what is literature review in german

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The Germanic Review: Literature, Culture, Theory, Volume 98, Issue 3 (2023)

The Germanic Review: Literature, Culture, Theory

Volume 98, Issue 3 is now available online:

https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/vger20/current

The Entanglements of Matter, Mind, and Meaning: Novalis's "Elastic Mode of Thinking"

Meryem Deniz

Vogelfrei : Marx and the Worker in Exile

Kracauer, Bachofen, and the "bedeutungsleere Naturfundament"

Carl Gelderloos

Hannah Arendt's Transatlantic Walter Benjamin

Cosima Mattner

Critique as  Counterproduction : Repair Work in Alexander Kluge

Jörg Kreienbrock

Sophie Johanna Schweiger

Book Reviews

Aby Warburg. Briefe in 2 Bänden  (Michael Diers & Steffen Haug)

Serzenando A. Vieira Neto

Attention and Distraction in Modern German Literature, Thought, and Culture  (Caroline Duttlinger)

Tyler Schroeder

Sound Writing: Experimental Modernism and the Poetics of Articulation  (Tobias Wilke)

Tanvi Solanki

The Editors welcome manuscripts of high analytic quality that are relevant to German literature, culture, and theory. 

The   Germanic Review  receives all manuscript submissions electronically via its ScholarOne Manuscripts site located at  https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ger .

If you have any other requests, please contact Oliver Simons, Executive Editor, at  [email protected] .

Authors interested in reviewing books, please contact the Book Review Editor André Flicker at  [email protected] . 

Published by Taylor & Francis, Inc., 530 Walnut Street, Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106

The Germanic Review  delivers the best of international scholarship in German studies. With contributors representing leading research institutions in the United States, Canada, France, Great Britain, Australia, and Germany, the journal features peer-reviewed articles on German literature and culture, as well as reviews of the latest books in the field. Most articles appear in English, although each year a few are entirely in German. Issues discuss prominent German artists and intellectuals; German national character; and German identity and historical memory. German scholars and students appreciate  The Germanic Review ’s analyses of German literature, culture, and theory, as well as the lives of German authors.

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• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process. 

Table of Contents

• What is the purpose of literature review? 
• a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction: 
• b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes: 
• c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: 
• d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts: 

How to write a good literature review 

• Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question: 
• Decide on the Scope of Your Review: 
• Select Databases for Searches: 
• Conduct Searches and Keep Track: 
• Review the Literature: 
• Organize and Write Your Literature Review: 
• How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal? 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2  

1. Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge. 

2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field. 

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3. Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research. 

4. Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered. 

5. Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research. 

6. Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature. 

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic. 

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies: 

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements. 

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources. 

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. 

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning. 

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Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements. 

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review. 

• Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field. 
• Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address. 
• Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research. 
• Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic. 
• Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review. 

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria. 

• Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement. 
• Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic. 
• Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature. 
• Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps. 
• Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review. 

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Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research. 

• Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective. 
• Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field. 
• Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice. 
• Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field. 
• Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community. 

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1  

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

• Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study. 
• Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore? 

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

• Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview? 
• Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region? 
• Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude? 

Select Databases for Searches:

• Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. 
• Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic. 

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

• Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques. 
• Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability. 
• Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references. 

Review the Literature:

• Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies. 
• Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research. 
• Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives. 
• Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions. 
• Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research? 

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

• Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches. 
• Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered. 
• Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). 
• Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research. 

Whether you’re exploring a new research field or finding new angles to develop an existing topic, sifting through hundreds of papers can take more time than you have to spare. But what if you could find science-backed insights with verified citations in seconds? That’s the power of Paperpal’s new Research feature!  

How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal?

Paperpal, an AI writing assistant, integrates powerful academic search capabilities within its writing platform. With the Research feature, you get 100% factual insights, with citations backed by 250M+ verified research articles, directly within your writing interface with the option to save relevant references in your Citation Library. By eliminating the need to switch tabs to find answers to all your research questions, Paperpal saves time and helps you stay focused on your writing.   

Here’s how to use the Research feature:  

• Ask a question: Get started with a new document on paperpal.com. Click on the “Research” feature and type your question in plain English. Paperpal will scour over 250 million research articles, including conference papers and preprints, to provide you with accurate insights and citations. 
• Review and Save: Paperpal summarizes the information, while citing sources and listing relevant reads. You can quickly scan the results to identify relevant references and save these directly to your built-in citations library for later access. 
• Cite with Confidence: Paperpal makes it easy to incorporate relevant citations and references into your writing, ensuring your arguments are well-supported by credible sources. This translates to a polished, well-researched literature review. 

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a good literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. By combining effortless research with an easy citation process, Paperpal Research streamlines the literature review process and empowers you to write faster and with more confidence. Try Paperpal Research now and see for yourself.  

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.  

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic. 

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods. 

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers.  Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved.  Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic.  Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings.  Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject.  It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review:  Introduction:   Provide an overview of the topic.  Define the scope and purpose of the literature review.  State the research question or objective.  Body:   Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology.  Critically analyze and evaluate each source.  Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.  Highlight any methodological limitations or biases.  Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research.  Conclusion:   Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review.  Highlight the research gap.  Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction.  Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows: 

References 

• Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234. 
• Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis. 
• Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center . 

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How to Write a Literature Review

What is a literature review.

• What Is the Literature
• Writing the Review

A literature review is much more than an annotated bibliography or a list of separate reviews of articles and books. It is a critical, analytical summary and synthesis of the current knowledge of a topic. Thus it should compare and relate different theories, findings, etc, rather than just summarize them individually. In addition, it should have a particular focus or theme to organize the review. It does not have to be an exhaustive account of everything published on the topic, but it should discuss all the significant academic literature and other relevant sources important for that focus.

This is meant to be a general guide to writing a literature review: ways to structure one, what to include, how it supplements other research. For more specific help on writing a review, and especially for help on finding the literature to review, sign up for a Personal Research Session .

The specific organization of a literature review depends on the type and purpose of the review, as well as on the specific field or topic being reviewed. But in general, it is a relatively brief but thorough exploration of past and current work on a topic. Rather than a chronological listing of previous work, though, literature reviews are usually organized thematically, such as different theoretical approaches, methodologies, or specific issues or concepts involved in the topic. A thematic organization makes it much easier to examine contrasting perspectives, theoretical approaches, methodologies, findings, etc, and to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of, and point out any gaps in, previous research. And this is the heart of what a literature review is about. A literature review may offer new interpretations, theoretical approaches, or other ideas; if it is part of a research proposal or report it should demonstrate the relationship of the proposed or reported research to others' work; but whatever else it does, it must provide a critical overview of the current state of research efforts. 

Literature reviews are common and very important in the sciences and social sciences. They are less common and have a less important role in the humanities, but they do have a place, especially stand-alone reviews.

Types of Literature Reviews

There are different types of literature reviews, and different purposes for writing a review, but the most common are:

• Stand-alone literature review articles . These provide an overview and analysis of the current state of research on a topic or question. The goal is to evaluate and compare previous research on a topic to provide an analysis of what is currently known, and also to reveal controversies, weaknesses, and gaps in current work, thus pointing to directions for future research. You can find examples published in any number of academic journals, but there is a series of Annual Reviews of *Subject* which are specifically devoted to literature review articles. Writing a stand-alone review is often an effective way to get a good handle on a topic and to develop ideas for your own research program. For example, contrasting theoretical approaches or conflicting interpretations of findings can be the basis of your research project: can you find evidence supporting one interpretation against another, or can you propose an alternative interpretation that overcomes their limitations?
• Part of a research proposal . This could be a proposal for a PhD dissertation, a senior thesis, or a class project. It could also be a submission for a grant. The literature review, by pointing out the current issues and questions concerning a topic, is a crucial part of demonstrating how your proposed research will contribute to the field, and thus of convincing your thesis committee to allow you to pursue the topic of your interest or a funding agency to pay for your research efforts.
• Part of a research report . When you finish your research and write your thesis or paper to present your findings, it should include a literature review to provide the context to which your work is a contribution. Your report, in addition to detailing the methods, results, etc. of your research, should show how your work relates to others' work.

A literature review for a research report is often a revision of the review for a research proposal, which can be a revision of a stand-alone review. Each revision should be a fairly extensive revision. With the increased knowledge of and experience in the topic as you proceed, your understanding of the topic will increase. Thus, you will be in a better position to analyze and critique the literature. In addition, your focus will change as you proceed in your research. Some areas of the literature you initially reviewed will be marginal or irrelevant for your eventual research, and you will need to explore other areas more thoroughly. 

Examples of Literature Reviews

See the series of Annual Reviews of *Subject* which are specifically devoted to literature review articles to find many examples of stand-alone literature reviews in the biomedical, physical, and social sciences. 

Research report articles vary in how they are organized, but a common general structure is to have sections such as:

• Abstract - Brief summary of the contents of the article
• Introduction - A explanation of the purpose of the study, a statement of the research question(s) the study intends to address
• Literature review - A critical assessment of the work done so far on this topic, to show how the current study relates to what has already been done
• Methods - How the study was carried out (e.g. instruments or equipment, procedures, methods to gather and analyze data)
• Results - What was found in the course of the study
• Discussion - What do the results mean
• Conclusion - State the conclusions and implications of the results, and discuss how it relates to the work reviewed in the literature review; also, point to directions for further work in the area

Here are some articles that illustrate variations on this theme. There is no need to read the entire articles (unless the contents interest you); just quickly browse through to see the sections, and see how each section is introduced and what is contained in them.

The Determinants of Undergraduate Grade Point Average: The Relative Importance of Family Background, High School Resources, and Peer Group Effects , in The Journal of Human Resources , v. 34 no. 2 (Spring 1999), p. 268-293.

This article has a standard breakdown of sections:

• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Some discussion sections

First Encounters of the Bureaucratic Kind: Early Freshman Experiences with a Campus Bureaucracy , in The Journal of Higher Education , v. 67 no. 6 (Nov-Dec 1996), p. 660-691.

This one does not have a section specifically labeled as a "literature review" or "review of the literature," but the first few sections cite a long list of other sources discussing previous research in the area before the authors present their own study they are reporting.

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Bibliographical Resources

• Bibliographie der deutschen Sprach-und Literaturwissenschaft An international bibliography of German literature and literary studies. The period from 1985 to the present is available online via the link above. For prior years consult the print edition available in Sterling (Starr Main Reference Room, Call Number Z2231 B53).
• Germanistik Online Datenbank Germanistik is the central international journal on the study of German Language and Literature. 50 years of German philology - the history of the discipline both systematized and critically reviewed in more than 60,000 abstracts - are available online and fully searchable.
• MLA International Bibliography Classified listing and subject index of scholarly books and articles on modern languages, literatures, folklore, and linguistics which has been compiled by the Modern Language Association of America since 1926
• Verfasser-Datenbank Over 13,400 lexicon articles on authors of German literature, ranging from the very beginnings to the present, are cross-linked in the database and their content can be accessed in a targeted manner using differentiated search criteria.

Core full text databases in German Studies at Yale

• DigiZeitschriften (German digital journal archive) A German JSTOR of sorts, providing full-text access to back runs of German journals in a wide range of humanistic disciplines: Anglistik, Bibliothekswesen, Geowissenschaften, Germanistik, Geschichte, Naturwissenschaften, Neuere Philologien, Rechtswissenschaft, Romanistik, Soziologie, Wirtschaftswissenschaften. more... less... Much like JSTOR, DigiZeitschriften provides the full text from the journal's inception to a date determined either by the journal's demise or a "moving wall," which is a year determined by the publisher, after which they do not make the full text available to DigiZeitschriften.
• Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek (EZB) A service provided and maintained by the University Library of Regensburg. It provides access to many German-language journal titles and to the full text of some, though not all, scholarly articles.
• German Literature Collection German Literature Collections brings together six individual German literature resources: Goethes Werke, Schillers Werke, Kafkas Werke, Brechts Werke, Die Deutsche Lyrik, and Bibliothek deutscher Klassiker (digital versions of titles from the Deutscher Klassiker Verlag). You may search in one collection, or across multiple collections simultaneously.
• Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, digitale Bibliothek: Zeitungen The Digital Library of the Berlin State Library provides access to numerous German-language historical newspapers, from the 19th Century to the 1940s. The emphasis of the database is on historical Prussian newspapers, but titles include Turkish immigrant newspapers, as well as German-language newspapers from Turkey and Argentina from the 1940s, as well as Colonial-era newspapers from East Africa. Titles included in the Digital Library are also accessible through the Zeitschriftendatenbank (ZDB). more... less... The Berlin State Library also recently launched ZEFYS, a portal for finding and using current, as well as historical newspapers from Germany and all over the world.
• ZEFYS A product of the Berlin State Library's Digital Library (see above). ZEFYS is a new portal for finding and using current, as well as historical newspapers from Germany and all over the world.
• Zeitschriften Datenbank (German Union Catalogue of Serials) In the ZDB, you will find serial titles, newspapers, databases, yearbooks etc., in short, everything that was and is being published periodically in printed or electronic form and that is available in German and Austrian libraries. On the European level access to digitized newspapers will be constantly expanded.

Select Journals in German Studies

Links to current holdings of key journals in German studies. If current issue is electronic only that link is provided, but we may also have in print (especially for the older volumes). Please search in Orbis by journal title or ISSN.

• Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte
• Germanic Review
• German Quarterly
• German Studies Review
• Journal of Austrian Studies
• Monatshefte
• New German Critique
• Text + Kritik
• Unterrichtspraxis

Literary reviews of German literature

Humanities Sozial- und Kulturgeschichte (H-Soz-u-Kult): Rezensionen is a communication and discussion platform for historians in  German-speaking countries. Among other things, it offers reviews of books, films and exhibitions on topics dealing with Germany's social and cultural history. Reviews are listed by publication date, but the interface will also let you limit your search by topic, historical era, and/or region.

IASL online provides online reviews in German on publications about German literature and culture. 

Lirez : Literaturwissenschaftliche Rezensionen is an online portal of book reviews and literary criticism relating to German literature, published by the Ludwig Maximilians Universität München. The Home Page links to reviews published within the last thirty days and users can also search for reviews by date, author considered, and the review's writer. As well as categories covering specific historical periods, other categories include: drama; historical semantics; criminality and the media; the psychology of literature; literary theory; and travel literature.

Literaturkritik.de: Rezensionsforum für Literatur und für Kulturwissenschaft is a free monthly publication that provides full-text online access to academic reviews of thousands of new releases on literary and cultural topics. The latest issue can be found here , but one can also browse through the archive of older issues, available here

SEHEPUNKTE . Reviews of History and Humanities (Geisteswissenschaften)

New books in German online is the electronic version of a bi-annual magazine which presents reviews of new titles in German. An independent committee of translators, literary scholars and representatives of the book trade choose the titles, which cover fiction, cultural studies, history, and writing for children. The reviews may be browsed alphabetically by author. Although the site is mainly aimed at British and American publishers, since these titles are particularly recommended for translation into English, it is of interest to graduate researchers and teachers and lecturers of German who require information on current developments in German literature.

Rezensionen online is   provided by the Österreichisches Bibliothekswerk (Forum of Catholic libraries in Austria). It includes an extensive collection of book reviews, mostly of literature acquired by Austrian public libraries.  

In addition, many of the leading German Studies journals, as well as some German newspapers and magazines (e.g. Kultur-Spiegel online , Die Zeit ) constantly publish book reviews on German literature.

Graduate student journals in German Studies

Edge (University of Massachusetts Amherst)

Focus on German Studies (University of Cincinnati)

New German Review (UCLA)

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German Literature as World Literature ed. by Thomas Oliver Beebee (review)

2016, Comparative Literature Studies

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The lyric poetry of courtly love, hartmann von aue, wolfram von eschenbach, gottfried von strassburg, nibelungenlied, post-classical middle high german literature.

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German literature

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• The Catholic Encyclopedia - German Literature
• The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe - German Literature
• History World - German Literature
• Jewish Virtual Library - German Literature
• German literature - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• German literature - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

German literature , German literature comprises the written works of the German-speaking peoples of central Europe . It has shared the fate of German politics and history: fragmentation and discontinuity. Germany did not become a modern nation-state until 1871, and the prior history of the various German states is marked by warfare, religious turmoil, and periods of economic decline. This fragmented development sets German literature apart from the national literatures of France and England, for instance, which enjoyed uninterrupted brilliance from the Middle Ages to the modern era. Nevertheless, German literature has experienced three periods of established greatness: the high Middle Ages ( c. 1160– c. 1230), the turn of the 18th to the 19th century (the “age of Goethe”), and the turn of the 19th to the 20th.

This article provides a concise historical survey of German literature. Its major periods, movements, works, and themes are discussed and set into their political and cultural context . The aim is to characterize major and representative works and ideas and not to attempt a complete or even thorough survey of authors and the literary scene.

Origins and Middle Ages

The Germanic tribes immigrating to mainland Europe from Scandinavia from the 1st century bc onward brought with them a rich culture . Since its language-related heritage was orally transmitted and its recipients saw no need to replace the physical presence of the singer of tales with written texts, most of it is lost. The rich mythology and epic -heroic poetry are partly recoverable from later written sources, all from the 13th century and beyond—the Old Norse Eddic poems, the German Nibelungenlied , and various poems about the hero Dietrich von Bern /Theodoric. Only broken bits of this culture remain: runic inscriptions, mythological motifs on gold amulets, a few magic incantations (the “Merseburger Zaubersprüche” [“Merseburg charms”], preserved in the Merseburg library, which reveal pre-Christian origins), and a 67-line fragment of a heroic song depicting a tragic clash between the warrior Hildebrand and his own son ( Hildebrandslied [ c. 800; “Hildebrand’s Song,” Eng. trans. The Hildebrandslied ]). The imagination of this nomadic warrior culture envisioned human destiny as being inescapably tragic. In Norse mythology , even the gods themselves fall prey to malice and revenge and are swallowed up in the cataclysm known as Ragnarǫk , the “Doom of the Gods.”

The society’s heroic pessimism and inability to free itself from revenge cycles made it ripe for a religion of reconciliation and atonement . The conversion of the Germans to Christianity (largely accomplished by the end of the 5th century) thus presented a great challenge: that of reeducating an entire people and of adapting and translating the literature of Christianity into a language that had no written tradition. The earliest known effort to this end is the remarkable late-4th-century Gothic Bible translation of Bishop Ulfilas . (In order to execute it, Ulfilas seems to have developed the Gothic alphabet.) Educational reforms instituted in the age of Charlemagne (768–814) brought scattered religious texts in one or another of the dialects of Old High German (for instance, Otfried of Weissenberg’s Evangelienbuch [ c. 870, “Gospel Book”], a rhymed version of the Gospels). In the late 11th and throughout the 12th century, religious literature in early Middle High German proliferated. These works warn of the sinfulness and perils of earthly life, painting it as an illusion and a net of the Devil to trap unwary fools. Their texts, which have no literary significance, dwell on the theme memento mori : think only of death and dying and live life as a preparation for its end. They arose out of conflict between church and state , the so-called Investiture Controversy (a power struggle between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire), and they served the interests of reactionary, ascetic movements toward monastic and church reform. They aimed at providing religious instruction for the laity—and were therefore written in the vernacular—but they were also a kind of propaganda rejecting the worldliness of secular rule and the subordination of the church to the state that occurred increasingly in the course of various imperial dynasties: Carolingian (750–887), Ottonian (936–1002), and Salian (1024–1125). It is a peculiar feature of German literary history that the first abundant texts in the German language reflect not mainstream culture and its secular manifestations but the conservative religious reaction against it.

High courtly literature: Middle High German Classicism

Cultural trends and mores unquestionably emanated from the German empire and the royal-imperial court, which from the 8th to the 13th century developed a rich and influential culture. Its literature was almost exclusively in the Latin language. The humanistic imperial culture and its politics were nourished from the idea of Classical revival. The motto renovatio imperii Romanorum (“renewal of the Roman Empire”) appears on German royal seals from the reign of Otto III on. The legitimacy of German rule rested on its derivation from Roman rule. Ideals of dress, behaviour, and speech were adapted from the Roman Empire’s ideals of the statesman and orator.

The values of the imperial courts were eagerly adopted by courts of dukes and counts. Beginning in the 12th century, these lesser feudal courts, first in France and Norman England, then in Germany, together produced one of the most brilliant bodies of literature in the West.

The literature of courtly society documents a civilizing process. It both represents and creates one of the most significant transformations of ethics and values experienced in the post-Roman West: the transformation from the rough-cut, brutal warrior values of early medieval Europe to courtly society’s ideals of restraint, humanity, elegance, and refined love.

In a period of some 20 years, about 1160 to 1180, German emerged as a literary language. It was a remarkable transformation. By the end of the Classical period, c. 1230, courtly society had produced a radiant literary flowering where apparently nothing (at least nothing written) had existed before.

“ Courtly love ” (the Provençal troubadours’ fin’amors , the Middle High German hôhe minne ) is the central theme of aristocratic lyric poetry from the 12th century to the end of the Middle Ages. A common stance of the courtly lover is long-suffering endurance of the coldness of an unapproachable, unyielding high noble lady whom he serves in the vain hope of some day winning her love. Love is suffering, sickness, and a magic spell that imposes patience and endurance on the lover. Hôhe minne is less an erotic experience than a process of ethical formation and of courtly education. The lover, held at bay by his lady, is made to polish his speech, his manners, and his virtues to a high standard of courtly excellence. He is denied her love until he passes her tests.

This typical posture of the courtly lover is found, for instance, in the verse of Reinmar von Hagenau and Heinrich von Morungen . The idea of yoking the erotic to a program of education is foreign to modern sensibilities but consistent with a long tradition (Greek and Roman) of the disciplining of desire to create self-control and a mature, civil character.

But the 12th century, the great divide between the ancient and the modern world, also raised individual experience of love to the level of an ideal for the first time in the West, and tensions between the artifice of love pedagogy and the experience of passion are everywhere evident in courtly literature. Walther von der Vogelweide , the greatest of the German courtly poets, commemorated , in his poem “Unter der Linden” (“Under the Linden Tree”), a love meeting that was mutual, intense, and passionate, in which the woman delights in uninhibitedly yielding to her lover. The poem is a challenge to the poetry of hôhe minne , high courtly love, and its chaste eroticism. It represents a kind of love that Walther called playfully “low love” ( niedere minne ) but valued the more highly for its naturalness and spontaneity. This conception was probably favoured by the philosopher-teacher Peter Abelard and his learned student and lover, Héloïse , in their tragic relationship.

Courtly romance

Courtly romance , a new narrative form in the 12th century, was the major vehicle for Middle High German Classicism. The earliest courtly narratives were “romances of antiquity.” They show Achilles, Hector, Ulysses, and Aeneas behaving like 12th-century chivalric knights , fighting boldly but with noble restraint on horseback with lances, wondering in long inner monologues whether they can win the love of their ladies, and writing them love letters and poems. The northern German poet Heinrich von Veldeke produced the Eneide ( c. 1170; written in an intermediate dialect that contained elements of both Low and High German), a “modern” version of Virgil’s Aeneid adapted from the anonymous Old French Roman d’Énéas . It turns on the two loves of Aeneas—one passionate and destructive (Dido); the other chaste, courtly, and the foundation of family and empire (Lavinia). The Trojan War was another popular theme from antiquity.

But the tales received from the ancient world paled before the wild popularity of the figure of King Arthur and his knights ( see Arthurian legend ). Arthurian romance in the wake of its great inventor, the French poet Chrétien de Troyes , overwhelmed other contenders for dominance of narrative poetry.

A Swabian knight, poet, theoretician of love, and writer of Minnesang (courtly love lyrics), Hartmann von Aue was the first to bring the new tales of King Arthur to Germany. He adapted and translated into elegant Middle High German verses two of Chrétien’s romances: Erec ( c. 1180–85), from Érec et Énide , and Iwein ( c. 1200), from Yvain; ou, le chevalier au lion . These works created a new structure for narrative and with it a new conception of the destiny of the hero: his education and gradual achievement of ethical perfection through making amends for shameful conduct, expunging guilt, resisting temptation, and avoiding behaviour conducive to tragic failure. Erec is the tale of a knight’s quest to repair his reputation, damaged when he neglects his duties as knight to spend all his time with his bride. In Iwein a great knight falls from grace by disregarding a seemingly trivial deadline. Denounced before King Arthur’s court by his wife, Iwein loses his mind and is reduced to living naked and wild in the forest. Restored by a magic salve and accompanied by a lion whom he has helped fight a dragon, he sets out on a series of grand chivalric undertakings, rescuing the helpless and those unjustly accused. Eventually, his acts of justice and compassion bring about a reconciliation with his wife.

The obsession with guilt expunged and shame overcome found its most poignant expression in Hartmann’s two “chivalric legends,” Gregorius ( c. 1185–95) and Der arme Heinrich ( c. 1195; “Poor Henry”). Gregorius is a chivalric-Christian adaptation of the Oedipus story, a tale of double incest in which the tragic hero, born from an incestuous union and later wed to his own mother, is raised to the position of pope after 17 years of suicidal penance for his sins as knight and lover. “Poor Henry,” a wealthy, virtuous, and famous knight, is stricken with leprosy and loses his possessions and standing. The only medicine that can cure his disease is the blood of a virgin willing to sacrifice herself for him. The youngest daughter of the family that takes him in at once offers herself and refuses to take no for an answer. Ultimately her sacrifice is rejected and the will accepted in place of the deed. Miraculously cured, the grand lord marries the young peasant girl.

Hartmann’s elegant simplicity and his gentle, noble sentimentality were greatly admired both in his own time and since. (Selections from his works can be found in English translation in The Narrative Works of Hartmann von Aue , 1983.) His younger contemporary, Gottfried von Strassburg, crowned him with the laurel wreath and praised him extravagantly. No less an author than Thomas Mann admired Hartmann’s legends of great sin and profound forgiveness; his late novel Der Erwählte (1951; The Holy Sinner ) adapts Hartmann’s Gregorius .

The high point of Classical Middle High German literature is the work of the two great literary rivals Wolfram von Eschenbach and Gottfried von Strassburg . Wolfram presents himself as an unlearned, rough-cut genius:

I am Wolfram von Eschenbach, and I know a thing or two about poetry.…I was born to knighthood, and any woman who lovesme for my writing instead of my boldness must be weak in her wits.…I don’t know a single letter of the alphabet.

Gottfried, the elegant, highly educated humanist-courtier poet, classified Wolfram as a teller of wild stories persuasive to “dull minds.” Wolfram’s style is eccentric and brilliant. His works, with a high ethical seriousness at their core, are full of a robust humour that can shade into the grotesque.

Wolfram adapted his major work, Parzival , from Chrétien de Troyes’s unfinished Perceval; ou, le conte du graal ( Perceval: The Tale of the Grail ) and completed it about 1205. He also wrote a long fragment of a heroic legend ( chanson de geste , or “song of heroic deeds”), Willehalm , and two short fragments called Titurel , a spin-off from the Grail story begun in Parzival . (Wolfram probably stopped working on Willehalm and Titurel at some time after 1217.) In addition to these works, he composed a number of lyric poems.

Parzival has been compared with Dante’s Divine Comedy and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ’s Faust . It is a kind of summation of the human condition in its 12th-century embodiment: the sinful knight questing to reconcile the demands of God with those of life in the world. Parzival is the simpleton with a grand destiny. He becomes king of the Grail castle and overcomes his youthful sins by steadfastly loving his wife, by learning discipline , compassion, and courtesy, and by remaining loyal to his own human destiny as knight and fighter. In fact, Parzival seems to reiterate the parable of the prodigal son: the good man who has sinned and fallen into doubt of God ( zwîvel ) is the candidate for grace. Parzival shares with Goethe’s Faust the idea that the very effort to perfect flawed human nature has redemptive power. The work contains a grand symbol of this obligation to maintain life and destiny, raised to the level of a religious symbol: the Holy Grail . Parzival becomes king of the Grail by remaining a knight and loyal husband. In this he is an answer to Hartmann’s Gregorius, who could find redemption only in complete renunciation of his human identity. Wolfram’s Parzival is a rejection of ascetic Christian values and a grand confirmation of the worth of life in this world.

Gottfried’s Tristan und Isolde is an unfinished masterpiece of some 19,000 lines. Its source was the Roman de Tristan by the Anglo-Norman poet Thomas. Gottfried died about 1210 without completing it. In almost every point it is the opposite of Wolfram’s work. It is a tragedy of adulterous love whose hero is fatally bound by a love potion to Isolde, the wife of King Marke of England. The work is revolutionary in many ways. It rejects a strong tendency in tales and lyrics of “courtly love” to make the woman into the man’s educator and an administrator of courtliness and virtue. The concept of love in Tristan crosses the aforementioned great divide between the ancient world (in which love was regarded as an ennobling, educating force) and the modern world (which perceived love as obsessive, a lofty but destructive passion). The tragedy of Tristan and Isolde contradicts the love pedagogy that had shaped Érec and Énite, Iwein, and Parzival into models of marital fidelity and courtly humanity. Tragic love is still ennobling, but it ennobles by glorifying suffering, melancholy , death, and the fusing of joy and sorrow in love. Gottfried dedicates his work to the elite of “noble hearts” who can appreciate the exquisite benefits of tragic passion.

The work is also revolutionary in its style and form. It is poetry of the highest order. The language of secular narrative poetry in Germany was a newborn, so to speak; at least it was no more than half a generation old. But in Tristan und Isolde the German language achieves a high point of elegance, allusiveness, and sophistication that it would not reach again until the late 18th and 19th centuries. Gottfried studied in the humanistic Latin schools of France or in those of Germany, and he brought a wealth of Classical knowledge to his composition . In Tristan the traditions of Classical Latin literature inform, deepen, and strengthen German poetry.

The hero is no longer a chivalric knight earning fame and love by combat but rather a courtier and an artist who makes his way in the life of a royal court by eloquence and talent, by his skill in music and the hunt. As in any court novel, deceit loses some of its negative moral charge and becomes a skill parallel to art and learning. Tristan and Isolde become tricksters and illusion makers in order to conceal their affair from her husband and his uncle, the cuckold King Marke.

In the work there is an idyllic “adventure” when the lovers, banished from the court, live in a magical “cave of lovers.” Their cathedral-like love temple is interpreted by the poet as an allegory of the virtues of love.

The other major epic from this remarkable decade, 1200–10, takes the reader into a social and ethical world designed as the antithesis to that of the civilized, refined courtesy of the romance. The Nibelungenlied (“Song of the Nibelungs”) is a return to a more primitive, pre-courtly, Germanic heroic world. The hero, Siegfried , arouses envy and suspicion by marrying Kriemhild , sister of King Gunther of the Burgundians. Her family, led by the dark assassin Hagen , murders him treacherously and steals the fabulous Nibelung treasure. Years later she remarries, lures her family to visit, and exacts her revenge in a disastrous battle that leaves thousands on both sides dead, including all the protagonists.

Parzival progresses from an unthinking brutality to a sensitive, compassionate humanity. Kriemhild goes in the opposite direction; she reverts from courtly modesty to mayhem and raving. Deceit, assassination, and gruesome revenge are the major elements of this work, and they unfold against the background of a thin veneer of politeness, courtesy, and courtly restraint overlying the characters’ behaviour. The work is a reactionary rejection of the civilizing trends advocated by courtly literature. It returns to the heroic Germanic past to construct a doomed world where the tragic demise of whole peoples was inevitable and glorious at the same time, courteousness was stupidity, and trust and love were childishly naive.

The flowering of Middle High German courtly literature lasted about 60 years. In its wake literature did not subside; it mushroomed. But these latecomer authors, interesting as their works can be, are imitators, and, in the shadow of a Classical period, they sensed their own mediocrity. The major figures of this post-Classical era are Heinrich von dem Türlîn, who wrote an obscure and lengthy baroque romance of Sir Gawain called Die Krône ( c. 1220–30; The Crown ); Rudolf von Ems , who authored various longer epics and a chronicle of world history; and Konrad von Würzburg , a versatile stylist who continued the Classical style of Gottfried in a variety of narrative works— Partonopier und Meliur (“Partonopier and Meliur”), Der Schwanritter (“The Knight of the Swan”), and Engelhard . His magnum opus is Der Trojanerkrieg , a courtly retelling of the Trojan War in an epic poem of more than 40,000 lines ( Parzival was long at about 25,000 lines).

The autumn of courtly forms corresponded to a decline in the political position of Germany brought about by the victory of the papacy in the Investiture Controversy and the consequent weakening of central political authority. The “Holy Roman Empire” proclaimed by the propaganda of the emperor Frederick Barbarossa existed mostly in name and ceremonial form. The last great emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty , Frederick II (1220–50), moved the imperial residence to Sicily. This period set loose on Germany the plagues that ravaged the political life of that country until its reunification in 1989–90: political fragmentation, provincialism, dependence on Italian and French culture, and a lack of confidence in its own culture that alternated with convulsive attempts to establish German culture and national identity.

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• http://orcid.org/0009-0006-9680-7969 Hanna A A Röwer ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2602-9277 Franziska A Herbst and
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3575-3817 Sven Schwabe
• Institute for General Practice and Palliative Care , Hanover Medical School , Hanover , Germany
• Correspondence to Ms Hanna A A Röwer, Institute for General Practice and Palliative Care, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany; roewer.hanna{at}mh-hannover.de

Background Regional hospice and palliative care networks (RHPCNs) are increasingly being established to improve integrative care for patients with life-limiting illnesses. This scoping review aimed at identifying and synthesising international literature on RHPCNs, focusing on structures, outcomes, benefits, success factors and good practices.

Method Following Arksey and O’Malley’s (2005) framework, a search of four electronic databases (CINAHL, Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection) was conducted on 7 July 2023. Additionally, a manual search of reference lists of the identified articles was performed. Original research, qualification theses and descriptive reports on RHPCNs at a structural level were included.

Findings Two researchers analysed 777 article abstracts, screened 104 full texts and selected 24 articles. The included studies predominantly used qualitative designs. RHPCNs self-identify as local stakeholders, employ coordination offices and steering committees, and actively recruit network partners. Outcomes included improved professional practices, enhanced quality of care, increased patient utilisation of regional care offerings and improved patient transitions between care providers. Success factors included clear coordination, transparent communication, strategic planning and resource-securing strategies.

Conclusions The analysis identified key RHPCN success factors such as effective communication and adaptive leadership. Despite the need for further research, the findings emphasise RHPCNs’ potential to improve palliative care and encourage policymaker support.

Other This scoping review is part of the research project HOPAN, which aims at assessing and analysing RHPCNs in Germany. The project is funded by the German Innovation Fund of the Federal Joint Committee (G-BA) (Grant N° 01VSF22042; funding period: 01/2023–12/2024).

• Hospice care
• Palliative Care
• Case Management
• Supportive care
• Communication

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/spcare-2024-004974

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WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPIC

The existing literature recognises regional hospice and palliative care networks (RHPCNs) as promising structural approaches for optimising end-of-life care. A comprehensive overview of RHPCN structures and benefits is lacking. A scoping review was considered appropriate to synthesise the literature and address research gaps.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

The present review provided an understanding of RHPCNs’ nuanced organisational structures, multifaceted outcomes and benefits (eg, improved professional practices, enhanced client services), and specific success factors (eg, transparent communication, strategic planning, resource securing strategies for sustainability).

HOW THIS STUDY MIGHT AFFECT RESEARCH, PRACTICE, OR POLICY

The findings may guide efforts to refine and strengthen RHPCN structures and activities, thereby bolstering the ability of RHPCNs to provide effective and integrated end-of-life care. Policymakers and stakeholders may use the findings to improve the structural frameworks and funding conditions of RHPCNs.

Introduction

Effective palliative care requires collaboration and coordination among various healthcare professionals, organisations and community resources. 1 2 Thus, the emergence of regional hospice and palliative care networks (RHPCNs) shows promise for enhancing the delivery of comprehensive and integrated care for patients with life-limiting illnesses at a structural level.

An RHPCN is a structured collaborative system encompassing a wide array of stakeholders in a specific geographic region. RHPCNs bring together various healthcare providers, organisations and services to address the complex and interconnected healthcare challenges faced by patients and communities. Unlike isolated cases of provider cooperation, RHPCNs collaborate at a structural level, with key stakeholders working together to improve healthcare delivery in palliative and hospice settings in their local region. RHPCNs aim at facilitating the sharing of expertise, resources and good practices, ultimately optimising the delivery of palliative care across different contexts, including hospitals, long-term care facilities and outpatient care settings. 3 4

Given the increasing implementation of RHPCNs, 5–8 a comprehensive understanding of their structures, benefits and success factors is crucial to guide their continued development and refinement. A scoping review may help to achieve this by mapping and synthesising the literature on RHPCNs, exploring the range of evidence available to identify key themes and research gaps.

The present scoping review aimed at generating an overview of the current knowledge and understanding of RHPCNs. Specifically, it addressed the following question: What is known about RHPCNs worldwide, with regard to (a) their structure, (b) their benefits and outcomes, and (c) their success factors and good practices?

Through this systematic scoping review, the study sought to inform both current and prospective RHPCN providers and funders about the state of knowledge on RHPCNs, while also drawing researchers’ attention to gaps in the scientific data. Additionally, the results aimed at guiding the further development of RHPCNS through recommendations and evaluation frameworks to improve network maturity. The work comprised part of the broader HOPAN research project. 9

The research question necessitated a methodology that would offer a comprehensive overview of the existing literature. Scoping reviews are designed to capture a wide range of information, allowing for a broad and diverse collection of knowledge. Consequently, for the present study, a scoping review was preferred to a systematic review, as the research question called for an open, exploratory approach.

The scoping review followed the five-step methodological framework of Arksey and O’Malley 10 : (1) identifying the research question(s), (2) identifying the relevant studies, (3) selecting the studies, (4) charting the data, and (5) collecting, summarising and reporting the results.

Protocol and registration

The present scoping review has not been registered. To enable transparent documentation and to ensure replicability, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews checklist 11 and a review protocol were used to both plan and conduct the review, as well as to guide the reporting of the results.

Eligibility criteria

Articles were assessed and selected on the basis of the study population and setting, as well as the publication language and article type. As RHPCNs are a rather recent phenomenon, the review search period was left open. Publications in both German and English were included in the review. English contributions were accepted in order to capture results from around the world, while German articles were included to generate additional insights into the authors’ local context.

The review considered original research, scientific qualification theses and descriptive reports, as these types of publications typically follow rigorous methodologies, ensuring systematic and thorough investigation. Limiting the review to these types of publications also aimed at ensuring the credibility, validity and relevance of the included literature. Congress abstracts were excluded because these often lack sufficient detail on methodology and results to guarantee scientific quality.

Information sources

A comprehensive search of the electronic databases CINAHL, Google Scholar, PubMed and Web of Science Core Collection was conducted on 7 July 2023. These databases were selected to provide broad coverage of different disciplines. Additional databases were considered redundant or irrelevant. The compilation of full texts relied on the resources of the Hannover Medical School library.

Search strategy

The search strategy was developed by HR, with support from SvS and FH. The initial approach involved compiling a list of key articles deemed essential for answering the research question. 5 12–16 The search strategy was then iteratively adjusted until it included all of the identified key articles. Additional grey literature was sought via Google Scholar. Reference lists of the full texts were hand-searched to identify further relevant studies.

The following search strategy was used in PubMed:

(network[Tiab] OR networks[Tiab] OR networking[Tiab] AND rural[Tiab] OR regional[Tiab] OR local[Tiab] AND ‘palliative care’[MeSH Terms] OR ‘hospice care’[MeSH Terms] OR ‘terminal care’[MeSH Terms] OR palliative[Tiab] OR ‘terminally ill’[Tiab] OR ‘terminal illness’[Tiab] OR ‘terminal illnesses’[Tiab] OR ‘terminal disease’[Tiab] OR ‘terminal diseases’[Tiab] OR hospice[Tiab] OR hospices[Tiab] OR ‘end of life’[Tiab] OR eol[Tiab] OR ‘life’s end’[Tiab] OR ‘advanced care planning’[Tiab] OR ‘advanced illness’[Tiab] OR ‘advanced illnesses’[Tiab] OR ‘end stage disease’[Tiab] OR ‘end stage illness’[Tiab] OR ‘end stage illnesses’[Tiab] OR ‘end stage diseases’[Tiab])

This search strategy was adapted for the other databases according to the individual database standards, and retested to ensure that key articles in the respective databases were identified.

Selection of sources of evidence

To be included in the review, studies were required to focus specifically on RHPCNs comprised of interdisciplinary providers in hospice and palliative care settings, working at a structural level. Additionally, studies were only included if their population was a regional healthcare network promoting collaboration and coordination among different healthcare service providers in a specific geographic region. These networks were required to involve care providers from various health professions and disciplines, such as physicians, nurses, social workers, therapists and other experts from outpatient and/or inpatient facilities. Studies focused solely on specific cases of collaboration between individual providers were excluded, given the research objective to analyse structurally operating networks, rather than isolated instances of collaborative effort. Finally, studies were included only if they related to hospice or palliative care settings (ie, networks addressing the care of individuals with life-limiting illnesses at the end-of-life and their families).

Data charting

All of the retrieved articles were imported into EndNote 20 reference management software (Clarivate, Philadelphia, USA). After screening for duplicates, two researchers (HR and SvS) independently reviewed the titles and abstracts of the remaining studies. Documentation of the main reasons for exclusion was used to reach consensus. Both researchers independently moved excluded studies to separate EndNote groups according to the exclusion criteria: (1) other population, (2) other research setting, (3) other publication type or (4) other language. Researcher decisions were subsequently compared. In the event of disagreement, consensus was sought. Where consensus was not reached, a third researcher (FH) was consulted for clarification. In the next step, two researchers (HR and SvS) independently reviewed the full text of the remaining studies, according to the aforementioned criteria.

All of the included articles provided information on at least one of the three aspects covered by the research question. The analysis of RHPCN structures relied on data regarding their organisation and operational framework. The examination of benefits and outcomes referred to studies describing the effects of RHPCNs on patients and their families, as well as local professionals. Finally, the identification of RHPCN good practices and success factors relied on studies highlighting established and recognised methods and processes leading to optimal RHPCN conditions. Benefits, outcomes, good practices and success factors that were listed in articles as potentially significant but not actually observed were not included.

Critical appraisal of individual sources of evidence

No quality assessment of the reported evidence was conducted, due to the chosen form of review and the immediate need for evidence to support an ongoing research project.

Synthesis of results

Studies were included if they provided information on at least one of the following three topics: (1) structures, (2) benefits and outcomes, and (3) success factors and good practices. Information on these topics was compiled in a table.

The search resulted in 24 articles for the final review, including one article identified through a hand search.

A total of 1089 records were identified from CINAHL (n=248), Google Scholar (n=30), PubMed (n=362) and Web of Science Core Collection (n=449) (see figure 1 ). Prior to the screening process, 313 duplicate records were removed, leaving 776 unique records for further assessment. During the screening phase, the abstracts and titles of each of the 776 records were reviewed for study eligibility. This resulted in the exclusion of 670 records for the following reasons: study population other than structural networks (n=644), study setting other than hospice and palliative care settings (n=23), other publication type (n=2), or published in a language other than English or German (n=2). Following the initial screening, the full texts of 105 potentially relevant articles were sought for retrieval. However, two of these articles could not be retrieved. Hence, a total of 103 full texts were assessed for eligibility. From these articles, further exclusions were made based on the following criteria: study population other than structural networks (n=51), study setting other than hospice and palliative care settings (n=2), other publication type (n=15), or published in a language other than English or German (n=12). A hand search of the reference lists of the chosen full texts resulted in the inclusion of one further paper. Ultimately, 24 studies were included in the systematic review.

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Flow diagram.

Characteristics of sources of evidence

The included 24 studies focused on RHPCNs in different countries, with the majority (n=10) based in Canada. 3 17–25 Five articles provided insights into RHPCNs in different regions of Australia, 16 26–29 five originated from Germany 12–15 30 and two were based in the USA. 31 32 One article explored the formation and evaluation of RHPCNs in the Netherlands. 5 Finally, one article focused on the experiences of community nurses in RHPCNs based in the UK. 8 The earliest study was published in 1980 31 and only a small number of articles (n=6) were published in the last 10 years since the database search. 12–15 24 30 These more recent studies primarily stemmed from Germany. 12–15 Most articles were published in 2001, 8 28 between 2005 and 2007, 3 5 10 21 26 29 between 2009 and 2011, 16–20 22 and in 2017 12 13 (see figure 2 ).

Publications (full texts) by year and country of origin.

Thirteen studies drew on qualitative research in the form of interviews and focus groups. 3 5 8 12–14 19 21 22 26 27 29 30 Document analysis was applied in five studies, 3 5 16 18 19 mainly describing the establishment and structural composition of RHPCNs. While the use of surveys was noted in seven studies, 5 12 14 18 20–22 only one study used a survey as their sole data source. 20 The number of network participants varied across studies, from 1 15 19 23–25 27 30 32 to 13. 20 The number of interviewees in studies reporting this information ranged from 1 17 to 20, 19 with an average of 11. The number of focus group or workshop participants in studies reporting this data ranged from 8 32 to 106, 28 with an average of 42. The number of survey participants in studies reporting this data ranged from 12 26 to 61, 20 with an average of 25. Additionally, two studies 23 30 analysed a total of n=43 012 patient data sets.

Results of individual sources of evidence

In the following tables present the principal data pertaining to the articles and their content in relation to the research questions (see tables 1–6 ).

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Summarised characteristics of the included studies (part 1)

Summarised characteristics of the included studies (part 2)

Summarised characteristics of the included studies (part 3)

Summarised characteristics of the included studies (part 4)

Summarised characteristics of the included studies (part 5)

Summarised characteristics of the included studies (part 6)

The findings of the scoping review are presented in accordance with the three topics covered by the research question.

Seventeen articles 5 8 12 13 15 17–20 22 23 25 28–32 addressed RHPCN structures. Taken together, these articles provided a comprehensive overview of two central RHPCN themes: network role and organisational structure. In more detail, 14 articles 5 8 12 13 15 17 19 23 28–32 addressed network role and 14 articles 5 8 12 13 15 17–20 25 29–32 addressed organisational structure.

Network role

RHPCNs were found to contribute to collaboration and the efficient delivery of patient-centred care. Some studies emphasised the central role played by RHPCNs in sustaining interprofessional collaboration and cooperation. 17 21 30 Two studies described RHPCNs as a central point of information exchange between regional providers, 25 29 while other studies showed that RHPCNs aim at improving the flow of information through centralised information platforms. 19 Some articles positioned RHPCNs as strategic management tools within health systems, describing them as multi-institutional systems for coordination or consolidation, involved in planning and evaluation, rather than policy. 8 31 Several authors further indicated that RHPCNs act as catalysts for sustained collaboration, 20 engage in advocacy through coordination and programme evaluation, 32 and expand to new target groups, fostering diverse partnerships. 12 The included studies varied in their descriptions of the extended functions of RHPCNs, which included establishing new provider facilities (eg, branch offices) or completely new regional offerings, 15 and serving as catalysts for organisational and stakeholder organisation. 23 28 Several authors also indicated that RHPCNs may play a governance role, 19 highlighting diverse functions ranging from coordinating volunteers to exerting political influence, 28 29 while also suggesting the importance of formal structures to facilitate commitment and alignment.

Overall, the included studies showed that RHPCNs facilitate interprofessional collaboration through team-based approaches emphasising ethical awareness. 17 In addition, several authors argued that RHPCNs align with larger healthcare strategies, recognising their evolving nature. 8 12 15

Organisational structure

The included studies identified differing RHPCN organisational models, based on various forms of cooperation. These included cooperation agreements, 13 20 cooperation via coordination offices or steering committees, 13 15 and cooperation with no formal agreement in place but the intention to share costs. 32 This highlights the adaptive nature of these networks. A qualitative study of n=10 network coordinators described partnerships within RHPCNs as expansive, including hospitals, general practitioners, specialised doctors, outpatient care services, inpatient care homes, local authorities, pharmacies and aid suppliers. 12 One study found that some RHPCNs had approximately 100 member organisations. 18 The authors of three other papers described that RHPCNs focus on expanding local educational services, adapting to external policy frameworks and accommodating different palliative care service models. 15 23 28 One publication noted that local stakeholder-driven networks adopt inclusive structures, uniting leaders from numerous organisations. 21

Another study described that RHPCN organisational structures vary in accordance with internal and external factors, such as structural disparities and funding challenges. Variations in interorganisational cooperation may pose further complexities. 19 Two studies described RHPCNs as constantly evolving in response to government guidance. 8 29 These same studies also described how the influence of external policy frameworks on service models 8 29 can challenge structural uniformity. Furthermore, two studies reported structural inequalities within RHPCNs due to inadequate funding, variable palliative care capacity, and a lack of standardised information systems. 5 19

In summary, the investigated studies suggest that RHPCNs are remarkably adaptable to local contexts. Furthermore, they navigate challenges through diverse structures, promote interprofessional collaboration and contribute to strategic health priorities.

Outcomes and benefits

Eighteen articles 3 5 8 13 15 17–23 25–27 30–32 addressed the outcomes and benefits of RHPCNs, underlining two main themes: professional practice benefits and client service benefits. Both of these categories were covered by all of the 18 articles, with consistent themes emerging.

Professional practice benefits

Various studies described that interdisciplinary collaboration and a team-based approach could improve coordination and communication at an interdisciplinary level. 5 8 17 27 31 Some of the publications noted that the integration of comprehensive pain and bereavement management skills through networking could also contribute significantly to holistic patient care. 3 17 26–28 Two studies based in Australia and Canada, respectively, identified that networking improved both ethical awareness and knowledge of legislation, promoting greater compliance with legislation and models of ethical healthcare. 17 27 In addition, some authors argued that networking could facilitate greater collaboration between healthcare professionals and ensure a consistently high quality of patient care. 5 8 19–21 26 Professional practice was also described as being strengthened through the exchange of valuable information and further training within the network. 26 28 32

Studies also identified that improvements in symptom management and the introduction of regional standardised assessment procedures, both associated with RHPCNs, could significantly improve the effectiveness of patient care. 20 22 23 30 31 Four studies described that networking could promote the efficient use of resources, knowledge sharing and interdisciplinary cooperation, enabling the optimal use of healthcare resources. 13 15 23 30 In addition, three studies showed how the culture of collaboration fostered by RHPCNs, as evidenced by their greater transparency and promotion of effective conflict resolution, had a positive impact on primary caregiver satisfaction. 5 19 21

Client service benefits

In addition to the client benefits derived from the improved professional practice associated with RHPCNs, studies also identified a number of concrete benefits to local communities. As an example, six papers described that RHPCNs facilitate better communication and coordination among healthcare professionals, leading to improved access to healthcare services and continuity of care for their respective populations. 5 13 15 19 21 23 In addition, two studies identified a reduction in emergency visits and the introduction of evidence-based practices in RHPCNs as a result of networking. 22 31 Two further articles explained that bereavement support and strong ethical awareness among professionals may significantly contribute to the expansion of holistic end-of-life care offerings. 17 This outcome could also be promoted by more effective pain management skills in RHPCNs. 17 27 Studies also revealed that RHPCNs can increase public awareness and political influence with respect to local end-of-life issues. Increased public awareness of such issues could facilitate access and increase support from current or prospective funders. 18 19 23 32

Success factors and good practices

Twenty-four articles addressed RHPCN success factors and good practices. The articles strongly advocated for interdisciplinary collaboration and team-based approaches to improve patient care and coordination across healthcare providers. 8 13 16–19 21 25 Six studies also highlighted effective leadership and governance structures as crucial to the success of RHPCNs, ensuring clear direction, commitment and the ability to navigate complex dynamics. 8 13 16 17 19 21 Moreover, several authors argued that effective coordination is a crucial success factor for overall healthcare delivery, encompassing streamlined care coordination, standardised practices and centralised capacities. 13 15 20 21 30 Seven studies indicated that the establishment of robust networks and open communication are pivotal in facilitating collaboration, knowledge sharing and overall effectiveness in RHPCNs. 8 13 15 17 22 26 30 Four studies identified transparency and trust as critical factors for fostering effective relationships between stakeholders, healthcare providers and the community, thereby increasing a network’s impact. 15 21 22 30 Flexibility and adaptability were also emphasised, in recognition of the dynamic nature of healthcare environments and the need for RHPCNs to evolve in response to changing circumstances. 8 15 19 21

Seven articles stressed the need for sustainable resource management, including financial considerations and incentives, to ensure long-term viability and effectiveness. 5 8 17 18 22 30 In particular, sustainable healthcare practices, including efficient resource use, were highlighted as essential for the long-term success and impact of RHPCNs. 15 17 22

The provision of bereavement support was noted as an integral aspect of RHPCNs, underlining the importance of addressing the emotional and psychological needs of patients and their family caregivers. 17 22 28 Various articles 3 14 17–20 26 32 emphasised the importance of comprehensive patient care, including thorough pain management and bereavement support. In addition, four studies highlighted the implementation of patient-centred care, prioritising patient needs and preferences and ensuring more personalised and effective healthcare. 8 14 18 25 Continuous quality improvement and rigorous evaluation processes were also advocated to ensure the continued success and effectiveness of RHPCNs in meeting the evolving needs of patients and communities. 8 14 15 17 21 22 30 One study showed that the common language used within RHPCNs may help patients understand the procedures and implications across different settings, enabling them to make more informed decisions. 23

Seven studies identified education and training programmes as essential for healthcare professionals within these networks, promoting continuous learning, skills development, and the integration of innovative approaches, as well as professional confidence. 14 15 17 26 28 29 In this context, collaborative resource utilisation was emphasised as an effective strategy, encouraging the pooling of expertise and resources to optimise service delivery and improve overall healthcare outcomes. 26 28 32 One study showed that agreement over the sharing of medical aids (eg, diffusers, walking aids) across all RHPCN providers could simplify patient transfers between facilities. 23

Six studies recognised community engagement as another RHPCN success factor, emphasising public involvement in, awareness of, and support for healthcare initiatives. 17 18 20 21 29 32 In this vein, community outreach and the promotion of public awareness were highlighted as key strategies for fostering community involvement and understanding, while promoting the central role played by RHPCNs. 29 31 32 One paper identified political support and advocacy as influential for shaping favourable policies and creating environments conducive to the effective operation of healthcare networks. 17

Summary of the evidence

The results of the scoping review highlight the crucial role played by RHPCNs in fostering collaboration, enhancing patient care and contributing to the sustainability of the healthcare system. The identified success factors and good practices provide a roadmap for optimising the effectiveness and impact of RHPCNs in delivering quality, accessible and sustainable palliative care services to patients and communities in need. The geographical diversity of the studies—encompassing full texts from six countries across three continents, plus abstracts from seven other countries (including one from a fourth continent)—and nearly 40-year range of publication (ie, from 1980 to 2019), reflect the global importance and ongoing development of RHPCNs.

The findings can be compared with those of previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses on healthcare networks, particularly in terms of good practices and success factors. In line with the present review, these studies have underlined that healthcare networks are most effective when they have structural features that promote connection and communication, and when they are well managed with effective leadership. 33–36 One scoping review identified success factors such as clearly defined responsibilities and tasks, alongside a coordinating position where possible. Although effective leadership emerged as key to network performance in the present scoping review and other studies of health networks, 33–36 some studies have also shown that tensions can arise in healthcare networks between the moderating mechanisms of collaboration and control, due to the confluence of different structures, ways of working, and objectives. 37 38 The simultaneous use and development of new structures, behaviours and goals has been suggested as a way to manage these tensions. 37 This approach may also be relevant to RHPCNs, though it was not explicitly identified in the present review.

The ability to connect with other stakeholders based on commonly agreed standards is essential for the collaborative delivery of patient-centred and cost-effective services in healthcare networks. 39 Findings from qualitative studies of healthcare networks 33 suggest that networks with access to adequate funding and effective leadership and governance, combined with effective communication strategies and trust-based collaborative relationships, exhibit greater quality of care and patient outcomes. This is consistent with the results of the present scoping review, which identified intersections between good practices and success factors for healthcare networks in general, as well as those focused on end-of-life care.

Two systematic reviews on this topic have revealed some evidence that clinical networks can improve quality of care, network efficiency and patient outcomes, 33 40 based on a small number of studies. The present scoping review aligned with these previous works, as most of the studies, it investigated on the benefits and outcomes of networks emphasised improved patient outcomes and greater network effectiveness. However, the subjective experiences of professionals and patients have rarely been considered in studies of general networks 33 or RHPCNs, more specifically (as shown by the present results).

Strengths and limitations

The present scoping review used a robust methodological framework based on Arksey and O’Malley, 10 conducting a thorough search of multiple electronic databases (CINAHL, Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science) to ensure comprehensive coverage of the relevant literature. Clear inclusion criteria were established, focused on studies of networks in hospice and palliative care settings, including original research and reports of projects and initiatives. This ensured the relevance and applicability of the included studies. To minimise bias, two researchers independently reviewed abstracts and full texts to identify relevant articles. This transparent process helped to ensure the reliability of the review findings.

Overall, these strengths contribute to the credibility and reliability of the scoping review, making it a valuable resource for understanding the current landscape of RHPCNs and identifying areas for future research and practice.

At the same time, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations due to the inclusion criteria related to language. Some articles may have been excluded from the analysis because they were not available in the language(s) specified for the review. This language limitation may have led to the omission of valuable research and insights published in other languages. As a result, the findings and conclusions of this review may not fully represent the global landscape of RHPCNs.

It is also important to note the challenges involved in distinguishing between care and case networks, as many care structures work collaboratively or interprofessionally (eg, those funded by health insurance funds in Germany), without being active at a structural level. The types of networks included in the reviewed studies were not always clear. Thus, when the relevance of the network type was in doubt, the relevant article was excluded from the analysis. This may have influenced the final selection of studies. Furthermore, it was not always clear how the different conceptualizations of networks—which included varying degrees of formalisation—could be compared between studies. Consequently, it was not possible to establish a relationship between benefits/outcomes and degree of network organisation.

Conclusions

The present scoping review explored the structures, outcomes, benefits, success factors and good practices of healthcare networks in hospice and palliative care contexts. The investigated studies applied different research methods without time limitations, providing a broad overview of the research field.

Nevertheless, certain research gaps emerged from the review. While numerous qualitative studies have identified success factors, the lack of quantitative studies precludes any analysis of the relative importance and strength of these factors in facilitating effective networking. The RHPCN structures reported in this scoping review varied from loose collaboration to contractual relationships headed by a fully funded coordinating office. However, it is unclear which of these structures best supports good networking. It would also be useful to determine whether the financial participation of network members contributes to determining their commitment to network collaboration. Overall, there are no established quality criteria or reference points for determining RHPCN quality. Studies aimed at filling these gaps through comprehensive research and a balanced representation of perspectives would contribute significantly to our understanding of the functioning and impact of RHPCNs.

Furthermore, the present scoping review suggests potential implications not only for RHPNs but also for policymakers, encouraging them to support and invest in these networks to ensure long-term sustainability and facilitate moderation and coordination.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Ethics approval

Acknowledgments.

The authors thank Nilab Kamandi, the student assistant involved in the research project HOPAN, for their support in testing the search strategy and obtaining the full texts. The authors also acknowledge Valerie Appleby’s professional copyediting of the manuscript.

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FAH and SS are joint senior authors.

Contributors HAAR and SvS conceived of the scoping review. HAAR, SvS and FAH designed and coordinated the review study. HAAR conducted the database search. HAAR and SvS screened the search results and extracted the data. FAH supervised the data screening process. HAAR wrote the first draft of the manuscript. SvS and FAH revised the manuscript critically for important intellectual content and contributed to the draft. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript. All contributors are responsible for the overall content, as guarantors.

Funding The present scoping review comprised part of the research project HOPAN, which aims at assessing and analyzing RHPCNs in Germany. The project is funded by the German Innovation Fund of the Federal Joint Committee (G-BA) (Grant N° 01VSF22042; funding period: 01/2023–12/2024). The funding body was not involved in the study design, the preparation of this paper, or the decision to submit the paper for publication.

Competing interests Non competing interests.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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