descriptive research examples pdf philippines

A Descriptive Study on Media and Information Literacy Levels of Metro Manila Senior High School Millennials

Expectations and realities.

Master's Thesis , 2019 , 210 Pages , Grade: 1.75

Autor:in: Irish Talusan (Author)

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The study describes the media literacy levels of senior high school learners in the Philippines through their exposure, knowledge, and usage by using the concepts of Potter’s Cognitive Theory of Media Literacy and Alagaran’s Explore, Engage, and Empower Model. A mixed-method was deployed through conducting surveys to 197 respondents and focus group discussions to 17 participants from a subset sample of Grade 11 and 12 students of Rizal High School. Results and findings showed that senior high school millennials in the study are highly social media-based, highly motivated than knowledgeable, experience-based than factual-based, and suggestive than reflective. They also prioritize in being critical media users than competent producers. The study concludes that to maximize the 80-hour Media and Information Literacy subject, curriculum developers should decide whether to promote or focus / promote traditional media, developmental orientation, and quality production or focus on learner-preferred social media, individual orientation, and critical thinking.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Approval Sheet

Biographical Data

Acknowledgments

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Figures

I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study B. Research Problem C. Objectives D. Significance

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Media Generations and the Millennials B. Problems of Media Literacy C. Measuring Media Literacy Levels D. Teaching Media Literacy E. Synthesis

III. STUDY FRAMEWORK A. The Media Literacy Model, W. James Potter B. Conceptualization and Operationalization of Media Literacy Model C. The Explore, Engage, Empower Model, Jose Rueben Alagaran II D. Conceptualization and Operationalization of EEE Model E. Integrating Theories into Media Exposure, Knowledge, and Usage

IV METHODOLOGY A. Research Design B. Population and Sample C. Research Instruments D. Data Gathering Procedures E. Data Analysis Procedures F. Presentation of Data G. Budget H. Timetable I. Researcher J. Coverage

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Demographics B. Levels of Media Exposure C. Levels of Media Knowledge D. Levels of Media Usage E. Synthesis of Results

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION A. Summary of Findings B. Conclusions

VII. IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Theoretical Implications B. Methodological Implications C. Practical Implications

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES A. Survey Questionnaire B. Focus Group Discussion Guide C. FGD Consent Form D. DepEd MIL Curriculum Guide

LIST OF TABLES

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

LIST OF FIGURES

I. introduction, a. background of the study.

As preparation for teaching Media and Information Literacy (MIL) to the first batch of Senior High School students, the researcher attended a media-themed seminar on Martial Law at the Ateneo De Manila University in March 2016. Vergel Santos, a veteran newspaper journalist and also the Chairman of the Center For Media Freedom and Responsibility (CMFR), recollected his experiences of Philippine media in pre, during, and post-martial law years. He differentiated media to be much simpler in the pre-martial law times where a radio broadcaster could merely be a random person buying in a sari­sari store (a small store within a community) who has a natural modulated voice. As compared today, Santos was very much concerned about the state of media in cyberspace and how the youth are affected by it. He pointed out that the problem with the cyber world is the anonymity of source, thus the absence of accountability to everything online connected to the proliferation of fake news.

However, it is not easy to solve the problems of media literacy. Studies reviewed showed different perspectives, at times contradicting, on what is known about the youth, how should media be studied, what are the problems of media literacy, and how should students be taught through curriculums. Even the Philippine K-12 curriculum in general has been facing criticisms of overloaded curriculums (Pangan, October 15, 2017) and failure to meet end goals (Chavez, March 12, 2018; Chi, November, 12, 2018).

In the first semester of school year 2017-2018, the researcher taught Media and Information Literacy (MIL) to Grade 12 senior high school students. To take MIL, students must have passed the Empowerment Technologies subject which is usually taught by teachers with Information Technology (IT) background. However, colleague MIL teachers were English teachers who have working experiences in traditional broadcast industry. Guided by the Department of Education (DepED) MIL curriculum guide (see appendix D), the teachers follow a unit plan where lessons and activities are budgeted per week. According to the core subject description, students are expected to have a basic understanding of media and information as channels of communication and tools of development, as well as to be creative, critical, responsible users, and competent producers of media and information after the 80-hour subject. For the projects, students are expected to organize symposiums teaching MIL to a community and to produce a multimedia project aside from other activities and requirements in class.

At the end of the subject, teachers can give recommendations on how to better implement the MIL unit plan. The researcher had several observations. First, students have shown strong preference to social media over traditional media. However, students tend to be shy to use their personal social media accounts whenever asked to post their thoughts or name selves in advocacy media content produced. Second, students seemed to be already aware of ethical considerations in media and were also interested in knowing media laws. However, there are still several tendencies of them committing plagiarism and copyright violations. Lastly, the researcher found it interesting but worrying that students use new and different programs to aid their production projects that their teachers, who were supposed to guide them, are not familiar with.

Hence, several questions came to mind. What specific problems does MIL really need to address? What qualifications are needed for teachers to teach MIL? How do we appropriately allot the time to cover all expectations in the curriculum? And what performance standards are best suited for these learners? The researcher suspects that with this millennial generation of learners, MIL does not need to start from scratch since the students were already exposed, knowledgeable, and producing media at some levels. It is however risky for the government, scholars, and teachers to assume without attempting to describe the learners’ media and information literacy levels coming from the learners’ themselves.

Hence, this study is particularly interested with a representative group of senior high school millennials since they are within the age group of most significant users of information technology. Millennials in this study (born from 1998-2002) are within the millennial age range of 1982-2004 according to demographers Howe & Strauss (1987). The study is also focused only on the students in Metro Manila because of the difference of technology availability, consumption (Demographic Research and Development Foundation, Inc., 2014), and literacy rates (FLEMMS, 2013) between urban and rural areas. Lastly, this study is also particular to Media and Information Literacy (MIL) though it can be at times referred to simply as media literacy which agrees with an MIL perspective that media literacy study is broad enough to cover information literacy (UNESCO, 2011).

B. Research Problem

This study attempted to answer the following questions: What are the media and information literacy levels of millennial senior high school students? What can be the implications of these levels to the curriculum development and implementation of Media Education?

A descriptive study was conducted through survey and focus group discussions to the largest national high school in Metro Manila, Rizal High School. The study was grounded on W. James Potter’s Media Literacy Model and Jose Reuben Alagaran II’s Explore, Engage, and Empower (EEE) Model.

C. Objectives

To answer the research problems, the following objectives were sought:

(1) To identify the media exposure levels of respondents and participants; (2) To assess the knowledge levels of respondents and participants; (3) To describe the media usage and practices of respondents and participants; and (4) To provide suggestions on the curriculum development and implementation of media education in the country.

D. Significance

This study hopes to contribute in the development of MIL curriculum in the country by providing insights on the literacy levels of a specific demographic of learners. It can help fill a gap in understanding MIL from the perspective of the learners themselves aside from experts and scholars, thus an expectations and realities frame. Theoretical speaking, this study is a mixture of describing MIL levels in terms of the individual and his/her participation in the society by using a hybrid of quantitative and qualitative methods. The results of this study is hoped to add as a reference from which to evaluate the present MIL curriculum by suggesting parts to be prioritized, revised, or perhaps removed to maximize the time allotted for the subject and help the learners in the aspects that they need. Lastly, the study hopes to help teachers and curriculum developers in strategies and tasks that can be more appropriate and effective in fulfilling expectations from MIL learners.

II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

As said in the introduction, reviewed studies provided different and sometimes conflicting insights and expectations on the media generations and media education. Hence, studies were reviewed to illuminate what has been written on themes that adhere to the objectives of this study. First, studies on media generations were explored to evaluate what is already known about millennial audiences and the soundness of theoretical approaches that are useful in understanding the media generation in this study. Second, a review of what has been explored on the implementation of media education throughout the world helps in situating the problems of media education in the Philippines, may it be about the learners or implementation. Third, an assessment of studies done measuring media literacy levels are important in looking at the applicability of methodologies that could be useful in guiding the study’s aim of describing media and information literacy levels. Lastly, an assessment of the different teaching expectations and media literacy models were useful in examining which expectations are applicable to the learners in this study.

A. Media Generations and the Millennials

The West Midland Family Center (WMFC) is an organization that created a brief Generational Differences Chart that includes various aspects such as education, focus, interactive style, and communications media (West Midland Family Center, n.d.). First is the Traditionalist generation (1900-1945) also called the Veterans, Silent, Radio Babies, and the Forgotten generation. According to WMFC (n.d.), they are those influenced by the World War II and Great Depression. To them, education is a dream. Their orientation to technology is adapted and while their communications media include rotary phones, one-on-one, and memo writing. The Traditionalists are described to prefer handwritten texts, less email, and more personal interaction. Next are the Baby Boomers (1946 - 1964) also called as the ‘Me’ Generation. They are described by WMFC (n.d) as influenced by the rise of civil rights. Education for them is a birth-right. Their technology is acquired, and they use touch-tone phones for communication. The Baby Boomers are described to be the ‘call me anytime’ type and that they speak in open, direct style. After the Baby Boomers comes the Generation X (1965-1980) also called as the Gen X, Xers, The Doer, Post Boomers, or 13 th Generation. According to WMFC (n.d.), they are those with dual income families and single parents. They see education as the ‘way to get there’. Their technology is assimilated and for them, technology is something that can be held in their hands like the cellular phones. The Generation X are described to use email as their number one communication tool and that they talk in short sound bites.

Last in WMFC’s generation chart are the Millennials (1981-2000) also called as Generation Y, Generation Next or Echo Boomers (West Midland Family Center, n.d.). They are described to be heavily influenced by the digital media, terrorist attacks, and economic expansion. They are said to be the first generation of children with schedules and are the most sheltered among generations. Unlike other generations, they see education as an incredible expense and that they prefer to learn in networks, using multi­media, and learn while being entertained. They treat technology as something ethereal or intangible. These includes internet, picture phones, and e-mail. According to WMFC (n.d.), Millennials are sensitive in the words used because they are used in technical ways of communicating than in personal. They are also participative in terms of interactive style.

The conceptualization of a ‘media generation’ is another thing. For Vittadini, Siibak, Reifova, and Bilandzic (2013), in their study Generations and Media: The Social Construction of Generational Identity and Differences, the term ‘generation’ is more complicated and not only characterized by age differences nor the technology prevalent that time. As opposed to the technological determinist thinking, Vittadini, Siibak, Reifova, and Bilandzic (2013) believed that technological conditions do not deprive the generation’s agency and socio-cultural aspects. Hence, they suggested that there should be a conceptualization to bridge demographic absolutism (age) and technological absolutism (technology) to define a generation. They said that the “generation identity” and experience with media and technologies in formative years “shape some features of audience practices in the course of the whole lifecycle of its members” (p. 1). In their cultural media generation model, the authors asked “how people experience age and technology through their cultural environments” (p.3) and reminded that age should be understood as cultural than biological. An example would be the Vietnam War generation (part of the Baby Boomers generation) which Vittadini, Siibak, Reifova, and Bilandzic (2013) argued that the social movements against the petit bourgeois society after World War II is not brought by the medium of television but by the ‘sensitivity to the television image together with pacifism and many other characteristics of life in the 1960s’ (p.5). In conclusion, the authors thought that “generations may be defined by the motives and gratifications one expects from media, rather than the technology available to fulfill them” (p. 13). They implied that to know the sense of ‘generation’, researchers have to ask from the audiences themselves and consider the objective and subjective components. There are two different kinds of nostalgia that are produced by generations in relation to their media use, one individually with childhood memories, and the other is social or collective that are focused on formative years (Bolin, 2014).

In talking about the Filipino youth generations, a commissioned study titled How are the Filipino Youth Changing? The Shifting Lifestyles of Our Nation's Young, 1970s to 1990s by Ogena (1999) tackled what the youth did to media when she mapped the movement of Filipino youth through the decades of 70s, 80s, and 90s. Based on the review of studies, she found significant changes in youth lifestyle. She concluded that the youth of the 80s were family oriented, patriarchal, and geared towards a nuclear family set up with specific functions for each member. Diligence and time management were seen to be the keys to education which was "considered a passport to a better life" (p. 87). Ogena (1999) reasoned that the heightened media exposure of youth aided a politically mature youth of the 1980s and by the end of 1980s, watching television felt like a democratic process with few experiencing restrictions, namely the duration of viewing. In the 90s, she described the youth as independent yet individualist and interdependent yet collectivist. The youth was said to become more complicated due to the changing nature of Filipino culture because of socio-economic and political developments, and interactions with various cultures.

Ogena (1999) said that the Filipino youth have always been outgoing, socially aware of duties and responsibilities to self, families, and society. She added that “they were resolute in preserving established practices and customs but at the same time were challenged by both traditionalism and the unfamiliar/precarious” (p. 103). In speaking of media, she said that emerging technology-driven communications media “reinforce and accelerate” a youth culture that is more pragmatic than ideal in dealing with relationships, more involved in political and social discourses, more sexually aware, and curious in the search of one's identity (Ogena, 1999). Ogena predicted that shifts will continue, and greater “urgency” will happen in the context of information technology breakthroughs (1999).

On the other hand, Lanuza in 2001 focused on what media did to the youth. In his paper, The Mediatization of Filipino Youth Culture: A Review of Literature, Lanuza collected significant studies on mass media and its impact on the formation of youth culture. In 2001, he claimed that "the most powerful catalyst for modernizing youth culture is the mass media" concerning consumption, dressing, leisure and malling (going to malls), political involvement, delinquent behavior, and religion. He reviewed studies to prove his point that the youth were excellent and sturdy readers of media and that media are not all harmful. For Lanuza (2001), these media are actually are capable of promoting Filipino values as “surrogate to parental socialization.” He said that while the youth can be seduced by television images, they are active discerners of images and signs and therefore are not along hegemonic control and homogenization. De La Torre (n.d. in Lanuza 2001) remarkably claimed that the youth are products of mass media more than of genes, school, or home. Lanuza (2001) also characterized the youth in a postmodern theoretical perspective where new cultural possibilities take place, in his example from barkadas to cyberkadas . As conclusion, Lanuza (2001) ultimately called for the need to study the mass media impact on different youth sectors and social strata. Ogena (1999) and Lanuza’s (2001) works showed that while media have enormous impacts on the youth, the youth's activity involving media also reveals their agency in the society.

In recent studies, a McCann Truth Central study in 2016 showed that Filipino millennials, compared to other countries, are heavily reliant on their parents for advice, feel pressured to portray themselves in the best way possible on social media, and that posts on social media by friends can make them feel inadequate (Natividad, October 26, 2016). Filipino millennials are also considered to be the most optimistic globally according to financial advisory firm Deloitte survey. According to Navarro, the CEO of the surveying firm, this may have resulted from media saturation of coverage of the country’s leaders or they just really prefer straightforward people to lead -- which is very different on how Baby Boomers and Gen-Xers see leadership (Rappler, April 16, 2017). Decoding Filipino millennial habits is also a challenge to advertisers. According to Ortega (in Philippine Association of National Advertisers, n.d.), millennials want to do things on their own terms. He said that YouTube website is now the most popular medium where millennials search tutorials and how-to that aids millennials in discovering things on their own. He also stated that getting to know this generation as consumers requires engaging and conversing with them ‘layer by layer, medium by medium’ because who they are on one site, Facebook for example, is not necessarily the same as who are they in other social media networks and in real life.

Several surveys and data revealed that millennials make the most use of going online as well. In speaking of what Filipino millennials search online, an article by TJ Manotoc (September 1, 2017) stated that data from Google showed that Filipinos aged 20-30 are going online for information, creativity, experiences, and tips on how to survive the ‘adulting’ stage or making grown up decisions. According to Google in 2017, the top three ‘adulting’ categories Filipinos search were finance, vehicles, and real estate. They also search for travel, restaurants, entertainment, and other leisure. Google also revealed that most of millennials do not or hardly watch or use televisions at home anymore. The article cited the Global Web Index that reports that 47% of Filipino millennials are non-TV to light TV users and just they rely broadcast content uploaded online (Manotoc, September 1, 2017).

Taking from the perspective of the generation themselves, Llamas (October 11, 2017) reported the YouGov Omnibus research that revealed Filipino millennials and baby boomers feel that they are better represented by media than in advertisements. The survey results showed that Baby Boomers feel that they are poorly represented in advertisements because of their age while millennials feel that it is mainly because of socioeconomic class. The study also showed that millennial fondness in digital world is well documented because of their activeness in social media as compared to baby boomers. The research concluded that older generations’ digital activities are being underestimated.

In speaking of the youth’s activity online, the millennials live in a world of convergence. Jenkins in his Convergence Culture (2006) believed that the generation of media users today shows an entertainment driven participation that will eventually lead to the full realization of democracy and more serious purposes. Jenkins called this cultural shift as “Convergence Culture” which he said is “where old and new media collide, where grassroots and corporate media intersect, where the power of the media producer and the power of the media consumer interact in unpredictable ways" (p. 2). Jenkins believed that convergence is not merely a technological process but a cultural shift in the minds of the media players and that this collective meaning-making is affecting how society operates. Convergence Culture is explored on the relationship of three important concepts: Media Convergence, Participatory Culture, and Collective Intelligence.

According to Jenkins, media convergence is not the divergence or fight of new media replacing old and traditional media for today’s new audiences but rather their complex interaction. He explained that this is the ‘flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and migratory behavior of media audiences” (p. 2) that describes technological, industrial, cultural, and social changes that are heavily dependent on consumers’ active participation. He noted that what dies are merely the tools or ‘delivery technologies' but not the old media itself using the example that the recorded sound is the ‘medium’ while CDs and MP3 files are the tools.

Meanwhile, Jenkins situated participatory culture to passive media spectatorship. He explained that producers and consumers do not have separate roles anymore but are somewhat interacting participants. He further noted that in this convergence culture, the level of participation may vary, and some consumers may have higher abilities to participate. Aside from the media convergence and participation of consumers, Jenkins added the collective brainpower shared by media consumers through social interactions he called as collective intelligence. Jenkins noted that consumers now go into a vast pool of information in the media and they extract the resources which make sense in their daily lives. He considered collective intelligence as an alternative source of media power.

This optimistic approach of Jenkins is however questioned by a pool of authors. In Rethinking Convergence Culture (2011), Hay and Couldry said that Jenkins and his followers tend to assume interactivity, unprofessionalism, and grassroots movements to be the general and universal idea of democracy rather than seeing its complexities and contradictions in other aspects. Hay & Couldry also criticized that Convergence Culture studies conclude more on the agency of media consumers than the ‘complex historical events and crisis’ that led to such happenings. These include the “socio-economic and cultural forces which are stratifying technological access, use and skills in a convergent media environment” (Couldry in Jenkins, 2011, 293). Hence, there should be a focus on more specific practices to support the theory (Couldry in Hay & Couldry, 2011) or look into a longer historical frame with broader ecology (Miller & Maxwell in Hay & Couldry, 2011) instead of taking it as a sudden and huge cultural shift. According to Bird (2011), this enthusiasm for convergence culture may hamper the understanding of inactive audiences online, especially in non-western countries, and shadowing the study of the power of media industries. She also called for identifying the particulars on the types of agents and evidence of agency in a convergence culture. Jenkins (2011) admitted that there is a challenge of looking at the terms of participation with broadening access and participation. While he agreed that social networking and blogging are too simple to be a basis of enhanced democracy, he cited surveys (Cohen & Kahne, 2012) that young people highly involved in interest driven activities were five times more likely to engage in participatory politics that those who do not.

Aside from Jenkins, several studies argued that there is an active and significant participation of youth in interaction with media. Pearson (2009) in her article Fandom in the Digital Era argued that participatory media, including fan fiction writing, actually involved high forms of literacy that can be used in in-class learning strategies while students could be expertly guided in the areas of critical consumption and media production. Aside from mere participation, Cover (2006) stated that there is also now a rivalry for the finality of text and narrative between the producer's authorial desire and the audience's desire to control its circulation and arrangement.

These literature about the generations show that media exposure, knowledge, and usage are often included when talking about a generation’s identity. This is not to say that media always causes generations to behave and act the way they did or do. It shows that media comes alongside with culture. It is worth noting for this study that a generation is not defined merely by age or by technology. Specific individual and social practices must be described by the members of the generation themselves. On the other hand, debate about convergence warned to balance the enthusiasm of what is happening with media and its audiences today. Jenkins and his critics showed that while participation can be useful to the audience, this freedom is not without consequence. It is important not to ignore the forces taking advantage of participation, to be careful about the terms participation and to also look at the inactivity of the audiences.

B. Problems of Media Literacy

Scholars worldwide researched about the inspirations of media literacy along with its general expectations. According to Baran and Davis (2000), media literacy started with a concern for the urban poor youth and how media produced messages affects the audience. The shift in media education started as early as the 1960s that ‘emphasized teaching about the media instead of through the media’ (Goodman, 2003: 13). Since then, scholars have looked into the implementation of media education around the world from its roots in Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada (Considine, 2010) to its rapid development in the West and growth in the East for the past four decades (Lee, 2010). Studies showed that there is no general curriculum for media literacy because of the different developmental goals of countries (Potter, 2010). Nonetheless, countries share the common goal of making people intelligent and responsible users of media (Lee, 2010).

The implementation of media literacy education is not without the problem. Federov, Levitskaya, & Camarero (2016) surveyed sources of media literacy materials (curriculum, learning outcomes, and assessment strategies) from 65 Media Literacy experts from 20 countries. Their study revealed the challenges of implementation such as resistance from the administration, overloaded curriculum, lack of teacher training, and development of research and curriculum proposals. If media is used to teach media literacy, it seemed that learners prefer to learn through entertainment. According to Tully & Vraga (2017) public service announcements in news media literacy are revealed to be more efficient when shown in a partisan or biased program than in a neutral political program. This seems to echo the findings of Cabral & Razon (2015) who explored the use of satire as a tool for online news literacy among Filipino college students. Surveys with college students and interviews with satire writers revealed that the use of parodies sparked the critical thinking of students more than traditional news articles.

At the institutional level, Vrabec (2016) problematized the prioritizing of Media Literacy for Policy Makers through an interview with experts David Buckingham and Alexander Fedorov. Discussion in the meetings problematized that while there was a rapid professional and academic interest with media literacy, it was observed that while critical thinking is very much needed today at times of global conflicts, educational policies tend to focus more on topics for economic growth and job creation. Buckingham said that while the society values critical thinking, there is a question of policymakers really wanting to develop it. On the other hand, Fedorov was concerned that the world does not have a universal methodology in media literacy while Buckingham added that the approach should be brought to ethnic level - to specific countries - to address different needs while having a continuous international dialogue.

Meanwhile, Lim and Theng (2011) shared the problem that while media literacy is a widely researched subject, it is unclear how media literate Singaporean youths are. They pointed out from review that the literature on media literacy is more on studies effectiveness, teacher training, and evaluation of media effects. Lim and Theng also cited Cheung (2009) who said that media literacy studies are mostly from the West than from the East. Hence, they investigated 13-16-year-olds in local secondary schools regarding their perceived media literacy skills and confidence with these skills. Leading results from 229 survey responses showed that respondents were good in awareness and confidence as media consumers but not as media producers. The orientation of this research is close to the current study since the focus is on the media literacy state of youth than the state of media literacy itself.

The youth has been a concern of research in the field of media studies and society in general. Several researches and theories focused media’s harmful effects, seeing audiences as victims than agents. One is George Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory that measured and criticized the violence shown even in children’s television programming through a longitudinal research project. Another is Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory which he formulated when he experimented on children's aggression via observation and imitation (Baran and Davis, 2010). There are also the Stimulus response theories that focus on the effects brought by media to individual and the Uses and Gratification Theory which is widely used in knowing that motivations and satisfactions that recipients get in media.

C. Measuring Media Literacy Levels

Studying the media literacy of different sectors of media audiences shows different results through time. In 2002, Manding chose to focus on pastoral workers in her dissertation Media Literacy Education Among Pastoral Workers in the Philippines: Towards Building A Model Media Literacy Curriculum where she was interested in the pastoral workers' extensive exposure to mass media but not to the internet. Her study revealed that this phenomenon is not a matter of inaccessibility but the culture of communication. A new curriculum model geared towards semiotic theory where the audience can read media/text in a contextualized manner of meaning-making was made.

In speaking of teenagers, Ealdama (2006) in her graduate thesis Next-Generation Visioneering: Teen-e-vision and Television analyzed the influence of television on the social perceptions of 4th-year high school students using a Media Literacy Education (MLE) approach. Her survey concluded that respondents were regular entertainment driven TV viewers; they were indifferent and non-involved with news information; the time they evaluate news stories is when they watch news programs by chance; TV news increased their social awareness and interest; and all tried related media activities in various ways.

Media consumption is often a relevant section in commissioned studies in the Philippines such as in Child and Youth Research Center (CYRC) and Philippine Council for Population and Development (PCPD). Youth and media are also included in national surveys such as the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) Functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS), Cartoon Network New Generations Philippines, AC Nielsen Kids study, and PCTVF Media Violence Study. Data on Internet media exposure are more common than the media literacy level of youth in terms of knowledge and usage. According to the Demographic Research and Development Foundation, Inc. and University of the Philippines Population Institute (UPPI), the Filipino youth of 15-24 age groups are the most significant consumers of information technology, and in 2013, six out ten youth are regular internet users, and 78 percent are with mobile phones. Rappler (n.d) reported that Filipinos consume around 150k terabytes of data and mobile internet penetration of 30 million users per year.

Mercedes, Grosch, and Andres (2013) did an empirical survey on the Media Usage of undergraduate students (ages 15-24) in Ateneo de Manila University (ADMU). They aimed to know which media services they often used, to what extent and how satisfied are they with these services. Results showed that ADMU students mostly used online resources but are still appreciative of traditional learning methods, had high skill levels in using digital media services and adept in internet searching, and preferred doing research on their own computers than in libraries. Students also followed their satisfaction in choosing the services to use (Mercedes, Grosch, & Andres, 2013). Mercedes, Grosch, and Andres (2013) thought that ADMU remains a traditional university, with teachers and students meeting regularly, because printed materials like handouts and textbooks are still among the top most accepted media services of the students.

Students under a special program were the subject of Torres in 2014 in the study MEDIA (IL)LITERACY: An Evaluation of the Curriculum and Implementation of the Department of Education's Special Program in Journalism. Findings revealed that students’ low media literacy levels are due to the concerns of the ability of teachers to teach the subject, disinterest of students in journalism and media practice, and insufficient DepEd budget for the curriculum needs. On the other hand, Deveza, Hernandez, and Villafuerte (2016) in their study Is All Well?: Relationship of Media Consumption of Filipino Out of School Youth with their Subjective Well Being were concerned about the Out of School Youth (OSY) because they are deprived of knowledge about media and its effects on individuals. Their study revealed results such as that television is still the most consumed medium of the respondents; there is a connection that only specific media types, not all, affect the youth’s subjective feelings of being contented, joyful, and relaxed; and Internet is preferred to meet social gratifications; and that self-reported subjective wellbeing is related to media consumption.

Recently, Muya and Kagaoan (2018), in their study titled Assessment of Media Literacy Campaign for Grade 4 Pupils at a Public Elementary School in the Philippines, tested how students improved after a Media Literacy campaign. They found out that the campaign was effective because there was a significant change between the pre and posttest of respondents, hence they concluded that media literacy campaigns can be effective means of making students understand and use media well.

Studies showed that media audiences and users still depend on their gratifications, satisfactions, and culture towards media. It is not because whether they lack access to technology in the province (Manding, 2002), provided with different media technology options (Mercedes, Grosch, and Andres, 2013) or deprived of knowledge about media (Deveza, Hernandez, and Villafuerte, 2016). Studies and surveys also showed that in the past twenty years, media audiences have significantly changed in terms of consumption, knowledge, and usage. However, studies showed the same problems with other countries in media literacy implementation - teacher training and budget. There can also be a perspective based on the results of Torres (2014) study which determined that media education’s effectiveness may depend on the interest of students. One of the questions left unanswered is that how will students receive the media literacy subject given that they are required to take it no matter what academic strand or track they are into in senior high school. In speaking of methodologies, studies often use surveys since most studies are about media consumption. There were, however, no studies reviewed that covered the knowledge levels of media learners.

D. Teaching Media Literacy

Many suggestions on how to teach Media Literacy came to place. For Goodman (2003, p.3), being able to analyze how media messages are produced can be a link for an individual to learn about the world and change it through a set of abilities - to analyze, evaluate, and produce print, aural, and visual forms of communication. According to Valdmane (2016), to fulfil the purpose of media literacy as a critical component to agency in an environment of rapid technological changes, teaching should now be geared towards life-long learning that promotes cooperation. Life-long learning means that the teaching strategies and assessments given to students must be applicable in their daily lives. Jenkins, Purushotma, Clinton, Weigel, & Robinson (2006), in Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture Media Education for the 21st Century, argued that the way to forward media literacy research is to investigate participation because involvement with a culture "shifts the focus of literacy from one of individual expression to one of community involvement" (p. 7). These can range from the cultural, personal, political, and economic purposes that interests audiences to circulate media content (Jenkins, Ford, & Green, 2013, p. 35). Alvermann and Hagood (2000), on the other hand, suggested that a critical media literacy study may be done through reflecting on the pleasures derived from mass media and popular culture practices. In an interview with a known Media Literacy scholar Len Masterman (November 3, 2010), Morgenthaler quoted that the most effective way to teach media is not through a content-centered approach but through the “application of a conceptual framework which can help pupils make sense of any media text. And that applies every bit as much to the new digitized technologies as it did to the old mass media.”

For specific media education implementation, The National Mission on Education through ICT (NME-ICT) in Patshala, India in its module Media and Information Literacy: Theories and Models of Media and Information Literacy, compiled the concepts and models that can be used in understanding the media literacy of individuals (n.d.). The NME-ICT module first talked about three trends in media literacy education by Tornero & Varis (2010) - the first one is the protectionist orientation that media education should protect students from harmful media effects, second is the promoting orientation that promotes development and social awareness to students through media, and last is the participatory orientation where students should use media to contribute to societal development. As for the models included in the NME-ICT module, there is the Message Interpretation Process Model of Martens (2010) which stated that individuals should apply logic in analyzing media messages and compare personal experiences with media content. Another is the Explore, Engage, Empower (EEE) Model of Alagaran II in 2015 that proposed that media competencies needed for societal developmental are through skillfully choosing information (explore), analyzing and evaluating media (engage), and production (empower). Mahatma Ghandi’s Non-violent Communication Theory was also considered a media literacy model to counter effects of media violence and to “encourage young people to resolve conflict through peaceful means” (p. 11), its theoretical units included non-violent speech and action, maintenance of relationships and enrichment of personhood, openness, and flexibility (Brode in NME-ICT Module, n.d.). Lastly, the module talked about the UNESCO Conception Model of Media and Information literacy that included the importance of not only the mass media but also the community media, and all other information providers such as libraries, archives, museums, and publishers.

In the Philippine institutional level, the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) of the country gives ratings to movies and television programs for viewing. On the other hand, the Children’s Television Act of 1997 aims to use media programs towards the value formation and intellectual development of the youth. There is also the Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipinas (KBP) Broadcast Code of the Philippines 2007 Article 11 on Children Welfare that provides guidelines on the ethical considerations in producing children’s programs and how they should be treated when participating in a show.

Elizabeth Enriquez (1998) in her graduate thesis The Practice of Media Education in the Philippines: A Case Study of the Experience of the Philippine Association for Media Education explored the first actual implementation of media education in the country through in-depth interviews with PAME members and personal observations in the field. Her findings revealed that the media teaching strategies then were 'curricular strategies' such that it is incorporated in related subjects like English, Social Science, Filipino, and Religion. Teachers were also defensive against media as an orientation in teaching. Meanwhile, there were some extra-curricular activities about media including clubs and seminars. There were also concerns raised about the teachers’ ability to teach the subject. Enriquez warned that with the implementation of media education, college institutions of mass communications must refine their programs to survive and remain significant. Finally, the study recommended researching more on the relationship of media products and Filipino audiences which this current study also hopes to tackle.

Today, the Center for Media Freedom & Responsibility (CMFR) provides an accessible online Media Literacy course which gives key points on the right to information, freedom of expression, and people's power to hold media actionable for undesirable actions. In 2010, the former Education Secretary Dumlao-Valisno ordered the creation of a Media Literacy Task Force (MLTF) to develop a National Media Literacy Education (NMLE) curriculum for children in elementary and high school (Ronda, May 17, 2010). According to the DO 6, s. 2010 - Creation of the Department of Education Media Literacy Task Force (DepED-MLTF), the responsibilities of the MLTF include formulating policies/standards/guidelines in the use of media in public schools, integration of NMLE in Basic Education Curriculum (BEC); forging partnerships with media industries and related organizations; development and production of media learning resources; and the evaluation of these resources.

Wilson, et al, (2011) provided a comprehensive Media and Information Literacy (MIL) Curriculum for Teachers guide in 2011. They made the curriculum flexible to be adapted by different countries. UNESCO’s MIL Model is centrally concerned with the access to Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights stating that ‘Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions with interference and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers’ (p. 20). The curriculum framework for MIL involves three key areas - knowledge and understanding of media and information for democratic discourses and social participation; evaluation of media texts and information sources; and production and use of media and information. This involves the new and old and new media. However, the UNESCO model combines Media Literacy and Information Literacy. The information literacy ‘emphasizes the importance of access to information and the evaluation and ethical use of information’ (p. 18) while media literacy ‘emphasizes the ability to understand media functions, evaluate how those functions are performed and to rationally engage with media for self-expression’ (p. 18). UNESCO also stated the two-main school of thoughts about media and information literacy, one is that information literacy is broader with media literacy included in it while the other one says that media literacy is the broader study covering information literacy as a part of it.

UNESCO also provided pedagogical approaches that can be used in teaching Media and Information Literacy. It provided a summary of features namely: issue­enquiry approach, scientific enquiry, problem-based learning, case study, cooperative learning, textual analysis, contextual analysis, translations, simulations, and productions (Wilson, et al, 2011).

Figure 1. UNESCO Pedagogy

The figure above is a summary of the features and examples of each approach provided by UNESCO in pp. 35-38.

In March 2016, DepED launched its online learning portal cybersafe for Grade 5, 6, and Junior High School. This includes situations and questions of proper usage of social media accounts (UNTV News, August 2016). In the school year of 2015-2016 the Department of Education integrated Media and Information Literacy (MIL) as a core subject to the pioneer batch of Senior High School (Grade 11-12) millennial students with ages ranging from 16-19 years old. DepED provided a curriculum guide document for teaching MIL. This document is the standard from which specific unit and lesson plans are made by teachers of respective schools. It has an 80-hour duration for a whole semester, divided into two quarters, and four units. The course description of the curriculum guide stated:

The course introduces the learners to basic understanding of media and information as channels of communication and tools for the development of individuals and societies. It also aims to develop students to be creative and critical thinkers as well as responsible users and competent producers of media and information.

The first quarter focuses more on concepts and ideas related to media literacy. The lessons include the difference between media, information, and technology literacy; the evolution of media using McLuhan's epochs; information literacy; types of media; media and information sources; media and information languages; legal, ethical, and societal issues in media; power of media and information; current and future trends; and the dimensions of a media and information literate individual. The performance standard is for student to be able to organize a symposium for a community and teach about the concepts of media literacy.

The second quarter is dedicated to the actual production of media content. The first lesson differentiated the People as Media (audience as media) with People in Media (media practitioners). The latter parts aim to teach students the skills to make text, visual, audio, motion, and multimedia information. The performance standard is to apply these skills in creating a living museum or electronic portfolio multimedia showcasing understanding, insights, and perception of media and information sources. Several media and information literacy textbooks are available for schools and educators to review and implement. Some have the exact format and arrangement of topics as per the curriculum guide (Revano, 2016; Bautista & Ignacio, 2016). Meanwhile, some books differ in focus such as gearing towards film and theory (Campos, 2016) or audience and market research (Zarate, 2016).

In a specific case, Far Eastern University Diliman is one of the schools in Metro Manila that implements Media and Information Literacy subject. The subject falls under the English and Language Department. Also, a student must have passed the Empowerment Technology (E-Tech) subject before taking the MIL course assuming that the computer skills were acquired to produce such media content. The subject can be taught by media practitioners, academic members from media and communication, or English teachers. In the first semester of 2017, the school implemented a learner-centered approach flipped class for the 4-unit subject, meaning there were two hours for online and two hours for face-to-face interaction with the teacher - this part is more on facilitating activities. After the course implementation, a Teachers Portfolio was asked from the MIL teacher which included his/her reflection of the subject, course, and curriculum as well as the best outputs in class. The students were graded with Written Works (25%), Performance Tasks (50%), and Quarterly Examinations (25%).

Scholars reviewed are optimistic about media literacy as an ideal way to improve the society. Studies showed that there is no universal methodology that every country can use because of different goals. Therefore, each country should implement extensive research on media literacy that is specific to its people and development aims. Even with differences, reviewed studies showed common trends on the problems of implementing media literacy - administration, budget, teacher training, and curriculum development. Research should also focus on the discovering the literacy of the youth themselves because they have own preference on effective platforms to learn about media literacy. In the Philippines, there are several efforts of educating the youth about media in the last twenty years, but only heightened during the development of Media Literacy Task Force in 2010. There were however not much literature found on media literacy in the period of 1998-2010. It was also difficult to find a detailed and organized report of the media education development in the country because efforts come from different organizations. However, DepED’s implementation of Media and Information Literacy as a core course in the basic education of Senior High School seemed to be a huge step in developing media literate people in the country especially in these times.

D. Synthesis

Studies showed different insights and conclusions about millennials. They appeared to be the generation that are mostly online (Demographic Research and Development Foundation Inc. & UPPI; Mercedes, Grosch, & Andres, 2013; Llamas, 2017), adept in using new technology (Mercedes, Grosch, & Andres, 2013), can produce meaningful content for development (Ogena, 1999; Jenkins, 2006; Cohen & Khane in Jenkins, 2006), confident on steps towards media literacy (Lim & Theng, 2011) and like to choose, do, and learn things on their own (Ortega in Philippine Association of National Advertisers, n.d.; Jenkins, 2006). These studies imply that millennials are in control of their exposures and confident about themselves as media literate individuals. However, some studies seemed to focus on the well-documented activeness of youth in media just overshadowing older generations (YouGov Omnibus Research).

Furthermore, there are also conflicting perspectives about the learners which media literacy is hoped to address such as the anonymity online (Santos, 2016), disinterest of people in reading (David in Rappler, October 2016), lack of knowledge of media processes (Goodman, 2003; Lim & Theng, 2011), vulnerability to media content (Baran and Davis, 2000; Tornero & Varis, 2010; Gerbner; Bandura), and lack of involvement despite much exposure (Ealdama, 2006; Hay and Couldry, 2011; Bird, 2011).

However, the problem is not only with the learners but also the implementation of media education since there is no general media literacy model for every country (Potter, 2010; Federov in Vrabec, 2016), there is a lack of curriculum proposals and new strategies (Federov, Levitskaya, & Camarero, 2016; Enriquez, 1998), or lack of prioritization from the government (Buckingham & Federov in Vrabec, 2016). These studies implied that there should be a description on the specific strengths and weaknesses of learners in this particular study. The goal of the study was also reinforced since it appeared that a specifically designed curriculum is needed for a specific demographic of learners with specific problems in media literacy that needs to be described and addressed.

It also seemed not enough to evaluate media generation of learners by age group or through survey or observations of their activities. Theoretical approaches call to describe a media generation not solely by age or available technology (Vittadini, Sibak, Reifova, & Bilandic, 2013; Manding, 2002; Deveza, Hernandez, & Villafuerte, 2016) but focus on the specific audiences themselves and their personal experiences with media products (Vittadini, Sibak, Reifova, & Bilandic, 2013; Buckingham in Vrabec, 2016; Lim & Theng, 2011; Enriquez, 1998). Hence, this study used a mixed-method approach where exposure, knowledge, and usage can be described quantitatively and learners’ experiences can be further explored qualitatively.

Lastly, there are indeed efforts to suggest on how to teach about media and which aspects to focus on. Some scholars and resource speakers expect to teach learners how to read media (Santos, 2016; Pearson, 2009; Martens, 2010; Masterman in Margenthaler, 2010) while some suggest to teach how media products are produced (Goodman, 2003) or guide learners on how to use media for development purposes through cooperation and participation (Jenkins, Purushotma, Clinton, Weigel, & Robinson, 2006; Tornero & Varis, 2010; Mahatma Ghandi; Alagaran, 2015; Valdmane, 2016). There are also different suggestions on strategies such as using reflections on the pleasures derived from media (Alverman & Hagood, 2010), promote development through media (Tornero & Varis, 2010), use entertainment-based media activities (Tully & Vraga, 2017; Cabral & Razon, 2015; Pearson; 2009), or implement different pedagogical teaching strategies (UNESCO Media and Information Literacy Curriculum, 2011). While these expectations and suggestions are helpful, it can be overwhelming to incorporate everything in a single core Media and Information Literacy subject. Hence, what this study can offer is an evaluation of which teaching orientation and teaching strategies can be most useful considering the media literacy levels of learners in this study. Finally, since some studies point to media education as personal development while some sees media literacy as a way to societal development. It would be helpful to combine theoretical approaches that describes media literacy from an individual’s personal level and his/her participation in the society.

To guide study into describing the media literacy levels of the millennial senior high school students, two models are used - Potter’s Media Literacy Model and Alagaran’s Explore, Engage, Empower (EEE model). As stated in the synthesis of the literature review, both personal and participatory theoretical approaches to media and information literacy should be used. Here, Potter’s model deals about the cognitive factors in which an individual process information. His model is centered on the individual’s path on achieving the highest media literacy as thinking individuals . Meanwhile, Alagaran’s model provides a synthesis of the skills needed in understanding and practicing media towards achieving development goals. The EEE model focuses on what the individual can contribute to the society using media literacy as Filipino millennials .

A. The Media Literacy Model, W. James Potter

W. James Potter is a Media Literacy Professor who specializes in Media Processes, Media Effects and Literacy, Media Theory and Methods. He has taught in Western Michigan University, Florida State University, Indiana University, UCLA, and Standford University. He focuses on media literacy and media violence and works on a general theory of mass media that integrate theories and research findings into a unified system of explanation (UC Santa Barbara, Department of Communication website).

Potter presented the first social scientific theory of media literacy process that focuses on how the human mind works. He provided a comprehensive explanation of Media Literacy in his book Theory of Media Literacy: A Cognitive Approach (2004). He started with his general observations on what is happening in the world of media and information such as how to keep with all the information as the problem more than access (p. 5). Regarding improving media instruction, he first defined what media literacy is not:

Media literacy is not a simple concept deriving from a singular skill that builds uniformly with age and experience. Instead, media literacy should be conceptualized as sophisticated skills and knowledge that vary widely across people, even at a given age (2004, p. 39).

Potter called for a change in the assumptions of media as dangerous and the need to shift research interest on uses and gratifications, media representation, and media education where the “locus of change is individual and need to be learned to read media better”(2004, p. 57). According to him, the common understanding among scholars is that media literacy is the knowledge convergence of media studies, human thinking, and pedagogy. However, he still problematized an accurate definition for it out of an ocean of perspectives and ideas. He then stated an umbrella definition of media literacy as the “set of perspectives from which we expose ourselves to the media and interpret the meaning of the messages we encounter" (Potter, 2004, p. 58).

Potter urged for the need of what he calls Cognitive Theory of Media Literacy to "illuminate the particulars about why being media literate is good; that is, it needs to elaborate on the purpose of definition. Media Literacy is needed to provide a foundation for articulating processes and techniques" (Potter, 2004: 36). He further argued that the goal of this theory is not to reject media ideologies but instead to make people use ideological parts that are functional for them and create new perspectives as alternative to which are not useful for them. Potter first identified the six theoretical truths of his model - first the individual is responsible for his/her media literacy; people should be aware of the range of media effect; people are interpretative beings; shared meaning is needed to communicate; knowledge is power; and that media literacy should make people control the meaning-construction. Potter used these axioms as guide in creating his Media Literacy Model.

1. Potter’s Media Literacy Model

One of the main concern of Potter is how individuals screen out all the information they receive. The default model is that people automatically screen out messages ‘without thinking about the process until a particular message triggers our attention’ (Potter, 2004, p. 34). Potter would like to oppose this model and introduced the Media Literacy Model as another model of encountering messages.

The Media Literacy model revolves around four major factors - Knowledge Structures , Personal Locus, Competencies and Skills and Information Processing Tasks (Potter, 2004) . According to Potter, the knowledge structures ‘feed information’ to the personal locus of a person that triggers one’s motivation and drive to make his/her decisions about an information (2004). A person’s set of competencies and skills will serve as tools on processing information. Then, the person will do his/her information processing tasks of meaning construction (Potter, 2004 p. 32). It should be noted that these factors do not go sequentially but works interactively in a system. The figure below (Figure 3.1 Cognitive Model of Media Literacy, p. 33) is used by Potter to visualize his theory.

Figure 2. Potter's Cognitive Theory of Media Literacy

According to Potter, one’s Knowledge Structure is based on his/her knowledge on the five areas of media effects, media content, media industries, real world and self. These make them ‘much more aware during the information-processing tasks’ and helps them make decisions on seeking, working, and constructing meaning with an information (Potter, 2004, p. 33). Potter (2004) called these knowledge because these are not just compiled facts but essential information designed into structures. He noted that some information a ‘superficial’ (Potter, 2004, p. 34), such as names of TV shows, that only shows a low level of media literacy. For Potter these are the what questions and that the higher is the how and why questions. He, however, acknowledged that knowing what is needed before answering the how and why. Further, it is also important to know one’s experience because a ‘wider range of experiences in the real world would have a broader base from which to appreciate and analyze media messages’ (Potter, 2004, p. 34). Potter reminded that huge knowledge and experience is a certain content only does not necessarily make one a highly media literate person because one may lack understanding other media trends and effects that will help in seeing the ‘big picture’ (p. 35) on the way media operates.

Potter (2004) discussed the details and indicators of each of five knowledge structure. First, Media Content is about seeing the content formulas, aggregate figures such media message patterns, types of characters and behavior in plots, as well as the values in content. Second, Media Industries knowledge structure can be see through the development of media industries, economics, ownership and control, and marketing messages. Third, Media Effects should be seen in broad perspective, the risks of media effects, and the factors in process of influence. Fourth, the Real World knowledge structure depends on the persons’ real world sources other the media and analysis of content of media really reflects reality. Lastly, Potter stated that people should have a strong knowledge structure of Self to become media literate. This can be seen through the person’s self-awareness, self-construction using media information, unique perspective on media, personal knowledge style, and their immediate and long term personal goals.

The next factor is the Personal Locus that is driven by goals and drives . According to Potter, the goals ‘shape information processing tasks by determining what gets filtered and what gets ignored’ (2004, p. 35) and that the more one is aware of his/her goals, the more he/she controls the process of information seeking. On the other hand, the ‘stronger your drives for information are, the more effort you will expend to attain your goals’ (2004, p. 35). Potter explained that if one’s personal locus is weak, meaning one is not aware of their goals and the drive is low, then the person will allow media to ‘exercise a high degree of media control over exposures and information processing’ (2004, p. 35). Potter explained that there is not perfect locus of perfect goals and drives because locus both operates consciously and unconsciously. However, the locus or the conscious parts must prevail in most of the times.

The third factor are the Competencies and Skills. After one’s locus is active, the ‘tools are needed to execute the plan’ (Potter, 2004, p. 35). Potter (2004) noted that competencies are learned in early life and applied automatically such as reading. It is a matter if one can do it or not. According to Potter, these competencies also affect the locus drive giving the example that if one cannot read, he/she cannot access printed materials and therefore gets low drive to do so (2004). On the other hand, skills are those gained through practice and exercise. Potter (2004) equated that if one has a stronger drive, therefore there is greater chance of improving his/her skills. The table below shows the relevant skills for Media Literacy (Figure 3.2 The Seven Skills of Media Literacy, p. 36).

Figure 3: The Seven Skills of Media Literacy

According to Potter, Media Literacy is more concerned on skills rather than competencies because it is skills that can make a ‘large difference in a person moving from low to high media literacy’ (2004, p. 37). It should be noted however that some skills or competencies may be more needed in certain information processing tasks. Potter (2004) gave the example that “with the task of filtering, the skills of analysis and evaluation are most important. With the task of meaning matching, the competencies are most important. And with the task of meaning construction, the skills of grouping, induction, deduction, synthesis, and abstracting are most important” (p. 37).

The last factor is the Information Processing Tasks - filtering, meaning matching, and meaning construction. According to Potter (2004), these three information tasks work hand in hand. First one has the task to filter what message to ignore or take in. Then messages taken in will make sense in meaning matching when one ‘recognized the symbols and match [our] learned definitions for the symbols’ (Potter, 2004, p. 37). Lastly, one constructs meaning of the message. Potter (2004) claimed that people who perform these information-processing tasks better are more media literate for each tasks relies on different set of skills. Potter (2004) connected everything as:

The more developed one’s set of skills is, the more media literate one is. Each task relies on a different set of skills. The more developed one’s set of skills is, the more media literate one is. Each task relies on knowledge structures. The more developed one’s knowledge structures are, the more media literate one is (p. 39).

In summary, Potter reminded that a highly media literate person can fulfill the goals of better understanding (see different levels of meaning in a message), control (in charge of meaning making and selection), and appreciation (get what they want) of media messages. All the four factors of the Media Literacy Model interactively work with each other by building knowledge structures through skills in selecting information, assembling selections to a meaningful designs, and where “knowledge structures inform our locus and provide context for the information-processing tasks” (Potter, 2004, p. 39).

In application, Craft, Maksl, and Ashley (2013) adapted the ideas of Potter for their study Measuring News Media Literacy: How Knowledge and Motivations Combine to Create News-Literate Teens. They specifically focused on the knowledge structures and personal locus factors. They tracked the degree of “mindful versus automatic thought-process” (Craft, Maksl, & Ashley, 2013, p. 7), the degree to one perceives to be in control of media influence, and the knowledge about the institutions that produce news, the way content is produced, and its effect to people. The researchers used survey method in a Likert scale to measure cognition and “media locus of control” (Craft, Maksl, & Ashley, 2013, p. 8). They also included objective questions in the survey to test the respondents’ knowledge on current events. Focus groups were also conducted to further measure motivation, news media skepticism, and demographics of the respondents.

B. Conceptualization and Operationalization of Media Literacy Model

Potter’s cognitive theory of media literacy will be useful in describing the media literacy levels of respondents survey and findings. Media Literacy for Potter centers on how well individuals do information processing tasks - filtering, meaning matching, and meaning construction of media messages - by using competencies and skills as tools that are driven by the person’s locus ignited by the knowledge structure of an individual. The study however, only tackles the knowledge structures and personal locus.

The following figure is an adaptation of how this study is going to conceptualize Potter’s Media Literacy Model:

Figure 4. Adaptation of Potter's Media Literacy Theory

To describe the students’ knowledge of media structures using some measurements, this can be in a form of a short quiz and open ended questions about knowledge structures’ five areas as detailed by Potter (2004). Not only the accumulative scores within the five areas must be measured but also which knowledge structure area are they strongest and weakest. This is done by describing the difficulty of each question based on how many respondents answer it correctly. It must also be noted to avoid superficial ‘what’ questions such as names of television shows or music. Therefore, questions must come from either current events, published books of media literacy or topics from the Media and Information Literacy (MIL) subject.

According to Potter, knowledge structures feed the locus (goals and drives) of an individual. In this study however, the knowledge structures are not assumed to be directly feeding the locus but instead the study will attempt to seek possible connections and comparisons. The measure of an individual’s locus is how much he/she is aware of his/her goals and how much he/she is motivated to achieve these goals. Potter (2004) added that the locus of an individual can be conscious (one is in control) or unconscious (media can be in control) but the conscious side must be more used. Therefore, the conscious versus the unconscious side of exposing to media will be measured.

If a student is mostly conscious about his/her goals in exposing to media and is highly motivated to pursue these goals, then the student is more in control of his/her media exposure. At this point, this study will adapt two factors that the Craft, Maksl and Ashley’s (2013) used in their study when they conceptualized Potter. First is to find the individual’s ‘need for cognition’ (p. 7) by how much the respondent is willing to put effort into thinking. The other one is measuring the individuals ‘media locus of control’ (p. 8) where those “who are more aware of the media’s controlling nature are thought to be more personally in control of their own exposure and the influences media might have on them” (p. 8). Hence, the media exposure part of the survey can contain two sets of questions - the choice awareness (goals) then the control motivation (drives). First is to how much often they think about media choices, and second is to how much they assume responsibility control of their media choices. If the respondent is always thinking about media choices, then he/she is more aware of his/her goals in being exposed to media. On other hand, if the respondents strongly agree that they should be held responsible in controlling media, then respondents are highly motivated to control their media exposure by themselves.

Potter (2004) stated that the stronger the locus of an individual, the greater chances of them practicing their competencies and skills. Therefore, the study attempts to test how often do the respondents practice skills in real life situations (never to always) and compare it to the patterns of skills that they report to during focus group discussions.

The assumption is that students’ media choices (goals) and controlling exposure (drives) can be connected to their knowledge structures and media usage. Taking from Potter’s argument, the stronger the drives are, the greater chances of the students’ to develop the MIL competencies and skills expected to them. If their locus is weak, then the focus of media literacy should shift first to improving the students’ goals and drives through enriching their knowledge structures.

C. The Explore, Engage, Empower Model, Jose Reuben Alagaran II

Dr. Jose Alagaran teaches in the Department of Communication of Miriam College, Quezon City, Philippines. He suggests that UNESCO’s Media and Information Literacy (MIL) framework can be used in developing an outcome-based curriculum for Bachelor of Arts in Communication program (Alagaran, 2012). In his conceptual paper Explore, Engage, Empower Model: Integrating Media and Information Literacy (MIL) for Sustainable Development in Communication Education Curriculum (2015), Alagaran argued that the competencies skills progression in the MIL framework can be simplified into the practical applications of Explore, Engage, and Empower (EEE) or what he called the ‘Triple E’s of MIL Model’; this attempts to provide ‘new perspectives on integrating media and information literacy in the communication curriculum’ (Alagaran, 2015, p. 32) and a ‘general process framework for understanding and practicing media and information literacy’ (Alagaran, 2015, p. 32).

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Methodology

• Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Published on May 15, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods, other interesting articles.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

Descriptive research question examples

• How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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A Descriptive Study of COVID-19–Related Experiences and Perspectives of a National Sample of College Students in Spring 2020

Alison k. cohen.

a Department of Public and Nonprofit Administration, School of Management, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, California

Lindsay T. Hoyt

b Department of Psychology, Fordham University, New York, New York

Brandon Dull

Associated data.

This is one of the first surveys of a USA-wide sample of full-time college students about their COVID-19–related experiences in spring 2020.

We surveyed 725 full-time college students aged 18–22 years recruited via Instagram promotions on April 25–30, 2020. We inquired about their COVID-19–related experiences and perspectives, documented opportunities for transmission, and assessed COVID-19's perceived impacts to date.

Thirty-five percent of participants experienced any COVID-19–related symptoms from February to April 2020, but less than 5% of them got tested, and only 46% stayed home exclusively while experiencing symptoms. Almost all (95%) had sheltered in place/stayed primarily at home by late April 2020; 53% started sheltering in place before any state had an official stay-at-home order, and more than one-third started sheltering before any metropolitan area had an order. Participants were more stressed about COVID-19's health implications for their family and for American society than for themselves. Participants were open to continuing the restrictions in place in late April 2020 for an extended period of time to reduce pandemic spread.

Conclusions

There is substantial opportunity for improved public health responses to COVID-19 among college students, including for testing and contact tracing. In addition, because most participants restricted their behaviors before official stay-at-home orders went into effect, they may continue to restrict movement after stay-at-home orders are lifted, including when colleges reopen for in-person activities, if they decide it is not yet prudent to circulate freely. The public health, economic, and educational implications of COVID-19 are continuing to unfold; future studies must continue to monitor college student experiences and perspectives.

Implications and Contribution

Researchers surveyed a national sample (n = 725) of full-time college students in the USA about their coronavirus disease 2019–related experiences in spring 2020. College students are already restricting their behaviors to protect population health, but more must be done to reduce opportunities for coronavirus disease 2019 transmission by college students.

The novel COVID-19 pandemic's impact on college students is unprecedented. College students are a priority population for health promotion and disease prevention [ 1 ], and universities are unique settings that can affect the health of a larger segment of the population. College campuses are densely populated, with students living in close proximity to others; this means that college students can efficiently transmit communicable diseases (such as influenza, or COVID-19), creating hot zones for transmission [ 2 ].

To the best of our knowledge, we conducted one of the first national surveys to learn what full-time college students' COVID-19–related experiences in the United States of America (USA) were in spring 2020, during the USA's first peak of COVID-19 and when colleges and universities transitioned to remote learning [ 3 ]. This study offers insight into college students' health (e.g., COVID-19 symptoms), psychosocial, and economic experiences, as well as their perspectives on COVID-19, that can inform the COVID-19 approaches of public health officials, policy makers, and higher education leaders.

Study sample

We recruited via Instagram to create a sample of full-time college students aged 18–22 years (mean age: 20.0 years, standard deviation: 1.3) from across the USA. Although internet access disparities have historically been a concern when recruiting internet-based samples [ 4 ], being a full-time college student in April 2020 required some internet access, owing to remote learning. Recruitment and enrollment outcomes from previous research indicate that Instagram is an effective strategy to reach diverse youth, given the ability to target ads based on user data and the pervasiveness of social media [ 5 , 6 ]. In fall 2019, more than 80% of college students used Instagram, their most preferred social media platform [ 7 ]; as digital activity has increased during the pandemic [ 8 ], this proportion is now likely even higher.

Instagram promotions are regular posts (i.e., a photo or video with caption and hashtags) that are typically used to increase brand awareness (e.g., likes, views, shares) and/or sales (e.g., links to merchandise on a website) among a targeted audience. We used Instagram promotions to advertise this study using our Instagram Business Profile account (@3dyouthresearch), which operates via Facebook Ad Manager. We selected the number of days the promotion should run and the amount of money to spend per day. We could also select a more targeted audience, including by age, gender, and location, as well as by “interests” (e.g., hobbies, events). Prices were based on cost per click and determined according to Instagram's internal algorithms, incorporating factors such as the selected audience and ad feedback.

We used four Instagram promotions over 5 days. Each promotion included either (a) the CDC image of the coronavirus [ 9 ] or (b) a photo of an empty classroom. Promotions used similar text (i.e., “College Students: Complete an online survey about your experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Earn a $10 gift card!”) and a similar set of hashtags (e.g., #covid_19, #earnmoneyfromhome, #campusclosed). The first two promotions (age target: 18–22 years; gender: male or female; geographic location: USA) ran from April 24 to 27, 2020, and each reached (i.e., was seen by) more than 12,800 people. We then created two additional promotions that reached more than 6,000 young adults (aged 18–22 years) in the USA, targeting specific geographic locations (e.g., cities with high proportions of people of color, rural states) and diverse colleges (e.g., names of Hispanic-serving institutions and historically black colleges and universities as “Interests”); one of these two promotions specifically targeted men because women are more likely to participate in survey research [ 10 ]. We spent $150 on the first round of promotions (April 25–27, 2020) and an additional $119 on the second round of promotions (April 28–29, 2020, which was cut short given that we reached capacity).

The four promotions were viewed 41,101 times (because views were summed across ads, some people may have viewed more than one promotion), and 2,887 individuals clicked on the link to the screening questionnaire. Of those, 1,590 nonduplicated individuals started the screening questionnaire (which determined status as a full-time USA college student aged 18–22 years), which was 55.1% of those who viewed the screening questionnaire; and 1,331 nonduplicated individuals completed the screening questionnaire (83.7% of those who started the screening questionnaire). Most (n = 1,225, 92.0%) qualified for the study and provided informed consent. To further confirm current college student status, participants provided a .edu email address in the screening questionnaire, to which we sent a link to the full survey. Participants completed the survey via Qualtrics until we reached maximum capacity (n = 725); the median time to complete the survey was 34.5 minutes (interquartile range: 26.6–47.4 minutes). All participants received a $10 Amazon.com gift card within three business days of survey completion; we had a maximum capacity of 725 participants owing to the funds available for incentives. Data collection occurred from April 25, 2020, to April 30, 2020; we prioritized completing data collection before any reopening began (some locations in the USA began to reopen on May 1, 2020).

The study was approved by the Fordham University Institutional Review Board.

Survey measures

We designed most of the survey measures ( Appendix Table 1 ); we also used items from the Stop AAPI Hate Survey [ 11 ] to measure discrimination.

Data analyses

Descriptive statistics and chi-square tests were calculated in Stata (StataCorp, College Station, TX), version 16.1. Confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated using http://vassarstats.net/prop1.html .

Our study sample (n = 725) included a relatively even distribution of students by year in school and had racial/ethnic, gender, sexual orientation, political affiliation, and socioeconomic position diversity ( Table 1 ). Participants came from all 50 USA states and Washington DC. Our study was not as diverse as the national full-time college student population [ 12 , 13 ]; this may be because we restricted our sample to full-time college students aged 18–22 years.

Table 1

Study sample demographic characteristics (n = 725)

Race/ethnicity proportions add up to more than 100% because participants could select all categories with which they identified. For the national data, 3.7% of all full-time college students in the U.S. identified two or more races.

The family household income comparison data were only available for students who are dependents of their families, whereas our data include both students who were dependents and students who were financially independent.

National data on full-time college students came from multiple sources. College year, race/ethnicity, gender, immigration status, financial aid, family income, first-generation status, and financial independence data were from the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey and the 2015–16 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study. Sexual orientation data were from the National Survey of Student Engagement (2017). Political party data came from the 2018 Survey of America's College Students, Panetta Institute for Public Policy.

COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019.

In late April 2020, most participants were living with at least one parent (e.g., 73.4% (95% CI: 70.1%–76.5%), living with their mother(s) and/or step-mother(s)) ( Appendix Table 2 ). On average, participants lived with 2.9 other people. Seventeen percent (95% CI: 13.8%–20.7%) of those living with siblings and/or cousins were providing childcare and/or schooling assistance for any younger children in their household, but this varied by gender: 22.2% (95% CI: 9.0%–45.2%) of nonbinary, genderqueer, and transgender participants (n = 18), 19.6% (95% CI: 15.4%–24.6%) of female participants (n = 281), and only 11.7% (95% CI: 7.5%–17.7%) of male participants (n = 154) provided such care ( p -value for chi-square test of female and gender minority participants vs. males = .03).

For many, their current living arrangements differed from their typical college housing. Because the 2020 Census was also unfolding during spring 2020, we asked participants if they knew if they were counted in the 2020 Census; 67.7% (95% CI: 64.2%–71.0%) said yes, 26.3% (95% CI: 23.3%–29.7%) did not know, and 6% (95% CI: 4.4%–7.9%) said no. The 491 who said yes were counted a total of 534 times. The most common overlaps were being counted both at their college dorm and their family's household (n = 31) and at both an off-campus residence and family household (n = 10).

COVID-19 health experiences

Symptoms and testing.

More than one-third of participants (35.3%, 95% CI: 31.9%–38.9%) experienced COVID-19–related symptoms (as established by the CDC [ 14 ] and/or emerging research) since February 2020. Among those who experienced any symptoms (n = 256), 4.7% (95% CI: 2.7%–8.0%) got tested for COVID-19, 9.8% (95% CI: 6.7%–14.0%) attempted to get tested but were not successful and 85.6% (95% CI: 80.1%–89.3%) did not attempt to get tested. Of the 12 people who experienced symptoms and got tested, two tested positive, nine tested negative, and one did not yet have results. (Among those who did not experience any symptoms (n = 469), .9% (95% CI: .3%–2.2%) were tested for COVID-19, .6% (95% CI: .02%–1.9%) attempted to get tested but were not tested, and 98.5% (95% CI: 97.0%–99.3%) did not attempt to get tested. Of the four people who did not have symptoms but got tested for COVID-19, one tested positive, two tested negative, and one did not yet have results.)

Behaviors when symptomatic

Among those who had any symptoms (n = 256), 46.9% (95% CI: 40.9%–53.0%) stayed at home exclusively while they had symptoms ( Table 2 ). An additional 35.5% (95% CI: 29.9%–41.2%) stayed at home more than usual (but not exclusively). Nevertheless, many were still in public: 30.1% (95% CI: 24.8%–36.0%) reported attending class, 14.5% (95% CI: 10.7%–19.3%) went to work, and 13.7% (95% CI: 10.0%–18.4%) attended social gatherings. Only 16.4% (95% CI: 12.4%–21.4%) sought health care (remotely and/or in person).

Table 2

Activities of participants who had any COVID-19–related symptoms (n = 256) while experiencing symptoms

Opportunities for COVID-19 transmission

Social contact.

Participants attended a variety of in-person social gatherings of different sizes since March 1, 2020 ( Table 3 ). For most group categories (250+, 50–249, 10–49 people), academic programming was the most common type of gathering (e.g., 47.5% (95% CI: 40.4%–54.8%) of the 181 ≥ 250-person gatherings). For gatherings of 2–9 people (not including people from the participant's household), social events were the most common activity.

Table 3

Attendance at in-person social gatherings since March 1, 2020

Almost two-thirds of participants (62.8%, 95% CI: 59.2%–66.2%) traveled ≥50 miles at least once in March 2020, for a total of 531 trips ( Appendix Table 3 ). In comparison, only 15.2% (95% CI: 12.7%–18.0%) of participants traveled ≥50 miles at least once in April 2020, for a total of 108 trips. In both March and April 2020, the majority of these trips were by car: 65.0% (95% CI: 60.8%–68.9%) of trips in March and 89.8% (95% CI: 82.7%–94.2%) of trips in April.

Approximately three-quarters (77.2%, 95% CI: 74.1%–80.1%) of participants reported behaviors in compliance with CDC-recommended social distancing (i.e., 6 feet away from anyone outside your household) over the last 4 weeks (effectively, April 2020) ( Table 4 ). Notably, 25.0% (95% CI: 22.0%–28.3%) reported being within 6 feet of family and friends for whom they were not providing care. Participants also estimated the number of people of whom they had been within 6 feet across different categories and had the most uncertainty for the number of essential workers to whom they were exposed. Only 4.3% (95% CI: 3.0%–6.0%) of participants were in close contact with people they knew to have COVID-19 symptoms.

Table 4

Physical distancing behaviors in April 2020

When calculating the number of contacts, if participants provided a range (e.g., 50–100), we took the midpoint (e.g., 75); if participants only offered a lower range (e.g., “20+”), we used the lower range number (e.g., 20). If participants did not offer a number (e.g., “unknown” or “a lot”), we did not include these responses, so these are underestimates.

We also asked about exposure to prepared food obtained, by themselves and/or members of their household, via pickup or delivery. In the last 4 weeks, more than half of participants (54.8%, 95% CI: 51.1%–58.4%) reported that neither they nor any household members had food delivered, 29.0% (95% CI: 25.8%–32.4%) had delivery 1–3 times, and 16.3% (95% CI: 13.8%–19.1%) had delivery at least once per week. Pickup was more common: in the last 4 weeks, 22.8% (95% CI: 19.9%–25.6%) never picked up food, 45.8% (95% CI: 42.2%–49.4%) collected pickup 1–3 times, and 31.4% (95% CI: 28.2%–34.9%) collected pickup at least once per week.

Hygiene behaviors

Participants generally followed public health guidance when the survey was conducted, but incompletely ( Appendix Table 4 ). For example, more than three-quarters of people reported never coughing or sneezing into their hands or without covering their mouth at all, and almost half reported never touching their eyes, nose, and/or mouth without first washing their hands when outside their home. Approximately half (50.8%, 95% CI: 47.1%–54.4%) always wore a face mask or covering in public. However, while 72.5% (95% CI: 69.2%–75.7%) reported always washing their hands for the recommended duration of ≥20 seconds and/or using hand sanitizer that is ≥60% alcohol after being in a public place, only 37.6% (95% CI: 34.2%–41.2%) always do so after blowing their nose, and only 31.3% (95% CI: 28.0%–34.8%) always do so after coughing or sneezing.

Sheltering in place

Almost all (94.8%, 95% CI: 92.9%–96.2%) participants had sheltered in place or stayed at home (leaving only for essential services, essential work, and/or exercise) in spring 2020. Among those who had sheltered in place at any time (n = 687), 98.3% (95% CI: 97.0%–99.0%) were currently doing so when they completed the survey. Of the 1.8% (95% CI: 1.0%–3.0%) who had stopped sheltering in place, approximately half had stopped in the first half of April and the rest had stopped in the second half of April.

More than half of participants (53.1%, 95% CI: 49.5%–56.7%) started sheltering in place before any state had an official stay-at-home order (California was the first, on March 19), and more than one-third started sheltering in place before any region had an official stay-at-home order (the San Francisco Bay Area was the first, on March 17) ( Table 5 ). Most participants (81.1%, 95% CI: 78.1%–83.8%) last ate at a dine-in setting before any municipality or state had an official stay-at-home order (before March 17).

Table 5

Timing of sheltering in place and eating in dine-in settings (n = 725)

Psychosocial and economic experiences

Perceived impact.

Participants who received financial aid for college were more concerned about COVID-19's economic (chi-square test p -value = .01) and emotional (chi-square test p -value = .01) impacts on their lives than those who did not receive financial aid, but the daily responsibility impacts were relatively similar (chi-square test p -value = .25) ( Appendix Table 5 ). Less than one-quarter of participants (24.2% [95% CI: 20.7%–28.2%] of those receiving financial aid [n = 495] and 21.7% [95% CI: 16.9%–27.5%] of those not receiving financial aid [n = 230]) reported that COVID-19 had changed their postcollege career plans.

Level of stress

More than one-third of the sample agreed (9.8%, 95% CI: 7.8%–12.2%) or somewhat agreed (29.2%, 95% CI: 26.1%–32.7%) with the statement, “I am so anxious about COVID-19 that I can't pay attention to anything else.” We also asked participants about their level of stress regarding COVID-19's health, educational, and economic implications, for themselves, their families, and American society ( Appendix Table 6 ). Participants were much more concerned about COVID-19's health implications for their families and for American society than themselves, but much more concerned about COVID-19's educational implications for themselves than for their families (and slightly more concerned about themselves than American society). They were most concerned about COVID-19's economic implications for American society, then their families, and then themselves.

Most participants (61.7%, 95% CI: 58.1%–65.1%) were employed in February 2020, but only 32.4% (95% CI: 29.1%–35.9%) were currently employed (i.e., in late April 2020). More than half (52.6%, 95% CI: 47.9%–57.2%) of those employed in February 2020 (n = 447) were no longer employed in late April 2020%; 8.3% (95% CI: 5.6%–12.1%) of those who were not employed in February 2020 (n = 278) were employed in late April 2020 (some participants mentioned, for example, taking on gig work as a food delivery driver). Among those who were employed in both February 2020 and late April 2020 (n = 212), 44.8% (95% CI: 38.3%–51.5%) had had their take-home pay decreased owing to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Discrimination

Relatively few (9.2%, 95% CI: 7.3%–11.6%) reported experiencing discrimination related to the coronavirus outbreak. Most of the people who reported experiencing discrimination (n = 67) were Asian or Asian-American (65.7%; 95% CI: 53.7%–75.9%). Of the people who experienced discrimination (n = 67), 62.7% (95% CI: 50.7%–73.3%) suspected it was because of their race/ethnicity, 16.4% (95% CI: 9.4%–27.1%) suspected it was because of their face mask or clothing, and the rest suspected it was because of gender, language, religion, food, or something else.

Perspectives about COVID-19

Participants were very open to continuing current restrictions (i.e., restrictions as of April 25–30, 2020) to reduce pandemic spread. Only 2.3% (95% CI: 1.5%–3.7%) wanted the current restrictions to be lifted immediately. Approximately one-third (36.5%, 95% CI: 33.0%–40.0%) thought the restrictions should be lifted in the next month, 23.6% (95% CI: 20.6%–26.8%) thought the restrictions should be lifted in 1–2 months, 9.9% (95% CI: 8.0%–12.3%) thought the restrictions should be lifted in >2 months, and 27.7% (95% CI: 24.6%–31.1%) thought the restrictions should be lifted only once a vaccine or treatment became available.

Participants had more trust in more local levels of government (i.e., state more than federal, local more than state) for doing everything possible to prevent the spread of COVID-19 and providing trustworthy information about COVID-19 ( Appendix Table 7 ). Nevertheless, for each level of government, a relatively small proportion of participants had complete trust.

Participants also expressed some optimism ( Appendix Figure 1 ). More than three-quarters (78.9%, 95% CI: 75.8%–81.7%) were inspired by seeing how other people are working hard to respond to this crisis, and almost half (49.5%, 95% CI: 45.9%–53.2%) agreed that we are all in this together and feel more connected to the rest of the country. They also noted the power of politicians, with 89.5% (95% CI: 87.1%–91.6%) noticing how consequential political leaders' decisions are for people's everyday life through this pandemic. They also saw the helpful things that young people like them could do for their communities in times like this (73.3% [95% CI: 70.0%–76.3%] agreed).

This is one of the first national studies of full-time college students in the COVID-19 era and provides an important first look at diverse young adult (aged 18–22 years) college students' COVID-19–related experiences and perspectives.

Public health implications

We found that a low proportion of college students with COVID-19 symptoms got tested and that less than half of those with symptoms stayed at home exclusively while symptomatic. Furthermore, students' hygiene behaviors in April 2020 suggest they are protecting themselves (e.g., washing their hands) but could do more to prevent transmission to others (e.g., wearing a mask). Returning to extensive in-person academic instruction will require widespread testing and contact tracing [ 15 ]. However, contact tracing among college students will be challenging and require creative solutions because students participate in a myriad of activities with many different people and participants struggled to recall the number of the people with whom they had close contact (within 6 feet).

Because many participants restricted their behaviors before official stay-at-home orders went into effect, they may continue to do so after stay-at-home orders are lifted per their own risk calculations. For example, more than one-quarter thought that the restrictions in place in late April 2020 (i.e., stay at home/shelter in place almost everywhere in the USA) should be maintained until a vaccine or treatment becomes available. This suggests that some students may not return to campus in person, if a vaccine or treatment is not yet available. In addition, because more than half of participants expressed high stress regarding their family's health, students may opt to stay on campus during some of the shorter breaks, rather than risk bringing COVID-19 home.

College students' behaviors changed rapidly this spring, leading to increased isolation from their established social and academic communities, and all domains of their lives were affected, including economically. We found that many participants were stressed owing to COVID-19. It will be essential to monitor the mental health sequelae of COVID-19.

Social implications

As unemployment skyrockets nationwide, college students are also affected: most of those employed in February 2020 were no longer employed in April 2020, and among those still employed, almost half were earning less. We anticipate that college student unemployment will increase further in the summer and also into the next academic year if fewer campus jobs exist. In addition, college students' educational and career plans may shift. Given the finding that students were largely inspired by others (including young people) who are working hard during the crisis, they may be inspired to join public service efforts for public health that others have recommended creating [ 16 ].

While relatively few participants reported experiencing discrimination related to COVID-19, most of the students who were discriminated against were Asian or Asian-American. As the COVID-19 pandemic continues, and as antiracism movements expand in response to George Floyd's death, it will be important to continue to monitor changes in racist attitudes, perceived discrimination, and who experiences discrimination.

We also note that the 2020 U.S. Census may overcount college students. We found that students who knew that they were counted reported being counted more than once, on average. This is likely because many college students had left campus by Census Day (April 1, 2020), but colleges still sent counts of students in dorms earlier that spring to the Census [ 17 ]. However, undercounts are also plausible, particularly for less privileged college students who may have been transient as they were determining a noncollege residence. This must be examined further to inform how 2020 U.S. Census data are used for resource allocation.

Limitations

We also note important limitations of this study. First, our survey population was more advantaged than all full-time college students. This may be because we used Instagram to recruit participants. It is possible that some of the most disadvantaged college students had very limited access to internet for their schoolwork and could not afford to use any of their internet bandwidth toward using Instagram or participating in our survey. Second, we restricted our sample to only full-time college students. Part-time college students may be even more negatively affected by COVID-19 because they are more likely to have had more COVID-19–related disruptions that increased financial and familial responsibilities; we encourage future researchers to specifically study this population. Third, owing to the breadth of topics covered, we did not measure all topics deeply. For example, we encourage future researchers to more comprehensively explore college students' employment patterns (including why students lost jobs), into summer 2020 (given emerging anecdotal reports of summer employment opportunities being lost) and the subsequent academic year.

In conclusion, the public health, economic, and educational implications of COVID-19 are continuing to unfold, in a rapidly changing world. COVID-19's impacts are occurring inequitably; we encourage future researchers to look at these outcomes by social factors. We encourage government leaders and leaders of institutions of higher education to use these findings to inform their planning for supporting college students in the COVID-19 era.

Conflicts of interest: The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Disclaimer: Study funders had no role in study design; data collection, interpretation, or analysis; writing the report; or the decision to submit this manuscript for publication. A.K.C. and L.T.H. wrote the first draft of the manuscript; no funding was provided to the authors or anyone else to produce the manuscript.

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.06.009 .

Funding Sources

This research was supported by the University of San Francisco Jesuit Foundation, Fordham University's Office of Research, and University of San Francisco Faculty Development Funds. We would like to thank all of the students who participated in this study during an especially chaotic time. Finally, we thank Jane Hoffman Till for providing instrumental support to Hoyt's family so she could work on this study while daycare centers were closed owing to COVID-19.

Supplementary Data

Descriptive Research and

Ai generator.

Do you ever just look at your surroundings and notice all its little details. The way sunlight reflects on a car windshield or how kids would behave when their parents buy them ice cream. Many fascinating things are happening in the world, and sometimes the only thing we can do is observe and describe what’s happening. The very act of describing something can mean a great deal to many people. Imagine telling a blind person what the outside world looks like. That’s how important your descriptions and observations can be. Every movement, every color, every reaction, all of that is essential.

The basic act of describing something is considered a data-gathering method. To be more accurate, this is called descriptive research. This research is a method of identifying the characteristics of a variable. This study points out what makes the object or phenomenon. It generally just collects data without involving other stimuli. It is used to guide researchers in categorizing their subjects to their respective classification. If your research is done as a team, you need to figure out who your fellow researchers are and how they aid your study. What you need is a descriptive research organizational chart .

The process of pointing out and recording features, behaviors, and other various characteristics of a variable or demographic is called descriptive research. It is basically like how it sounds; it describes the respondents of the study. There are three main methods for descriptive analysis.

• Observation – this method gathers data by observing the variables in their natural environment. This method is considered the most effective since it doesn’t rely on the honesty and accuracy of the respondent.
• Case-Study – for in-depth research, this method is the most reliable. This method studies the unusual behaviors of a variable and often lead to new hypotheses and further analysis.
• Survey – to figure out the patterns, frequencies, averages, this research methodology is used. This requires respondents to answer questionnaires truthfully and open-mindedly.

10+ Descriptive Research Examples and Templates

An organizational chart is a structure that organizes the hierarchy of a party. Just like in a descriptive research design, this determines and categorizes the chain of command in making decisions for the study and the group. If your project plan involves making one for your research team, here are 10+ descriptive research examples and templates you can use.

1. Project Organizational Chart Template

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Size: A4 & US Letter Sizes

2. School Organizational Chart Template

3. Educational Organizational Chart Template

4. Company Organizational Chart Template

5. Department Organizational Chart Template

6. Free Clinical Research Organizational Chart Template

7. Free Research Team Organizational Chart Template

8. Free Research Division Organizational Chart Template

9. Free Research Center Organizational Chart Template

10. Free Sample University Organizational Chart Template

11. Research and Graduate Studies Organizational Chart

Size: 5.8 MB

Make It Applicable

As part of our everyday lives, whether it’s for work or school, we are tasked to conduct research. Descriptive research is part of these. It details the features and attributes of the subject of the study. This research gathers quantitative and qualitative information using an observational approach. This helps researchers collect and select their needed information. Research is done with focus and accuracy to get desirable results. But have you ever wondered how descriptive study helps? Many reasons make descriptive research the go-to method for gathering data.

Define the Definite

Research teams have a lot of tasks in hand. Whether it’s surveys, questionnaires or analysis, they work to answer the questions we can’t figure out. And when they are conducting a descriptive study, it’s no wonder that they try to describe their respondent’s behaviors and responses to a tee. The information they collect are used to make further analysis. Defining something might not seem like a hard task, but any misinterpretation of the response can mess up the entirety of the research. The primary function of a descriptive study is to understand and analyze the characteristics of a given variable.

Trends of Today

There are various reasons for data collection, like exploratory research that aims to formulate ideas for a more intense examination of descriptive analysis that studies the characteristics of a subject as it is. Descriptive analysis also measures the trends and patterns in the given information. In market research , this is used to see if your target market is still desirable over time. You will need a descriptive analysis to see if your product can keep up with the ever-changing trends and patterns of market preference. This also means you can study the trends and diagrams to make business forecasting for your company.

Comparing Apples and Oranges

In the corporate world, you need to distinguish who your clients are and what kind of product or service you can offer them. What your company needs to do is descriptive research. Descriptive research can lead to creating efficient marketing strategies for your company. This method helps in conducting comparisons on which target market is more suitable for your products. This kind of analysis observes phenomenons, and the data gathered can then be used to see which variables fit what you are actually looking for.

Keep It Legit

Clinical research can refer to psychological or any related medical research. Clinical research often uses descriptive analysis as a method of classifying diseases, medicines, and more. The descriptive study doesn’t involve any forced elements making for authentic and reliable results. This research validates the conditions that are already noted. This research is relatively easy to conduct, so redoing it doesn’t take much effort. By utilizing the same situations, variables, and environments, you can present the same results to prove its validity. So in medicine, this helps researchers find causes and cures for similar diseases.

Time and Time Again

Sometimes for research project management , an investigation has to be done twice. Whether it’s to see if the results were valid, if changes occur after a certain period, or if other similar variables produce close results. A primary research approach is a descriptive study. This type of study focuses on the features of a subject without adding external factors. Saying this, repetition of the research wouldn’t be a problem since all it takes is observing. Descriptive research strategies are so uncomplicated; this research method can be done for your thesis to complete your investigation.

The way we see things is the first step to understanding what it is. The way birds fly or the sound crickets make, they all guide us in knowing the deeper meaning of its existence. Sometimes you just have to look hard and listen carefully. But don’t get too confident; there’s always more than meets the eye.

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• Professional

10 Examples of Public speaking

20 Examples of Gas lighting

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A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY ABOUT THE EFFECTIVENESS OF E -COMMERCE IN THE PHILIPPINES A Thesis Presented to Professor

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International Journal of Management

IAEME Publication

The advancement in the sector of Information technology along with other emerging technical aspects has taken to the emergence and expansion of global e-commerce worldwide which permits mankind to meet their requirements of some goods and obtains monetary means on the other hand for their livelihood by running such ventures. The research paper aims at the study of online buying habits and growing opportunities for students & professionals in the field of e-commerce, particularly for Management, Commerce, and other courses. Furthermore, general consumers' perceptions were also recorded. The financial and communal earnings from e-commerce which advance modernization, industry upgrading and financial growth are also broadly touched upon. In current years, e-commerce has grown exponentially that led to both developed and developing countries as an economic dynamic force. Owing to the rapid progress of the internet and the revolution of the smart phones, numerous "young" organizations have become nationwide market leaders and shifted into international trades. In terms of public legality, the organization may develop its niche in the market and then expand it to the conventional market. The exceptional growth in the organization's use of the internet for trade transactions has developed the emergence of business to business e-commerce, wherein, lots of buying and selling organizations access a specified website to manage their firms. Own-monitored online assessment was done and different Effects of E-Commerce in the Current Scenario of Marketing http://www.iaeme.com/IJM/index.asp 771 [email protected] responses were accumulated. Results depict that respondents buy online frequently clothes, shoes, cosmetics, electronics and pay generally by debit or credit cards; the major reasons for this kind of shopping are lower price and unavailability of the goods, lack of quality assurance and lack of varieties at the traditional markets. But, seeing the present conditions of online-marketing during covid-19, it has somehow raised an alarming situation for the online ventures in terms of delivery with safety and hygiene.

A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY ABOUT THE EFFECTIVENESS OF E -COMMERCE IN THE PHILIPPINES

Jana Abeabe

Name: Abeabe, Patricia Jana J. Maro, Mariel Margaret G. Ramos, Rochel Crs&Sec: BTM13 Subject: Mga Babasahin Hinggil sa Kasaysayan ng Pilipinas (G-SOSC001) Professor: Sir Jumel G. Estrañero University: De La Salle University Dasmariñas

Transstellar Journals

TJPRC Publication

The novel Corona Virus spreads primarily through contact with an infected person or when a person comes in contact with a surface that has the virus on it, the best way to protect one against it is to stay at home. This has hiked the global usage of online shopping. The outbreak has infected masses and is known to have changed people's shopping habits as they are afraid to shop outdoors. E-commerce is the concept of doing business online with the help of the internet and is a term inclusive and broader than 'online shopping'. E-commerce has experienced rapid growth since the humble, despite the sudden beginning of the lockdown imposed due to the pandemic. The study aims espiteon the e-commerce industry boost during COVID-19 pandemic. The main concern of the government is to reduce the impact of COVID-19 by imposing restrictions on the movement of people and hence to break the covid infection chain. This led to a manifold increase in the usage of internet facilities, be it in the field of teaching, grocery shopping, and entertainment. The people who did not prefer shopping online were left with no choice but to avail themselves e-commerce facilities. This was one of the main reasons the E-commerce industry witnessed rapid growth. The rising number of COVID-19 cases led to panic amongst the people to go the hospitals and therefore they preferred taking consultations from the doctors virtually, which was a new concept and a contributor to the growth of the e-commerce industry. The online food industry was another notable sphere, since, this sector comes under the category of essentials, it worked 24x7 and helped people to get food even during the peak of the COVID-19 crisis. Many NGOs joined hands with online service providers to cater to the masses. One of the many advantages of this industry's growth is that it has led to the quality of lifestyle, as people can avail themselves services at their doorstep.

siddharth garaniya

"Over last few years the popularity of e-commerce has enormously increased due to its quick and easy way of exchanging goods and global services. India will be booming ground for e-commerce business models. The present study is conceptual and descriptive nature. It attempts to explain the concept of ecommerce, business models for e-commerce, merits and limitations of e-commerce. It concludes that e-commerce offers several benefits to the various stakeholders. However, at present time it has several limitations, legal and technical barriers in the development of e-commerce in India which could fade away in years to come. Hence we should equip ourselves to give worm welcome to e-commerce which is an obvious outcome of globalization and technological revolution around the globe. Ms. Ayushi Y. Vadwala | Ms. Maitri S. Vadwala""E-Commerce: Merits and Demerits A Review Paper"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-4 , June 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd106.pdf Article URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/computer-engineering/106/e-commerce-merits-and-demerits-a-review-paper/ms-ayushi-y-vadwala"

Management & Marketing. Challenges for the Knowledge Society

DANIELA- IOANA MANEA

As COVID-19 had been posing unprecedented challenges, the economic agents as well as the individuals had to adapt to a new lifestyle. The preventing measures against the spread of the virus determined an increase in e-commerce activity in general, and in mobile commerce in particular. In this regard, sellers redefined their strategies revolving around smartphone applications for online shopping, which will gradually become the global shopping standard. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to evaluate the current situation of e-commerce, focusing on the main transformations since the beginning of the pandemic. The methods used in the paper consist in both qualitative research of the literature regarding e-commerce and a quantitative analysis that captures two aspects: on one hand it highlights the change determined by the pandemic in online commerce, and on the other hand it shows an X-ray of the EU states positioning in terms of e-commerce evolution. The latter consists in a comparat...

JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT AND COMPETITIVENESS (JEMC) Volume 12, Number 1, 2022, ISSN 2217-8147 (Online)

Iva Bubanja

The COVID-19 pandemic has widespread and long-lasting implications for the global economy causing general economic stagnation and crisis. Different industries and sectors strive to maintain the functioning of their business and stimulate companies to increasingly rely on the potential and power of digital technologies and network communications. In the trade sector, there was raising awareness about the importance of digitization and leveraging digital commerce as a strategic investment and competitive advantage. More and more trade companies started looking at digital channels not as an addition to their physical location but as a strategic source of long-term, sustained growth, which proved to be a significant boost for e-commerce all over the world. In this paper, B2B and B2C e-commerce segments are analyzed including current trends and dynamics, management of new business models, and expected implications of the latest digital technology innovations. Investments in new digital technologies tools and solutions in e-commerce had been driven by the need for frictionless shopping, personalization, and improved operational efficiency required by new-age customers. Experiences of the Serbian economy in e-commerce transactions are analyzed as well. Key words: E-commerce; Digitalization; Innovation; Competitiveness.

International Journal of Scientific Research in Science and Technology

International Journal of Scientific Research in Science and Technology IJSRST

In this research article the researcher emphasized that significant role and impact of E-commerce in Business Industries. The researcher focused on analysis of significant factors of E-commerce, positive and genitive impact of E-commerce, and challenges of E-Commerce in Business Industries. The researcher defines the dimension of E-commerce with respect to business to business (B2B) and business to consumer (B2C) towards the changing way of doing business on the web in Business Industries. The main objectives of this research article is to focus on the primary route by which e-commerce will affect the economy at large is through its impact on productivity and inflation. Businesses and consumers that use E-commerce benefit from a reduction in costs in terms of the time and effort required to search for goods and services and to complete transactions of business activities which are carried out electronically on the Internet rather than at a physical location.

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management

Paul Lapoule

Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Technolgoical innovation has covered all aspects of business all over the world. With growing pace of digitalisation all over the globe, e-commerce has become one of the popular platforms for initiating business transactions. COVID-19 has showed the dependence of the society on this medium for the convenient allocation of goods and services and meeting up of consumer demands. Saudi Arabia has also witnessed a high demand in the usage of this platform to meet the daily usage necessity. In order to get insight into the topic, qualitative research has been undertaken. The study aims to investigate the increased use of e-commerce during COVID-19. The data required for the analysis has been collected from secondary sources such as web journals and research work. The finding of the qualitative analysis exhibited that the e-commerce has increased rapidly during COVID-19 time. The outcomes of the present study are helpful for the vendors to facilitate the consumers by increasing the opportu...

International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET)

IJRASET Publication

The Covid-19 pandemic is the greatest global humanitarian challenge the world has faced. The coronavirus profoundly transformed the global trends. These variations causative to the high adventitious and secondary funds that reflected for this virus. The purpose of this conceptual paper is to discuss the e-commerce trends predicament as well as how imminent progress in this have affected the consumer behaviour post pandemic.E-commerce has grown exponentially putting a strain on traditional brick and mortar stores. In today's era it's time to amplify our digital presence. This article will outline the impact of Covid-19 on e-commerce; how it has changed the key takeaway's and trends to keep in mind when trying to form a digital business strategies that will appeal to post Covid consumers. Although the pandemic densely impacted economic activities and let to complete shutdown of some sectors it definitively helped in the surge of e-commerce and increased the use of digital transactions. This paper is made with an attempt to highlight, analyse and understand the Covid impact on the e-commerce as a whole .

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