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Natural factors of microplastics distribution and migration in water: a review.

1. Introduction

2. meteorological factors, 2.1. rainfall.

2.2. Ultraviolet Radiation

3. aquatic life, 3.1. aquatic plants, 3.2. aquatic animals, 3.3. water microorganisms, 4. water matrix: suspended particulate, sediment, and topography, 4.1. suspended particulate, 4.2. sediments, 4.3. water topography and landform, 5. conclusions and outlook.

• Carry out indoor quantitative simulation experiments and outdoor long-term observations on the migration of microplastics under changes in meteorological conditions and understand the migration mechanism and controlling factors of microplastics in the field at a large scale. Attention should be paid to the changes in water environmental conditions in different seasons to better evaluate microplastics’ interannual variation characteristics. Global climate change has led to more frequent extreme weather events, and the transport of microplastics in water bodies and their sediments may be significantly affected by climate change, so it is necessary to strengthen the research on the global distribution and circulation of microplastics under climate change scenarios in the future.
• In different types of water bodies, topography and landforms, as well as the types of particulate matter in water bodies, are very different, and more attention needs to be paid to the movement mechanism of microplastics in different types of lakes and rivers. It is important to clarify the agglomeration behavior and co-migration mechanism between particulate matter and microplastics in clear water to predict microplastics’ environmental behavior and risks accurately. The migration process of microplastics in seawater and surface water has been partially studied, but more attention needs to be paid to the migration of microplastics in groundwater and special ecological regions such as karst water [ 89 ].
• The impact of water temperature change on the transport of microplastics and the impact of ocean current processes on the global migration of microplastics were investigated. Currently, most of the research on the migration mechanism of microplastics in water bodies is carried out in the laboratory, which is quite different from the actual environment in which microplastics are located, and the model microplastics used are also significantly different from those in the real environment.
• The interactive migration model of external environmental factors, internal water characteristics, and the physical and chemical properties of microplastics can be constructed. Systematic research can be carried out on multiple factors and scales to have a more comprehensive understanding of the migration process of microplastics in the real environment and better supervise their ecological risks [ 126 , 169 ]. At the same time, large-scale data acquisition needs to be standardized before validating the migration model to increase the applicability of measurements. Strengthening the study of the movement mechanics of microplastics and the spatial mode of pollution, determining the risk location of pollutant accumulation, and better delineating the area with the greatest risk of potential negative effects of microplastic pollution will help to focus on water protection.
• Microplastics in water bodies are important carriers of other pollutants, and the synergistic migration behavior and mechanism of bacteria and viruses of other pollutants, especially newly polluted antibiotics, and microplastics in the actual water environment are still unknown and need to be further studied and improved [ 183 ].
• Microplastics are constantly changing in the actual environment and may be affected by various factors in the migration, decomposition, and transformation process. Their original physical and chemical properties will also change.
• Combined with the characteristics of microplastic pollution and the law of migration, an efficient governance system with scientific classification, source treatment, and migration control as the main contents and a sub-regional, sub-type, and sub-time supervision mechanism should be established.

Author Contributions

Data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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An, X.; Wang, Y.; Adnan, M.; Li, W.; Zhang, Y. Natural Factors of Microplastics Distribution and Migration in Water: A Review. Water 2024 , 16 , 1595. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111595

An X, Wang Y, Adnan M, Li W, Zhang Y. Natural Factors of Microplastics Distribution and Migration in Water: A Review. Water . 2024; 16(11):1595. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111595

An, Xianjin, Yanling Wang, Muhammad Adnan, Wei Li, and Yaqin Zhang. 2024. "Natural Factors of Microplastics Distribution and Migration in Water: A Review" Water 16, no. 11: 1595. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111595

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Plastic has become an undeniable part of human lives all around. Plastic bags are very popular with retailers and consumers because they are cheap, strong, lightweight and water resistant for carrying goods as well as some food. Almost all people use plastic bags in daily life, but many of them don't know that these bags are the prime cause for water, soil and air pollution. It is dangerous for human, plant and animal life. The main issue with plastic arises when used plastics are disposed off. Degradation of plastics takes 50 years to an estimated one million years. There are rules passed by the governments, not to use plastic bag whose thickness is less than 40 microns. But there is no proper monitoring over this. About 60-100 million barrels of oil are needed every year to make plastics around the world. This paper deals with effective uses of plastic which are helpful for the prevention of environmental disaster in near future.

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• Published: 05 June 2024

Light painting photography makes particulate matter air pollution visible

• Francis D. Pope   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6583-8347 1   na1 ,
• Robin Price 2   na1 ,
• Katherine E. Woolley   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3743-9925 3 ,
• Carlo Luiu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1157-008X 1 ,
• Mohammed S. Alam   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5427-3122 4 ,
• William R. Avis   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7207-3992 5 ,
• Suzanne E. Bartington   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8179-7618 3 ,
• Dawit Debebe 6 ,
• Zerihun Getaneh 6 ,
• Sheila M. Greenfield 3 ,
• Rachel Howells 7 ,
• Mukesh Khare   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5848-2159 8 ,
• Abel Weldetinsae   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2946-6077 9 ,
• Chloe Lawson 10 ,
• Sumit K. Mishra 11 ,
• Ben Neal   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0009-8622-0832 10 ,
• Karen Newman 10 ,
• Ajit Singh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0986-2064 1 , 3 ,
• Bikila Teklu Wodajo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8788-1685 6 ,
• G. Neil Thomas   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2777-1847 3 &
• Faye Wilder 1  

Communications Earth & Environment volume  5 , Article number:  294 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The World Health Organization estimates that air pollution causes approximately seven million premature deaths worldwide each year. Solutions to air pollution are well known, yet this rarely equates to easily actionable. Here we demonstrate how art science collaboration can successfully highlight the issue of air pollution and create wider civic discourse around its amelioration. We document a light painting photographic technique that uses data from calibrated low-cost particulate matter sensors to measure and depict air pollution. We also use a postcard technique to grasp individuals’ sentiments regarding air pollution. The photographs from three countries, Ethiopia, India and United Kingdom, visually highlight the importance of location and occupation upon human exposure. The photographs are used as a proxy to communicate and create dialogues, spaces and places about air pollution. The sentiment analysis shows how this approach can foster awareness and create agency for stakeholders to take actions to tackle air pollution.

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Introduction.

Air pollution is one of the main threats to both environmental and human health, and is a leading cause of premature death globally 1 . Indeed, the World Health Organization estimates 99% of the global population breathe polluted air, causing ~7 million premature deaths worldwide each year 2 , 3 . The situation is particularly challenging in Asia, where air pollution remains a problem in countries like India and China, despite many air quality policies and actions 4 , 5 . Similarly, African countries have been experiencing exponential deterioration in air quality over the last five decades, with several cities presenting levels of pollution 5–10 times higher than World Health Organization recommendations 6 . Particulate matter (PM) is the air pollutant most responsible for human morbidity and mortality. It has multiple impacts upon physical health and is responsible for diseases including heart disease, stroke and cancers 7 . A growing body of literature highlights that PM not only affects physical, but also mental and cognitive health 8 , 9 . As a consequence of the increasing evidence of the harmful effects of air pollution even at relatively low concentrations, in 2021, the World Health Organization decided to revise its air quality guidelines and reduce its recommendations for PM 2.5 annual concentrations from 10 to 5 μg m-3 and PM 10 from 20 to 15 μg m-3 10 .

Knowledge, perceptions and attitudes towards air pollution are key factors for achieving air pollution exposure reductions through behavioral change 11 . Moreover, perceptions of environmental harms are key determinants to changes in behavior 12 . Previous work on air pollution has highlighted the need for raising awareness of both the problem of air pollution and potential solutions with which to achieve reductions, especially in low-income settings 13 , 14 .

From an epidemiological perspective, the serious impacts of poor air quality upon morbidity and mortality are well understood. However, this body of knowledge is rarely translated into individual perceptions of air quality. Multiple interacting processes can cause public indifference to the issues of air pollution. First, the ubiquity of air pollution can cause disempowerment and subsequent ambivalence to its presence. Secondly, in most situations, air pollution is invisible. Unlike some other environmental hazards, (e.g. flooding), air pollution is difficult for the public to observe and react to. The individual PM particles are too small to be seen by the naked eye. However, PM scatters and absorbs light, resulting in hazes and loss of visibility under sufficiently high concentrations 15 . When hazes appear, air pollution becomes the subject of media and public interest (see for example the London smogs of the 1950s and contemporary Asian smogs). But when the observable hazes diminish, so does the newsworthiness of air pollution, despite its still present threat. Thirdly, individual agency over air pollution exposure is limited. This limitation is especially true with respect to outdoor pollution, with multiple sources that an individual has no control over 16 . Indoor air pollution offers more agency to individuals who can choose how to generate heat and light within dwellings. However, this agency is often limited by economic and infrastructure constraints 17 and lack of access to alternatives. Finally, excluding the most susceptible, the wider day-to-day risks of air pollution are small for the overall population, resulting in a correspondingly low motivation for individual changes in behavior. Furthermore, other contemporary issues, like access to food, water and housing, are more immediate.

Collaboration between the arts and sciences can be a useful tool for both informal knowledge dissemination and fostering citizen engagement and/or activism 18 . Art experiences are aligned with the affective domain of learning 19 . Art provides engagement, and elicits emotions and changes in attitude, while science education emphasizes cognitive understanding through logic 20 , creating reciprocal pathways for public engagement 21 . By holistically drawing from both the affective and cognitive domains, such collaboration encourages a more intuitive understanding of subjects. In this sense, art-science collaboration can be particularly effective in the context of climate change and environmental issues 22 . Art science collaboration can provide innovative, challenging and provocative ways to engage communities and, despite not providing solutions, can help in stimulating individuals’ perceptions, behavioral changes and raising awareness of the climate crisis 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 . This project was devised to creatively represent air pollution in different contexts and, by doing so, to provide places and spaces for discourse. The project follows the concepts of eco-didacticism 21 , 22 , 27 , 28 and aims to make invisible air pollution visible. This approach will provide an easy-to-comprehend artistic engagement tool to compare air pollution in different contexts. The team required artists and scientists to produce output that was scientifically robust, but also visually arresting, which could be understood by those uneducated in scientific practices.

Light painting is a photographic technique using long exposure times. Its effect is that only objects that are very still or bright are recorded in the final image. The technique was pioneered by Étienne-Jules Marey and Georges Demeny in 1889 as part of a research program using photography as a scientific tool to investigate biological motion. It was used for similar purposes by the Gilbreths to scientifically record the movements of clerical and factory workers as part of their time and motion research studies before being taken up and popularized by photographic artists such as Vilho Setälä, Man Ray, Wynn Bullock and Gijon Mili. Digital light painting uses digitally controlled light sources to create and control the effect within the image 20 . It was developed by Steve Mann as a means of visualizing sensor data 29 , and further advanced in recent work of Timo Arnall in the visualization of Wi-Fi strength 30 .

We applied digital light painting to visualize air pollution. Low-cost air pollution sensors that have previously been shown to provide accurate measurements were used to measure PM mass concentrations 31 , 32 . The real time signal from the sensor was used to control a moving Light Emitting Diode (LED) array, which was programmed to rapidly flash as a function of PM concentration. A relevant location was then chosen in which a story about air pollution could be told. A long exposure photograph is taken with the artist moving the LED array in front of the camera within the chosen scene. The duration of an individual LED flash is sufficiently short so that the flash becomes a dot on the photograph. The artist is not observed in the photo because they are moving, whereas the light flashes from the LED array are seen because they are bright. The photographs represent the PM concentration by creating an equivalency between the measured PM particles and the number of light dots in the photographs. This creates in the camera a visualization of the pollution, thus creating an affective visual metaphor of the PM being put under a microscope and lit up. The strength of the metaphor is that it allows for pollution levels to be instantly visually understood. Furthermore, it allows for easy comparisons between different locations.

Once developed, the light painting technique was used to document the levels of air pollution in multiple and contrasting international contexts. Port Talbot in Wales was the initial focus of the project. The interest came from the tension between the economic benefits of the Port Talbot steelworks in the community, being the city’s largest employer, and the environmental consequences of having one of the largest steelworks in Europe and a major source of local pollution 33 . Figure  1 shows the light painting for Port Talbot. The scene shows the Prince Street air quality monitoring site situated in front of the steelworks. Port Talbot Steelworks is an integrated steelmaking plant, using imported iron ore and coal as the major inputs. The air quality monitoring and light painting were performed at 9 pm (dusk) on 27/07/2017 and measured PM 2.5 concentrations in the range of 30–40 μg m-3. The PM 2.5 hourly average value measured at the regulatory Automatic Urban and Rural Network monitoring site for the same time was 24 μg m-3. There were large variations within the same day with no clear diurnal cycle: the mean average for the day (±1σ) was 21.9 ± 13.0 μg m-3.

Photo from the Prince Street air quality monitoring site with Tata Steelworks in the background - PM 2.5 30 − 40 μg m-3.

Figure  2 presents a diptych of two light paintings both taken in children’s playgrounds in India, but ~500 km distant from each other. The left-hand image is taken in Delhi, a megacity with an estimated population of 32 million in 2022, often observed to be one of the cities with the worst air quality globally 34 . The right-hand image was taken in Palampur, a hill station in the state of Himachal Pradesh which has some of the cleanest air in India. The images were taken within 5 days of each other. The Delhi air pollution was recorded in the range of 500–600 μg m-3, at least 40 times greater than the World Health Organization’s guideline values (15 μg m-3) for 24 h mean average 35 . The PM 2.5 values measured at the Palampur playground were in the range of 30–40 μg m-3, a factor of at least 12.5 times less than that measured in Delhi, highlighting how air pollution concentrations depend upon location, thereby setting up intra-country environmental inequalities.

a Children’s playground in Palampur (CSIR-IHBT), India, measured PM 2.5 30–40 μg m-3. b Nursery playground in Delhi (IIT Delhi), India, measured PM 2.5 500–600 μg m-3.

Figure  3 presents a diptych from Ethiopia, this time exploring how air pollution can vary dramatically between indoor and outdoor locations. Ethiopia, and more generally East African countries, are undergoing rapid economic development, industrialization and socio-demographic transition, with associated increases in ambient air pollutant levels 36 . The two light paintings were taken in the capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, in 2020 within days of each other. The left-hand image shows an image taken outdoors on the Airport Road, an area of the capital that is well developed, with high-quality surfaces both on the road and surrounding pavement. Measured PM 2.5 concentrations were in the range of 10–20 μg m-3, a relatively low range observed by many cities around the world. Data from the https://www.airnow.govair website measuring PM 2.5 in Addis Ababa indicates this value is not unusual for the season. The outdoor image is juxtaposed with the indoor image, taken of a kitchen using multiple large biomass stoves for food preparation for a canteen. Even with a large room volume and reasonable ventilation to the outside, the PM 2.5 concentrations measured in the room were in the range of 150–200 μg m-3, a factor of ~10–20 times greater than what was measured nearby outdoors. The diptych visually makes apparent the vast differences in exposure to PM, which is dependent on where you live, work, and how you travel between these locations.

a Airport Road, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia - PM 2.5 10–20 μg m-3. b Indoor Biomass Burning Kitchen, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia—PM 2.5 150–200 μg m-3.

Figures  4 and 5 provide an example of how the light painting technique can be used as an engagement and advocacy tool for air quality data visualization and create spaces and places for discussion about air pollution. The light painting images from Addis Ababa, shown in Fig.  3 , were printed onto posters (Fig.  4 ) and postcards (Fig.  5 ), with supplementary information about the air pollution situation in Addis Ababa, both within indoor and ambient environments. They also provided simple messages on how to reduce personal air pollution contributions and exposure to provide the observers with potential agency. The posters were placed in areas around the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology to engage with the student body. After discussions with the students about the posters, a postcard technique for real-time data collection was used to grasp their thoughts on the air pollution situation in Addis Ababa. The team distributed five types of postcards depicting photos of both ambient and household air pollution situations and asked students about what they thought about air pollution, what actions could be taken to address air pollution, and who should address air pollution. The postcards returned a set of 63 responses comprising 143 statements that were analyzed using the behavioral change wheel technique 37 . This qualitative analysis provides insights into the ‘capability’, ‘opportunity, and ‘motivation’ of the students regarding air pollution. The thematic analysis of the statements collected reveals a good level of awareness among the students of both household and ambient air pollution: “Addis air quality is poor” (Postcard_C15), and its causes. Students highlighted the impacts on the environmental impacts and health effects of exposure to air pollution and the associated types of diseases, including respiratory diseases, cancer and eye issues. They also identified as main causes of ambient air pollution transport-related air pollution and waste burning. Transport-related air pollution was predominantly associated with motorized traffic congestion, poor maintenance and the performance of vehicles’ engines, and polluting second-hand imported vehicles: “The exhaust in cars, I feel sorry for people walking on the street who have to breathe in, and for children as well” (Postcard_C9). Students identified waste burning as a cause of air pollution both in terms of industrial waste disposal: “We have to decrease industrial waste” (Postcard_CW3), and household waste disposal, especially related to burning plastic: “I wish people could stop burning their trash and dispose of their waste properly” (Postcard_C8). They reported smoke from industrial factories and people smoking as contributors to ambient air pollution. Indoor air pollution was mainly associated with the burning of domestic fuels, particularly charcoal for indoor cooking: “It will be good if we use alternatives to charcoal indoors” (Postcard_A5).

Posters with light paintings from Addis Ababa located at a bus stop outside the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology.

a Depicts the level of air pollution on Airport Road, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, recording PM 2.5 levels of 10–20 μg m-3; b Depicts the level of air pollution of biomass burning in a commercial kitchen at the University of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, recording PM 2.5 levels of 150–200 μg m-3; c Depicts level of air pollution in an open area; d Depicts level of air pollution at a bus station in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; e Depicts level of air pollution during a traditional Ethiopian coffee ceremony; f Example of back of postcard with student’s statements.

In the context of advocating for change, students identified relevant stakeholders, suggesting they have the knowledge to engage with and bring about change, advocating for top-down measures to raise awareness to tackle air pollution: “The United Nations and other authorities should give awareness to people and make an effort to solve this global problem” (Postcard_A17); “The government should give awareness to the people about air pollution. Alternatives for charcoal should be used” (Postcard_A8). Similarly, they suggested the government intervention to tackle transport-related air pollution: “I wish the government of Ethiopia can reduce the toxic gas released by cars” (Postcard_C8); “The government should stop importing second-hand cars” (Postcard_CW1). Nonetheless, very few students identified mitigation mechanisms, suggesting a limited lack of knowledge of solutions. They focused particularly in addressing the need to plant more trees to tackle air pollution: “We should plant more plants in the cities to reduce air pollution” (Postcard_C5), but also to tackle deforestation for wood burning: “If we cut trees, we have to plant two-thirds of what we cut” (Postcard_A1). Moreover, they mentioned measures to reduce transport-related air pollution, especially in terms of incentivizing the use of more sustainable transport modes, including building more non-motorized transport infrastructure for walking and cycling, better car emissions regulation for imported cars, improvements in vehicles’ maintenance and fleet electrification: “Access to cheaper auto parts would decrease emissions, same with consistent electricity and CO 2 ” (Postcard_C16). Similarly, electrification and the incentivization for the use of more sustainable forms of power were suggested to reduce the use of charcoal for domestic use: “Promote and encourage people to use electricity for cooking” (Postcard_CW2).

Due to air pollution being ingrained in external factors (e.g., industry) and solutions requiring governmental influence, participants reported little individual opportunity to combat air pollution; nor were they able to express the physical or social opportunities they had to reduce pollution. Nonetheless, the students’ motivations and aspirations to reduce air pollution were high, although reported with broad comments: “I want to move around freely without getting polluted” (Postcard_A19); “We want to see a clean city, green and clean residential areas” (Postcard_A1). Overall, the postcards were a useful medium for initiating discussions around air pollution and indicated that there are still multiple barriers faced by individuals to improve air quality in Addis Ababa, despite their knowledge of the presence of air pollution and its impacts upon human and ecological health.

The Air of the Anthropocene project has experienced widespread recognition across multiple stakeholders, including publications in the New Scientist 38 , The Guardian 39 , Quest 40 , Source Magazine 41 , and gallery shows in Los Angeles, Belfast, and Birmingham. The project has also been utilized to raise air pollution awareness by UN International Organization for Migration (IOM), the Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office (FCDO) and UN-Habitat. For example, UN-Habitat commissioned four pollution light painting posters, see Fig.  6 for one of the commissioned light painting posters. The posters incorporated a light painting with accompanying text. The four light paintings all contained different messages that provided both information about air pollution and steps to reduce exposure to the air pollution. The use of the light painting provided the initial interest to create the place of discussion, where the additional messaging could be introduced. The four light paintings were displayed during the Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) “Placemaking awareness raising event” (Kampala, Uganda 17th–19th January 2018).

Example awareness raising light painting poster used for the UN Habitat—Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) “Kampala Placemaking Campaign”. The image was photographed and contextualized, then printed and displayed on site in Luwum Street, the location of the placemaking campaign.

The work of Ostrom on common pool resources highlights that environmental management is more likely to be successful when four conditions hold 16 , 42 : (1) the environmental problem is visible, (2) the cause and effect relationships are understood, (3) the problem is reversible, and (4) management of the environmental resource (the air in this case) results in clear benefits to key constituencies. The Air of the Anthropocene project aimed at making invisible air pollution visible and to provide an easy-to-comprehend artistic engagement tool to compare air pollution in different contexts. By doing so, it fulfils the first of Ostrom’s conditions by making something that was largely invisible visible. It allows for the causes and effects of air pollution to be more readily understood and helps to achieve the second condition. By providing a visual understanding of air pollution that is accessible to a wide array of stakeholders, who do not necessarily have a scientific background, the light painting approach can help to demonstrate that the third and fourth criteria can hold for air pollution.

Due to its photographic art science connotation, the Air of the Anthropocene differs from more recent air quality community engagement projects 43 , 44 , creating spaces and places for discussion about air pollution, and thereby raising awareness, in an innovative manner. The project uses art, in this case, photography, as a proxy to communicate and create dialogs about the issues associated with air pollution. The visual depiction of PM and the associated storytelling highlighting the causes, contexts, and levels of air pollution, can make the issues of air pollution more tangible and understandable by the community. The use of photography, thanks to the power of images, has also the function of evoking people’s emotions and stimulating reflections upon the contextual environmental conditions. Moreover, as Addis Ababa’s example shows, this approach can foster awareness, space and places for dialogs, agency and community action, allowing different stakeholders to share their perspectives, solutions and take actions to tackle air pollution.

Measuring and understanding the impacts of art science collaboration in the context of climate change and environmental-related projects is challenging, due to the intrinsic long-term time scale associated with behavioral change 22 . Nonetheless, the approach presented in this paper can enhance individual and communities experience, emotions and reflections upon the relationships between spaces and environmental issues. The paper highlights the need for a holistic approach to understanding perceptions of air pollution, efforts to monitor pollution, efforts to communicate findings and ultimately efforts to affect change through interventions. It demonstrated that artistic interventions in scientific practice can create informative discussions, activate public engagement, and can become part of the air quality management toolkit. To quote John Butler “Art changes people and people change the world”.

In the future, this collaboration between art and science strives to develop open-sourced techniques that will generate new tools to effectively engage and empower communities to measure air quality and create air pollution narratives. For example, expanding the digital representation technique beyond lens-based techniques into augmented reality camera use is a possible further air pollution visualization technique. The adoption of open-source methodologies and the creation of open-source documentation would also allow the impact of the project to be sustained beyond the timescale and budget constraints of the individual projects. The development of new devices and techniques for visualizing air pollution data through different artistic tools will enable interested members of the public to create their own artistic aesthetic representations of their environment. The showcasing of these images can become a powerful advocacy tool to promote collective action, motivating community members to get involved in activist work and instigating transformational change in their localities.

Light painting equipment

An Alphasense OPC-N2 optical particle counter was used to conduct the PM measurements 45 . It was polled at one-second intervals by a Raspberry Pi 0 W which translated that real-time signal data into instructions for a LED array driven at high frequency by an Arduino-compatible microcontroller. The sensor, microcontrollers and LEDs were all powered by a single USB mobile battery charger pack and designed to be worn on the artist’s wrist. The fading in and out of the LEDs was controlled by a handheld trigger button. The LED array comprised a long thin strip of LEDs attached by Velcro to an adapted retractable boom pole intended for film and TV work. The number display of the PM reading and working controls were initially handled by an e-ink display/button unit though this was later adapted for wireless display/control by Wi-Fi connected smartphone. The design was intended to be both accurate scientifically whilst highly portable for ease of travel.

Light painting methodology

A camera (Nikon D5200) and tripod would be set up at a relevant photo location decided in collaboration with environmental scientists or other relevant stakeholders. The purpose of a location was to help tell the story of the causes, effects, differences in and possible ameliorations of particulate air pollution. After framing up the image the artist would wait until light levels allowed for a long exposure photograph to be taken without oversaturation of the camera. This would either take place during a seven-minute period at dawn or dusk or in an appropriately street lit area at night. Setting the camera for exposure priority was first given to the length of exposure (10 s–30 s), then aperture was set to give appropriate depth of field with visual subjects wholly in focus then finally setting ISO as low as possible within this. Once the equipment was in place and ready a series of photographs would be taken with the artist slowly walking with the sensor and LED array in front of the camera, calling out to an assistant when to release the shutter. After shutter release, the artist would hand trigger a fade-in using the trigger button and count out loud the passing seconds to ensure a fade-out was triggered before the camera’s shutter closing. This process would be repeated until the artist was satisfied a suitably aesthetic photograph had been taken or the light had changed sufficiently to halt the process. During and after the photography a number of readings from the equipment were noted to give a range description of the PM at that brief point in time, along with the location functioned as the photograph’s title. Minimal post-processing in Lightroom was used to ensure balanced color and exposure. Any unwanted stray light traces from the LED present on the pi zero would be removed with the heal tool.

Postcard technique for real-time data collection and analysis

Sentiments regarding air pollution from students of the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology were captured using a postcard data collection approach 46 . Postcards were filled out in English or Aramaic. Students’ responses were extracted and translated from Aramaic to English. Deductive thematic analysis 47 was undertaken on these responses, using the COM-B behavior change wheel framework 37 to understand individuals’ ‘capability’, ‘opportunity’ and ‘motivation’ of being able to change their behavior to reduce air pollution. Data management and coding was undertaken in NVivo, with the responses being assigned initial codes, and then categorized into the final themes. A robustness check and discussion confirmed the interpretation.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

Data are provided in the format of photographs (see figures), as this project is an art science collaboration study. Given the contextual conditions related to the lighting required for the use of the light painting technique, data from this study are not reproducible.

Code availability

Code for the light painting photo technique is contained in an open GitHub repository at https://github.com/robin-price/pollution-painter .

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Acknowledgements

The work was funded by the following grants NERC (NE/T001968/1), EPSRC (EP/T030100/1), and the UK Department for International Development (DFID) via the East Africa Research Fund (EARF) grant ‘A Systems Approach to Air Pollution (ASAP) East Africa’.

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These authors contributed equally: Francis D. Pope, Robin Price.

Authors and Affiliations

School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Francis D. Pope, Carlo Luiu, Ajit Singh & Faye Wilder

Vault Artist Studios, Belfast, UK

Robin Price

Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Katherine E. Woolley, Suzanne E. Bartington, Sheila M. Greenfield, Ajit Singh & G. Neil Thomas

School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Mohammed S. Alam

International Development Department, School of Government, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

William R. Avis

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Dawit Debebe, Zerihun Getaneh & Bikila Teklu Wodajo

National Union of Journalists (NUJ) Training Wales, Swansea, UK

Rachel Howells

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India

Mukesh Khare

Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Abel Weldetinsae

Birmingham Open Media (BOM), Birmingham, UK

Chloe Lawson, Ben Neal & Karen Newman

CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India

Sumit K. Mishra

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F.D.P. and R.P. conceived and design the experiment, performed the experiment, analyzed the data, contributed to materials and analysis tools, wrote the paper; K.E.W. and C.L. analyzed the data, contributed to materials and analysis tools and wrote the paper; M.S.A., W.R.A., S.E.B., D.D., Z.G., S.M.G., R.H., M.K., A.K., Ch.L., S.K.M., B.N., K.N., A.S., B.T.W., G.N.T., F.W. contributed to materials and analysis tools and reviewed and edited the paper.

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Correspondence to Francis D. Pope .

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Pope, F.D., Price, R., Woolley, K.E. et al. Light painting photography makes particulate matter air pollution visible. Commun Earth Environ 5 , 294 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01409-4

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General Services Administration Acquisition Regulation; Reduction of Single-Use Plastic Packaging

A Rule by the General Services Administration on 06/06/2024

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Supplementary information:, i. background, ii. discussion and analysis, a. summary of significant changes, b. analysis of public comments, implementation, environmental impacts, alternative approaches, iii. expected impact of the rule, general compliance requirements, estimated public costs, 1. regulatory familiarization, 2. sup free packaging identification, 3. sup free packaging availability, 4. anticipated market shifts, 5. summary of public costs, 1. update to gsa e-tools, 2. workforce familiarization, 3. sup free packaging material costs, 4. summary of gsa costs, 5. summary of overall costs, alternatives considered, iv. executive order 12866 , 13563 and 14094, v. congressional review act, vi. regulatory flexibility act, vii. paperwork reduction act, a. public reporting burden, gsar 552.238-118, gsar 552.238-119, list of subjects in 48 cfr parts 502 , 538 and 552, part 502—definitions of words and terms, part 538—federal supply schedule contracting, part 552—solicitation provisions and contract clauses, gsa advantage® (jul 2024), (end of clause), single-use plastic free packaging identification (july 2024), (end of provision), single-use plastic (sup) free packaging availability (july 2024), enhanced content - submit public comment.

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Office of Acquisition Policy, General Services Administration (GSA).

Final rule.

The General Services Administration is amending the General Services Administration Acquisition Regulation to add a new provision and clause to identify single-use plastic free packaging availability for products under the Federal Supply Schedules with the goal of reducing single-use plastic waste.

Effective July 8, 2024.

For clarification of content, contact Ms. Adina Torberntsson, Procurement Analyst, at [email protected] or 720-445-0390. For information pertaining to Start Printed Page 48331 status or publication schedules, contact the Regulatory Secretariat Division at [email protected] or 202-501-4755. Please cite GSAR Case 2022-G517.

On December 26, 2023, the General Services Administration (GSA) published a proposed rule to the Federal Register at 88 FR 88856 to address single-use plastic (SUP) and packaging materials in the Federal Supply Schedule (FSS). Prior to the proposed rule being published, an Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPR) was issued on July 7, 2022. [ 1 ] Feedback from environmental organizations, other federal agencies (to include federal scientists, industry associations and advocates, Congressional members, and GSA's Federal Advisory Committee) were all taken into consideration for the development of the proposed rule.

The final rule provides definitions to the GSA Acquisition Regulation (GSAR), as well as a provision and clause that will allow FSS offerors to provide to agencies single-use plastic free (SUP free) packaging.

The final rule clarifies that an icon will be utilized in GSA's acquisition platforms to identify SUP free packaging, regardless if it is brand/product packaging or shipping packaging. A singular icon is being added to provide flexibility in identifying the offered product. The remaining text from the rule, to include the definitions, remains the same.

In summary, 45 public comments were received for the rule during the comment period that lasted from December 26, 2023 through February 26, 2024. Commenters ranged from individuals, academia, industry, industry associations, environmental organizations, and state government offices.

The comments are highlighted below as they address ideas on implementation, and raise concerns about environmental impact, alternative approaches, cost, compliance and legal authority.

Comment: Several commenters requested to phase out and/or completely eliminate plastics, specifically focused on banning polystyrene and plastic film, from the products sold on the FSS.

Response: The scope of the rule is seeking to incentivize through marketing opportunities on the Federal Supply Schedule the reduction of single-use plastic (SUP) packaging by providing an icon to easily identify products which are SUP free for federal acquisition by highlighting those products on the Schedule; seeking to ban these products is outside the scope of this rulemaking.

Comment: A handful of commenters asked for third party verifiers as part of the rule implementation to confirm the use of SUP free packaging and provide more rule constraints.

Response: GSA did not accept this recommendation as it is outside the scope of this rulemaking. Third party verification would add regulatory burden and could discourage small businesses from participating in the FSS program.

Comment: Multiple commenters asked for phased implementation of the rule, with some specifically requesting mandatory applicability.

Response: The rule allows contracting offices to use their judgment based on the requirements of individual acquisitions when deciding to apply the clause and provision. Implementation guidance will be issued once this rule is effective and can be found at the FSS refresh, [ 2 ] which is located at: https://sam.gov/​opp/​88193aba7dfe499ea1e48cd303dea73b/​view .

GSA is not mandating FSS offerors provide SUP free packaging; rather, it allows offerors to identify whether such packaging is available to ordering agencies. GSA is not making it mandatory to provide flexibility in solutions offered on the FSS.

Comment: One commenter asked for more restrictive language in the clause to specify the format or structure for presenting price information. The commentator stated that having a standardized format would facilitate consistency and ease of comparison for ordering activities.

Response: No change required. GSA already has a standardized format as it relates to presenting price information. The submission of price proposals is included in the Federal Supply Schedule Instructions to Offerors. Offerors follow these instructions when submitting their price proposals.

Comment: One commenter asked to include additional examples in the definitions.

Response: This recommendation will be taken into consideration in the agency's implementation instructions or frequently asked questions.

Comment: One commenter asked to include alternative packaging examples.

Comment: Multiple commenters asked about a pilot program to address plastic waste.

Response: GSA has had an ongoing initiative  [ 3 ] for the past three (3) years to encourage innovation for sustainability in federal acquisition within the agency, and will continue to pursue this program in addition to this rule. While the program was not focused on plastic waste specifically, it encourages the use of innovative contracting solutions that address environmental issues.

Comment: One commenter asked to limit the definition of SUP to remove language referencing the disposal of SUP.

Response: This comment is not adopted as the proposed change to the language would reduce the impact of the rule and further confuse GSA offerors who are trying to implement the rule. The rule is not about the disposal, or recycling if a product under the right conditions could be recyclable, it is merely about reduction.

Comment: Multiple commenters asserted that the rule will diminish the efficiency of federal procurement.

Response: It is unclear what the basis is for how the rule would diminish the efficiency of federal procurement. Providing an icon for SUP free packaging will enhance procurement efficiency by providing an additional alternative, increasing visibility, and permitting the buyer to consider any price addition or savings.

Comment: One commenter asked for the meaning of the term “competent and reliable evidence.”

Response: This plain language term is utilized to provide the Contracting Officer the flexibility to determine what is acceptable from a pragmatic perspective. Guidance for contracting officers is also provided in GSAR 552.238-78 Identification of Products that Have Environmental Attributes and thus is not new to environmental purchasing.

Comment: Multiple commenters, including mass mailing submissions, provided feedback that further commitments were needed to maximize Start Printed Page 48332 environmental impact. This messaging was echoed by multiple organizations and other commenters asking GSA to do more.

Response: The FSS program is GSA's premier contract vehicle, offering thousands of contractors the opportunity to do business with the federal government. The rule encourages industry to offer SUP free packaged products in their FSS contracts that agencies can buy. The rule is not intended to “ban” or regulate any particular item. For purposes of this rule, GSA is asking to be offered, or made available, SUP free packaging. For this reason, the comments that called for either the ban, or removal of products from the FSS are outside of the scope of this rule. The anticipated benefit of the rule is the coordination of industry and FSS ordering officials to reduce the single-use plastic waste stream. Plastic packaging accounts for 40 percent of all plastic produced. [ 4 ] The reduction of plastic packaging waste is impactful because it is an element of multiple items offered on the FSS.

Comment: Multiple commenters recommended that GSA should follow the expert advice of its GSA Acquisition Policy Federal Advisory Committee to develop policies and a strategy with numerical goals to phase out all SUP products across GSA, including plastic bags, utensils, food ware, and beverage bottles. The commenters further requested that GSA require the use of SUP free or reusable packaging when federal agencies purchase products using GSA contracts, incentivize the products in federal agencies' purchases, and share this information publicly.

Response: GSA's Acquisition Federal Advisory Committee has made several recommendations. [ 5 ] This rule is in line with their recommendations, specifically to address single-use plastic waste through rulemaking. GSA will continue evaluating all of the recommendations from the Committee and will be taking additional implementation actions.

Comment: Several commenters asked for the withdrawal of the rule, and instead requested a mandatory ban of SUP products from the FSS, in addition to a FAR change.

Response: This comment is not adopted. Requiring a mandatory ban on single use plastic products is outside of the scope of the rule.

Comment: Multiple commenters included comments to encourage life cycle cost analysis versus limitation of SUP. Comments also included information on the recycling of plastics, to include chemical recycling.

Response: The rule incentivizes suppliers to package goods without SUP packaging. Buyers of commercial products through GSA Advantage!® or through the FSS are not likely to use life cycle cost analysis. This rule is not scoped to address waste management.

In the comments received, cost was addressed not numerically, but in the overarching concept of efficiency as it relates to the market.

Comment: A commenter asked GSA to recognize reusable packaging as an alternative to SUP free packaging.

Response: No change required. The definition of SUP free includes reusable packaging that is typically refilled or otherwise reused by the producer. To be clear, packaging that may be reusable, but is not typically reused, would not be considered here as it is outside the scope of the rule.

Comment: A commenter asserted that there would be extra costs for the production, transportation, and disposal as a result of the rule.

Response: The rule is voluntary and provides additional opportunity for Federal Supply Schedule contractors to promote their products that have SUP free packaging.

Comment: A commenter provided a statement of support for the rule having a voluntary incentive based approach. This comment includes a request to clarify whether the icon is plural or singular.

Response: Noted. The final rule is revised to clarify one icon is anticipated.

Comment: One commenter questioned if the “SUP free” term, under the guidance provided by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), would be determined to be a claim of general environmental benefit, and in turn would require verifiable substantiation of the claim such as life cycle data.

Response: No. The FTC Green Guides  [ 6 ] and ISO 18601:2013 are referenced in developing the definition. GSA is not requiring sustainable packaging, which would require some sort of an assessment as to contents. Instead the agency is asking for the absence of something, in this case single-use plastic, from packaging. The result will be an icon in GSA Advantage!®, not a new ecolabel on the material itself. While the FTC Green Guides are referenced in developing the definition, the FTC process to evaluate environmental marketing claims is a separate process.

Comment: One commenter questioned GSA's authority to ban SUP, drawing parallel to GSA's 2020 promulgated regulations that barred the federal government from buying goods or services from any company that uses products from Huawei Technologies and several other Chinese companies.

Response: This rule is not a ban. The law and regulations underlying the products that utilized Huawei Technologies differs from this rule, and was instituted by the FAR Council, of which GSA is one member. GSA has authority to govern the Federal Supply Schedule program under Title 41 of the United States Code ( 41 U.S.C. 152(3) ), including this voluntary SUP free packaging policy.

Comment: One commenter questioned GSA's authority to issue plastic waste regulations, asking if the scope of authority for GSA to issue this rule is exceeded as the rule focuses less on effective and efficient government procurement and more on green policies.

Response: GSA is authorized to issue regulations, including the GSAR, to manage the relationship between GSA and our contractors in accordance with 40 U.S.C. 121 . GSA is further authorized to issue the rule in accordance with 41 U.S.C. 152(3) , which provides GSA the authority to manage the Multiple Award Schedules Program, also referred to as the FSS Program. GSA is further empowered to issue the rule in accordance with 40 U.S.C. 501-502 which provides GSA authorization for procurements for executive agencies and other entities, including the FSS Program. This rule will enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of Government contracts through providing an icon identifying when SUP free packaging is being used in a procurement. The FSS Program is made up of multiple contracts in which GSA asks the contractors to “offer” different commercial supplies and services to the Government. In turn the intent of this rule is to encourage these contractors to offer SUP free packaging. This rule is Start Printed Page 48333 not a ban, it is merely providing an opportunity for GSA industry partners to offer SUP free packaging and to make that offering visible.

Comment: Multiple commenters asked that GSA specifically ban biobased plastics, and provide a change to the FAR.

Response: GSA declines to adopt this comment. This comment is outside of the scope of this rule. Biobased plastic products fall under the BioPreferred program which is administered by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and is anchored by the Farm Bill. [ 7 ] In addition, this comment is outside the scope of GSA's independent regulatory authority. A FAR change would require approval of the entire FAR Council ( i.e., DOD, NASA and GSA).

There were no public comments received that are specific to the economic impact statement of the rule. As such, the analysis remains the same as before. This analysis includes both the cost and benefit impacts to both the public and GSA. The analysis includes identifying relevant products, developing a distinguishable icon, and developing internal guidance to help contracting activities learn how to apply searching for the icon to procure the environmentally preferable products.

The rule is specific to GSA's FSS program, with the intent of significantly reducing the single-use plastic waste stream. When voluntarily pursued, this action will reduce the Government's waste generation, and potentially save industry partners money by having them reduce unnecessary packaging as described in some of the high-profile case studies mentioned in section I.D. of the Proposed Rule document “Industry Practices and Consumer Trends”. It is expected that by reducing the packaging's overall bulk, industry will be better positioned to ship their items efficiently and effectively. Reducing excessive packaging has proven effective in increasing the amount of goods that can be loaded for transportation and is therefore helpful in the distribution of products.

The rule will enable GSA to incentivize contractors to voluntarily provide SUP free packaging information through GSA's online system. The estimated cost per contractor is $2,087. The calculations as to how GSA got to this estimate are further described later in section Summary of Public Costs.

The SUP free packaging identification provision allows FSS contractors to identify products that are either packaged and/or shipped without single-use plastic packaging. The rule also includes a clause for the contractor that allows for either a price premium or discount for SUP-free packaging when such a premium or discount is consistent with their commercial practice.

This rule is intended to benefit GSA and customer agencies by reducing the single-use plastic waste stream.

The Federal Government is the world's single largest purchaser of goods and services, spending over $694 billion  [ 8 ] in contracts in Fiscal Year 2022 alone. Public procurement can drive innovation and be a catalyst for adoption of new norms and global standards. Since the FSS is the premiere entry point for commercial contractors to sell products (and services and solutions) to the Federal Government, the goal is to encourage the adoption of a new procurement norm to reduce single-use, unrecyclable, difficult to recycle, or frequently littered products plastic waste. Practices introduced or highlighted for the FSS can easily be adopted into other Government contracts.

Overall, the rule is intended to benefit the public by encouraging positive behaviors in reducing waste, and reducing product costs by building in efficiencies. The rule is an initial step to continue to work with industry partners in addressing the intersection of waste materials and logistical efficiency in providing better packaging. This is an important first step in working with our suppliers in developing sustainable solutions together to meet mutual future goals.

The following is a summary of the estimated cost impacts to the public in addressing this new requirement to reduce single-use plastic packaging. These costs are incurred one-time up-front and are not recurring to participating contractors.

Regulatory familiarization includes the amount of time and effort it takes a company to become familiar with the requirements of the rule. The identification provision and availability clause speak to the behaviors that GSA wants to see industry adopt when doing business under GSA contracts. The time to read over and digest the information provided in this rule is negligible. The provision is similar to other self-identifying provisions utilized in Government acquisition.

For this reason, the regulations require more of a familiarization in learning how to register in the electronic tool described during their contract's refresh; the assumption is 1 hour of time. GSA calculated the time based on the agency's subject matter expertise. We utilized the total number of Federal Supply Schedule contracts. The individual cost per each FSS contractor would be $89.96 for one hour of time at a GS-12 Step 5 rate. [ 9 ] The upper bound total cost for regulatory familiarization if all FSS contractors were to participate would equal $1,259,440. [ 10 ]

The costs to comply with the SUP free packaging identification provision includes time for the offeror to analyze their product catalog, identify existing SUP free offerings, identify potential new (SUP) packaging offerings, and complete the provision questions.

The anticipated average time, based on GSA's knowledge of the FSS program, to analyze the existing product catalog is 1 hour. This assertion is applied, since no industry feedback on this calculation or other time calculations were received. The anticipated average time to identify existing and potential new SUP free packaging offerings is 1 hour. The anticipated time to answer the provision is 0.1 hours. The individual cost per each FSS contractor would thus be $188.92 for 2.1 hours of time at a GS-12 Step 5 rate. The upper bound total cost for SUP free packaging identification if all FSS contractors were to participate would equal $2,644,824.

The costs to comply with the SUP free Packaging Availability clause includes time for the offeror to research and determine price premiums or discounts for SUP free offerings and submit the information.

The anticipated average time to research and determine the applicable pricings is 20 hours. The anticipated Start Printed Page 48334 time to complete the submission is 0.1 hours. The individual cost per each FSS contractor would thus be $1,808.20 for 20.1 hours at a GS-12 Step 5 rate. The upper bound total cost for complying with the SUP free Packaging Availability clause if all FSS contractors were to participate would equal $25,314,744.

As described in the proposed rule  [ 11 ] there is a strong indication that a reduction in single-use plastic improves the marketability of a company and positively displays a company's values. As explained in the proposed rule, multiple states have adopted policies to address plastic pollution, and consumer trends are favoring a reduction in SUP. As the fifth largest economy in the world by GDP, California's legislation is a great indicator that the market can react to a reduction in single-use plastic packaging. Multiple states have followed suit with similar legislative actions to reduce single-use plastic packaging, including Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Maine, New York, Oregon, and Vermont. [ 12 ] With the market trending in this direction, accepting this change may assist GSA FSS contractors in their overall marketing efforts within the private sector as well.

Given the volume of purchases made through the FSS every year by federal, state, local, tribal governments, and other eligible buyers for commercial products, services, and other solutions, this rule is likely to effect supply and demand shifts in plastics markets.

The importance of this rule being voluntary is it allows the FSS contractors, who are predominantly small businesses, an opportunity to consider how to implement these market changes. By focusing on packaging, it is an important first step to address plastic in one area of their supply chain. The rule encourages operational decisions to reduce plastic waste, and ultimately will influence the market by reducing offerings that contain single-use plastic packaging waste.

Federal agencies and FSS-eligible buyers are seeking to eliminate their plastic waste, so those agencies will be ones to seek out this icon in helping them accomplish their goals. The rule will support the market shift by using the new SUP free icon as an important discriminator when buyers are making purchasing decisions. FSS contractors who adopt this policy change will become more marketable than their peers who decline this voluntary measure. The resulting competitive disadvantage to contractors that initially choose not to adopt this rule's policy will likely incentivize these firms to reconsider adoption. This rule could also create positive spillovers as non-FSS contracting firms adopt similar policies to compete with FSS contractors in non-FSS markets.

The estimated overall cost per contractor who chooses to participate is $2,087. [ 13 ] The upper bound total estimated public cost of compliance with this rule, if all FSS contractors adopted this voluntary action, would be $29,219,008. [ 14 ] We assume as a lower bound that 25 percent of FSS contractors will adopt this voluntary action, in which case the lower bound total estimated public cost would be one quarter of the upper bound, or $7,304,752.

Once recorded, there is no anticipated additional cost during subsequent years of performance unless the offeror is providing additional SUP free packaging options. However, this cost would be absorbed with the cost the contractor would experience any time that they modified their FSS price list, which they would do regardless if the rule was issued. The anticipated time for this action is so minimal there would not be additional calculated cost associated with it.

With the FSS contractors' identification of SUP free packaging being voluntary, the indirect benefits to adopting this change far outweigh the costs. FSS contractors who voluntarily comply will have a competitive advantage by being able to market themselves utilizing the new SUP free packaging icon on GSA Advantage!®. The intent is for the market to then shift to more SUP-free packaged products to reduce the SUP waste stream. FSS contractors are able to invest in this change which may provide greater visibility on GSA's electronic tools to Federal agencies and FSS-eligible buyers. With the market trending in this direction, accepting this change may assist GSA FSS contractors in their overall marketing efforts within the private sector as well.

GSA reviewed various electronic tools that could support this rule. The agency plans to utilize existing online tools such as GSA Advantage!® which has the benefit of keeping costs low by utilizing IT infrastructure that already exists, and the added benefit of industry partners knowing how to utilize the system. During public comment, no alternative GSA tools that would be more beneficial to utilize were identified.

Capitalizing on the user interface knowledge, for both the GSA and industry, is pivotal in being able to implement the rule quickly.

The estimated hours to update the existing systems is 800 hours (assuming 5 employees working full time on this project for 4 weeks) at a GS-12, step 5  [ 15 ] equivalent rate. The total for this effort would equal $71,968 (800 × $89.96), which is a fixed cost for the Government regardless of the number of FSS contractor participants.

GSA contracting officers will need to become familiar with the new policy at GSAR 502, 538, and 552. The GSA contracting officers will need to review these changes, interpret them, and apply them as prescribed.

GSA contracting officers are required to remain current on policies for procurement, such as changes to the GSAR. Review of such policy changes are considered a part of the normal duties of contracting personnel. As such, this analysis does not quantify the time and effort for contracting officers to become familiar with the rule. It is acknowledged that there is time and effort involved for the acquisition workforce to become familiar with the rule or the tools available and to assist contractors with compliance, though those potential burden hours and costs are minimal.

As a voluntary measure, GSA assumes that price premiums and discounts for SUP free packaging will average out to zero additional cost. This assumption was not disputed during public comments. Start Printed Page 48335

The total estimated GSA cost of implementation of this rule would be $71,968  [ 16 ] regardless of the number of industry participants.

The overall total cost, including both Public and Government costs, is outlined in the table below. Public costs are presented as a range to reflect uncertainty around voluntary participation. We calculate the upper bound of public costs by assuming all FSS contractors participate, and we calculate the lower bound of public costs by assuming only 25 percent of FSS contractors participate.

When researching how to address this rule, several solutions were considered. After publishing the ANPR, it was determined that a rule that focused on reduction is preferable to alternatives such as recycling or mandatory elimination of plastic packaging.

GSA's mission is unrelated to environmental regulated programs such as recycling. Additionally, the recycling programs that GSA utilizes vary and are governed at local, municipal levels where the agency's offices are located.

Further, a rule seeking a mandatory elimination of plastic packaging may not be a feasible solution depending on what is being procured. For some supplies, such as healthcare products, plastic packaging can be a beneficial material. This rule is not seeking plastic elimination as users of FSS may have a need for a product packaged with single use plastic, so a broad elimination may not be beneficial.

While there are identified alternatives, described above as recycling or elimination, to reach a sustainable outcome regarding packaging, GSA is aware of the potential impact of issuing a broad rule without providing space for industry to pivot. Given the different types of products that GSA procures, a rule asking for changes to packaging that provides flexibility is the best method to keep costs down, while reaching a sustainable solution.

Executive Orders (E.O.s) 12866 and 13563 direct agencies to assess all costs and benefits of available regulatory alternatives and, if regulation is necessary, to select regulatory approaches that maximize net benefits (including potential economic, environmental, public health and safety effects, distributive impacts, and equity). E.O. 13563 emphasizes the importance of quantifying both costs and benefits, of reducing costs, of harmonizing rules, and of promoting flexibility. E.O. 14094 Modernizing Regulatory Review  [ 17 ] supplements and reaffirms the principles, structures, and definitions governing contemporary regulatory review established in E.O. 12866 and E.O. 13563 .

OIRA has determined this rule to be a significant regulatory action. As a significant rule, this action is subject to review under section 6(b) of E.O. 12866 , Regulatory Planning and Review, dated September 30, 1993.

OIRA has determined that this rule is not a major rule under 5 U.S.C. 804(2) . Subtitle E of the Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act of 1996 (codified at 5 U.S.C. 801-808 ), also known as the Congressional Review Act, 5 U.S.C. 801 et seq., as amended by the Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act of 1996, generally provides that before a “major rule” may take effect, the agency promulgating the rule must submit a rule report, which includes a copy of the rule, to each House of the Congress and to the Comptroller General of the United States. The General Services Administration will submit a report containing this rule and other required information to the U.S. Senate, the U.S. House of Representatives, and the Comptroller General of the United States. A major rule cannot take effect until 60 days after it is published in the Federal Register .

GSA does not expect this rule to have a significant economic impact on a substantial number of small entities within the meaning of the Regulatory Flexibility Act, 5 U.S.C. 601 , et seq. because the rule change allows for many different solutions to the offeror as to how to propose a solution that considers transitioning from plastic packaging to SUP free packaging.

GSA has prepared a Final Regulatory Flexibility Analysis (FRFA) consistent with the Regulatory Flexibility Act, 5 U.S.C. 601 , et seq. The FRFA is summarized as follows:

The rule will apply to large and small businesses. For purposes of this assessment, information generated from the FAS Schedule Sales Query Plus (SSQ+) has been used as the basis for estimating the number of contractors that may be involved. There are approximately 14,000 FSS contractors, of which over 12,000 (85 percent) were small business entities. There were no comments received that would indicate that the rule places small businesses at a disadvantage, if anything there were comments indicating that the rule benefits small businesses ability to promote themselves on the Schedule.

The rule includes a provision for offerors to self-identify if they include single-use plastic (SUP) free packaging. The manner in which the offeror is answered, is then visible in a GSA electronic tool, which is provided by the agency. There are no fees associated with the identification tool, and the provision consists of two questions.

The rule does not duplicate, overlap, or conflict with any other Federal rules. Start Printed Page 48336

There are no known alternatives to this rule which would accomplish the stated objectives. Rule alternatives that could meet similar objectives are not advantageous to either the GSA or industry due to excessive cost and burden. An alternative would be to mandate specific types of packaging. Depending on the industry, there may be unintended cost consequences for a total change in packaging (for example transitioning from plastic to glass, the unintended cost might be due to transportation of a heavier product). For this reason the rule provides flexibility to industry to offer the Government solutions on reducing waste.

The Regulatory Secretariat will be submitting a copy of the FRFA to the Chief Counsel for Advocacy of the Small Business Administration. A copy of the FRFA may be obtained from the Regulatory Secretariat Division.

The Paperwork Reduction Act ( 44 U.S.C. chapter 3501 ) does apply because the rule contains information collection requirements. The existing Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Control Number 3090-0303 titled “Federal Supply Schedule Solicitation Information” will be updated to reflect the information to be collected through GSAR 552.238-118 and GSAR 552.238-119.

Public reporting burden specific to this rule and the revision to collection of information previously approved is voluntary and includes the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information.

The annual reporting burden is estimated as follows, based on all FSS contract holders. This is if all 14,000 contractors participate providing a response within the first year, with the time estimate based on time needed to submit the response to the provision:

Respondents: 14,000.

Responses per Respondent: 1.

Total Responses: 14,000.

Hours per Response: 2.

Total Burden Hours: 28,000.

The annual reporting burden is estimated as follows:

Requesters may obtain a copy of the information collection documents from the GSA Regulatory Secretariat Division, by calling 202-501-4755 or emailing [email protected] . Please cite “Information Collection 3090-0303”, in all correspondence.

• Government procurement

Jeffrey A. Koses,

Senior Procurement Executive, Office of Acquisition Policy, Office of Government-wide Policy, General Services Administration.

Therefore, GSA amends 48 CFR parts 502 , 538 , and 552 as set forth below:

1. The authority citation for 48 CFR parts 502 , 538 , and 552 continues to read as follows:

Authority: 40 U.S.C. 121(c) .

2. Amend section 502.101 by adding in alphabetical order the definitions of “Packaging”, “Plastic”, “Single use plastic (SUP)”, and “Single-use plastic (SUP) free packaging” to read as follows:

Packaging means the material used to protect an item. Packaging includes, but is not limited to: brand packaging, grouped packaging, shipping packaging, ancillary packaging, and redundant packaging.

(1) Brand packaging, sales packaging or primary packaging means packaging intended to provide the user or consumer with the individual unit of the product, such as plastic casing.

(2) Grouped packaging or secondary packaging means packaging intended to bundle, sell in bulk, brand, or market/display products.

(3) Shipping packaging means packaging that serves as protection for the goods to ensure safe transport to the end customer, including:

(4) Ancillary packaging or transport packaging or tertiary packaging means packaging intended to secure the product, such as packing peanuts, wrapping materials, or molded materials. Ancillary packaging (or all shipping packaging) is typically outside of brand packaging.

(5) Redundant packaging or unnecessary packaging means packaging that does not add any measurable protection to the supply being shipped, such as multiple layers of bubble wrap to an already durable product that is encased in a cardboard box. An example of this is a home testing kit with all plastic components already packaged in a cardboard box with cardboard inserts to absorb shock, that is then shipped in multiple layers of bubble wrap. In this example the bubble wrap is the redundant single-use plastic packaging.

Plastic means a synthetic or semisynthetic material chemically synthesized by the polymerization of organic substances that can be shaped into various rigid and flexible forms, and includes coatings and adhesives. “Plastic” excludes natural rubber or naturally occurring polymers such as proteins or starches.

Single-use plastic (SUP) packaging means any plastic used for the containment, protection, handling, delivery, or presentation of goods by a producer for a consumer with the intent of being used once and then discarded, recycled or disposed of immediately after its contents have been used or unpackaged, and typically not refilled or otherwise reused by the producer. Packaging includes, but is not limited to brand packaging, grouped packaging, shipping packaging, ancillary packaging, and redundant packaging.

Single-use plastic (SUP) free packaging means Single-use plastic (SUP) free packaging means product or shipping containment materials free of single-use plastic. Other attributes of single-use plastic free packaging may include the following: use of minimal materials, will be reused multiple times, or produces less emissions compared to traditional manufacturing or distribution. These additional attributes alone do not qualify as SUP free. Examples may include, but are not limited, to corrugated cardboard, paper products, and paper backed tape.

3. Amend section 538.273 by—

a. Adding paragraph (a)(4);

b. Adding paragraph (d)(40); and

c. Removing from paragraph (e) the word “clause”.

The additions read as follows:

(4) 552.238-118, Single-use Plastic Free Packaging Identification.

(40) 552.238-119, Single-use Plastic Free Packaging Availability.

4. Amend section 552.238-88 by—

a. Revising the date of the clause; and

b. Adding paragraph (c).

The revision and addition read as follows:

(c) Single use plastic (SUP) free packaging icon. Contractors are encouraged to utilize the GSA Advantage!® single-use plastic (SUP) free packaging icon when applicable (see 552.238-118). The offeror may include in their price list if the contractor is providing SUP-free packaging (either for shipping or as part of the product packaging) at either a price premium or discount (see 552.238-119).

5. Add section 552.238-118 and 552.238-119 to read as follows:

As prescribed in, 538.273(a) insert the following provision:

(a) Single-use plastic free packing promotions. Ordering activities may focus their GSA Advantage!® search on the designated icon and price to meet climate objectives. Contractors who want to be considered must include SUP free packaging as defined in 502.101.

(b) Procedures. Offerors may complete the information in paragraph (c) of this provision when the resulting contract includes supplies or products.

(1) SUP free brand packaging. Schedule contractors may incorporate this information as part of their Schedule price list once the products that utilize SUP free brand packaging are incorporated under their Schedule contract, prior to competing for an order for the identified product.

(2) SUP free shipping packaging. If the offeror is a reseller who is unable to address the brand packaging, but would like to pursue the icon for SUP free shipping packaging, they may identify this availability.

(c) Optional identification submission. In order to be considered for the designated icon noted in paragraph (d) of this provision, the offeror must provide the following information.

(1) SUP free brand packaging. The offeror identifies that some or all supplies delivered under a contract resulting from this solicitation __ will use SUP free brand packaging. SUP free brand packaging where applicable should be included in the offer's price list.

(2) SUP free shipping packaging.

(i) The offeror identifies that some or all the supplies to be delivered under a contract resulting from this solicitation __ will use only SUP free shipping packaging. SUP free shipping packaging where applicable should be included in the offer's price list.

(ii) If the offeror responded “will” in paragraph (c)(2)(i) of this provision, the offeror identifies that the SUP free shipping packaging __ does need to be requested by the ordering official.

(d) Identification standards. SUP free packaging icon for the types identified in paragraph (c) of this provision, will be available on GSA Advantage!®, as applicable.

(e) Verification of SUP free packaging. An offeror, in identifying an item with SUP free packaging, must possess evidence or rely on a reasonable basis to substantiate the claim. The Government will accept an offeror's claim of SUP free packaging on the basis of possession of competent and reliable evidence. For any test, analysis, research, study, or other evidence to be “competent and reliable,” it must have been conducted and evaluated in an objective manner, using procedures generally accepted in the profession to yield accurate and reliable results.

As prescribed in 538.273(d), insert the following clause:

(a) Definitions. As used in this clause—

Single-use plastic (SUP) free packaging means product or shipping containment materials free of single-use plastic. Other attributes of single-use plastic free packaging may include the following: use of minimal materials, will be reused multiple times, or produces less emissions compared to traditional manufacturing or distribution. These additional attributes alone do not qualify as SUP free. Examples may include, but are not limited, to corrugated cardboard, paper products, and paper backed tape.

(b) General. The Contractor, in connection with this contract, is encouraged to—

(1) Evaluate their products for redundant or unnecessary packaging that can be eliminated without affecting quality.

(2) Package all products for shipment according to the Government's instructions or, if there are no instructions, in a manner sufficient to ensure that the products are delivered in undamaged condition with as little plastic waste material as possible.

(3) Limit the use of plastic packaging materials that have a high likelihood of not being reused or recycled, as appropriate ( e.g., plastic casing or wrapping).

(4) Adopt SUP free packaging to the maximum extent practicable, as appropriate.

(c) Procedures.

(1) Price premiums and discounts. For any single-use plastic (SUP) free packaging identified per 552.238-118, Single-use Plastic (SUP) Free Packaging Identification, the Contractor may include in the submitted price list (see the Schedule, also referred to as MAS, solicitation instructions for submitting price list SUP free packaging). The submitted FSS contract price list may include a separate means of displaying information regarding product packaging. If the Contractor is providing SUP free packaging at either a price premium or discount, this should be clearly identified in the submitted price list.

(2) Submission requirements. As additional SUP free packaging becomes available, the Contractor is encouraged to notify GSA of these changes, and is responsible for keeping all electronic catalog data current.

(3) Identification of SUP free packaging. For easy identification of SUP free packaging, once available, GSA will use a SUP free packaging icon in GSA Advantage!®.

(i) Offerors who provide SUP free packaging and want to benefit from the GSA Advantage!® SUP free packaging icon must provide the information required in 552.238-118, Single-use Plastic (SUP) Free Packaging Identification.

(ii) The Contractor is encouraged to place the GSA logo and GSA Advantage!® SUP free packaging icon on their website and FSS price list for applicable supplies, see https://www.gsa.gov/​logos . If the Contractor elects to use the GSA logo or icon, the website must clearly distinguish between those items awarded on the GSA contract and any other items offered by the Contractor on an open market basis.

(d) Reliability. Accuracy of information and computation of prices for this clause is the responsibility of the Contractor. In addition to the other remedies available in the contract, the remedies may include, but are not limited to, the following:

(1) If SUP free packaging is provided at a higher rate but different packaging is received, the Government may pursue corrective action.

(2) If SUP free packaging is utilized, but the product received is damaged, the Contractor shall replace the item, refund the item, or the Government may pursue corrective action.

(3) Inclusion of incorrect information in the price list regarding SUP free packaging may cause the Contractor to correct and resubmit the price list.

(4) Failure to correct applicable information for this clause, may constitute sufficient cause for termination, pursuant to FAR 52.212-4, Contract Terms and Condition-Commercial Products and Commercial Services, or remedies as provided by law.

1.   87 FR 40476 .

2.  This action is also referred to as the MAS refresh with MAS and FSS being used interchangeably.

3.  GSA Acquisition Letter MV-21-10.

4.  Fast Facts About Plastic Pollution, National Geographic, see https://www.nationalgeographic.com/​science/​article/​plastics-facts-infographics-ocean-pollution#:~:text=​40%20percent%20of%20plastic%20produced,just%20once%20and%20then%20discarded .

5.  GSA Acquisition Policy Federal Advisory Recommendation Reports.

6.   https://www.ftc.gov/​sites/​default/​files/​documents/​federal_​register_​notices/​guides-use-environmental-marketing-claims-green-guides/​greenguidesfrn.pdf .

7.  2002 Farm Bill.

8.  A Snapshot of Government-Wide Contracting for FY, April 15, 2023, https://www.gao.gov/​blog/​snapshot-government-wide-contracting-fy-2022 .

9.  OPM Pay Table 2024 Rates Rest of United States. We assume this work is done by an employee equivalent to the GS-12 step 5 level. The hourly wage at this level is $44.98 which we adjust upward by 100% to $89.96 to account for fringe benefit and overhead costs.

10.  The formula to calculate this cost is 14,000 contracts multiplied by the per contractor cost of $89.96.

11.   88 FR 88856 see section Industry Practices and Consumer Trends.

12.   https://www.ncsl.org/​environment-and-natural-resources/​state-plastic-bag-legislation#:~:text=​Eight%20states%E2%80%94California%2C%20Connecticut%2C,banned%20single%2Duse%20plastic%20bags .

13.  This overall per contractor cost is the sum of the regulatory familiarization cost of $89.96, the SUP Free Packaging Identification cost of $188.93, and the availability clause compliance cost of $1,808.30.

14.  This total cost is the sum of the regulatory familiarization cost of $1,259,440, the SUP Free Packaging Identification cost of $2,644,824, and the availability clause compliance cost of $25,314,744.

15.  2023 Rest of US, 12 Step 9 × 2.0 fringe = $89.96; the rate is adjusted upward by 100% to adjust for overhead and benefits.

16.  GS-12 Step 5 at $89.96 per hour × 800 hours = $71,968.

17.   https://www.federalregister.gov/​documents/​2023/​04/​11/​2023-07760/​modernizing-regulatory-review .

[ FR Doc. 2024-12192 Filed 6-5-24; 8:45 am]

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Grassy Narrows First Nation files lawsuit against Ontario, federal governments over mercury contamination

Superior court challenge alleges governments fail to protect first nation treaty rights.

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A First Nation in northwestern Ontario that has faced decades of mercury poisoning is suing the provincial and federal governments, arguing they've failed to protect its treaty rights.

Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek First Nation — known as Grassy Narrows — filed the lawsuit in Ontario's Superior Court of Justice on Tuesday morning.

It argues the governments have violated their duties under Treaty 3 by failing to protect against or remedy the effects of mercury contamination in the English-Wabigoon River system.

The allegations in this lawsuit haven't been tested in court.

Contamination of the river system dates back to the 1960s and '70s  when Dryden's paper mill in northwestern Ontario dumped an estimated nine tonnes of mercury into the water.

Generations of people have consumed fish from the river. According to a previously reported study by medical specialists, about 90 per cent of the community of roughly 1,000 people experience symptoms of mercury poisoning. They include Chief Rudy Turtle.

"Our mercury nightmare should have ended long ago, but it has been longer and worse because of the government's failure to live up to its obligations," Turtle said in a news release on Tuesday.

'A test of ... commitment to truth'

For years, environmental advocates have called for the river to be cleaned up and the mill to be shut down.

In late May, a new study from Western University in London, Ont., revived these demands with a report suggesting mercury contamination in the river system has been made worse by ongoing industrial pollution.

"Dryden Fibre Canada took over operations for the mill last August. We operate in compliance with extensive environmental regulatory requirements," said Dianne Loewen, a spokesperson for Dryden Fibre Canada, in an email to CBC News late Tuesday afternoon. "Regarding this morning's announcement by Grassy Narrows — we have not yet seen the filing and will not be commenting."

Grassy Narrows lawsuit targets 'environmental racism' of mercury poisoning

"The government has egregiously violated its obligations to Grassy Narrows by failing to ensure that Grassy Narrows people could safely practise their right to fish — a cornerstone of Grassy Narrows' sustenance and Indigenous way of life," says a statement from the First Nation that was also issued Tuesday.

"This case will be a test of Ontario's and Canada's commitment to truth, reconciliation and justice following one of Canada's worst environmental and human rights catastrophes." 

Calls to end environmental racism

During a news conference in Toronto on Tuesday morning, Kiiwetinoong MPP Sol Mamakwa said the lack of government action is perpetuating the effects of colonialism on Grassy Narrows people.

"When we talk about environmental genocide, this is what it looks like," Mamakwa said.

Judy Da Silva is a Grassy Narrows grandmother and the community's environmental health co-ordinator. She says she also experiences symptoms of mercury poisoning, which include loss of co-ordination, trouble swallowing, and a loss of sensation in her hands and feet. 

"Our people were proud fishermen and land users and hunters, and then this poison came and took all that away," Da Silva said in an interview with CBC News.

She thinks back to summer 2000, when the Walkerton water crisis made national headlines after seven people died and about 2,300 others became ill from Canada's worst E. coli contamination.

"They got compensated so quickly and then Grassy's been going through this for decades, and still there's no resolution," she said. "I think it's environmental racism."

Federal leaders respond

In 2017, the federal government committed to building a Mercury Care Home in Grassy Narrows. The same year, the Ontario government committed $85 million to fund mercury cleanup and remediation efforts in the English-Wabigoon River system.

About seven years later, the river remains toxic. Construction on the Mercury Care Home is expected to start this summer and take two to three years to complete.

In Ottawa on Tuesday, Minister of Indigenous Services Patty Hajdu told reporters she understands the frustration that has led Grassy Narrows to go through the courts.

"I'm sure they're seeing it as a part of a broader effort to ensure that this kind of environmental racism doesn't continue," Hajdu said.

Minister acknowledges frustration of Grassy Narrows First Nation following launch of lawsuit

Ottawa has now committed $146 million for the construction and operation of the Mercury Care Home, she said. While the protection of water falls under provincial jurisdiction, Hajdu did point to Bill C-61,  an act respecting water, source water, drinking water, wastewater and related infrastructure on First Nation lands , as a key way of preventing future harm.

CBC News reached out to the Ontario government for comment on the lawsuit and received an emailed response from Keesha Seaton, spokesperson for the Ministry of the Attorney General, late Tuesday afternoon.

"As this matter is subject to litigation, it would be inappropriate to comment," Seaton said.

A spokesperson for the federal Office of the Minister of the Environment and Climate Change also provided CBC News with an emailed statement on behalf of Hajdu and Minister of the Environment and Climate Change Steven Guilbeault.

• Mercury poisoning near Grassy Narrows First Nation worsened by industrial pollution, study suggests
• First Nations Land Defence Alliance says no nuclear waste facility without First Nations consent

"We cannot comment on the legal case as it is before the courts. It is extremely important to the government of Canada to do its part in responding to this crisis, and we will be there to work with Grassy Narrows and Wabaseemong Independent Nations every step of the way," wrote spokesperson Kaitlin Power.

Federal NDP Leader Jagmeet Singh also reacted to the Grassy Narrows lawsuit while addressing reporters on Parliament Hill.

"It's an ongoing example of Indigenous communities receiving second-class treatment," Singh said of the persisting mercury poisoning.

"This is Canada's fault and Canada must step up."

Lawsuit seeks to restore 'way of life'

Grassy Narrows, about 150 kilometres from Dryden near the Ontario-Manitoba border, is being represented by both Toronto-based firm Cavalluzzo LLP and Ratcliff LLP out of Vancouver.

At this point, there is no set dollar amount for how much compensation the First Nation is seeking. However, the types of remedies relate to restoring the environment, "upon which their health, and their livelihoods and their treaty rights depend," Adrienne Telford, co-lead legal counsel with Cavalluzzo LLP, said in an interview with CBC News.

"Grassy Narrows is a community in crisis," Telford said. "They require significant financial, and socioeconomic and health supports to allow community members to restore their health, and their well-being and their way of life."

"If this was Ontario cottage country, the river would have been cleaned up decades ago, the pollution would have stopped and the harms properly compensated."

Ontario commits to 'correcting this historic wrong'

When pressed by Kiiwetinoong MPP Sol Mamakwa during Monday's question period in the Ontario Legislature, the minister of the environment, conservation and parks, Andrea Khanjin, said the government is committed to remediating the mercury contamination.

Technical experts with the ministry have met with First Nations leaders and those who led the Western University study — though additional work is needed before the researchers' report is finalized, Khanjin said.

Is Ontario doing enough to address mercury contamination in the English-Wabigoon River system?

Sandy Shaw, MPP for Hamilton West—Ancaster—Dundas and NDP environment, conservation and parks critic, called that answer "disappointing."

"This is a human and ecological disaster and it has been going on for generations. For heaven's sake, Speaker, the time for studies has well passed," Shaw said.

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Khanjin responding by pointing to the work being done with Ontario's English and Wabigoon Rivers Remediation Panel .

"We're taking the politics out of this and referring to the science because this government remains committed to correcting this historic wrong."

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Sarah Law is a CBC News reporter based in Thunder Bay, Ont., and has also worked for newspapers and online publications elsewhere in the province. Have a story tip? You can reach her at [email protected]

With files from Philip Lee-Shanok and Chris Glover

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