services designed to prevent child marriages because of pandemic-related transportation restrictions and social exclusion (Deane, 2021 ). In Nigeria and other parts of the world, the pandemic has also impacted organizations’ efforts to prevent the practice of early marriage. The COVID-19 outbreak interferes with the efforts of numerous groups working at the local level to end child marriage while exacerbating many of the complex issues that cause it (Musa et al., 2021 ). Local people believe that attaining puberty enables one to enter a marriage relationship legally. Parents with limited education are often in the dark regarding the long-term effects of child marriage (Rahiem, 2021 ).

COVID-19 reduces the marriage rates

A decline in marriage rates during the COVID-19 pandemic has been observed in Korea, Japan, Indonesia, Mexico, and the USA (Wagner et al., 2020 ; Manning and Payne, 2021 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Ghaznavi et al., 2022 ; Nursetiawati et al., 2022 ; Hoehn-Velasco et al., 2023 ). Restrictions on wedding services were put in place with the aim of reducing the crowd size and subsequently limiting the transmission of COVID-19 (Wagner et al., 2020 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Nursetiawati et al., 2022 ). The pandemic has disrupted wedding plans by closing venues, restricting public transportation, and employing other measures. Social isolation and lockdown measures, although varying in scope, have also contributed to delays in wedding plans (Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Wagner et al., 2020 ). Some weddings have been postponed until the pandemic is over, whereas others may never take place because of concerns about exposing guests to health risks (Hoehn-Velasco et al., 2023 ). Business closures have forced many couples to postpone their marriages, with only essential services exempt. The filing of marriage certificates may also be delayed if the ceremony is postponed or cancelled, as this document is typically submitted prior to the wedding (Komura and Ogawa, 2022 ).

Due to concerns surrounding the coronavirus, engaged couples may choose to cancel or postpone their weddings (Kim and Kim, 2021 ). For instance, between 2019 and 2020, there was a notable decrease in marriages in the United States (Wagner et al., 2020 ; Candel and Jitaru, 2021 ; Manning and Payne, 2021 ). According to media accounts, the pandemic has led to a decline in marriages in Japan (Ghaznavi et al., 2022 ). The increase in COVID-19 infections caused a 9.6–13.9% decrease in the crude marriage rate in South Korea. In addition, the marriage rate was further reduced in Korea’s provinces with higher infection rates (Kim and Kim, 2021 ). The number of weddings during the pandemic suggests that there was at least a 20% decline in weddings in the Florida, Missouri, and Oregon states of the USA (Manning and Payne, 2021 ). Indonesia postponed marriage ceremonies during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic (Nursetiawati et al., 2022 ). Similarly, marriage rates in Mexico decreased by over 90% in April and May 2020 (Hoehn-Velasco et al., 2023 ). Following the declaration of the emergency in April 2020 and the subsequent request for people to stay home, there was a 10% decline in marriages in Japan (Komura and Ogawa, 2022 ).

Due to economic difficulties such as financial instability caused by job disruption, young couples are increasingly delaying marriage. Studies have shown that a lack of secure employment is the primary reason for postponing marriage (Kim and Kim, 2021 ). Economic crises can also affect marriage rates, as young girls in Lebanon believed that an economic crisis would lead to a decline in their marriage rates. Palestinian and Lebanese boys also reported that economic conditions make it challenging for them to consider marriage and maintain expectations for the future (Banati et al., 2020 ).

Mental health status of early married girls

It is widely recognized that teenage girls are disproportionately affected by the long-term negative consequences of the public health crisis. The difficulties faced during adolescence may contribute to mental health issues, sexual and reproductive health problems, and chronic illnesses later in life (Bosquet et al., 2018 ; Felitti et al., 1998 ; Herrenkohl and Jung, 2016 ; Chari et al., 2017 ; Lang et al., 2010 ). Additionally, married teenagers often feel resentful towards their peers, who have the luxury of spending their days playing. Simultaneously, teenagers are responsible for taking care of their homes and younger siblings, which can exacerbate feelings of depression if not properly managed. Furthermore, teenagers may experience increased anxiety disorders because of their partners’ abusive behavior. Physical violence, such as that experienced in the case of early marriage, can result in mental health issues such as anxiety, low self-esteem, feelings of helplessness, post-traumatic depression, and unhealthy dependence on husbands, some of whom may have abused them.

Physical violence, such as that experienced in the case of early marriage, can result in mental health issues such as anxiety, low self-esteem, feelings of helplessness, post-traumatic depression, and unhealthy dependence on husbands, some of whom may have abused them. The mental health of adolescent girls can be negatively affected by emergency public health measures such as home isolation, social restrictions, and school closures (Shukla et al., 2023 ). School closures or restrictions on extracurricular activities can have significant impacts on children’s daily lives and mental well-being (Ghosh et al., 2020 ; Saha et al., 2023 ). During the pandemic, Indonesian teenagers struggle with academic pressure and parental expectations, and many need more mental and emotional support (Rahiem, 2021 ).

Global scenarios of early marriage and associated factors

Early marriage is a widespread issue that extends beyond official statistics, as it often excludes unauthorized marriages in certain regions and among specific populations (UNICEF, 2001 ). Cultural diversity leads to significant variations in the prevalence of early marriage across different parts of the world. Economic and political conditions have a significant impact on the prevalence of early marriage, which varies greatly between nations. In some Asian countries, marriage is viewed as a religious obligation or societal responsibility, whereas in Western countries, remaining unmarried is widely accepted (Himawan, 2019 ).

Scenario of developed countries

Societal beliefs and perceptions of marriage, including appropriate age and selection methods, shape cultural norms and practices surrounding the institution. These beliefs include the family’s purpose, organization, lifestyle, and responsibilities of its members. The historical evolution of marriage is evident, as the concept and purpose of the family vary significantly across different societies and periods (UNICEF, 2001 ). Historically, marriages in Western Europe have been viewed as financial transactions, with limited emphasis on the individuals involved. Women are often considered property transferred from their fathers to their husbands (UNICEF, 2001 ). However, this perspective has undergone significant change in recent years. The contemporary concept of marriage, commonly referred to as the “romantic” notion, has emerged as the predominant ideal characterized by principles such as mutual consent, passionate affection, and personal fulfillment. While most nations have legal frameworks governing marriage with criteria such as mandatory age and willingness, enforcement of these laws may be lacking.

In developed countries such as Europe, Oceania, and North America, the incidence of early marriage among women is relatively low, with only a small proportion entering matrimony before the age of 18 years. For instance, in the United States, only 4% of women marry before the age of 18, while in Germany, the figure is even lower, at 1% (World Marriage Patterns, 2000 ). It is important to acknowledge that the practice of early marriage is not limited to underdeveloped countries as it is also prevalent in affluent societies. In fact, even Western countries, such as the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States, are experiencing an increase in the occurrence of child marriages within immigrant communities residing within their territories. Customary practices persist even after relocation, and acceptance of child marriage can persist despite the cultural contexts of the adopted nation (Tahirih Justice Center, 2018 ). Adolescent girls from immigrant families who adhere to the tradition of child marriage may be repatriated to their families’ countries of origin with the intention of being married or traded as spouses to older individuals (Jeffreys, 2009 ).

This section explores the historical and cultural dimensions of Turkey, along with the correlation between COVID-19 and early marriages, in order to gain an understanding of the country’s culture, legislation, and response to the pandemic.

The minimum age for marriage in Turkey is 18, as stipulated in Article 124 of the Turkish Civil Code (TCC) (TCC, art. 124). Nevertheless, according to the TCC, individuals who are 17 years old are allowed to get married as long as they have the consent of their parents. Furthermore, individuals who are 16 years old can obtain judicial approval to marry, but only in unusual circumstances and for compelling reasons (TCC, art. 124). Nevertheless, the TCC does not provide any clarification regarding the specific details of those extraordinary circumstances. In Turkey, where marriage is prevalent, there has been a slight rise in the age at which people first get married and a decrease in marriages involving individuals under the age of 18 over the years.

Conversely, there was a decline in the percentage of women endorsing any form of physical violence. At the same time, there was an increase in the percentage of women asserting their right to reject sexual interaction. During the COVID-19 crisis, there has been an increase in child weddings in Turkey, particularly with Syrian refugees who are marrying their underage daughters to Turkish males (Global Citizen Report supra note 21, 2020). The phenomenon of Syrian families engaging in the sale of their daughters to Turkish males has experienced a surge in prevalence. This practice serves as an economic survival strategy for Syrian families who lack alternative sources of income or means to support their children (Turkey ECPAT Report, supra note 25). Turkish men rationalize the practice of both polygamy and underage marriage among Syrian refugees as appropriate actions during the times of COVID-19, invoking Muslim religious and cultural narratives and traditions (Musawah Thematic Report on Article 16 and Muslim Family Law, 2016).

Sezgin and Punamäki ( 2020 ) highlighted that the early marriage phase and teenage pregnancy pose a threat to women’s physical, mental, and reproductive well-being as well as their economic and social advancement in Turkey. The mental health implications of adolescent pregnancies may be more significant than initially thought. Young-age pregnancy and early marriage are associated with an increased risk of illness and frequent medication use among women (Sezgin and Punamäki, 2020 ). According to Sezgin and Punamäki ( 2020 ), early marriage and adolescent pregnancy can have a serious negative impact on a woman’s reproductive, emotional, and psychological health, as well as economic and social mobility. Teenage pregnancy is a major mental health hazard, but early marriage and adolescent pregnancy also pose risks to the reproductive health of teenagers in Turkey, including cardiovascular diseases. Adolescent pregnancies pose a much greater risk to the mental health of the women involved if they also undergo sexual coercion in their relationships (Sezgin and Punamäki, 2020 ).

Scenario of developing countries

In several countries across Sub-Saharan Africa, over 40% of young women marry before the age of 18, according to the Alan Guttmacher Institute ( 1998 ). In Bangladesh and Afghanistan, more than half of females marry before reaching age 18, as reported by World Marriage Patterns ( 2000 ). While a survey by UNICEF ( 2001 ) showed a lower incidence of early marriage in the Middle East and North Africa region compared to South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, approximately 11.5% of adolescent females aged 15–19 in the Caribbean and Latin America regions were married.

The relationship between early marriage and educational attainment is complex. In some cases, financial constraints prevent students from continuing their studies, leading parents to opt for early marriage, particularly for their daughters (Bawono et al., 2019 ). Before entering a relationship or marriage, it is essential to consider one’s financial situation, as couples require a minimum level of financial fulfillment to maintain their relationship (Alola et al., 2020 ; Hoehn-Velasco et al., 2023 ). During economic crises, research suggests that male employment is more negatively affected than female employment, as indicated by the negative correlation between unemployment and marriage rates. However, other studies point to the opposite link, where marriage is seen as protection against difficult economic times (González-Val and Marcén, 2018 ). At such times, women’s families may use their daughters’ marriages to reduce economic burdens, while men’s families may use marriage as a compensating tool by receiving dowries from the bride (Ahmed, 2012 ).

In some instances, instead of imposing penalties on those who breach the law, the marriage is considered null or void. This often places the woman in an unfavorable position, particularly if she has engaged in sexual intercourse or has offspring. The complexity of the situation is further exacerbated by the presence of countries with multiple legal frameworks, including conventional and religious systems, which operate concurrently but frequently experience conflicts or tensions. In countries such as Afghanistan, the process of birth records is irregular, leading to a lack of accurate information regarding the age at which individuals enter marriage (Women Living Under Muslim Laws ( 2013 )). In nations experiencing persistent civil unrest, there are severe indications of social turmoil related to children, including an increase in the number of children living on roadsides, employment of very young individuals, an increase in child slavery and criminal activity, and elevated levels of child abuse and neglect (Black, 2000 ). Available evidence suggests an upward trend in young marriages under these circumstances. In Afghanistan, the prevalence of armed conflict and subsequent militarization has contributed to a notable rise in the occurrence of early marriages among adolescent females (Human Rights Watch, 2012 ). In Sri Lanka, a country plagued by violence, child marriage is primarily motivated by the desire to prevent abduction or forced recruitment into terrorist organizations active in the region (Wijeyesekera, 2011 ).

Considering the COVID-19 pandemic, research has revealed both the positive and negative effects of economic instability on the occurrence of marriage in developing countries. Chowdhury ( 2021 ) posits that financial hardships can expedite the decision to marry, while Kim and Kim ( 2021 ) indicate that they can delay the timing of marriage. The pandemic has had a significant impact on the marriage rate among young women, regardless of their geographical region, religion, or cultural background, which is attributed to the restrictions on public gatherings (Komura and Ogawa, 2022 ).

However, the pandemic has led to an increase in child marriages in developing and underdeveloped areas due to the closure of educational institutions (Deane, 2021 ) and economic deterioration (Bahl et al., 2021 ). Parents’ traditional values often result in arranging marriages for their daughters to alleviate financial strain and reduce the family burden during confinement. According to the Manusher Jonno Foundation ( 2020 ), poverty caused by the epidemic is the primary cause of the recent increase in the prevalence of child marriage. BRAC ( 2020 ) found that 71% of COVID-19-related child weddings occur due to school closures in developing countries. Previous studies have shown that child marriage is more likely to occur after natural catastrophes and public health situations (Paul and Mondal, 2020 ). For example, the Ebola epidemic in West Africa (2014–2016) was associated with a significant increase in child labor, early marriages, teen pregnancies, and illicit sexual activity. The high school dropout rate in Sierra Leone contributed to a rise in teen pregnancies and marriages (Girls not Brides, 2020 ).

Child marriage is a prevalent issue among females in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, with the latter exhibiting direst circumstances. Projections indicate that the prevalence of child marriages among women in the region will double by 2050, resulting in sub-Saharan Africa surpassing South Asia as the area with the highest number of young brides. It is anticipated that Nigeria will have the highest prevalence of child marriages among African countries (UNICEF, 2014 ). In five nations—Nigeria, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Brazil, and India—the pandemic has had a devastating effect on the practice of early marriage. According to estimates, there may be an additional 3.5 million child brides in these nations in the next decade unless something is done to stop the practice (Yukich et al., 2021 ). Considering the historical and cultural context of the country, it is crucial to gain a comprehensive understanding of the child marriage situation.

In this section, we examine the historical and cultural aspects of Nigeria and Bangladesh, as well as the connection between COVID-19 and early marriages, to comprehensively understand the country’s culture, laws, and COVID-19 response.

After nearly 15 years of military governance marked by corruption, inadequate infrastructure, and unequal distribution of resources, Nigeria transitioned to civilian rule in 1999 with the implementation of a new constitution (Population Council, 2004 ). Despite possessing vast human and natural resources, Nigeria continues to face significant economic challenges, making it one of the world’s poorest nations (Population Research Bureau, 2003 ). The AIDS epidemic has had a profound impact on Nigeria, resulting in many affected individuals.

Marriage in Nigeria is governed by three legal systems: Islamic (following the Maliki School of Law), civil (governed by statutory law), and customary (based on traditional law). In the northern region of the country, marriages are typically governed by Islamic law, whereas those in the southern region are regulated by statutory law (Women Living Under Muslim Laws, 2013 ). In cases where couples enter marriage under legal conditions, traditional rules often take precedence over personal matters or issues.

There is no prescribed minimum age for marriage in most common law frameworks throughout Nigeria (Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, 2006 ). However, the National Policy on individuals within the country prohibits parents from facilitating weddings for girls under the age of 18. Cultural beliefs about underage weddings in Nigeria are influenced by traditional laws (WARDC Women’s Advocates Research and Documentation Centre and WACOL Women’s Aid Collective, 2003 ). Various justifications have been offered to support this cultural practice, including the reduction of promiscuity, promotion of community cohesion and welfare, and religious sanctification of such unions (Bamgbose, 2002 ).

The COVID-19 pandemic has worsened child marriages among vulnerable populations including girls. While it is difficult to measure the exact impact, research and stories indicate that the pandemic has worsened the situation. In Nigeria, child marriage was a problem before COVID-19 (Musa et al., 2021 ), and the closure of schools and increased poverty have made life more difficult for young women. Although the number of girls married during the pandemic is unknown, pre-COVID data suggests a potential negative impact on already-married children in the near future (UNICEF, 2021b ). The harmful effects of marriage on Nigeria’s youth and economic development have long been a concern (Musa et al., 2021 ). The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the situation: many families face extreme financial hardships due to exclusions and pressure to marry off girls. Numerous causes, such as school closures and cases of sexual and gender-based violence, account for the high rate of early marriages in Nigeria (Musa et al., 2021 ).

The COVID-19 lockdown in Nigeria has led to an increase in early marriages and teenage pregnancies among Fulani Footnote 2 females, as many have been forced to abandon their education during the pandemic (BBC NEWS, 2021 ). This issue persists unless authorities and communities take joint action to address it (Musa et al., 2021 ). A study by Yukich et al. ( 2021 ) found that without preventative programming, the impact of the pandemic on child marriages will continue to increase in Nigeria. However, if successful programming is implemented, the situation will revert to its original pattern sometime between the years 2030–2035.

In Bangladeshi society, families face pressure to marry their young daughters before they turn 18. Parents worry about the consequences of not adhering to this norm, and those with steady government or overseas employment are considered ideal candidates. Due to the scarcity of suitable partners, families may view arranging a marriage for a young woman as beneficial if an advantageous opportunity arises. Families may prioritize investing in their children’s future to secure their financial well-being later in life, particularly during times of financial hardships. Cultural norms often result in girls moving away upon marriage, leading families to invest more in boys’ education. Societal restrictions limit girls’ opportunities to gain employment.

Due to the high incidence of sexual misconduct and assault committed against adolescent females, marriage is often seen to reduce the risk of sexual violence experienced by these young women. Additionally, parents and households are increasingly concerned about the dangers associated with technology, including the potential for harassment and unethical behavior, such as extramarital affairs and premarital sex (Ferdous et al., 2019 ).

Bangladesh has achieved notable progress in reducing the prevalence of child marriages in recent decades. This accomplishment was highlighted in 2017 by amendments made to the Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929. Since the 1980s, legislation has prohibited the marriage of girls under the age of 18 and boys under the age of 21. Recent revisions have focused on implementing preventive measures to discourage, regulate, and document child marriage (The Daily Star, 2023 ).

Despite this progress, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused a surge in teenage weddings in Bangladesh, threatening the commitment to end all forms of child marriages by 2030. A study conducted by Afrin and Zainuddin ( 2021 ) found that the increase in child marriages in Bangladesh is attributable to two pandemic-induced factors: poverty and prolonged school closures. The incidence of child marriages has increased by at least 13% because of school closures necessitated by the pandemic across the country, with many cases going unreported (Hossain et al., 2021 ).

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on girls’ physical and emotional well-being, educational opportunities, and the economic conditions of their families and communities. According to the empirical literature and theories on the determinants of child marriage, such disruptions increase girls’ vulnerability to becoming child brides (UNICEF, 2021b ).

Concluding discussion

This study was designed to examine the impact of COVID-19 on early marriages. Our assessment of the literature indicates that the pandemic has had a substantial impact on the marriages of young boys and girls, both favorably and adversely. Marriage and singlehood are seen differently in Asian and Western cultures. Despite the growing Western acceptance of marriage as a matter of choice, many Asian countries, including Indonesia, still regard marriage as a religious or communal responsibility (Himawan, 2019 ).

Research on the correlation between early marriage and intimate partner violence (IPV) in developing countries has yielded mixed findings. Studies conducted in other nations, including Vietnam, have revealed that women are more likely than men to experience early marriage and IPV (Le et al., 2013 ).

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to several factors contributing to the marriage of young male and female children. These include economic hardship within households (Banati et al., 2020 ; Bahl et al., 2021 ; Chowdhury, 2021 ; Musa et al., 2021 ; Rahiem, 2021 ), inability to provide basic necessities (Rahiem, 2021 ; Baird et al., 2022 ), extended school closures (Amin et al., 2020 ; Deane, 2021 ; Musa et al., 2021 ), traditional laws and customs (Jones et al., 2020 ; Rahiem, 2021 ), social breakdown (Banati et al., 2020 ), lack of social support (Jones et al., 2020 ; Bahl et al., 2021 ; Deane, 2021 ; Musa et al., 2021 ), and parental death (Deane, 2021 ; Hossain et al., 2021 ). The pandemic has also directly contributed to some cases of voluntary marriage, such as to escape boredom (Rahiem, 2021 ), to manage stress (McNulty et al., 2023 ), to continue education (Rahiem, 2021 ), to address loneliness (Candel and Jitaru, 2021 ), and to sustain pre-pandemic intimate relationships (Komura and Ogawa, 2022 ). Moreover, the pandemic has negatively impacted the marriage prospects of young males and females by limiting wedding services, restricting public gatherings, closing wedding venues (Wagner et al., 2020 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ; Komura and Ogawa, 2022 ; Nursetiawati et al., 2022 ), and exacerbating economic hardship (Banati et al., 2020 ; Kim and Kim, 2021 ).

The COVID-19 lockdown has caused the prolonged closure of schools, leading to a lack of interest in studies among teenagers and families facing financial difficulties, resulting in some young children opting for early marriage as an alternative (Rahiem, 2021 ; Chowdhury, 2021 ; Amin et al., 2020 ; Deane, 2021 ). Early marriages were also encouraged by local traditional laws and a desire to sustain pre-COVID romantic relationships (Komura and Ogawa, 2022 ; Candel and Jitaru, 2021 ; Rahiem, 2021 ). During the lockdown, social services and support were unavailable to girls, making it difficult for them to prevent early marriage (Banati et al., 2020 ; Jones et al., 2020 ; Deane, 2021 ; Musa et al., 2021 ; Esho et al., 2022 ). These factors contributed to the increase in the marriage rate during the COVID-19 period.

The pandemic has had a significant impact on the marital relationships of adolescent men and women with both beneficial and adverse consequences. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to several factors, including economic hardship, inability to meet basic needs, prolonged closure of schools, adherence to traditional laws and customs, social disintegration, lack of social support, and the death of parents, which have contributed to the marriage of young boys and girls. The economic and cultural perspectives of developing countries in the South differ from those of developed countries in the North. Unlike in countries in the South, early marriage is prohibited and rarely occurs in Western countries due to social and legal safeguards. Although research indicates a decline in marriage in developed countries during the pandemic, specific age groups experiencing this decline have not been identified. Further research is needed to explore this issue. Asian and Western cultures have different views on marriage.

In many Asian countries, marriage is still seen as a religious or cultural duty despite the Western view that marriage is a personal decision (Himawan, 2019 ). Furthermore, the negative association between unemployment and marriage rates in industrialized nations implies that both male and female employment are significantly affected during economic crises. The number of young individuals getting married during COVID-19 has decreased because of employment losses caused by the pandemic. However, some studies indicate a different correlation, according to which marriage is seen as a defense against difficult economic conditions in emerging nations (González-Val and Marcén, 2018 ). Women’s families may take advantage of their daughters’ weddings to relieve financial strain. Families of men may see marriage as a way to compensate for financial setbacks by using the bride’s dowry (Ahmed, 2012 ).

Limitations and recommendations

It is difficult to quantify and estimate whether the COVID-19 pandemic has had an increasing or decreasing impact on early marriages in different countries with very different socioeconomic and cultural dimensions. As there is little information on early marriage and COVID-19 infections in many countries, particularly developing countries, it is difficult to make generalizations applicable to particular countries. In particular, predicting the long-term effects of the pandemic on girls’ early marriages is difficult. Therefore, mixed studies combining qualitative and quantitative methods are needed to examine the effects of the pandemic on marriages, including early marriages in different age cohorts, in terms of gender. Future studies can also inform developing countries about how other countries have addressed the effects of COVID-19 on adolescents. Long-term studies can provide more insights into these effects over time. This understanding could help to identify patterns in cases where a pandemic of the same type occurs in the future.

It is critical to adapt and improve child protection initiatives, social programs, social protection services, education initiatives, and poverty reduction strategies to ensure the safety and well-being of girls and prevent early marriage. Ensuring that low-income families have access to opportunities and resources is a top priority. Governments in developing countries, especially rural areas, require increased funding and access to social security programs and educational opportunities. Campaigns to educate parents and other powerful people about the detrimental effects of child marriage and the need for girls’ education are essential, as are laws prohibiting child marriage. To effectively launch a campaign against child marriage, a coordinated effort is needed from various groups, such as government agencies, communities, civil society organizations, nonprofit organizations, and religious leaders.

Data availability

This study is based only on the relevant literature and is a review article.

Informal Union means socially or religiously accepted but legally unaccepted marriage.

Fulani females are of Fulani origins and live in Fulani areas. Fulani females are primarily found in the Northern Region of Nigeria, and Fula is their first language.

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Wandering spleen presenting in the form of right sided pelvic mass and pain in a patient with AD-PCKD: a case report and review of the literature

• Yitagesu aberra shibiru   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3645-9115 1 ,
• Sahlu wondimu 1 &
• Wassie almaw 1  

Journal of Medical Case Reports volume  18 , Article number:  259 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Wandering spleen is a rare clinical entity in which the spleen is hypermobile and migrate from its normal left hypochondriac position to any other abdominal or pelvic position as a result of absent or abnormal laxity of the suspensory ligaments (Puranik in Gastroenterol Rep 5:241, 2015, Evangelos in Am J Case Rep. 21, 2020) which in turn is due to either congenital laxity or precipitated by trauma, pregnancy, or connective tissue disorder (Puranik in Gastroenterol Rep 5:241, 2015, Jawad in Cureus 15, 2023). It may be asymptomatic and accidentally discovered for imaging done for other reasons or cause symptoms as a result of torsion of its pedicle and infarction or compression on adjacent viscera on its new position. It needs to be surgically treated upon discovery either by splenopexy or splectomy based on whether the spleen is mobile or not.

Case presentation

We present a case of 39 years old female Ethiopian patient who presented to us complaining constant lower abdominal pain especially on the right side associated with swelling of one year which got worse over the preceding few months of her presentation to our facility. She is primiparous with delivery by C/section and a known case of HIV infection on HAART. Physical examination revealed a right lower quadrant well defined, fairly mobile and slightly tender swelling. Hematologic investigations are unremarkable. Imaging with abdominopelvic U/S and CT-scan showed a predominantly cystic, hypo attenuating right sided pelvic mass with narrow elongated attachment to pancreatic tail and absent spleen in its normal position. CT also showed multiple different sized purely cystic lesions all over both kidneys and the pancreas compatible with AD polycystic kidney and pancreatic disease.

With a diagnosis of wandering possibly infarcted spleen, she underwent laparotomy, the finding being a fully infarcted spleen located on the right half of the upper pelvis with twisted pedicle and dense adhesions to the adjacent distal ileum and colon. Release of adhesions and splenectomy was done. Her post-operative course was uneventful.

Wandering spleen is a rare clinical condition that needs to be included in the list of differential diagnosis in patients presenting with lower abdominal and pelvic masses. As we have learnt from our case, a high index of suspicion is required to detect it early and intervene by doing splenopexy and thereby avoiding splenectomy and its related complications.

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Introduction

Wandering spleen is a rare clinical entity characterized by hypermobility of the spleen as a result of absence or abnormal laxity of its suspensory ligaments which in turn can be congenital or precipitated by a number of risk factors like repeated pregnancy, trauma, surgery or connective tissue disorder. The spleen therefore migrates from its normal left hypochondriac position, to other parts of the peritoneal cavity especially the pelvis [ 3 ]. Since the first case report in 1667, there have been less than 600 cases reported in the literature so far [ 1 , 3 ].

Wandering spleen can have different clinical presentations ranging from asymptomatic incidental finding on imaging to features of acute abdomen as a result of complete torsion of the pedicle and total infarction of the spleen or complete obstruction of adjacent hollow viscus due to pressure effect. Less dramatic presentation includes chronic lower abdominal pain, swelling and symptoms of partial obstruction of bowel especially of the colon [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ].

Diagnosis is confirmed by imaging usually abdominal ultrasound or CT which reveals that the spleen is absent from its normal anatomical position but seen somewhere else in the new location within the peritoneal cavity [ 3 , 9 , 10 ]. Once diagnosed, surgical intervention is required either by splenopexy or splenectomy depending on the viability of the organ [ 3 , 5 ] and can be done laparoscopically or by laparotomy.

Owing to its rarity, a high index of suspicion is required and this condition should always be considered as a possible differential diagnosis in patients presenting with lower abdominal swelling and pain. We present this case to share our experience in diagnosing and managing such a rare pathology and once again bring it to the attention of fellow clinicians handling this sort of abdominal conditions.

Case summary

Our patient is a 39 years old female Primi-para Ethiopian, who presented with lower abdominal dull aching pain of one-year duration which got worse over the last few months associated with right lower abdominal swelling, easy fatigability, LGIF, loss of appetite and weight. She is a known case of RVI on HAART for the past 18yrs and hypertensive for the last 8 years for which she was taking enalapril and atenolol. Her only child was delivered by C/section 10 years ago.

On examination , she looked chronically sick with her vitals in the normal range. The abdomen was flat with a lower midline surgical scar and a visible round mass on the right paraumblical and lower quadrant areas. The mass was well defined, smooth surfaced, slightly tender and mobile (Fig.  1 —black arrow).

Black arrow shows the splenic mass, red arrow shows the stomach, cyan arrow shows previous CS scar

Her hematologic tests revealed WBC of 8.7 × 103, Hgb of 12.3 and PLT count of 544 × 10 3 . Serum electrolyte and liver function tests were all in the normal range. Creatinine was 1.4 mg/dl.

Abdominal ultrasound

Multiple bilateral renal, liver and pancreatic cysts. An ehcocomplex mainly hypoechoic, 13 cmx8cm well defined right sided abdomino-pelvic mass, with absent color Doppler flow. Spleen was not visualized in its normal anatomic site.

Contrast enhanced abdomino-pelvic CT

Described the mass as a hypoattenuating, well circumscribed lesion with no contrast enhancement located at right abdomino pelvic cavity (Fig.  2 ). Its long torsed pedicle could be traced to the region of the tail of the pancreas and the spleen was missing from its normal location. (Fig.  3 ) Majority of the renal parenchyma is almost replaced with different sized cystic lesions with imperceptible wall causing bilateral renal enlargement. (Fig.  3 ) The liver and the pancreas too is filled with similar cysts. The portal vein were not visualized and replaced by periportal enlarged collateral vessels. (Figs.  3 , 4 ).

Infarcted spleen

Absent spleen in the splenic fossa

Spleen seen in the abdomino-pelvic cavity

With a diagnosis of wandering spleen located in the right abdomino pelvic region with torsion of the pedicle and infarction, she was admitted and underwent laparotomy. Intraoperatively, dense adhesion encountered between the anterior abdominal wall, omentum, the wandering spleen and small bowel. The spleen was whitish, distended and grossly infarcted with its long stalk torsed > 360°. (Fig.  5 ) Adhesions were gently released and splenectomy done. The splenic mass was sent for biopsy.

The intra-op picture of our patient upon exploration

She was discharged on the 3rd postoperative day and her post-operative course was uneventful. She was seen after a month on follow up clinic with no report of complication. Her biopsy result showed splenic tissue. She got her pentavelant vaccine on the third week.

Wandering spleen is a rare clinical entity characterized by splenic hypermobility from its left hypochondriac position to any other abdominal or pelvic position caused by absent or abnormal laxity of the suspensory ligaments [ 1 , 2 ].

The first case of wandering spleen was reported by Von Horne in 1667. So far less than 600 cases are reported world wide [ 1 , 3 ].

Anatomically a normal spleen is found in the left hypochondriac region suspended by ligaments to the stomach, kidney, pancreas, colon and left hemi-diaphram by the gastrosplenic, splenorenal, pancreaticosplenic, splenocolic, splenophreni ligaments and presplenic folds [ 1 ]. Our patient presented with RLQ palpable abdominal mass which is against the commonest presentation being in the LLQ of the abdomen (Fig.  1 ).

It could result from either a developmental failure of the embryonic septum transversum to fuse properly with the posterior abdominal wall which results in absent/lax ligaments [ 4 ] or from acquired conditions that result in lax suspensory ligaments as in pregnancy or connective tissue disorders [ 3 ]. The spleen is found in any quadrant of the abdomen or the pelvis though mostly in the left quadrants attached only by a long and loose vascular pedicle. Our patient presented with RLQ mass.

It is mostly seen in multiparous women [ 4 ] though the incidence is found to be nearly equal in both sexes in the prepubertal age group [ 3 ]. Our patient was a Para 1 mother and presented with 01 year history of abdominal pain which got worse in the past 06 months. Otherwise she had no any other pressure symptoms. She had visible umbilical area mass which was mobile up on examination

Wandering spleen can have different presentation ranging from asymptomatic incidental finding on imaging or upon surgical exploration for other surgical conditions to a presentation that mimics acute abdomen [ 3 , 5 ]. Mostly it presents as an on and of type acute/ subacute non-specific abdominal pain due to torsion and spontaneous de-torsion of the loose splenic pedicle [ 3 , 4 ]. This chronic torsion results in congestion and splenomegaly [ 3 , 5 ]. Hence patients could have palpable mobile mass [ 6 ] which is the typical presentation of this patient. The other presentations are usually related to the mass effect of the enlarged spleen and patients could present with GOO, bowel obstruction, pancreatitis and urinary symptoms [ 3 , 6 ].

In some cases it is reported to be associated with some other disorders like gastric volvulus [ 7 ] and distal pancreatic volvulus [ 8 ].

Ultrasound is one of the imaging modalities to investigate patients whom we suspect had wandering spleen. It usually shows absent spleen in the splenic fossa and a comma shaped spleen in the abdomen or pelvis [ 9 ]. Doppler study might help us see the vascular condition and ads up to a better preoperative plan. CT scan shows absence of the spleen in the left upper quadrant, ovoid or comma-shaped abdominal mass, enlarged spleen, a whirled appearance of non-enhancing splenic vessels and signs of splenic hypo-perfusion: homogenous or heterogeneous decreased enhancement depending on the degree of infarction [ 3 , 9 , 10 ].

Our patient was scanned with US and showed 13*8 cm large midline abdomino-pelvic well defined oval mass which was predominantly solid with areas of cystic component with absent color Doppler flow. Otherwise the spleen was not visualized in the splenic fossa. Bilateral kidney and liver has multiple different sized cystic lesions. With this image Abdomino-pelvic CT was done and shows spleen is located in the lower abdomen and appears to have torsed vascular pedicle and the whole splenic parenchyma is hypodense and no enhancement seen. Majority of the renal parenchyma is almost replaced with different sized cystic lesions with imperceptible wall causing bilateral renal enlargement. The whole liver is filled with cystic lesions with imperceptible wall. The portal veins were not visualized and replaced by periportal enlarged collateral vessels (Figs.  6 , 7 ).

Usually surgical management is the rule once a patient is diagnosed with wandering spleen [ 3 , 5 ]. Most patients; 65% as reported in some studies will have torsion of the vascular pedicle at some point of their life [ 5 , 6 ]. Hence splenopexy or splenectomy shall be considered when a wandering spleen is found incidentally up on surgical exploration for some other purposes [ 6 ]. Complicated wandering spleen like infarcted, signs of hypersplenism, huge in size and splenic vein thrombosis needs splenectomy while others can be managed with splenopexy [ 3 , 5 , 6 ]. Nowadays though laparoscopic technique is the gold standard, open technique can be used for splenopexy and splenectomy [ 3 , 5 ].

Partial infraction of a wandering spleen might necessitate partial splenectomy and splenopexy or splenectomy and splenic implantation [ 6 , 11 ].

The spleen might get fixed by different methods [ 8 , 9 ].

Simple splenic fixation involves simple tacking the splenic capsule to the peritoneum

Retroperitoneal pouch splenopexy- Tissue [ 11 , 12 ]/Mesh splenopexy (sandwich technique) [ 13 ].

Omental and peritoneal pouch splenic fixation [ 14 ].

In our case, Spleen was absent from the normal anatomic splenic fossa and the spleen in the abdomino-pelvic area looks infarcted. Hence she was managed with splenectomy and the patient was extubated on table and having a stable postoperative course .

Wandering spleen is a rare form of splenic pathology. Such a rare pathology presents commonly as an acute torsion with infarction. Spleen in the RLQ with chronic torsion and infarction is a very rare presentation for wandering spleen. In addition there is no report of such a presentation in a patient with AD-PCKD.

Recommendation

We recommend Clinicians to consider wandering spleen in their differential diagnosis in a patient presenting with RLQ abdominal mass and chronic abdominal pain.

Availability of supporting data

Data related with this case report is available at Addis ababa university, Tikur Ambesa Tertiary Hospital.

Abbreviations

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease

Blood pressure

Low grade intermittent fever

High active anti-retroviral therapy

Right lower quadrant

Retro viral infection

Hypertension

White blood cell count

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the managing team of this patient including all the ward staffs who played a great role in the peri-operative management of this patient. We also appreciate the support of our consultants, residents and member of the department of surgery and HPB unit. Our kind gratitude goes to the family of this patient for their unreserved support in post-operative period that helped for the fast recovery of this patient

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Yitagesu aberra shibiru, Sahlu wondimu & Wassie almaw

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Dr. Yitagesu Aberra, Main author of this case report, is an HPB surgery fellow in the department of surgery, college of health science, Addis Ababa University who was the leading surgeon in the management of this patient. Dr. Sahlu Wendimu is an HPB surgery subspecialist and Assistant professor of General Surgery who was the consultant in duty during the management of this patient. Dr.Wassie Almaw is a 2nd year pediatric surgery resident attaching at HPB surgery unit who took part in the management of this patient.

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Correspondence to Yitagesu aberra shibiru .

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Written informed consent was obtained from the patient for publication of this case report and any accompanying images. A copy of the written consent is available for review by the Editor-in-Chief of this journal.

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There is no competing interest in this case presentation.

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shibiru, Y.a., wondimu, S. & almaw, W. Wandering spleen presenting in the form of right sided pelvic mass and pain in a patient with AD-PCKD: a case report and review of the literature. J Med Case Reports 18 , 259 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13256-024-04580-6

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Received : 02 December 2023

Accepted : 02 May 2024

Published : 25 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13256-024-04580-6

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• Wandering spleen
• Splenic torsion
• Splenic infarction
• Splenectomy

Journal of Medical Case Reports

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