postdoc vs thesis

• Postdoc vs. PhD: Becoming a Postdoctoral Researcher

Becoming a Postdoctoral Researcher

Written by Hannah Slack

For many individuals, becoming a postdoctoral researcher represents a significant milestone in their academic careers. Often referred to as research assistant or research associate roles, these positions offer you the chance to consolidate the knowledge and skills gained during your PhD.

Ready to dive into what a postdoc is and determine if it's the right next step for you? Let's explore everything you need to know about becoming a postdoctoral researcher –from what the role involves to the funding and application process.

What is a postdoc?

A postdoc, or postdoctoral research position, is a temporary, funded role typically based at a university or research institution. Commonly, these positions are sponsored by Research Councils, supporting individuals to work in specific institutions.

Although postdoctoral researchers are considered university staff, they often work under supervision and in teams led by senior academics. Unlike a PhD, a postdoc does not culminate in a thesis or viva. Instead, the focus is on producing results and disseminating findings through publications and conferences.

Postdoctoral vs PhD

Let’s looks at the key differences between a postdoc and a PhD. Although both roles involve extensive research, a PhD focusses on completing original research culminating in a thesis, which must be defended.

A postdoc, on the other hand, involves completing advanced research projects but does not end with a thesis or a defence. Postdoctoral researchers are expected to publish their findings and often partake in teaching and mentoring activities, bridging the gap between learning and contributing new knowledge.

Why pursue a postdoc?

There are several reasons why you might want to pursue a postdoc:

• Further research : it offers an opportunity to complete any unfinished research or pursue lines of enquiry excluded from your doctoral thesis.
• Skill development : it helps in honing specialised research skills and gaining expertise needed for a career in academia or industry.
• Networking and reputation : a postdoc provides a platform to network within the academic community and build a solid professional reputation, essential for securing future positions or funding.
• Career progression : for those aiming for a permanent academic role, postdocs serve as a stepping stone, enabling continuous professional development and experience.

How does postdoc funding work?

Typically, postdoctoral researchers are externally funded by large research organisations such as the UKRI Research Councils . Alternatively, funding can come from universities or private companies. The funding body determines the length of the contract and the nature of the research to be undertaken based on grant applications.

Postdoc salary

In the UK, the average postdoc salary is approximately £34,124. Unlike PhD stipends, postdoc salaries are taxable income. As an employee, you may also contribute to pensions and be eligible for student loan repayments. Additionally, you’ll have access to benefits offered by your employer, such as healthcare or insurance.

What does a postdoctoral researcher do?

As a postdoctoral researcher, your role can be diverse and multifaceted. Although responsibilities may vary depending on the field, common tasks include:

• Conducting research : performing advanced research aligned with the project's objectives.
• Disseminating findings : publishing results in academic journals, presenting at conferences, and engaging with the wider academic community.
• Teaching and mentoring : some postdocs involve teaching undergraduate students or supervising postgraduate students.
• Grant and funding applications : assisting in applying for research grants and other funding opportunities.

How long is a postdoc?

The duration of postdoctoral positions can vary widely, typically ranging from six months to three years. These may be extended if additional funding is secured. Many PhD graduates complete several postdoc positions before securing a permanent academic role.

How to get a postdoc position

Applying for a postdoc is similar to job hunting. You’ll need an academic CV, a cover letter, and references. Some applications might require a research proposal or a statement of research intent if the role allows for individual research projects. Here are key steps to follow:

• Check eligibility : verify that you meet the specific criteria for each postdoc position, which typically requires a completed PhD.
• Prepare your application : tailor your CV and cover letter to highlight relevant experience and skills.
• Submit your application : follow outlined procedures for submission, ensuring deadlines are met.

Where to find postdoctoral positions

There are many places where you can find postdoctoral positions. Universities and research institutes typically advertise internally as well as externally. Make sure you’re signed up for emails from relevant career hubs. There are also many independent websites specialising in job postings for academics, such as FindAPostdoc . Additionally, you may find positions on popular career websites like LinkedIn.

Some aspiring postdoctoral researchers also hear about positions ‘through the grape vine’. Networking is a prominent part of being an academic and so attending conferences can be a great way to keep in touch with upcoming research projects.

What is the next step after a postdoc?

You're probably wondering what the career trajectory looks like after completing a postdoc. Here are a few avenues:

• Academia : many aspire to secure permanent academic roles such as lecturers or professors. This often requires completing multiple postdocs and building a strong academic record.
• Fellowships : prestigious fellowships offer greater research independence and can be a significant career milestone.
• Industry : transitioning to industry roles is also a viable path. The skills acquired during a postdoc can be valuable in private research sectors, healthcare, and technology companies.

Is a postdoc right for you?

Completing a postdoc can be a rewarding experience, offering valuable research opportunities and professional growth. Whether you aim to secure an academic position or move into industry, a postdoc can provide the skills, network, and expertise needed to advance your career.

If you’re looking for some options outside of academia after completing your PhD, take a look at our alternative career paths after your PhD guide.

Hannah Slack

Hannah worked at FindAPhD as a Content Writer from 2020 to 2023. She started with us part-time whilst studying for her PhD, giving her personal experience with balancing work responsibilities with academia. Hannah has a Bachelor’s degree in History from the University of East Anglia, and both a Masters in Early Modern History and a PhD on Early Modern English seafarers from the University of Sheffield.

Ever wondered what being a postdoc is really like? We've chatted to Kshitij Tiwari, a postdoctoral researcher in robotics, to find out about his academic career path and what his everyday work involves.

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Masters Thesis vs. PhD Dissertation: Key Differences

Whether you are a graduate student just starting out in academia or a professor advising a student, making the distinction between a dissertation and a thesis is critically important to writing a strong dissertation and becoming a stronger writer. Unfortunately, the difference remains unclear since the terms are used interchangeably by graduate students, doctoral researchers, academic publishers & universities.

If you’re not sure whether you’re writing a thesis or a dissertation, this article will help you understand the differences between the two whether you’re a PhD or master’s degree student.

Main Differences Between a Dissertation and a Thesis

While theses and dissertations share many similarities (they are both advanced graduate research papers), they actually refer to two different types of academic writing, and their differences include important concepts such as scope, purpose, length, and research requirements.

Most importantly, the difference between a thesis and a dissertation depends on the level of education. Far beyond being a simple essay, a thesis is for graduate students pursuing a master’s degree while a dissertation is written by doctoral students, also referred to as PhD candidates.

There are a few key differences between a thesis versus a dissertation.

The biggest difference between a thesis and a dissertation is that a thesis makes arguments based on existing research. Meanwhile, a dissertation often requires the PhD candidate to conduct research and then perform an analysis.

More specifically, a thesis often takes the form of a literature review , which is a compilation of research knowledge in a particular field of study that proves one is competent in that subject. On the other hand, a dissertation is a more specific type of research paper written by those working toward a specific doctorate degree that contributes knowledge, theory, or methods to a field of study.

What is a master’s thesis?

A master’s thesis is an academic research paper that requires a greater degree of research than an undergraduate thesis or term paper. It is marked by a higher standard of writing, and students are expected to demonstrate competence, literacy, and mastery of a subject. It usually takes two or three years to complete. Finally, a master’s degree thesis is usually written in order to obtain a research degree and is not intended to be published separately.

What is a PhD dissertation?

A PhD dissertation is a substantial piece of independent research that is required of all students who are pursuing a doctorate degree. It is a piece of original work that has not been published elsewhere and, most importantly, makes a new contribution to the field. This contribution may be a new way of thinking about an existing topic or even a novel theory. The research performed for a dissertation is usually conducted over a period of several years to half a decade.

Features of a Master’s Thesis vs PhD Dissertation

Content and Structural Differences

So how is dissertation writing different from thesis writing?

Now that you know the definitions of a dissertation and thesis, let’s dive into some clear ways in which they differ in structure and other main characteristics.

How long is a thesis vs dissertation?

Length is the most obvious factor in differentiating between writing a thesis or dissertation. 

Generally, a doctoral dissertation has greater breadth, depth, and intention than a master’s thesis since it is based on original research. While the standard length of a master’s thesis is around 100 pages , a doctoral dissertation can be upwards of 400-500 pages. 

While most students can finish their PhD dissertation or thesis in as little as 1-2 years, it can take as long as 7 years depending on the school, program, and dissertation topic. As doctoral programs have their own formatting requirements, check with your school or university to find out what you need for your own dissertation or thesis. Most dissertations are organized into chapters, but the number of chapters varies as well.

Differences in research methods

A thesis and dissertation are both graduate-level research reports. This means they require students to investigate and report on a specific topic. But what is the difference in the scale of research between a master’s versus doctoral degree? The answer comes down to how much and what type of data you collect .

Data sources for a thesis vs dissertation

A master’s thesis is limited to secondary or reported knowledge . This knowledge has already been published, analyzed, and scrutinized in the literature. A thesis does not typically offer anything new in that regard. Your purpose is usually to write a comprehensive literature review on a novel or underreported topic using already-reported data.

On the other hand, a doctoral dissertation reports on  novel data  and is published so it can be scrutinized by others. It culminates in your dissertation defense.

The above lists clearly show that a PhD researcher and dissertation writer must have specific hands-on experience about not only the result of others’ research but also how the researchers obtained the data. A dissertation must venture into criticism of how other studies performed their experiments, whereas a master’s student will only report on and evaluate the results.

Differences in research scope 

As mentioned above, a thesis is more of a literature review written to demonstrate competence and mastery of a field of study. In short, you are a reliable “reporter” of information related to that subject. A thesis shows that you know the technical jargon, understand the subject, are familiar with industry tools, and can translate that information to a general audience. This is why a master’s degree is sufficient and often preferred for industry jobs.

In contrast, a doctoral dissertation goes beyond simply using the building blocks of your subject and actually creates new tools, knowledge, and theories to advance the subject as a whole. If a master’s degree holder is like a seasoned Rolling Stone journalist, then a doctorate is the band/musician who actually makes the music.

So should you pursue a thesis or a dissertation?

The benefits of earning a graduate degree are huge. According to the US Census Bureau , those with an advanced degree earn 3.7 times as much as a high school dropout, and 13.1% hold a master’s, professional, or doctorate degree. If you’re a curious undergraduate student thinking of applying to graduate school, which is the right choice?

In short, a dissertation is more focused and in-depth than a thesis. While a doctoral dissertation is based on original research, a thesis is often an extension or review of others’ research in order to demonstrate literacy. Further, a dissertation can be used as the basis or subject of a thesis, but not vice versa.

Editing a Dissertation vs Thesis

So far, we’ve focused a lot on differences such as research and purpose, but in the end, a thesis or dissertation is a written document that requires skill, focus, discipline, subject knowledge, organization, and scheduling. 

For non-native English speakers, the challenge is especially difficult since English is the lingua franca of academia and research. 

How does an editing service improve your dissertation or thesis ?

From body spacing and pagination, to font size and citation formatting, the dissertation guidelines are exhaustive. Even worse, they vary by school. So besides the actual English writing and grammar, graduate students must worry about consistency, formatting, nomenclature, and terminology. That’s quite the burden!

This is why it’s very common for graduate students, especially ESL and foreign ones, to seek out dissertation editing services that specifically cater to the academic needs of researchers and students.

Here are just a few reasons why dissertation proofreading is so helpful and what these editors do:

• Correct grammar, punctuation, syntax, and structural errors
• Offer suggestions to rewrite, remove, and revise writing
• Ensure formatting and nomenclature are consistent
• Knowledgeable academic editors with master’s and PhD degrees
• Free up your time to focus on research, revisions, and content instead of looking for mistakes
• Provide a  language editing certificate , which may be necessary for non-native English-speaking students

Lastly, most PhD advisors recommend that students seek out professional editing services , specifically thesis editing or dissertation editing , since professors prefer to assess the actual research content of a dissertation, not mundane writing errors. Any graduate student reading this knows professors don’t like their time to be wasted! 

Be sure to check out other academic resources on how to improve your academic manuscript and the benefits of proofreading and editing.

And try the Wordvice FREE Citation Generator, which provides citations for four academic formatting styles:  APA Citation Generator , MLA Citation Generator , Chicago Citation Generator , and Vancouver Citation Generator .

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What is a PostDoc? – An Introduction

A postdoctoral fellowship, or ‘PostDoc’ position, is fixed-term research post for PhD graduates. This is normally a bridge between completing a PhD and pursuing a career in academia, but you can also do a PostDoc to gain further skills and training for other careers.

This page explains how PostDocs work, what they offer and how to apply.

On this page

What is a postdoc position.

PostDocs are generally temporary positions taken up by a PhD graduate to further their academic knowledge and acquire additional research training.

The research you carry out will usually be related to the work done during a PhD (as this is now your area of expertise!) but shouldn’t be on the exact same subject / problem as your doctoral research.

There are some exceptions to this however, for example when a PhD student is asked to do further studies that directly follow on from their PhD project, but at a postdoctoral level. This type of PostDoc is known as a transition PostDoc.

You can read about the different types of PostDoc in our guide.

What does a PostDoc do?

A PostDoc works on a specific research project outlined for their fellowship. In some ways this is similar to a shorter PhD, but the work you do may be more advanced and may not have a specific final outcome (such as a thesis). Instead you may help with one stage of an ongoing research project.

PostDocs are most common in STEM subjects, particularly Science and Engineering . You will be under the supervision of a principal investigator (PI) or mentor, assisting them with a common research interest. As a more confident and experienced researcher you have the freedom to delve into new things, techniques and equipment. This independence allows you take on projects of your own and explore new ideas that you think will benefit your field. In some ways this kind of PostDoc is a bit like being hired as an additional expert to help the PI and their team.

PostDocs are also available for Arts and Humanities or Social Sciences PhD graduates. These projects may be slightly more independent but will still be connected with existing academic work within a university department.

Unlike a PhD, a postdoctoral contract does not end with a thesis defence. Instead, your work is recognised through results and publications or, in the case of industrial research and development, improvement and / or launch of an effective product.

Example PostDoc projects

PostDocs can be just as varied as PhDs, but examples of the sort of thing you might do as a postdoctoral fellow include:

• Assisting a digitisation project - helping convert print and manuscript sources into a form that can be used by other Arts and Humanities students and researchers, perhaps creating a published resource or service
• Designing and / or carrying out large-scale qualitative research projects - ensuring data collected for Social Science research is accurate, ethically-compliant and useful
• Contributing to ongoing laboratory studies - using the expert technical and methodological skills gained through a PhD to provide key input and assistance for Science and Engineering research groups
• Carrying out public engagement work - helping researchers in all disciplines communicate their findings to the general public through media events, publications and collaborations with non-academic organisations

For other (real life) examples, browse the current PostDoc opportunities on our site.

Responsibilities outside of research

A PostDoc position isn’t all about the research. There are many other roles involved in a fellowship, using the skills and experience you have gained on your PhD. These include teaching, writing grants and funding proposals, presenting your findings to others and leading projects and other team members.

All of these are key skills for early-career academics and a PostDoc is an excellent way to gain them.

Teaching can be an essential requirement to progress further in your career and is also a part of postdoctoral work. This can involve lecturing, supervising undergraduate and Masters or assisting with the training of new PhD students. Gaining experience in applying for funding is also a key part of becoming a researcher and is another part of the PostDoc experience.

Doing a PostDoc can also prepare you for other careers as you will have more experience in managing ongoing research projects or achieving targeted research outcomes (in addition to your experience of completing a full PhD research project).

How long is a PostDoc?

A postdoctoral contract is usually about two or three years long, but this can depend on a number of things, such as the country of research, the area of research, the PI and the funding available. In general, a PostDoc is shorter than a PhD.

PhD graduates sometimes complete two or three PostDocs before applying for faculty positions or other, more permanent appointments outside of academia. On the other hand, a PostDoc is not always necessary for an academic job.

Most PostDocs take place soon after a PhD and are designed to fit the time in which doctoral graduates are still preparing to become early-career academics. University jobs designed for early-career academics will usually expect you to have earned your PhD in the last two-three years: this is the time in which you may have also completed a PostDoc.

PostDoc salary and funding

The average postdoctoral research salary in the UK is £31,990 and $48,825 in the United States*. You can see our guide to PostDocs in different countries to see the differences in salaries across the world.

How much you are paid on a PostDoc may depend on the type of position you apply for.

*From payscale.com

Postdoctoral employees

A PostDoc working at an industrial company or corporate body is paid like any other member of staff. You will be employed on a fixed-term basis with a regular salary and applicable employee benefits / other entitlements.

Postdoctoral fellowships

Fellowships are set grants or scholarships usually awarded to PostDocs at universities. You may be assigned to a pre-defined project, but could also have the freedom to pursue a specific research direction defined in your application.

This postdoctoral fellowship usually covers salary, relocation costs, travel costs and research expenses and is awarded to an individual based on merit.

Funding for fellowships may be provided by Research Councils, charities and trusts – similar to PhD studentships. There are different types of fellowships available, such as mobility schemes and travel fellowships that provide support for research to be done elsewhere in the world.

Organisations such as UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) often offer postdoctoral fellowships for European citizens. Other PostDoc funding bodies include the Leverhulme trust and Marie Curie fellowships, or the Max Weber programme which is an international PostDoc programme.

This article is the property of FindAPostDoc.com and may not be reproduced without permission.

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• Postdocs: The Definitive Guide
• After a PhD

As soon as you step outside the world of academia, the number of people who know what a postdoctorate is, what they involve and how to secure one quickly plummets. Given that a postdoctorate can be a popular option, especially for Science and Technology-related PhD graduates, it’s essential to address this current gap in knowledge.

What Is a Postdoc?

A postdoc is only one of many paths you can take after having completed your PhD. A postdoc (also referred to as a postdoc or postdoctoral) can be best thought as a temporary position designed to refine your research and teaching skills while undertaking practical research work. Because of this, most regard a postdoc position as a temporary stepping stone for developing a career in a more permanent position.

There’s a common misconception that a postdoctorate is an advanced doctoral degree that is undertaken after having completed a PhD. This misconception arises from individuals associating the word “post” in “postdoctorate” with the word “after”. While you will learn a lot during your time in a postdoc position, it is nothing like a degree. There are no fees, coursework, exams or vivas to deliver (thankfully!). A postdoc is, in fact, a job, and as someone in a postdoc position, you will be considered an ‘employee’. And just like any other job, the position will come with its own salary, responsibilities, training and employers.

Most postdocs are awarded by universities or research institutes as temporary contracts. However, they can also be undertaken in private companies, non-profit charities or government bodies.

What Is The Purpose Of A Postdoc?

As mentioned above, the primary purpose of a postdoc is to help bridge the gap between your current skills and your current level of experience. Due to this, postdoctoral positions are popular amongst those who have recently obtained their PhD. This is especially true for individuals who which to pursue a career in academia or research but don’t yet have adequate experience in teaching or publishing.

For the ‘learning’ nature of this role, postdocs provide an excellent option for those to continue their self-development while pursuing research in a field they’re interested in.

What Does a Postdoc Do?

A postdoc works under the supervision of an experienced researcher known as a postdoctoral advisor. What you will do on a day-to-day basis will, therefore, depend on what they require support on at any given time.

While your responsibilities will depend on your postdoctoral advisor, you can expect the following duties as part of your role:

• Contribute to the supervision of PhD students who are undertaking research projects in a closely related field.
• Supporting the research team in managerial tasks related to planning, organisation and administration.
• Undertake research, including but not limited to: qualitative data collection, data analysis and data and lab management.
• Contribute to the production, review and dissemination of academic and non-academic writing, including publications.

Your responsibilities will also depend on who your postdoc position is with. Positions offered by universities will often place a high emphasis on the academic aspects of the role. This involves aspects such as working more independently, developing your supervisory and teaching capabilities, and improving your communication skills through participation in seminars and conferences. In doing so, they’re helping you to become an individual capable of both conducting research and transferring knowledge – in other words, a university lecturer!

The opposite is true for postdoc positions held in industry, such as a private organisation or government body. As you can expect, these roles will place almost all of its emphasis on conducting research and advancing projects forward, with little focus on anything that falls outside of this.

How Long Should I Be A Postdoc For?

There is no set rule for how long you should remain in a postdoc position. Regardless of this, most individuals stay within a postdoc position for between 2 to 4 years. During this period, it’s not uncommon to move between one or two postdoc positions, with one position being abroad for a more rounded experience.

The time you may choose to spend in a given postdoctoral position will depend on several factors. The most influential of these will be:

• The size of the research project’s scope,
• The support needs of the principal investigator/postdoc advisor,
• The amount of funding available.

Although you could undertake a postdoctorate for a year or less, most will advise against this. This is simply because you will likely not have enough time to gain valuable experience associated with producing publications, writing research grant proposals and speaking at conferences. Although it may be possible to complete these within a single year, most researchers will opt for a minimum of two years for a single position. This will provide them with ample opportunity to contribute a significant amount to a project, publish a handful of papers and attend several conferences. On top of this, it will allow you to develop a deeper relationship with the students you help teach or supervise. This will prove invaluable experience should you plan on becoming a university lecturer .

How Are Postdoc Positions Funded?

Postdocs are usually funded in one of three ways:

• The postdoc secures the funding themselves . This can be achieved in several ways, with the most common being applying to opportunities put out by government, research or charity bodies. Examples of these opportunities include the  NWO Talent Programme Veni  and the  Marie Skłodowska-Curie Fellowship . Securing funding under any of these schemes will provide you with a ‘stipend’ (which acts as your salary), and ‘’research funds’ for enabling the project. It’s worth noting that if you secure funding in this way, you won’t typically be restricted to any one university. Although when applying to these opportunities you’ll be required to indicate where you intended to undertake your research, if successful, you can take your funding and associated research project to any university or research institution of your choice.
• A Principal Investigator (PI) secures a research grant  for a project, part of which will go towards hiring one or more postdoctoral assistants. In these scenarios, the university will employ you to work on the project they gained funding for.
• A research body hires postdoctoral assistants irrespective of any new funding . In these scenarios, the researching body, who could be anyone from universities to research centres, charities and private organisations, may put aside their own funds to secure a postdoc assistant as a regular salaried employee.

What is the Average Postdoc Salary?

It goes without saying that the average salary for a postdoc will vary from role to role, with factors such as your country, your employer and your level of experience being influential factors.

If working as a university employee, your salary as a postdoc will be determined via a set pay scale known as the “ HE single pay spine “. Under this pay spine, a postdoc can expect to earn an average of £31,000 per year, though, in reality, a postdoc’s salary can range between £29,000 to £34,800.

On the other hand, the stipend (which will act as your postdoc salary) associated with the funding you have secured yourself will directly depend on the opportunity you acquire. Because of the wide range of possibilities, your potential stipend can vary considerably. As well as having a high variance, they also tend to have a higher ceiling compared to the salaries associated with a PI’s research grant or a research body’s employment. For example, the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Fellowship can be worth over £50,000 per year. However, these types of fellowships are not only highly competitive but are also not an entirely fair comparison to postdoc assistant roles. This is due to the fact that a research fellow will be expected to have a greater amount of experience and to assume a higher level of responsibility than a regular postdoctoral researcher.

In case you’re thinking of working abroad, it would be useful to know that the median salary of a postdoctoral researcher in the United States is approximately $42,000 (£33,000 at the time of writing) per year.

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PhD Vs. PostDoc

20 differences between a phd and a postdoc.

Deciding on your academic path can be a bit confusing. You’ve probably heard about getting a PhD and doing a PostDoc , but what do these terms really mean? Well, we’re here to help you make sense of it all in plain and easy-to-understand language.

In this article, iLovePhD breaks down the differences between a PhD and a Postdoc. Think of it as two significant steps in your academic journey. We’ve put together a table with 20 points to tell you everything you need to know. Whether you’re just starting out or you’ve been in the academic world for a while, this guide will help you understand the choices ahead.

Let’s start this journey together and explore the world of PhD and Postdoc , making it all clear and simple for you.

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Postdoctoral scholars and fellows.

Postdoctoral scholars and fellows are a vital part of the university's vibrant research community. The Graduate College is committed to your success and supports a wide variety of resources that will help you thrive in your research efforts and further develop your professional skills.

Postdocs are individuals who are engaged primarily in research, as part of a continuum of post-baccalaureate education and training, unique from either students or faculty members. As such, your classification, responsibilities, and benefits have been tailored to this unique status. As a postdoc at Iowa, you have access to many of opportunities and services available to students, as well as several of the benefits provided to faculty.

Postdoc  is a general term used at The University of Iowa to designate temporary, doctoral-level researchers engaged in advanced education and training designed to prepare for an academic and research career. The university recognizes two classifications of postdocs, depending on the source of their stipends and research funding, as well as the nature of their research. 

• Postdoctoral Research Scholars  are engaged in research supported by external grants, contracts, or University of Iowa General Education funds that may be made available to faculty members. This type of appointment is used for those not on an NRSA grant. Persons appointed under this classification (HR appointment code FP01) have specific responsibilities and research expectations directly related to the grant, contract, or university-funded program.
• Postdoctoral Research Fellows  are supported by NRSA grants. The primary obligation to accomplish the aims of the fellowship rests with the Fellow (HR appointment code FP02).

For information concerning tax classification, please see the memo from Selina Martin, University Controller, and Dean John C. Keller (June 1, 2018).

Length of Appointment:  Postdoctoral Research Scholars and Postdoctoral Research Fellows are temporary appointments at The University of Iowa. The postdoctoral experience at The University of Iowa will not extend past 5 years unless there are unusual circumstances. To extend the length of the appointment, the department needs to send a justification for an extension at least 3 months before the end of the current appointment. This request requires approval from Amanda Thein, Associate Provost for Graduate Education and Dean of the Graduate College.

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What is a thesis?

What is a dissertation, getting started, staying on track.

A thesis is a long-term project that you work on over the course of a semester or a year. Theses have a very wide variety of styles and content, so we encourage you to look at prior examples and work closely with faculty to develop yours. 

Before you begin, make sure that you are familiar with the dissertation genre—what it is for and what it looks like.

Generally speaking, a dissertation’s purpose is to prove that you have the expertise necessary to fulfill your doctoral-degree requirements by showing depth of knowledge and independent thinking.

The form of a dissertation may vary by discipline. Be sure to follow the specific guidelines of your department.

• PhD This site directs candidates to the GSAS website about dissertations , with links to checklists,  planning, formatting, acknowledgments, submission, and publishing options. There is also a link to guidelines for the prospectus . Consult with your committee chair about specific requirements and standards for your dissertation.
• DDES This document covers planning, patent filing, submission guidelines, publishing options, formatting guidelines, sample pages, citation guidelines, and a list of common errors to avoid. There is also a link to guidelines for the prospectus .
• Scholarly Pursuits (GSAS) This searchable booklet from Harvard GSAS is a comprehensive guide to writing dissertations, dissertation-fellowship applications, academic journal articles, and academic job documents.

Finding an original topic can be a daunting and overwhelming task. These key concepts can help you focus and save time.

Finding a topic for your thesis or dissertation should start with a research question that excites or at least interests you. A rigorous, engaging, and original project will require continuous curiosity about your topic, about your own thoughts on the topic, and about what other scholars have said on your topic. Avoid getting boxed in by thinking you know what you want to say from the beginning; let your research and your writing evolve as you explore and fine-tune your focus through constant questioning and exploration.

Get a sense of the broader picture before you narrow your focus and attempt to frame an argument. Read, skim, and otherwise familiarize yourself with what other scholars have done in areas related to your proposed topic. Briefly explore topics tangentially related to yours to broaden your perspective and increase your chance of finding a unique angle to pursue.

Critical Reading

Critical reading is the opposite of passive reading. Instead of merely reading for information to absorb, critical reading also involves careful, sustained thinking about what you are reading. This process may include analyzing the author’s motives and assumptions, asking what might be left out of the discussion, considering what you agree with or disagree with in the author’s statements and why you agree or disagree, and exploring connections or contradictions between scholarly arguments. Here is a resource to help hone your critical-reading skills:

http://writing.umn.edu/sws/assets/pdf/quicktips/criticalread.pdf

Conversation

Your thesis or dissertation will incorporate some ideas from other scholars whose work you researched. By reading critically and following your curiosity, you will develop your own ideas and claims, and these contributions are the core of your project. You will also acknowledge the work of scholars who came before you, and you must accurately and fairly attribute this work and define your place within the larger discussion. Make sure that you know how to quote, summarize, paraphrase ,  integrate , and cite secondary sources to avoid plagiarism and to show the depth and breadth of your knowledge.

A thesis is a long-term, large project that involves both research and writing; it is easy to lose focus, motivation, and momentum. Here are suggestions for achieving the result you want in the time you have.

The dissertation is probably the largest project you have undertaken, and a lot of the work is self-directed. The project can feel daunting or even overwhelming unless you break it down into manageable pieces and create a timeline for completing each smaller task. Be realistic but also challenge yourself, and be forgiving of yourself if you miss a self-imposed deadline here and there.

Your program will also have specific deadlines for different requirements, including establishing a committee, submitting a prospectus, completing the dissertation, defending the dissertation, and submitting your work. Consult your department’s website for these dates and incorporate them into the timeline for your work.

Accountability

Sometimes self-imposed deadlines do not feel urgent unless there is accountability to someone beyond yourself. To increase your motivation to complete tasks on schedule, set dates with your committee chair to submit pre-determined pieces of a chapter. You can also arrange with a fellow doctoral student to check on each other’s progress. Research and writing can be lonely, so it is also nice to share that journey with someone and support each other through the process.

Common Pitfalls

The most common challenges for students writing a dissertation are writer’s block, information-overload, and the compulsion to keep researching forever.

There are many strategies for avoiding writer’s block, such as freewriting, outlining, taking a walk, starting in the middle, and creating an ideal work environment for your particular learning style. Pay attention to what helps you and try different things until you find what works.

Efficient researching techniques are essential to avoiding information-overload. Here are a couple of resources about strategies for finding sources and quickly obtaining essential information from them.

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/writing_in_literature/writing_in_literature_detailed_discussion/reading_criticism.html

https://students.dartmouth.edu/academic-skills/learning-resources/learning-strategies/reading-techniques

Finally, remember that there is always more to learn and your dissertation cannot incorporate everything. Follow your curiosity but also set limits on the scope of your work. It helps to create a folder entitled “future projects” for topics and sources that interest you but that do not fit neatly into the dissertation. Also remember that future scholars will build off of your work, so leave something for them to do.

Browsing through theses and dissertations of the past can help to get a sense of your options and gain inspiration but be careful to use current guidelines and refer to your committee instead of relying on these examples for form or formatting.

DASH Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard.

HOLLIS Harvard Library’s catalog provides access to ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global .

MIT Architecture has a list of their graduates’ dissertations and theses.

Rhode Island School of Design has a list of their graduates’ dissertations and theses.

University of South Florida has a list of their graduates’ dissertations and theses.

Harvard GSD has a list of projects, including theses and professors’ research.

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Doing Postdoctoral Work — Should I?

There was a time in the not-too-distant past when the answer to this question was very simple. In the old days, it was extremely rare for psychologists to take postdoctoral positions. Nearly everyone who was interested in an academic job found one and then got on to the serious business of trying to earn tenure at his or her new university. However, as the academic job market became more and more competitive, and as the degree of technical and theoretical expertise required to conduct high level research became higher and higher, many psychologists who had just earned their PhDs found that they needed an extra year or two of training (and a few more publications) to compete for the academic jobs that they would have easily qualified for in decades past.

In other words, as the job market in psychology has gotten tougher over the past couple of decades, the number of postdoctoral opportunities has grown enormously. Whether a specific person should consider a postdoc will depend heavily on that person's vita after he or she has earned a PhD. In some areas of research, a few junior author publications may be enough to land a major job. In other areas, candidates may not be taken seriously until they have published a couple of first author papers in the very best journals. Most candidates who are committed to an academic job track apply broadly for a range of academic positions (including one's dream jobs as well as a large pool of jobs that would be acceptable but not ideal). Then there is often a waiting game.

For the lucky candidates who get one or more desirable interviews, followed by at least one desirable job offer, accepting a postdoc usually becomes a moot point. For many other candidates, however, post-docs become a serious question if and when the candidate does not receive any desirable tenure-track job offers.

How to choose a postdoctoral opportunity

Assuming that one has a choice of more than one postdoc, the next question becomes how to choose a post-doc that will maximize one's chances of getting a desirable faculty position a year or two down the road. The two most important considerations here are usually:

Whether this postdoctoral position will allow the candidate to publish solid research papers.

Whether the candidate will be able to work with a faculty mentor (the postdoctoral adviser) whose skills and interests provide a good match to the candidate.

Of course, it doesn't hurt if the adviser is a likable person who will not only give the candidate plenty of work to do but will also:

Teach the candidate new skills.

Allow the candidate the freedom to pursue his or her own unique research interests.

Ideally, postdoctoral experiences should be productive, healthy collaborations between a senior faculty mentor and a junior person who needs a little more research experience before landing the ideal job. One obvious drawback of a postdoc is that most postdoc positions do not pay as well as new faculty positions (though they typically pay a lot better than being a grad student!). A less obvious drawback is that some faculty advisers do not spend the time to teach and meet routinely with postdocs. A good postdoc mentor is a senior colleague and a caring adviser rather than simply a boss.

On a more positive note, a rarely appreciated advantage of taking a postdoc rather than jumping immediately into a faculty position is that postdocs rarely require any committee work or teaching (which can both eat up a lot of time). So the new PhD who takes a carefully selected postdoc with a good adviser has lots of time to devote him or herself to full-time research. Hopefully, this will usually put this person in a much better position to apply for desirable jobs a year or two down the road.

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Writing a Postgraduate or Doctoral Thesis: A Step-by-Step Approach

• First Online: 01 October 2023

Cite this chapter

• Usha Y. Nayak 4 ,
• Praveen Hoogar 5 ,
• Srinivas Mutalik 4 &
• N. Udupa 6  

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1 Citations

A key characteristic looked after by postgraduate or doctoral students is how they communicate and defend their knowledge. Many candidates believe that there is insufficient instruction on constructing strong arguments. The thesis writing procedure must be meticulously followed to achieve outstanding results. It should be well organized, simple to read, and provide detailed explanations of the core research concepts. Each section in a thesis should be carefully written to make sure that it transitions logically from one to the next in a smooth way and is free of any unclear, cluttered, or redundant elements that make it difficult for the reader to understand what is being tried to convey. In this regard, students must acquire the information and skills to successfully create a strong and effective thesis. A step-by-step description of the thesis/dissertation writing process is provided in this chapter.

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What Is a Thesis?

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Persistent Myths About Dissertation Writing and One Proven Way of Breaking Free of Their Spell

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Nayak, U.Y., Hoogar, P., Mutalik, S., Udupa, N. (2023). Writing a Postgraduate or Doctoral Thesis: A Step-by-Step Approach. In: Jagadeesh, G., Balakumar, P., Senatore, F. (eds) The Quintessence of Basic and Clinical Research and Scientific Publishing. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1284-1_48

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4 The Postdoc and the Adviser

The need for effective supervision of junior researchers does not end with the PhD. Those who move from graduate school to postdoctoral appoint-ments stand to benefit greatly from the contributions of their advisers. Many advisers do an excellent, careful, and conscientious job of assisting with the professional development of their postdocs. However, some let other tasks of the research enterprise outweigh their mentoring duties.

• The Adviser as Mentor

When advisers become effective mentors and assume responsibility for guiding, challenging, and championing their postdocs, they can have a powerful and enduring effect on the careers of these junior investigators. At the same time, responsive postdocs can advance their own and their advisers’ careers and become valued colleagues and collaborators after completion of the postdoctoral appointment.

Creating a productive mentoring relationship takes considerable time and effort on both sides, however, it is important for advisers and postdocs alike to appreciate its unique tensions and potential benefits. The tensions are, to some extent, built in: The investigator’s lack of time or inclination for mentoring leaves ample room for misunderstandings or neglect. Luckily for the relationship, the benefits are largely inherent as well. The postdoc is motivated to exchange skills and hard work for guidance and entrée to a professional world.

Benefits for the adviser

Best practice scenario communicating with the postdoc.

Susan has spent nearly two years exploring the research problem she chose before beginning her postdoc. She has one more year before expiration of the grant that supports her work. She has gained a thorough understanding of her problem, but the facts she has gathered do not support the working hypothesis of the lab. With time growing short, she is reluctant to admit her uncertainty to her adviser.

Comment: An alert adviser would be aware of Susan’s findings and initiate discussions with her, inviting her to a strategy session. The adviser has already learned, probably through hard personal experience, that research seldom follows a straight line. Good communication and mutual trust can allow the adviser to undertake an honest appraisal of both Susan’s work and the other work in the lab in order to decide whether or not the working hypothesis requires modification.

The adviser also benefits in less tangible ways. Simply put, it is personally and professionally gratifying to teach others what one has learned and to help them advance toward fulfilling careers.

Benefits for the postdoc

From the postdoc’s point of view, advisers can contribute to a varied learning experience that comprises many kinds of skills in addition to technical ones: developing a plan of research, managing time, supervising students and technicians, overall lab management, deciding when and where to publish, creating a network of professional contacts, acquiring “career” skills (such as communication and teamwork), understanding ethical and proprietary issues, and, eventually, finding a regular job.

In a broader sense, the adviser can contribute perspectives that can be gained only from professional experience: how to avoid investigative dead ends; how to build a research project that will contribute to the postdoc’s career, the adviser’s program, and the research enterprise as a whole; and how to know when a project is near completion. All these contributions, like those of the postdoc, are most rewarding for both parties when the activities of postdoc and adviser are complementary.

Best Practice Scenario Adding New Research Tools

After completing his PhD in computational mathematics, Steven was admitted to a prestigious new program in bioinformatics at a university. He had never formally studied the life sciences, but he was assured that his contribution would be welcome because of his strength in mathematics. After six months in his new position, however, he was frustrated by his inability to follow the reasoning of his biological colleagues. His adviser sensed Steven’s frustration and suggested a one-semester immersion in selected biology courses. After some hesitation, because of fear of harming his standing with the group, Steven accepted the advice, and later rejoined the group with renewed confidence.

Comment: Much exciting research takes place at the intersections of disciplines, but interdisciplinary work places heavy demands on researchers on both “sides” of an intersection. More than superficial knowledge of the complementary field may be required for productive collaboration. A flexible adviser may find that encouraging additional study for certain postdocs can advance both the postdoc’s work and the adviser’s program.

• Responsibilities of the Adviser

The adviser’s overall responsibility is to help advance the postdoc’s scientific abilities and professional career. The adviser who regards a postdoc as a colleague-in-the-making will gain in productivity and rise in the estimation of other researchers.

First steps

The first task is to deliberate carefully before inviting a postdoc to join a program. What is this person’s potential for making important contributions to research, both as a scholar and as a member of the lab or research team? How well might his or her particular skills fit strategically within the organization? Although these questions can seldom be answered with certainty, the adviser who seeks references and a face-to-face meeting has a better chance of making a match that benefits both the program and the postdoc.

At the beginning of an appointment, most postdocs benefit from trying to develop a “training plan” that is adapted to the activities of the adviser or laboratory. The attempt may or may not succeed at the outset, but it serves the purposes of stimulating early communication, teaching the importance of thinking strategically, and moving the postdoc forward. Laying out research objectives should be a mutual responsibility until the postdoc is ready to conceive, plan, and execute his or her own research project.

Selecting a research problem

The adviser can help frame a good problem in several ways. Most important, the postdoc must care deeply about it—and this enthusiasm must be shared by the adviser. Second, the problem must be important for the field as well as for the postdoc’s career. Third, approaching a good problem can stimulate the postdoc to understand how to convert initial questions into a working hypothesis and to understand the magnitude of resources (time, equipment, expertise, and money) needed to accomplish the work. Early discussions should include the extent to which the postdoc can expect to take ownership of a project and plan on continuing the research after the postdoctoral appointment.

Evaluating a research problem can also be illuminated by what Nobel Prize winner Herbert Simon of Carnegie Mellon University calls a “secret weapon”—a feature that will allow the postdoc to accomplish something that others have not yet been able to accomplish. This special advantage may be a new method, piece of equipment, or reagent; a special insight (i.e., an insight made possible by an unusual background); a talented team; or even a willingness to devote an extraordinary amount of time to the work. 1

Research guidance

In return for the postdoc’s contributions, the attentive adviser will guide the postdoc toward becoming a better researcher. Most post-docs need such guidance especially in the early months to avoid wasting time. They don’t, however, need micromanaging; the adviser’s goal is to allow the postdoc to grow toward independence and a relationship that becomes a collaborative one.

As postdocs gain independence, they need to learn, under the mentor’s guidance, to manage their time and often the time of technicians. They benefit from reading deeply and broadening their intellectual portfolio. They must learn to answer important questions: What distinguishes an important research problem from a routine one? What strategies are most likely to succeed? How much time will be needed to answer a question? People who lack the time or inclination to provide an educational experience should not accept the responsibility of mentoring postdocs.

Some of the adviser’s most important contributions may be to set the research framework: to introduce the postdoc to potential collaborators and influential colleagues, ensure that the postdoc has adequate resources for the research program, and advise against being trapped in a narrow or unpromising line of work. As work progresses, some postdocs may put off publishing their work inappropriately because of their desire to produce a prize-winning paper or “perfect” experiment. Advisers can help by reviewing and discussing the work and urging the postdoc toward publication. They should also take meticulous care to give the postdoc proper credit for authorship, seminars, disciplinary society presentations, and other achievements.

Best Practice Scenario Learning to Collaborate

Lee is a brilliant but shy student who earned a postdoctoral appointment in chemistry at a research university. Her strengths at the bench were undeniable, and she quickly won the confidence of her adviser. After two years of work, however, Lee had made few friends outside the lab, and her work was progressing more slowly than expected. Her adviser surprised Lee by asking her to mentor two graduate students who had just joined the lab. Lee balked at this request, but the adviser insisted. The adviser also paid for Lee’s travel to a professional meeting and arranged for her to present a poster. Several months later, Lee formed a small journal club around the two students; a month after that, she began a research collaboration with a postdoc she met at the meeting.

Comment: Research is increasingly collaborative, and the performance of successful research depends heavily on interacting with others. The adviser had the wisdom to see that Lee was blocked by her reticence and to insist (at the risk of jeopardizing her good relationship with Lee) that she begin to develop contacts and activities outside the lab.

Advancing the career

In addition to guiding the postdoc in research skills, the adviser can help the postdoc identify and acquire necessary career skills, such as those of communication, publication, grant writing, and management. Those who aim for professorships, independent research, or research management must be assisted and challenged in appropriate, educational ways. Some postdocs may prefer to continue their research careers in valuable supporting roles, such as that of a research scientist working as a member of a team on their own or the research grants of PIs.

Attending professional meetings is one of the most important ways a post-doc can enhance professional visibility, gain confidence, and build a network of contacts. An adviser can save time and share power with postdocs by asking them to present research results at meetings. Even when there is no paper to present, a postdoc should attend one or two professional-society meetings or workshops a year, with financial help from the adviser when necessary. Many postdocs hesitate to ask about attending meetings if they lack designated travel funds or find that activities outside the lab are discouraged.

Postdocs need practice and coaching in writing grant proposals, supervising others, teaching, making spending decisions, creating a budget, and reviewing papers. Encouraging single or lead-author publications by postdocs is an important aspect of mentoring. When postdocs acquire such skills, they are better equipped to contribute to the program and to compete for future positions.

Best Practice Scenario Knowing When to Suggest a Change

Dr. Brown accepted Carl for a postdoctoral appointment in his theoretical physics group after a telephoned recommendation from a colleague and a brief meeting with Carl. He was impressed by Carl’s enthusiasm for physics and his eloquence in describing several goals in cosmology. After a few months of work, it was apparent that Carl enjoyed his work and was progressing. He requested time to teach an undergraduate course as well. Dr. Brown agreed with some reluctance, needing all the help he could get with the research lab. At his year-end review, Carl told Dr. Brown that he enjoyed his teaching as much as his research, and hoped to make teaching a major emphasis in his career. Dr. Brown suggested a minor course change toward a career at a four-year teaching college.

Comment: This turned out to be a good move. Carl could continue his research and teach in an environment where both activities were valued. Through good communication, Carl was able to express his preference to an adviser for whom teaching was not the first priority, and the adviser had the sensitivity to see that Carl’s talents could be more fully applied in a different kind of career. Advisers must often base their acceptance of a postdoc on a brief impression or the opinion of others. Mismatches do occur, and although they may be painful to acknowledge, the best course of action may involve a change. More painful is the potential waste of productive years, which for some PhDs are better spent in non-research activities.

Balancing the needs of the program and the needs of the postdoc

Laboratories and research groups need continuity and a “critical mass” of expertise (including postdocs) to complete major projects, and postdocs need the freedom to find their own challenges. A postdoc is in the lab not only to make valuable scientific contributions but also to expand his or her accomplishments. A mentor has the responsibility to help the postdoc see a project (or aspect of the project) to completion in a reasonable time (usually not more than five years). Future employers will want to see evidence of perseverance and an ability to attain successful closure on research problems.

Advisers can enhance the training of postdocs in both explicit and implicit ways, such as modeling good practices of research, leadership, and ethical conduct. Advisers who are too busy to fulfill mentoring duties can bring in help (such as a mentoring committee) or orient the postdoc toward institutional or other resources.

Flexibility

Best practices mentoring.

• Discussions of mentorship have become part of the annual performance reviews for fellows and PIs.
• Postdocs are surveyed annually on the mentoring they receive, and confidential results are sent to the PI, the director, and the human resources office.
• PIs receive additional training in mentoring.
• A Women in Science Program was established to assist women postdocs.
• Trainees were made aware of existing procedures for addressing problems between the postdoc and the mentor.
• PIs are required to discuss career plans and prospects with postdocs at least yearly.
• Human resources will provide all postdocs with both a letter of appointment and a letter of completion.

At the University of Pittsburgh , one department requires each postdoc to select a small faculty “mentoring committee” for informal meetings and guidance. Postdocs are encouraged to choose “potential role models” as committee members. One postdoc reported after her first meeting, “It was the best meeting I ever had. I didn’t feel like the trainee; I was just talking to three other researchers. They were at opposite ends of my project and brought different perspectives.”

At Albert Einstein College of Medicine , one department finds that effective mentoring can be accomplished through weekly work-in-progress groups. “Each postdoc has to present their research once a year,” says a dean. “Everyone knows where they stand. If a person is foundering, the group will get together at other times to advise.”

At Eli Lilly and Co. , mentoring of its 75 postdocs is done both by the Science Advisory Council and by individual “research advisers.” The Advisory Council, which oversees the scientific integrity of the program, meets with a postdoc at least once during their tenure—usually at the midpoint. These meetings give post-docs the opportunity to showcase their work for senior management, build their network of contacts, and work on getting sponsorship. Postdocs also meet regularly with their research adviser. The position of research adviser is prestigious; before advising a postdoc, a researcher must demonstrate success at mentoring technicians.

At Johns Hopkins School of Medicine , mentors are asked to perform a formal review of each postdoc’s progress at least twice a year. A written record of the review should indicate progress and next steps to be taken.

Communication

Frequent communication helps prevent problems from growing into grievances. Patience is required, as well as discernment: One post-doc might need regular, detailed instructions; another might need only to hear, “Do what excites you.”

Good communication is a mutual responsibility. Postdocs and advisers alike must have the courage to raise uncomfortable issues. Regular weekly or biweekly meetings can help maintain communication. Meetings and other forms of communication are indispensable in establishing and maintaining the foundation for a mentoring relationship. It is likely that breakdowns in communication are at some level the causes of most personal problems that occur in the research environment.

In one lab, for example, the adviser holds an annual meeting with all lab members. For the meetings, member are asked to write out both their long-term career goals and their goals for the coming year. Discussion of these goals facilitates ongoing communication among members.

Honest evaluations

Many postdocs, especially in universities, express concern that they seldom or never receive formal evaluations. Half the institutions responding to the COSEPUP survey required “no official performance reviews of any type” (see Box).

COSEPUP Survey Results Does the Organization Require Performance Evaluations Throughout a Postdoc’s Appointment?

Of academic institutions, the largest number (47 percent) reported that “no official performance reviews of any type are required.” Only 17 percent required them, and 13 percent reported that “Documented progress reviews are performed by the respective adviser at his/her discretion.”

By contrast, the majority (70 percent) of nonacademic institutions required regular performance evaluations.

In the “other” responses, some respondents indicated that they are examining and/or revising their policies on evaluations. Others described optional or discretionary approaches (“Depends on program”; “Depends on funding source”; “Varies by unit”). Several institutions expected the adviser to take responsibility for any evaluation, without formal reporting to the institution.

Evaluations are useful only if they are honest. Good work should be acknowledged and rewarded; less-than-good work should receive equally frank appraisal. When a postdoc lacks the necessary aptitude for a career of research, the adviser must say so. No one’s interests are served by allowing a subpar performance to continue indefinitely only to avoid an unwelcome evaluation. On the other hand, evaluations should be constructive, not punitive. The objective of regular evaluation is to identify weaknesses or problems, to create plans to address them, and ultimately to raise the level of performance and eventually the success of the individual.

Ethical and proprietary issues

The adviser should take the lead in discussing ethical standards early and often, especially with new postdocs and with postdocs from countries where standards may differ. Authorship especially carries a great potential for misunderstandings. A good policy is for the adviser and postdoc to discuss authorship policy early. Of course, no policy can cover all contingencies. A designated lead postdoc, for example, might lose interest or shift to another project.

Other issues that should be discussed include plagiarism, public presentation of results, and the integrity of data. For example, several postdocs in focus groups reported being asked not to publish results that did not agree with the adviser’s work; this request is not acceptable. Such issues underline the need for good communication and mutual trust.

Every person supported on a federal training grant is required to receive instruction in research ethics. Given the importance of responsible conduct to both the research enterprise and the careers of individual researchers, a mentor should ensure that postdocs are instructed about any ethical issues of relevance to a particular program. Such issues may include data management, the use of human subjects, experiments on animals, conflicts of interest, resolving ethical dilemmas, whistle blowing, and handling research sponsored by a for-profit entity. 2

Resolving disputes

Because of their position of power, advisers have the larger responsibility in resolving disputes, especially if the postdoc is directly supported on a research grant. Frequent, open communication can prevent misunderstandings. When an impasse develops, the adviser (or postdoc) should not hesitate to ask an ombudsperson or other neutral party to discuss the issue. (See also The role of the ombudsperson in Chapter 5 .)

Practice Description Poor Advising Practices

The following true examples, described by postdocs and advisers during the committee’s focus groups, illustrate situations or behaviors that can damage not only a postdoc’s experience but also the morale and accomplishments of a program.

• At a professional society meeting, a postdoc met several colleagues from other institutions who were engaged in the same field of research. They invited her to participate in a collaborative project involving an aspect of her lab’s research. When the postdoc asked permission, her adviser refused on the grounds that revealing the details of the lab’s work might give others an advantage. Comment: Scientific research is increasingly collaborative. A postdoc should be encouraged to develop her professional network and to seek out cooperative projects.
• An adviser who was a renowned lab director declined a postdoc’s offer to help assemble the lab’s grant proposal. “That’s my responsibility,” he said. Comment: Grant writing is a skill most postdocs need to acquire. While a major grant is indeed the PIs responsibility, the postdoc also needs to learn that skill. The postdoc should be asked to write the portion of the grant that describes his or her own work.
• An adviser with a wide reputation for hard work informed his group of post-docs that they could take a total of 12 days off each year, and that otherwise they were expected to be in the lab every day, including weekends. Comment: Advisers, following institutional policies, should establish reasonable policies for time off.
• A postdoc whose adviser was rarely in the lab felt the need for more supervision while learning a new field. When he asked the adviser’s permission to find an additional mentor, she refused on the grounds that another person would be intrusive and would jeopardize the advising relationship. Comment: The adviser does not “own” the postdoc, who can often benefit from multiple mentors—especially if the primary adviser is often unavailable.
• A foreign postdoc, after working in a program for several months, wanted to return home for Christmas vacation with his family. When he inquired about leave policy, he was told that his institution did not provide vacations for postdocs and that his adviser expected him to be in the lab year-round. Comment: Minimum vacation benefits for postdocs should be set by institutions and these policies should reflect the benefits accorded to other members of the lab or program.

Best Practice Scenario Turning Research into Manuscripts

After two productive years as a postdoc at a national laboratory, Paul had gathered an impressive body of data on climate change resulting from the eruption of an ancient volcano. His well-planned fieldwork had led to numerous poster sessions and several hundred pages of unpublished notes, but no publications. When his adviser urged him to publish, Paul responded that he needed a few more data points. After a more extended talk, the adviser learned that Paul, despite his excellent work, was inhibited by the recent work of a competitor, whom he was determined to “blow out of the water.”

Comment: The adviser persuaded Paul to begin publishing after explaining that 1) research accomplishments usually occur in small steps, 2) the feedback from his colleagues after publication is essential to further steps, and 3) his career would stall unless he communicated his work in public. Few junior investigators have a basis for understanding when and how much to publish; they need the advice of experienced mentors.

The productivity of a lab depends not only on the research skills of the adviser, but also on his or her ability to urge the postdocs, grad students, technicians, and other researchers toward an ethic of collaboration. Discord or feuding among lab members can be as destructive to a postdoc’s experience as a poor-mentoring relationship. Foreign postdocs may suffer disproportionately from lab disputes, especially if they depend on their adviser to maintain their visa status.

Finding a regular job

The adviser is usually the person best situated to help the postdoc move to the next position. The quality of that position reflects not only on the postdoc’s personal abilities, but also the quality of the program and the mentoring ability of the adviser. Traditionally, advisers in universities have expected their postdocs to move to the kinds of academic research positions that they themselves held. Today, informed advisers know that many more post-docs than formerly will move to the private sector or government, where employers may require a slightly different set of skills—in particular, a variety of personal skills, such as abilities in teamwork, communication, and leadership.

Departure is a difficult time for many advisers and postdocs. No adviser wants to lose a productive, well-qualified lab member. Nonetheless, advisers must remember that their goal as mentors is to help their postdocs to advance. Transitions may be eased if terms are specified by contract. Within these terms, the adviser can help to judge when the apprentice is ready to move to the next step.

Best Practices The ‘Special Something’ that Brings Success

When Adam came to a federal laboratory as a postdoc in anthropology, he was intimidated by the competition in his field of Central American studies. His adviser, however, suggested he stop and think for a moment. He asked, What do you want to get out of this postdoctoral experience? What are your career goals? What special skills do you have that most other researchers in the field do not? What are some of the unique aspects of this research environment? Which of my connections or talents can help you?

In Adam’s case, he spent part of his boyhood in Mexico. This provided him with unique language skills, contacts, and general understanding that most of his competition did not have. In addition, his university hosted a center of Latin American studies where he could increase his contacts with scholars interested in the same area.

Comment: By working together, Adam and his adviser were able to develop a strategy that used the best of his assets—and provided him with an edge that could lift him a step above his competition.

Even after a postdoc leaves, the adviser’s role is not finished. Scientists and engineers change positions often, and advisers can be invaluable allies in helping with the next step along the career path, whenever it comes.

Summary Points

At the outset, advisers need to make clear their expectations of the postdoc and learn about the postdoc’s own expectations.

In return for the postdoc’s contributions, the adviser should both provide scientific and technical training and help the postdoc acquire other necessary “career” skills, such as those that contribute to effective communication, publication, grant writing, and management.

Frequent communication between postdoc and adviser helps prevent problems from growing into grievances.

Attending professional meetings is one of the most important ways a postdoc can enhance professional visibility, gain confidence, and build a network of contacts.

Postdocs need regular feedback on the quality and direction of their work, including written evaluations at least annually.

The adviser should take the lead early and often in discussing ethical standards, including issues of authorship, credit, conflicts of interest, and other ethical dilemmas.

For Professor Simon’s lecture, see the University of Pittsburgh survival skills site, www ​.edc.gsph.pitt.edu/survival/ .

For further discussion of ethical issues, see the National Academies’ publication, On Being a Scientist: Responsible Conduct in Research, 1995 , available via the Academies’ web site and also through the National Academy Press at www ​.nap.edu .

• Cite this Page National Academy of Sciences (US), National Academy of Engineering (US), Institute of Medicine (US), Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy. Enhancing the Postdoctoral Experience for Scientists and Engineers: A Guide for Postdoctoral Scholars, Advisers, Institutions, Funding Organizations, and Disciplinary Societies. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2000. 4, The Postdoc and the Adviser.
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Manuscript-Based (Article-Based) Theses

• Initial Thesis Submission
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FAQ on manuscript-based theses

As an alternative to the traditional format, a thesis may be presented as a collection of scholarly papers of which the student is the first author or co-first author. A manuscript-based doctoral thesis must include the text of a minimum of two manuscripts published, submitted or to be submitted for publication. A manuscript-based Master’s thesis must include the text of one or more manuscripts. Articles must be formatted according to the requirements described below. Note that a manuscript-based thesis must follow the general structure of a thesis as explained here . An FAQ explaining the difference between a standard and a manuscript-based thesis is available here .

Manuscripts for publication in journals are frequently very concise documents. A thesis, however, is expected to consist of more detailed, scholarly work. A manuscript-based thesis will be evaluated by the examiners as a unified, logically coherent document in the same way a traditional thesis is evaluated. Publication of manuscripts, or acceptance for publication by a peer-reviewed journal, does not guarantee that the thesis will be found acceptable for the degree sought.

A manuscript-based thesis must:

• be presented with uniform font size, line spacing, and margin sizes (see Thesis Format under Preparation of a Thesis );
• conform to all other requirements listed under Thesis Components on the Preparation of a Thesis page;
• contain additional text that connects the manuscript(s) in a logical progression from one chapter to the next, producing a cohesive, unitary focus, and documenting a single program of research - the manuscript(s) alone do not constitute the thesis;
• stand as an integrated whole.

Any manuscripts that are under review, accepted or published in a journal must be included in your manuscript-based thesis without changes (i.e. identical to the published or submitted versions). The only change is with respect to the font/size which should be the same as the one used for the rest of the thesis for consistency and homogeneity reasons. So each chapter represents a full manuscript and has its own reference list. Then at the end of the thesis, you have a master reference list which includes all the other references cited throughout the other sections of the thesis, mostly within the general introduction but also from the general discussion.

Depending on the feedback of your examiners and/or the oral defence committee, you may be required to make revisions to your thesis before final submission. The committee’s comments must be addressed in the connecting text between chapters and/or the discussion section. You must not make any changes to the manuscripts themselves in your final thesis.

In the case of multiple-authored articles, the student must be the first author . Multiple-authored articles cannot be used in more than one thesis. In the case of students who have worked collaboratively on projects, it may be preferable for both students to write a traditional format thesis, identifying individual contributions. Consult this page for information on intellectual property and required permissions/waivers.

In the case of co-first authored articles , only one student can use the article in a manuscript-based thesis and must have a written agreement from the other co-first author student(s).

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International License . Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, McGill University .

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Post-doc vs Research Fellow on CV after Phd thesis submission

I submitted my PhD thesis in February, and now I'm a research fellow for 1 year at an Italian university. I will defend my PhD thesis in summer. In the meantime, I'd like to apply for some jobs so I'm updating my CV. What should I select as current position, postdoc or research fellow? I don't have a PhD since I have not defended already, but I'm not sure to be a research fellow since I have only a 1-year contract.

• research-process

• 1 A post-doc is a paid position. It doesn't just mean that you have finished your doctorate. –  Buffy Commented Apr 3 at 15:45
• You definitely can't call yourself a postdoc if you are not yet a doc. "Doctoral researcher" is one option. –  Adam Přenosil Commented Apr 4 at 15:36

Unless you have been hired as a post-doc, that would be inappropriate. It is a paid position with a contract.

Ask your institution if you can still represent yourself as a research fellow after it expires. And, you can use it prior to its expiration, of course.

But, in any case, you can add that you are a "former" research fellow, giving dates. Your "current position" after graduation might just be "none". But since a CV is a personal document you don't need to say that. People will understand.

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