genetic testing essay introduction

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Genetic Testing, Essay Example

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Genetic testing also known as DNA-based testing involves examining DNA molecules to find possible signs of genetic disorders. The advancements in the field of genetics have rapidly pushed the boundaries of medical science and have made it possible to predict the probability of genetic disorders to occur in the individuals. Thus, the greatest promise of genetic testing is not only in preventive measures but further advancements in genetics are expected to produce techniques that may even be able to repair faulty genes. Currently, there are more than 1000 genetic tests available from the testing laboratories including Alzheimer’s disease, Cystic fibrosis, Huntington’s disease, Sickle cell disease, and Timothy Syndrome.

As with any disruptive technology, the genetic testing raises certain ethical and moral issues. Privacy is one of the major concerns because genetic testing results could be used by insurance companies and other commercial enterprises to decide whether to provide their services or not and may charge more to the customers they perceive as high-risk. In addition, genetic testing is not fool-proof and the misleading results may lead to inaccurate treatments and preventive measures. In addition, the technology is still in infancy and any information that can’t be interpreted with reliability even if it’s accurate is as useless as no information at all. The medical community has no professional standards or guidelines that could be used to analyze the genetic testing results which results in doctors applying inconsistent analytical tools and reaching inconsistent conclusions.

The results of the genetic testing may inflict emotional pain on the individuals even if they are inaccurate. The psychosocial risks may be guilt, anxiety, impaired self-esteem, social stigma, and employment discrimination (American Academy of Pediatrics). There may be financial risks if the customer decides to act on the information and opt for expensive medical treatments in hope of reducing the risks indicated by genetic test. Moreover, genetic information has limited predictive power as our genes interact with the environment in complex ways.

As far as genetic testing in pediatrics is concerned, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends genetic testing only when it is in the best interests of the child and when the legitimate interests of the parent and the family can be promoted without anticipated harm to the child. It has been argued that genetic testing for children should be mandatory because a society has an obligation to promote child welfare through detective and timely treatment of selected conditions. At the same time, parents have a tendency to underestimate the risks involved in treatments on the basis of genetic test which may not promote the best interests of the child (American Academy of Pediatrics).

Emory Law Journal provides an interesting hypothesis on the potential impact of media on consumer choices. American actress Christina Applegate appeared on the Oprah Winfrey show on September 30, 2008 and declared that her decision to remove both of her breasts was based on her genetic test. She remarked, “I’m clear. Absolutely 100 percent clear and clean.” This information could be misinterpreted by the female viewers who have a family history of breast cancer. They may order their genetic test and decide to go the Christina Applegate way. But Christina Applegate’s self-assurance was not exactly correct because double mastectomy significantly decreases the chance of later developing breast cancer but does not guarantee prevention. In addition, direct-to-consumer companies have no obligation to tell customers of the treatment choices available and the customers may underestimate the social and emotional distress that breast removal may cause them later. Direct-to-consumer companies have a potential to mislead customers because even though they issue disclaimer that their results cannot be used to make medical decisions and that the users assume all the risk, their marketing messages send hope and promise of healthy future. Genetic testing companies are avoiding the possibility of legal problems by masking themselves as seller of informational and recreational services (Kishore, 2010).

The pace of regulations to govern the trade practices of the direct-to-consumer companies may have yet to come but the issue has not escaped the attention of the government. United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) tested direct-to-consumer genetic testing companies and found that they made medically unproven claims. In addition, the results from all the four companies whose services GAO purchased yielded results that were inconsistent with each other and the companies didn’t inform of their inability to carry out DNA tests on races prior to the purchase. In addition, the individual companies yielded different test results on the two samples that were actually the same. Some companies even tried to sell supplements that were supposed to repair damaged DNAs. In addition, they used fraudulent endorsements from high profile athletes (Kutz). This shows that genetic testing is still unreliable and a huge risk exists in utilizing genetic tests for making important medical decisions.

There is also a risk that genetic tests may be abused by employers to predict the probability of undesirable behavior in individuals which may or may never happen. For example, if an individual possesses a gene variant which studies link to increase risk of substance abuse such as alcohol and drugs, the employer may decide he doesn’t want to hire a potential future liability (Bailey).

Genetic testing may have limited useful and reliable applications especially in the case of diseases whose genes are few and have been correctly identified. Huntington gene is one example. People with Huntington disease have 36 to more than 120 CAG (Huntington disease is also known as CAG trinucleotide repeat expansion). People with 36 to 40 CAG repeats may or may not develop the signs of Huntington disease but people with more than 40 repeats almost always develop the disorder (Genetics Home Reference).

Genetic testing if proved negative may give false hopes to the customers. Customers may become careless with their life habits and may even forego regular diagnosis tests later in life. Thus, just as positive results may result in over reaction, negative results may lead to carelessness on the part of the customers. Genetic tests point towards a bright future of medical science as further progress is made but it will take some time for genetic testing to become a truly reliable medical service. Even when genetic testing is taken, the importance of medical advice should not be underestimated. Medical professionals are better informed due to their experience and knowledge and are better aware of the various options available to the customers.

Genetic testing may have consequences that extend far beyond the individuals. Genetic testing may persuade couples to opt for abortion or totally forego procreation plans. Some people may object on the basis of their moral values that humans are trying to imitate God which could limit federal funding to fund genetic research and slow down the progress in genetics. This has already happened when President Bill Clinton sent bill to the Congress to outlaw the cloning of humans on the recommendation of the National Bioethics Advisory Commission (Human Genome News, 1997).

American Academy of Pediatrics. Ethical Issues With Genetic Testing in Pediatrics. 3 February 2011 <http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;107/6/1451>.

Bailey, Ronald. “I’ll Show You My Genome. Will You Show Me Yours?” Reason January 2011: 35-43.

Genetics Home Reference. HTT. October 2008. 3 February 2011 <http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/HTT>.

Human Genome News. President’s Bill Would Prohibit Human Cloning. January-June 1997. 3 February 2011 <http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/publicat/hgn/v8n3/07pres.shtml>.

Kishore, Deepthy. “Test at Your Own Risk: Your Genetic Report Card and the Direct-To-Consumer Duty to Secure Informed Consent.” Emory Law Journal 2010: 1553-1609.

Kutz, Gregory. “Direct-To-Consumer Genetic Tests: Misleading Test Results Are Further Complicated by Deceptive Marketing and Other Questionable Practices.” Investigative. 2010.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Genetic Testing

Advantages and disadvantages of genetic testing: essay introduction, advantages and disadvantages of genetic testing: essay main body, advantages and disadvantages of genetic testing: essay conclusion.

The progress of medicine and healthcare provides people with an opportunity to recognize health problems at their early stages and start treatment to avoid complications. There are many serious disorders and diseases that have genetics as one of the main causes, including the Parkinson’s disease or cancer. Many medical workers prefer a serial testing strategy to identify possible mutations and predict the development of negative outcomes (Euhus, 2014). Genetic testing aims at identifying the changes in chromosomes and genes and prove/disprove a suspected condition. As well as other diagnostic methods, genetic testing may have its advantages and disadvantages that will be explained in this paper.

The main benefits of genetic testing are connected not with the nature of the results (positive or negative), but with a kind of sense of relief people may have. For a long period of time, people may stay uncertain in making their healthcare management decisions. Genetic testing gives the answer concerning the necessity to take or neglect a number of checkups and screenings in some cases. It is a good chance to predict a probability of specific diseases and choose appropriate preventive measures (Glick, 2016).

For example, if a result of genetic testing is negative, a person is able to plan the next stages of treatment without any fears or concerns. Even if the results of genetic testing are negative, certain advantages are observed because people get an opportunity to prevent or monitor personal health. It is possible to begin treatment at its early stage and provide patients with hope and explanations. In many cases, people prefer to be informed about their problems than to live without even knowing about possible health challenges. Predictive medicine and a safe future are the main advantages of genetic testing that people have to pay attention to when they have to decide whether to choose it or not.

At the same time, people should be aware of the possible cons of genetic testing and discuss all social and emotional aspects of this diagnostic method beforehand. First, patients have to understand that genetic testing cannot be defined as a type of treatment. The recognition of a disease and its genetic causes at early stages may be a serious challenge for millions of people because they become aware of their problems, but can do nothing to solve them. In addition, genetic testing provides only limited information. People can hardly get enough information about all possible symptoms, progress, and consequences of their diseases. They just become aware of the possibility of having a disease, a kind of predisposition, nothing more.

A number of emotional, social, and financial aspects can be raised. Anger and depression can be experienced by patients who obtain positive results. Some people may feel guilt or anxiety about their results. For example, if the results are negative, some families are concerned about the costs of such tests. Physical risks are also possible after blood samples are taken. Finally, after taking genetic testing, people get the answer to the main question, if they may or may not have a disease. Then, they should learn how to live with such awareness and not make wrong decisions. In many medical cases, awareness is a benefit. However, sometimes, people are not ready for such portion of knowledge and do not know what they should do with it.

In general, the advantages and disadvantages of genetic testing are numerous, and people have to understand that it is impossible to predict the results, as well as to be ready for the information. Serious decisions should be made, and significant steps should be taken by people who use genetic testing. Geneticists have to be ready to cooperate with counselors and protect their patients.

Glick, M. (2016). Genetic testing: Truth and consequences. The Journal of the American Dental Association, 147 (3), 157-159.

Euhus, D. (2014). Genetic testing today. Annals of Surgical Oncology, 21 (10), 3209-3215.

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Impact of Genetic Testing on Human Health:

Advances in the field of human genetics over the past three decades have led to improvements in human health through development and availability of novel genetic testing approaches for diagnosis, prognosis, treatment therapy, safety, preventive screening and population-based risk assessment. In this commentary, I highlight the current landscape of genetic testing in Delaware with a focus on the genetic etiology and molecular diagnosis of pediatric disease, tailored treatment efficacy and safety through novel clinical trials and pharmacogenomics, and training in the application of genomic approaches to rare and common diseases. Future opportunities include integrating application of genetic information into clinical practice, improving genetics education, focusing on disparities and access, and advancing genomics and digital health technologies.

Applied Clinical Genomics is the application of genetic information to the clinical setting, including improved diagnosis of disease and tailored treatment efficacy and safety. By discovering and defining the genes that underlie susceptibility to disorders, genetic information can be used to identify and better define those genes that play vital roles in human health, disease, and medical conditions. Equally important is the provision of training to physicians in the application of genomic and genetic approaches to studies of human diseases. When transferred directly into drug discovery programs and clinical trials, this knowledge will help to advance diagnosis, individualize treatment, and improve human health.

The mission of the Precision Medicine Program at Nemours Children’s Health is to integrate the application of genetic information into patient care and to provide colleagues across our institution with the resources and knowledge base to adapt to the growing genetic and genomic landscape that impacts modern patient care. In 1993, the first Clinical Laboratory Improvements Amendments (CLIA)-certified pediatric genetic testing lab was established at the Alfred I. duPont campus in Delaware, with an initial focus on the neuromuscular disorders: Duchenne/Becker muscular dystrophy, myotonic dystrophy, Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease, and spinal muscular atrophy. In addition to providing accurate diagnoses, the availability of these testing platforms led to the development of clinical decision support tools, improved clinical outcomes, and less invasive and expensive diagnostic tests that could replace muscle biopsy and histochemistry, which were the primary means for differential diagnosis of neuromuscular diseases in children. The genetic testing platforms also furthered understanding of the molecular etiology of myotonic dystrophy 1 , 2 and Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease 3 and fostered the development of novel gene therapies for spinal muscular atrophy. 4

While human genetics has long been known for its role in the diagnosis and management of familial genetic disorders such as cystic fibrosis and neurodevelopmental and neuromuscular disorders, variation in human DNA sequences contributes to risks for more common complex disorders including asthma, obesity, diabetes, autism, and congenital heart malformations. Response to treatment with medications and other procedures may also be largely determined by individual genetic variation. With rapidly advancing technologies in genome-wide mutation discovery (e.g., genome-wide association studies and next generation sequencing technologies), elucidation of the genomic risk factors or genetic etiology of complex diseases became possible. Moreover, “biomarker” profiles derived from many sources including patterns of gene activity, specific DNA sequences at important regulatory genes for drug metabolism (pharmacogenomics), or patterns of DNA sequences at other “risk” genes are rich sources of information for personalized approaches to medicine. These biomarker profiles, along with family history and educated practitioner assessments, can influence the management of patients in a positive way. The application of genetic information from bench to bedside, clinic to community, will help to improve diagnosis of disease, individualize treatment, and improve health outcomes.

Precision or Personalized Medicine, which considers individual differences in genes, environments and lifestyles to better understand and manage a patient’s health, disease, or condition, has emerged as a paradigm shift in healthcare, with the intersection of big data and advances in genomics enabling efficient identification of high quality and personalized evidence-based care. The Nemours Precision Medicine Initiative was launched in 2017 to provide high-quality, evidence-based care to children across the Nemours system, expanding the knowledge base for each individual patient to improve the overall safety, quality and cost effectiveness of their care. Several key programmatic pillars were included in this initiative. The Nemours Genetics Testing Stewardship Program was launched to provide consultation services for appropriate genetic testing, interpretation of genetic tests, explanation of test implications to caregivers and family, and diagnosis and management of genetic disorders. In a few short years, this program has been shown to increase access to genetic testing and provide prompt diagnoses and supportive care. 5 The Nemours Pharmacogenomics Service Program, comprised of trained PharmD specialists, provides education, clinical decision support tools, and best practice alerts in the electronic health record (EHR). 6 , 7 The Nemours Biomedical Research Informatics Center deployed a learning health system model, developing analytic tools to improve use of existing EHR data for outcomes research, and natural language processing and machine learning tools to make maximal use of unstructured medical data. 8 , 9 The Biobank and Molecular Analysis Program offers a biorepository for storage of pediatric tissue samples as well as guidance and scientific support to investigators in the conduct of clinical research. Finally, the Rare Disease Program provides both single gene and next generation sequencing platforms to provide differential diagnoses for rare complex genetic disorders such as chronic kidney disease and leukodystrophies.

As healthcare organizations strive to excel in a value-driven healthcare economy, it will be important to accelerate the delivery of high quality, precise, and efficient care as well as provide cost savings for patients. Demonstration projects will incorporate genomic information into the EHR and provide clinical decision support for implementation of appropriate interventions or clinical advice. Dissemination of these methods through implementation science is a key goal so that the information generated will contribute to the growing knowledge base of using genomic information in patient care. Researchers often advance the practice of precision medicine by studying the genetics of a population, searching for commonalities and anomalies. This approach may unlock medical breakthroughs, enabling us to prevent disease, improve medication safety based on an individual’s unique genetics, and better predict which treatments will be most effective.

Denny and Collins 10 have proposed an expansion in seven key areas to enable a data-driven transformation in healthcare: large interoperable longitudinal cohorts, improved diversity and inclusion in science, big data and artificial intelligence, clinical genomics, phenomics, environment, privacy, trust and return of value. These areas provide a roadmap for precision medicine in 2030 and align with the overall goal of the National Academies’ Roundtable on Genomics and Precision Health to ensure that all people benefit from genomics for precision health. 11 The Genomics Workforce is prioritizing four action-oriented areas for 2021: innovation, dialog, equity, and adoption. Collectively, these areas of focus provide a roadmap for our state to employ its collective talent and voices to capitalize on the advances in genomics and precision health to improve the health of all Delawareans.

Advanced Diagnostic Procedures: The Individual Impact of Genetic Diagnosis Essay

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Introduction

Genetic testing, individual impact of genetic diagnosis, implications for genetic counseling.

Over the second half of the 20th century, there have been great scientific breakthroughs and inventions in the medical field. These breakthroughs have resulted in the creation of sophisticated medical equipment and advanced diagnostic procedures. One of the more novel advances has been in the form of genetic testing which is the ability to determine the presence of a genetic marker for a specific disease or condition.

This testing is especially significant in light of research findings which estimate that 1 in every 20 newborns in America are born with a severe disorder that is presumed to be genetic in origin (Pillitteri, 2009). Genetic diagnosis therefore gives people the means with which to forecast the presence of or susceptibility to some diseases.

This knowledge of a genetic mishap in advance gives a person the opportunity to take up preventive measures to counter the disease if it is possible. However, genetic diagnosis has an inescapable effect on the individual and in some cases his family as well.

This paper will set out to detail the impact that genetic diagnosis can have on the individual. The paper will highlight the positive as well as negative effects that genetic testing may result in. The implications that this impacts can have on genetic counseling shall also be considered so as to highlight the significance of counseling in genetic diagnosis.

The World Health Organization (2005) defines Genetic Testing as “DNA analysis to determine the carrier status of an individual; to diagnose a present disease in the individual; or to determine the individual’s genetic predisposition to developing a particular condition in the future.”

The use of genetic testing for diagnosis purpose is increasing at a high rate as a result of the novel possibilities that genetic testing holds for clinical care. Lerman and Shields (2004, p.225) advance that it is anticipated that genetic testing can eventually allow health care providers to positively identify individuals who will develop certain types of sicknesses and therefore allow them to tailor preventive care based on a person’s genotype.

In addition to this, the number of inherited disorders and risk factors that can be detected through genetic testing increases rapidly as more research on the subject is carried out. The impacts of genetic testing are therefore likely to be felt by an even larger section of the population.

Positive Impacts

Genetic testing may result in reduced anxiety for the individual and provides information necessary to make sound decisions. Decisions such as not to have babies, preventive care or abortions can be made based on test results. Many couples have fears as to whether their children may have some inheritable disease which would render them disabled in some way.

A study by Claes et al. (2004) showed that some of the motives for people wanting predictive genetic testing were so as to clarify the risks for their children. Genetic testing (prenatal testing) can help ease the heart and mind of such people by giving them information as to the likelihood of their baby suffering from any gene disorder (Boskey, 2007).

From the results, the woman can decided to terminate a pregnancy or even not have babies at all. Genetic testing therefore removes the anxiety that the person would feel from not knowing about the health prospects of their baby should they decide to have one.

Genetic diagnosis can provide knowledge of a genetic risk. This information may result in the behavioural change by the individual. The behavioural change is brought about by the revelation of higher susceptibility to the specific condition by the individual.

Heshka et al. (2008, p.24) reveals that following disclosure of genetic test results for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer, mammography screening rates over the next year increased significantly. While the increased screening rates for all tested people, mammography use was higher in carriers than in non-carriers.

Other patients on being made aware of the presence of diseases take up action to manage their conditions. Some individuals go as far as attain technical knowledge on their conditions so as to increase their competence in treating themselves (Petersen 2006, p.37).

Genetic diagnosis may influence the lifestyle choices of the individual. Some diseases may come about as a result of the lifestyle choices of the individual. These diseases such as lung cancer can therefore be avoided through change in lifestyle.

The ability of genetic susceptibility testing to impact positive on behavioural changes in individual are confirmed by Sandeson et al. (2008) research which revealed that smokers were more motivated to quit smoking following genetic testing results which placed them at high risk of having lung cancer.

The reason for this was because the smoker who believed that they were genetically susceptible to a smoking related disease had a stronger motivation to quit smoking. Lifestyle-related genetic susceptibility tests may therefore have a positive impact on the life of an individual since they provide an incentive to lead a healthier lifestyle.

Genetic testing can give explicit information therefore preventing the stress that comes from unconfirmed suspicions. In some instances, the people who elect to undergo genetic diagnosis have some evidence of the disease in question. For these individuals, the distress levels are considerably decreased as a result of obtaining conclusive test results.

This decreased or normal distress level is as a result of a high sense of control over the disease once someone is made aware of its presence. A research by Horowitz et al. 2001, p.191) revealed that most of the people who elected to be tested for HD already had symptoms of the disease even though they may not be aware of their carrier status.

These findings are corroborated by Kasparian et al. (2006) who reveal that at least 33% of the participants in genetic screening research expected to be carriers of a mutated gene. The suspicions that an individual harbors about him being afflicted by a disease produced considerable stress.

Research carried out by Horowitz et al (2001) on the impact of news of genetic risk for Huntington Disease indicated that individuals who leaned that they were carriers exhibited less psychological distress over time compared to the at-risk group who did not get tested.

Individuals who exhibit neurological impairment without knowing that they already have the disease may be prone to depression and an increased risk of harming themselves. Having their condition confirmed through genetic diagnosis makes it possible for clinical staff at genetic counseling and testing centers to offer them the help they need to alleviate this situation.

Negative Effects

As a result of carrier testing which identifies inherited gene mutations, the carrier can be subjected to social stigmatization. Unlike some conditions like HIV/AIDS which have visible symptoms, genetic conditions have few symptoms. Petersen (2006, p.22) notes that genetic conditions are only potentially stigmatizing if people are made aware of their presence through genetic testing.

Lernam et al. (2003) documents that in a quantitative study examining adult’s experience with carrier testing, results indicates that while both carriers and non-carriers did not exhibit any negative self image as a result of the diagnosis, non-carriers developed a negative attitude to the carrier status.

While the carriers initially did not exhibit any negative attitude to their status, stigmatization may have negative implementation. It may result in anxiety and an inferior social status, all of which are unhealthy for the individual’s psychological well being.

This psychological distress is sometimes unnecessary since the presence of markers showing genetic alteration might only indicate susceptibility for a certain disease and not the certainty of the disease.

Testing may result in worry and apprehension therefore diminishing the quality of a person’s life. A major characteristic of the information obtained from genetic testing is that it is highly probabilistic and there exist levels of uncertainty. For example, Predictive genetic testing “offers the opportunity to identify whether an asymptomatic person has inherited a genetic predisposition ” (Claes et al 2004, p.264).

As such, even when one obtains positive test results for the Huntington Disease gene, there is no information on when the disease will occur. For diseases such as cancer and cutaneous malignant melanomagenetic, genetic testing only indicates a hereditary predisposition to the diseases and not whether the disease will in fact occur to the person.

Genetic testing might result in worry by the individual who has positive results. This worry affects a person’s life since they do not know the time when the disease will afflict them.

Paranoia and unnecessary fear may result from genetic test results. This is especially the case when carrier testing is undertaken. Carrier testing is a type of genetic test performed for sex linked disorders so as to identify if a person is a carrier of a gene mutation. A positive result indicates that one has a carrier status which indicates their predisposition to certain conditions.

Positive results can cause worry to the individual and this may translate to paranoia about the disease risk. Research by Kasparian et al. (2006) on the psychological responses to genetic testing for melanoma indicated that some of the participants exhibited an increased sun-safe behaviour. The participants also had a desire to impose the said model sun safe behaviours on their children and relatives as well.

Guilt is another significant effect that genetic diagnosis can have on an individual. This is because unlike other diagnosis, a genetic diagnosis may has implications for an individual’s entire family. Petersen (2006, p.41) notes that the unique challenges on people with genetic conditions arises from the knowledge that they have conditions that they can pass on to others.

The impacts of genetic testing therefore go far beyond the individual who is having the test. A mother who has received positive results for Fibrosis may feel guilty about transmitting the same to her daughters. The same mother may feel guilty about being a career for a genetic disorder which later affects her children.

Unlike other diagnoses which are followed by curative measures, many of the genetic tests that are carried out do not clearly promote treatment and cure of the condition. The results from genetic diagnosis have been known to result in increased anxiety levels as well as suicidal tendencies in some people.

This is because some of the results of genetic testing can indicate the presence of incurable diseases that a person had no idea or beforehand. Genetic diagnosis can therefore result in feelings of hopelessness when the person is diagnosed to be a carrier of some mutated gene (Lernam et al.2003, p.790).

While research does indicate that patients have a higher anxiety and depression levels before genetic testing, this does not discount the presence of a small number of patients who exhibit high levels of stress and disturbance after the results of the genetic testing.

Claes et al. (2004, 165) states that DNA-tests hold a possibility of adverse psychological effects such as “increased anxiety, feelings of guilt and remaining uncertainty about the future health status”. These adverse effects occur regardless of whether one is diagnosed. As such, the importance of counseling both before and after genetic diagnosis cannot be overstated.

Genetic counseling is defined as “the provision of accurate, full, and unbiased information in a caring, professional relationship that offers guidance, but allows individuals and families to come to their own decisions” (Sharper and Carter 4).

Before the genetic testing, counseling serves the purpose of enabling the individual to make an informed choice based on information about the genetic test and its risks. The individual must be made to look at the positive impacts of genetic screening with the negative impacts in mind.

Another consideration to be made by the counselor is the impact that genetic testing has on others. As has been stated herein, the genetic test results may have significant impact on the individual’s family. For genetic conditions, the patient ceases to be an individual but the whole family and as such, it is important for the individuals experience to be looked at within the family and community context.

Halbert (2004, p.136) asserts that with this in mind, the risks to family members should be emphasized by the counselor during the pre-test sessions. With this in mind, genetic counselor can be structured so as to minimize the negative effects of genetic testing hence letting the individual optimally enjoy the benefits of the test.

The increase in the perceived gains of genetic testing have resulted in it being considered as an essential part of the health care system and future prospects are that it will be a fundamental component in medicine. The adverse effects that may arise from genetic diagnosis are considered to be a risk when one chooses to be tested.

This paper set out to articulate the various impacts that an individual may have as a result of genetic testing. From the discussions presented, it can be seen that there exist significant risks associated with the practice e.g. psychological distress. This negative factors if not well managed may result in a reduction in the quality of life for the individual.

Measures such as pre and post-test counseling which can reduce the negative effects should therefore be employed. From this paper, it can be authoritatively stated that any genetic testing should be preceded and followed by appropriate counseling services for the individual(s) affected.

Boskey, E 2007, America Debates Genetic DNA Testing, New York: The Rosen Publishing Group.

Claes, E Denayer, L Evers-Kiebooms, G Boogaerts, A & Legius, E 2004, “Predictive testing for hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer: motivation, illness representations and short-term psychological impact”, Patient Education and Counseling 55 (2004) 265–274.

Halbert, CH 2004, “Decisions and outcomes of genetic testing for inherited breast cancer risk”, Annals of Oncology 15 (Supplement 1): i35–i39.

Heshka, JT Palleschi, C Howley, H Wilson, B & Wells, PS 2008, “A systematic review of perceived risks, psychological and behavioural impacts of genetic testing”, Genetics In Medicine , Vol. 10, No. 1.

Horowitz, MJ Field, NP Zanko, A Donnelly, EF Epstein, C & Longo, F 2001, “Psychological Impact of News of Genetic Risk for Huntington Disease”, American Journal of Medical Genetics 103:188±192.

Lernam, C Croyle, RT Tercyak, KP & Hamann, H 2003, “Genetic Testing: Psychological Aspects and Implications”, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 70, No. 3, 784–797.

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Kasparian, NA Meiser, B Butow, PN Soamse, RF & Mann, JG 2006, “Better the Devil You Know? High-Risk Individuals’ Anticipated Psychological Responses to Genetic Testing for Melanoma Susceptibility”, Journal of Genetic Counseling , Vol. 15, No. 6, December 2006.

Petersen, A 2006, “The best experts: The narratives of those who have a genetic condition”, Social Science & Medicine 63 (2006) 32–42.

Pillitteri, A. 2009, Maternal and Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing and Childrearing Family, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Sandeson, SC Humphries, ES Hubbart, C Jarvis, JM & Wardle, J 2008, “Psychological and Behavioural Impact of Genetic Testing Smokers for Lung Cancer Risk: A Phase II Exploratory trial” Journal of Health Psychology 2008 13: 481.

Sharpe, NF & Carter, RF 2006, Genetic testing: care, consent, and liability , John Wiley and Sons.

WHO 2005, Genetics, genomics and the patenting of DNA Review of potential implications for health in developing countries < https://www.who.int/genomics/FullReport.pdf >

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