case study library science

An integrated method for interdisciplinary topic identification and prediction: a case study on information science and library science

Published: 02 March 2018
Volume 115 , pages 849–868, ( 2018 )

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Kun Dong 1 , 2 ,
Haiyun Xu ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7453-3331 1 ,
Rui Luo 1 , 2 ,
Ling Wei 1 , 2 &
Shu Fang 1

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Given that many frontiers and hotspots of science and technology are emerging from interdisciplines, the accurate identification and forecasting of interdisciplinary topics has become increasingly significant. Existing methods of interdisciplinary topic identification have their respective application fields, and each identification result can help researchers acquire partial characteristics of interdisciplinary topics. This paper offers an integrated method for identifying and predicting interdisciplinary topics from scientific literature. It integrates various methods, including co-occurrence networks analysis, high-TI terms analysis and burst detection, and offers an overall perspective into interdisciplinary topic identification. The results of the different methods are mutually confirmed and complemented, further overviewing the characteristics of the interdisciplinary field and highlighting the importance or potential of interdisciplinary topics. In this study, Information Science and Library Science is selected as a case study. The research has clearly shown that more accurate and comprehensive results can be achieved for interdisciplinary topic identification and prediction by employing this integrated method. Further, the integration of different methods has promising potential for application in knowledge discovery and scientific measurement in the future.

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Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 71704170), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation funded Project (2016M590124), the Youth Innovation Fund of Promotion Association, CAS (2016159) and Informationization Initiative of Chinese Academy of Sciences (XXH13506-203).

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Dong, K., Xu, H., Luo, R. et al. An integrated method for interdisciplinary topic identification and prediction: a case study on information science and library science. Scientometrics 115 , 849–868 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-018-2694-x

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Designing and Conducting Case Studies

This guide examines case studies, a form of qualitative descriptive research that is used to look at individuals, a small group of participants, or a group as a whole. Researchers collect data about participants using participant and direct observations, interviews, protocols, tests, examinations of records, and collections of writing samples. Starting with a definition of the case study, the guide moves to a brief history of this research method. Using several well documented case studies, the guide then looks at applications and methods including data collection and analysis. A discussion of ways to handle validity, reliability, and generalizability follows, with special attention to case studies as they are applied to composition studies. Finally, this guide examines the strengths and weaknesses of case studies.

Definition and Overview

Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context. Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on exploration and description.

Case studies typically examine the interplay of all variables in order to provide as complete an understanding of an event or situation as possible. This type of comprehensive understanding is arrived at through a process known as thick description, which involves an in-depth description of the entity being evaluated, the circumstances under which it is used, the characteristics of the people involved in it, and the nature of the community in which it is located. Thick description also involves interpreting the meaning of demographic and descriptive data such as cultural norms and mores, community values, ingrained attitudes, and motives.

Unlike quantitative methods of research, like the survey, which focus on the questions of who, what, where, how much, and how many, and archival analysis, which often situates the participant in some form of historical context, case studies are the preferred strategy when how or why questions are asked. Likewise, they are the preferred method when the researcher has little control over the events, and when there is a contemporary focus within a real life context. In addition, unlike more specifically directed experiments, case studies require a problem that seeks a holistic understanding of the event or situation in question using inductive logic--reasoning from specific to more general terms.

In scholarly circles, case studies are frequently discussed within the context of qualitative research and naturalistic inquiry. Case studies are often referred to interchangeably with ethnography, field study, and participant observation. The underlying philosophical assumptions in the case are similar to these types of qualitative research because each takes place in a natural setting (such as a classroom, neighborhood, or private home), and strives for a more holistic interpretation of the event or situation under study.

Unlike more statistically-based studies which search for quantifiable data, the goal of a case study is to offer new variables and questions for further research. F.H. Giddings, a sociologist in the early part of the century, compares statistical methods to the case study on the basis that the former are concerned with the distribution of a particular trait, or a small number of traits, in a population, whereas the case study is concerned with the whole variety of traits to be found in a particular instance" (Hammersley 95).

Case studies are not a new form of research; naturalistic inquiry was the primary research tool until the development of the scientific method. The fields of sociology and anthropology are credited with the primary shaping of the concept as we know it today. However, case study research has drawn from a number of other areas as well: the clinical methods of doctors; the casework technique being developed by social workers; the methods of historians and anthropologists, plus the qualitative descriptions provided by quantitative researchers like LePlay; and, in the case of Robert Park, the techniques of newspaper reporters and novelists.

Park was an ex-newspaper reporter and editor who became very influential in developing sociological case studies at the University of Chicago in the 1920s. As a newspaper professional he coined the term "scientific" or "depth" reporting: the description of local events in a way that pointed to major social trends. Park viewed the sociologist as "merely a more accurate, responsible, and scientific reporter." Park stressed the variety and value of human experience. He believed that sociology sought to arrive at natural, but fluid, laws and generalizations in regard to human nature and society. These laws weren't static laws of the kind sought by many positivists and natural law theorists, but rather, they were laws of becoming--with a constant possibility of change. Park encouraged students to get out of the library, to quit looking at papers and books, and to view the constant experiment of human experience. He writes, "Go and sit in the lounges of the luxury hotels and on the doorsteps of the flophouses; sit on the Gold Coast settees and on the slum shakedowns; sit in the Orchestra Hall and in the Star and Garter Burlesque. In short, gentlemen [sic], go get the seats of your pants dirty in real research."

But over the years, case studies have drawn their share of criticism. In fact, the method had its detractors from the start. In the 1920s, the debate between pro-qualitative and pro-quantitative became quite heated. Case studies, when compared to statistics, were considered by many to be unscientific. From the 1930's on, the rise of positivism had a growing influence on quantitative methods in sociology. People wanted static, generalizable laws in science. The sociological positivists were looking for stable laws of social phenomena. They criticized case study research because it failed to provide evidence of inter subjective agreement. Also, they condemned it because of the few number of cases studied and that the under-standardized character of their descriptions made generalization impossible. By the 1950s, quantitative methods, in the form of survey research, had become the dominant sociological approach and case study had become a minority practice.

Educational Applications

The 1950's marked the dawning of a new era in case study research, namely that of the utilization of the case study as a teaching method. "Instituted at Harvard Business School in the 1950s as a primary method of teaching, cases have since been used in classrooms and lecture halls alike, either as part of a course of study or as the main focus of the course to which other teaching material is added" (Armisted 1984). The basic purpose of instituting the case method as a teaching strategy was "to transfer much of the responsibility for learning from the teacher on to the student, whose role, as a result, shifts away from passive absorption toward active construction" (Boehrer 1990). Through careful examination and discussion of various cases, "students learn to identify actual problems, to recognize key players and their agendas, and to become aware of those aspects of the situation that contribute to the problem" (Merseth 1991). In addition, students are encouraged to "generate their own analysis of the problems under consideration, to develop their own solutions, and to practically apply their own knowledge of theory to these problems" (Boyce 1993). Along the way, students also develop "the power to analyze and to master a tangled circumstance by identifying and delineating important factors; the ability to utilize ideas, to test them against facts, and to throw them into fresh combinations" (Merseth 1991).

In addition to the practical application and testing of scholarly knowledge, case discussions can also help students prepare for real-world problems, situations and crises by providing an approximation of various professional environments (i.e. classroom, board room, courtroom, or hospital). Thus, through the examination of specific cases, students are given the opportunity to work out their own professional issues through the trials, tribulations, experiences, and research findings of others. An obvious advantage to this mode of instruction is that it allows students the exposure to settings and contexts that they might not otherwise experience. For example, a student interested in studying the effects of poverty on minority secondary student's grade point averages and S.A.T. scores could access and analyze information from schools as geographically diverse as Los Angeles, New York City, Miami, and New Mexico without ever having to leave the classroom.

The case study method also incorporates the idea that students can learn from one another "by engaging with each other and with each other's ideas, by asserting something and then having it questioned, challenged and thrown back at them so that they can reflect on what they hear, and then refine what they say" (Boehrer 1990). In summary, students can direct their own learning by formulating questions and taking responsibility for the study.

Types and Design Concerns

Researchers use multiple methods and approaches to conduct case studies.

Types of Case Studies

Under the more generalized category of case study exist several subdivisions, each of which is custom selected for use depending upon the goals and/or objectives of the investigator. These types of case study include the following:

Illustrative Case Studies These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilize one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.

Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies These are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.

Cumulative Case Studies These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalization without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.

Critical Instance Case Studies These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalized or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.

Identifying a Theoretical Perspective

Much of the case study's design is inherently determined for researchers, depending on the field from which they are working. In composition studies, researchers are typically working from a qualitative, descriptive standpoint. In contrast, physicists will approach their research from a more quantitative perspective. Still, in designing the study, researchers need to make explicit the questions to be explored and the theoretical perspective from which they will approach the case. The three most commonly adopted theories are listed below:

Individual Theories These focus primarily on the individual development, cognitive behavior, personality, learning and disability, and interpersonal interactions of a particular subject.

Organizational Theories These focus on bureaucracies, institutions, organizational structure and functions, or excellence in organizational performance.

Social Theories These focus on urban development, group behavior, cultural institutions, or marketplace functions.

Two examples of case studies are used consistently throughout this chapter. The first, a study produced by Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988), looks at a first year graduate student's initiation into an academic writing program. The study uses participant-observer and linguistic data collecting techniques to assess the student's knowledge of appropriate discourse conventions. Using the pseudonym Nate to refer to the subject, the study sought to illuminate the particular experience rather than to generalize about the experience of fledgling academic writers collectively.

For example, in Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman's (1988) study we are told that the researchers are interested in disciplinary communities. In the first paragraph, they ask what constitutes membership in a disciplinary community and how achieving membership might affect a writer's understanding and production of texts. In the third paragraph they state that researchers must negotiate their claims "within the context of his sub specialty's accepted knowledge and methodology." In the next paragraph they ask, "How is literacy acquired? What is the process through which novices gain community membership? And what factors either aid or hinder students learning the requisite linguistic behaviors?" This introductory section ends with a paragraph in which the study's authors claim that during the course of the study, the subject, Nate, successfully makes the transition from "skilled novice" to become an initiated member of the academic discourse community and that his texts exhibit linguistic changes which indicate this transition. In the next section the authors make explicit the sociolinguistic theoretical and methodological assumptions on which the study is based (1988). Thus the reader has a good understanding of the authors' theoretical background and purpose in conducting the study even before it is explicitly stated on the fourth page of the study. "Our purpose was to examine the effects of the educational context on one graduate student's production of texts as he wrote in different courses and for different faculty members over the academic year 1984-85." The goal of the study then, was to explore the idea that writers must be initiated into a writing community, and that this initiation will change the way one writes.

The second example is Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of a group of twelfth graders. In this study, Emig seeks to answer the question of what happens to the self as a result educational stimuli in terms of academic writing. The case study used methods such as protocol analysis, tape-recorded interviews, and discourse analysis.

In the case of Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composing process of eight twelfth graders, four specific hypotheses were made:

Twelfth grade writers engage in two modes of composing: reflexive and extensive.
These differences can be ascertained and characterized through having the writers compose aloud their composition process.
A set of implied stylistic principles governs the writing process.
For twelfth grade writers, extensive writing occurs chiefly as a school-sponsored activity, or reflexive, as a self-sponsored activity.

In this study, the chief distinction is between the two dominant modes of composing among older, secondary school students. The distinctions are:

The reflexive mode, which focuses on the writer's thoughts and feelings.
The extensive mode, which focuses on conveying a message.

Emig also outlines the specific questions which guided the research in the opening pages of her Review of Literature , preceding the report.

Designing a Case Study

After considering the different sub categories of case study and identifying a theoretical perspective, researchers can begin to design their study. Research design is the string of logic that ultimately links the data to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study. Typically, research designs deal with at least four problems:

What questions to study
What data are relevant
What data to collect
How to analyze that data

In other words, a research design is basically a blueprint for getting from the beginning to the end of a study. The beginning is an initial set of questions to be answered, and the end is some set of conclusions about those questions.

Because case studies are conducted on topics as diverse as Anglo-Saxon Literature (Thrane 1986) and AIDS prevention (Van Vugt 1994), it is virtually impossible to outline any strict or universal method or design for conducting the case study. However, Robert K. Yin (1993) does offer five basic components of a research design:

A study's questions.
A study's propositions (if any).
A study's units of analysis.
The logic that links the data to the propositions.
The criteria for interpreting the findings.

In addition to these five basic components, Yin also stresses the importance of clearly articulating one's theoretical perspective, determining the goals of the study, selecting one's subject(s), selecting the appropriate method(s) of collecting data, and providing some considerations to the composition of the final report.

Conducting Case Studies

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of approaches and methods. These approaches, methods, and related issues are discussed in depth in this section.

Method: Single or Multi-modal?

To obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of methods. Some common methods include interviews , protocol analyses, field studies, and participant-observations. Emig (1971) chose to use several methods of data collection. Her sources included conversations with the students, protocol analysis, discrete observations of actual composition, writing samples from each student, and school records (Lauer and Asher 1988).

Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) collected data by observing classrooms, conducting faculty and student interviews, collecting self reports from the subject, and by looking at the subject's written work.

A study that was criticized for using a single method model was done by Flower and Hayes (1984). In this study that explores the ways in which writers use different forms of knowing to create space, the authors used only protocol analysis to gather data. The study came under heavy fire because of their decision to use only one method.

Participant Selection

Case studies can use one participant, or a small group of participants. However, it is important that the participant pool remain relatively small. The participants can represent a diverse cross section of society, but this isn't necessary.

For example, the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study looked at just one participant, Nate. By contrast, in Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composition process of twelfth graders, eight participants were selected representing a diverse cross section of the community, with volunteers from an all-white upper-middle-class suburban school, an all-black inner-city school, a racially mixed lower-middle-class school, an economically and racially mixed school, and a university school.

Often, a brief "case history" is done on the participants of the study in order to provide researchers with a clearer understanding of their participants, as well as some insight as to how their own personal histories might affect the outcome of the study. For instance, in Emig's study, the investigator had access to the school records of five of the participants, and to standardized test scores for the remaining three. Also made available to the researcher was the information that three of the eight students were selected as NCTE Achievement Award winners. These personal histories can be useful in later stages of the study when data are being analyzed and conclusions drawn.

Data Collection

There are six types of data collected in case studies:

Archival records.
Interviews.
Direct observation.
Participant observation.

In the field of composition research, these six sources might be:

A writer's drafts.
School records of student writers.
Transcripts of interviews with a writer.
Transcripts of conversations between writers (and protocols).
Videotapes and notes from direct field observations.
Hard copies of a writer's work on computer.

Depending on whether researchers have chosen to use a single or multi-modal approach for the case study, they may choose to collect data from one or any combination of these sources.

Protocols, that is, transcriptions of participants talking aloud about what they are doing as they do it, have been particularly common in composition case studies. For example, in Emig's (1971) study, the students were asked, in four different sessions, to give oral autobiographies of their writing experiences and to compose aloud three themes in the presence of a tape recorder and the investigator.

In some studies, only one method of data collection is conducted. For example, the Flower and Hayes (1981) report on the cognitive process theory of writing depends on protocol analysis alone. However, using multiple sources of evidence to increase the reliability and validity of the data can be advantageous.

Case studies are likely to be much more convincing and accurate if they are based on several different sources of information, following a corroborating mode. This conclusion is echoed among many composition researchers. For example, in her study of predrafting processes of high and low-apprehensive writers, Cynthia Selfe (1985) argues that because "methods of indirect observation provide only an incomplete reflection of the complex set of processes involved in composing, a combination of several such methods should be used to gather data in any one study." Thus, in this study, Selfe collected her data from protocols, observations of students role playing their writing processes, audio taped interviews with the students, and videotaped observations of the students in the process of composing.

It can be said then, that cross checking data from multiple sources can help provide a multidimensional profile of composing activities in a particular setting. Sharan Merriam (1985) suggests "checking, verifying, testing, probing, and confirming collected data as you go, arguing that this process will follow in a funnel-like design resulting in less data gathering in later phases of the study along with a congruent increase in analysis checking, verifying, and confirming."

It is important to note that in case studies, as in any qualitative descriptive research, while researchers begin their studies with one or several questions driving the inquiry (which influence the key factors the researcher will be looking for during data collection), a researcher may find new key factors emerging during data collection. These might be unexpected patterns or linguistic features which become evident only during the course of the research. While not bearing directly on the researcher's guiding questions, these variables may become the basis for new questions asked at the end of the report, thus linking to the possibility of further research.

Data Analysis

As the information is collected, researchers strive to make sense of their data. Generally, researchers interpret their data in one of two ways: holistically or through coding. Holistic analysis does not attempt to break the evidence into parts, but rather to draw conclusions based on the text as a whole. Flower and Hayes (1981), for example, make inferences from entire sections of their students' protocols, rather than searching through the transcripts to look for isolatable characteristics.

However, composition researchers commonly interpret their data by coding, that is by systematically searching data to identify and/or categorize specific observable actions or characteristics. These observable actions then become the key variables in the study. Sharan Merriam (1988) suggests seven analytic frameworks for the organization and presentation of data:

The role of participants.
The network analysis of formal and informal exchanges among groups.
Historical.
Thematical.
Ritual and symbolism.
Critical incidents that challenge or reinforce fundamental beliefs, practices, and values.

There are two purposes of these frameworks: to look for patterns among the data and to look for patterns that give meaning to the case study.

As stated above, while most researchers begin their case studies expecting to look for particular observable characteristics, it is not unusual for key variables to emerge during data collection. Typical variables coded in case studies of writers include pauses writers make in the production of a text, the use of specific linguistic units (such as nouns or verbs), and writing processes (planning, drafting, revising, and editing). In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, researchers coded the participant's texts for use of connectives, discourse demonstratives, average sentence length, off-register words, use of the first person pronoun, and the ratio of definite articles to indefinite articles.

Since coding is inherently subjective, more than one coder is usually employed. In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, three rhetoricians were employed to code the participant's texts for off-register phrases. The researchers established the agreement among the coders before concluding that the participant used fewer off-register words as the graduate program progressed.

Composing the Case Study Report

In the many forms it can take, "a case study is generically a story; it presents the concrete narrative detail of actual, or at least realistic events, it has a plot, exposition, characters, and sometimes even dialogue" (Boehrer 1990). Generally, case study reports are extensively descriptive, with "the most problematic issue often referred to as being the determination of the right combination of description and analysis" (1990). Typically, authors address each step of the research process, and attempt to give the reader as much context as possible for the decisions made in the research design and for the conclusions drawn.

This contextualization usually includes a detailed explanation of the researchers' theoretical positions, of how those theories drove the inquiry or led to the guiding research questions, of the participants' backgrounds, of the processes of data collection, of the training and limitations of the coders, along with a strong attempt to make connections between the data and the conclusions evident.

Although the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study does not, case study reports often include the reactions of the participants to the study or to the researchers' conclusions. Because case studies tend to be exploratory, most end with implications for further study. Here researchers may identify significant variables that emerged during the research and suggest studies related to these, or the authors may suggest further general questions that their case study generated.

For example, Emig's (1971) study concludes with a section dedicated solely to the topic of implications for further research, in which she suggests several means by which this particular study could have been improved, as well as questions and ideas raised by this study which other researchers might like to address, such as: is there a correlation between a certain personality and a certain composing process profile (e.g. is there a positive correlation between ego strength and persistence in revising)?

Also included in Emig's study is a section dedicated to implications for teaching, which outlines the pedagogical ramifications of the study's findings for teachers currently involved in high school writing programs.

Sharan Merriam (1985) also offers several suggestions for alternative presentations of data:

Prepare specialized condensations for appropriate groups.
Replace narrative sections with a series of answers to open-ended questions.
Present "skimmer's" summaries at beginning of each section.
Incorporate headlines that encapsulate information from text.
Prepare analytic summaries with supporting data appendixes.
Present data in colorful and/or unique graphic representations.

Issues of Validity and Reliability

Once key variables have been identified, they can be analyzed. Reliability becomes a key concern at this stage, and many case study researchers go to great lengths to ensure that their interpretations of the data will be both reliable and valid. Because issues of validity and reliability are an important part of any study in the social sciences, it is important to identify some ways of dealing with results.

Multi-modal case study researchers often balance the results of their coding with data from interviews or writer's reflections upon their own work. Consequently, the researchers' conclusions become highly contextualized. For example, in a case study which looked at the time spent in different stages of the writing process, Berkenkotter concluded that her participant, Donald Murray, spent more time planning his essays than in other writing stages. The report of this case study is followed by Murray's reply, wherein he agrees with some of Berkenkotter's conclusions and disagrees with others.

As is the case with other research methodologies, issues of external validity, construct validity, and reliability need to be carefully considered.

Commentary on Case Studies

Researchers often debate the relative merits of particular methods, among them case study. In this section, we comment on two key issues. To read the commentaries, choose any of the items below:

Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Studies

Most case study advocates point out that case studies produce much more detailed information than what is available through a statistical analysis. Advocates will also hold that while statistical methods might be able to deal with situations where behavior is homogeneous and routine, case studies are needed to deal with creativity, innovation, and context. Detractors argue that case studies are difficult to generalize because of inherent subjectivity and because they are based on qualitative subjective data, generalizable only to a particular context.

Flexibility

The case study approach is a comparatively flexible method of scientific research. Because its project designs seem to emphasize exploration rather than prescription or prediction, researchers are comparatively freer to discover and address issues as they arise in their experiments. In addition, the looser format of case studies allows researchers to begin with broad questions and narrow their focus as their experiment progresses rather than attempt to predict every possible outcome before the experiment is conducted.

Emphasis on Context

By seeking to understand as much as possible about a single subject or small group of subjects, case studies specialize in "deep data," or "thick description"--information based on particular contexts that can give research results a more human face. This emphasis can help bridge the gap between abstract research and concrete practice by allowing researchers to compare their firsthand observations with the quantitative results obtained through other methods of research.

Inherent Subjectivity

"The case study has long been stereotyped as the weak sibling among social science methods," and is often criticized as being too subjective and even pseudo-scientific. Likewise, "investigators who do case studies are often regarded as having deviated from their academic disciplines, and their investigations as having insufficient precision (that is, quantification), objectivity and rigor" (Yin 1989). Opponents cite opportunities for subjectivity in the implementation, presentation, and evaluation of case study research. The approach relies on personal interpretation of data and inferences. Results may not be generalizable, are difficult to test for validity, and rarely offer a problem-solving prescription. Simply put, relying on one or a few subjects as a basis for cognitive extrapolations runs the risk of inferring too much from what might be circumstance.

High Investment

Case studies can involve learning more about the subjects being tested than most researchers would care to know--their educational background, emotional background, perceptions of themselves and their surroundings, their likes, dislikes, and so on. Because of its emphasis on "deep data," the case study is out of reach for many large-scale research projects which look at a subject pool in the tens of thousands. A budget request of $10,000 to examine 200 subjects sounds more efficient than a similar request to examine four subjects.

Ethical Considerations

Researchers conducting case studies should consider certain ethical issues. For example, many educational case studies are often financed by people who have, either directly or indirectly, power over both those being studied and those conducting the investigation (1985). This conflict of interests can hinder the credibility of the study.

The personal integrity, sensitivity, and possible prejudices and/or biases of the investigators need to be taken into consideration as well. Personal biases can creep into how the research is conducted, alternative research methods used, and the preparation of surveys and questionnaires.

A common complaint in case study research is that investigators change direction during the course of the study unaware that their original research design was inadequate for the revised investigation. Thus, the researchers leave unknown gaps and biases in the study. To avoid this, researchers should report preliminary findings so that the likelihood of bias will be reduced.

Concerns about Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability

Merriam (1985) offers several suggestions for how case study researchers might actively combat the popular attacks on the validity, reliability, and generalizability of case studies:

Prolong the Processes of Data Gathering on Site: This will help to insure the accuracy of the findings by providing the researcher with more concrete information upon which to formulate interpretations.
Employ the Process of "Triangulation": Use a variety of data sources as opposed to relying solely upon one avenue of observation. One example of such a data check would be what McClintock, Brannon, and Maynard (1985) refer to as a "case cluster method," that is, when a single unit within a larger case is randomly sampled, and that data treated quantitatively." For instance, in Emig's (1971) study, the case cluster method was employed, singling out the productivity of a single student named Lynn. This cluster profile included an advanced case history of the subject, specific examination and analysis of individual compositions and protocols, and extensive interview sessions. The seven remaining students were then compared with the case of Lynn, to ascertain if there are any shared, or unique dimensions to the composing process engaged in by these eight students.
Conduct Member Checks: Initiate and maintain an active corroboration on the interpretation of data between the researcher and those who provided the data. In other words, talk to your subjects.
Collect Referential Materials: Complement the file of materials from the actual site with additional document support. For example, Emig (1971) supports her initial propositions with historical accounts by writers such as T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, and D.H. Lawrence. Emig also cites examples of theoretical research done with regards to the creative process, as well as examples of empirical research dealing with the writing of adolescents. Specific attention is then given to the four stages description of the composing process delineated by Helmoltz, Wallas, and Cowley, as it serves as the focal point in this study.
Engage in Peer Consultation: Prior to composing the final draft of the report, researchers should consult with colleagues in order to establish validity through pooled judgment.

Although little can be done to combat challenges concerning the generalizability of case studies, "most writers suggest that qualitative research should be judged as credible and confirmable as opposed to valid and reliable" (Merriam 1985). Likewise, it has been argued that "rather than transplanting statistical, quantitative notions of generalizability and thus finding qualitative research inadequate, it makes more sense to develop an understanding of generalization that is congruent with the basic characteristics of qualitative inquiry" (1985). After all, criticizing the case study method for being ungeneralizable is comparable to criticizing a washing machine for not being able to tell the correct time. In other words, it is unjust to criticize a method for not being able to do something which it was never originally designed to do in the first place.

Annotated Bibliography

Armisted, C. (1984). How Useful are Case Studies. Training and Development Journal, 38 (2), 75-77.

This article looks at eight types of case studies, offers pros and cons of using case studies in the classroom, and gives suggestions for successfully writing and using case studies.

Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1997). Beyond Methods: Components of Second Language Teacher Education . New York: McGraw-Hill.

A compilation of various research essays which address issues of language teacher education. Essays included are: "Non-native reading research and theory" by Lee, "The case for Psycholinguistics" by VanPatten, and "Assessment and Second Language Teaching" by Gradman and Reed.

Bartlett, L. (1989). A Question of Good Judgment; Interpretation Theory and Qualitative Enquiry Address. 70th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. San Francisco.

Bartlett selected "quasi-historical" methodology, which focuses on the "truth" found in case records, as one that will provide "good judgments" in educational inquiry. He argues that although the method is not comprehensive, it can try to connect theory with practice.

Baydere, S. et. al. (1993). Multimedia conferencing as a tool for collaborative writing: a case study in Computer Supported Collaborative Writing. New York: Springer-Verlag.

The case study by Baydere et. al. is just one of the many essays in this book found in the series "Computer Supported Cooperative Work." Denley, Witefield and May explore similar issues in their essay, "A case study in task analysis for the design of a collaborative document production system."

Berkenkotter, C., Huckin, T., N., & Ackerman J. (1988). Conventions, Conversations, and the Writer: Case Study of a Student in a Rhetoric Ph.D. Program. Research in the Teaching of English, 22, 9-44.

The authors focused on how the writing of their subject, Nate or Ackerman, changed as he became more acquainted or familiar with his field's discourse community.

Berninger, V., W., and Gans, B., M. (1986). Language Profiles in Nonspeaking Individuals of Normal Intelligence with Severe Cerebral Palsy. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 2, 45-50.

Argues that generalizations about language abilities in patients with severe cerebral palsy (CP) should be avoided. Standardized tests of different levels of processing oral language, of processing written language, and of producing written language were administered to 3 male participants (aged 9, 16, and 40 yrs).

Bockman, J., R., and Couture, B. (1984). The Case Method in Technical Communication: Theory and Models. Texas: Association of Teachers of Technical Writing.

Examines the study and teaching of technical writing, communication of technical information, and the case method in terms of those applications.

Boehrer, J. (1990). Teaching With Cases: Learning to Question. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 42 41-57.

This article discusses the origins of the case method, looks at the question of what is a case, gives ideas about learning in case teaching, the purposes it can serve in the classroom, the ground rules for the case discussion, including the role of the question, and new directions for case teaching.

Bowman, W. R. (1993). Evaluating JTPA Programs for Economically Disadvantaged Adults: A Case Study of Utah and General Findings . Washington: National Commission for Employment Policy.

"To encourage state-level evaluations of JTPA, the Commission and the State of Utah co-sponsored this report on the effectiveness of JTPA Title II programs for adults in Utah. The technique used is non-experimental and the comparison group was selected from registrants with Utah's Employment Security. In a step-by-step approach, the report documents how non-experimental techniques can be applied and several specific technical issues can be addressed."

Boyce, A. (1993) The Case Study Approach for Pedagogists. Annual Meeting of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. (Address). Washington DC.

This paper addresses how case studies 1) bridge the gap between teaching theory and application, 2) enable students to analyze problems and develop solutions for situations that will be encountered in the real world of teaching, and 3) helps students to evaluate the feasibility of alternatives and to understand the ramifications of a particular course of action.

Carson, J. (1993) The Case Study: Ideal Home of WAC Quantitative and Qualitative Data. Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication. (Address). San Diego.

"Increasingly, one of the most pressing questions for WAC advocates is how to keep [WAC] programs going in the face of numerous difficulties. Case histories offer the best chance for fashioning rhetorical arguments to keep WAC programs going because they offer the opportunity to provide a coherent narrative that contextualizes all documents and data, including what is generally considered scientific data. A case study of the WAC program, . . . at Robert Morris College in Pittsburgh demonstrates the advantages of this research method. Such studies are ideal homes for both naturalistic and positivistic data as well as both quantitative and qualitative information."

---. (1991). A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing. College Composition and Communication. 32. 365-87.

No abstract available.

Cromer, R. (1994) A Case Study of Dissociations Between Language and Cognition. Constraints on Language Acquisition: Studies of Atypical Children . Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 141-153.

Crossley, M. (1983) Case Study in Comparative and International Education: An Approach to Bridging the Theory-Practice Gap. Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society. Hamilton, NZ.

Case study research, as presented here, helps bridge the theory-practice gap in comparative and international research studies of education because it focuses on the practical, day-to-day context rather than on the national arena. The paper asserts that the case study method can be valuable at all levels of research, formation, and verification of theories in education.

Daillak, R., H., and Alkin, M., C. (1982). Qualitative Studies in Context: Reflections on the CSE Studies of Evaluation Use . California: EDRS

The report shows how the Center of the Study of Evaluation (CSE) applied qualitative techniques to a study of evaluation information use in local, Los Angeles schools. It critiques the effectiveness and the limitations of using case study, evaluation, field study, and user interview survey methodologies.

Davey, L. (1991). The Application of Case Study Evaluations. ERIC/TM Digest.

This article examines six types of case studies, the type of evaluation questions that can be answered, the functions served, some design features, and some pitfalls of the method.

Deutch, C. E. (1996). A course in research ethics for graduate students. College Teaching, 44, 2, 56-60.

This article describes a one-credit discussion course in research ethics for graduate students in biology. Case studies are focused on within the four parts of the course: 1) major issues, 2 )practical issues in scholarly work, 3) ownership of research results, and 4) training and personal decisions.

DeVoss, G. (1981). Ethics in Fieldwork Research. RIE 27p. (ERIC)

This article examines four of the ethical problems that can happen when conducting case study research: acquiring permission to do research, knowing when to stop digging, the pitfalls of doing collaborative research, and preserving the integrity of the participants.

Driscoll, A. (1985). Case Study of a Research Intervention: the University of Utah’s Collaborative Approach . San Francisco: Far West Library for Educational Research Development.

Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, Denver, CO, March 1985. Offers information of in-service training, specifically case studies application.

Ellram, L. M. (1996). The Use of the Case Study Method in Logistics Research. Journal of Business Logistics, 17, 2, 93.

This article discusses the increased use of case study in business research, and the lack of understanding of when and how to use case study methodology in business.

Emig, J. (1971) The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders . Urbana: NTCE.

This case study uses observation, tape recordings, writing samples, and school records to show that writing in reflexive and extensive situations caused different lengths of discourse and different clusterings of the components of the writing process.

Feagin, J. R. (1991). A Case For the Case Study . Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.

This book discusses the nature, characteristics, and basic methodological issues of the case study as a research method.

Feldman, H., Holland, A., & Keefe, K. (1989) Language Abilities after Left Hemisphere Brain Injury: A Case Study of Twins. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 9, 32-47.

"Describes the language abilities of 2 twin pairs in which 1 twin (the experimental) suffered brain injury to the left cerebral hemisphere around the time of birth and1 twin (the control) did not. One pair of twins was initially assessed at age 23 mo. and the other at about 30 mo.; they were subsequently evaluated in their homes 3 times at about 6-mo intervals."

Fidel, R. (1984). The Case Study Method: A Case Study. Library and Information Science Research, 6.

The article describes the use of case study methodology to systematically develop a model of online searching behavior in which study design is flexible, subject manner determines data gathering and analyses, and procedures adapt to the study's progressive change.

Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1984). Images, Plans and Prose: The Representation of Meaning in Writing. Written Communication, 1, 120-160.

Explores the ways in which writers actually use different forms of knowing to create prose.

Frey, L. R. (1992). Interpreting Communication Research: A Case Study Approach Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

The book discusses research methodologies in the Communication field. It focuses on how case studies bridge the gap between communication research, theory, and practice.

Gilbert, V. K. (1981). The Case Study as a Research Methodology: Difficulties and Advantages of Integrating the Positivistic, Phenomenological and Grounded Theory Approaches . The Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association for the Study of Educational Administration. (Address) Halifax, NS, Can.

This study on an innovative secondary school in England shows how a "low-profile" participant-observer case study was crucial to the initial observation, the testing of hypotheses, the interpretive approach, and the grounded theory.

Gilgun, J. F. (1994). A Case for Case Studies in Social Work Research. Social Work, 39, 4, 371-381.

This article defines case study research, presents guidelines for evaluation of case studies, and shows the relevance of case studies to social work research. It also looks at issues such as evaluation and interpretations of case studies.

Glennan, S. L., Sharp-Bittner, M. A. & Tullos, D. C. (1991). Augmentative and Alternative Communication Training with a Nonspeaking Adult: Lessons from MH. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 7, 240-7.

"A response-guided case study documented changes in a nonspeaking 36-yr-old man's ability to communicate using 3 trained augmentative communication modes. . . . Data were collected in videotaped interaction sessions between the nonspeaking adult and a series of adult speaking."

Graves, D. (1981). An Examination of the Writing Processes of Seven Year Old Children. Research in the Teaching of English, 15, 113-134.

Hamel, J. (1993). Case Study Methods . Newbury Park: Sage. .

"In a most economical fashion, Hamel provides a practical guide for producing theoretically sharp and empirically sound sociological case studies. A central idea put forth by Hamel is that case studies must "locate the global in the local" thus making the careful selection of the research site the most critical decision in the analytic process."

Karthigesu, R. (1986, July). Television as a Tool for Nation-Building in the Third World: A Post-Colonial Pattern, Using Malaysia as a Case-Study. International Television Studies Conference. (Address). London, 10-12.

"The extent to which Television Malaysia, as a national mass media organization, has been able to play a role in nation building in the post-colonial period is . . . studied in two parts: how the choice of a model of nation building determines the character of the organization; and how the character of the organization influences the output of the organization."

Kenny, R. (1984). Making the Case for the Case Study. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 16, (1), 37-51.

The article looks at how and why the case study is justified as a viable and valuable approach to educational research and program evaluation.

Knirk, F. (1991). Case Materials: Research and Practice. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 4 (1 ), 73-81.

The article addresses the effectiveness of case studies, subject areas where case studies are commonly used, recent examples of their use, and case study design considerations.

Klos, D. (1976). Students as Case Writers. Teaching of Psychology, 3.2, 63-66.

This article reviews a course in which students gather data for an original case study of another person. The task requires the students to design the study, collect the data, write the narrative, and interpret the findings.

Leftwich, A. (1981). The Politics of Case Study: Problems of Innovation in University Education. Higher Education Review, 13.2, 38-64.

The article discusses the use of case studies as a teaching method. Emphasis is on the instructional materials, interdisciplinarity, and the complex relationships within the university that help or hinder the method.

Mabrito, M. (1991, Oct.). Electronic Mail as a Vehicle for Peer Response: Conversations of High and Low Apprehensive Writers. Written Communication, 509-32.

McCarthy, S., J. (1955). The Influence of Classroom Discourse on Student Texts: The Case of Ella . East Lansing: Institute for Research on Teaching.

A look at how students of color become marginalized within traditional classroom discourse. The essay follows the struggles of one black student: Ella.

Matsuhashi, A., ed. (1987). Writing in Real Time: Modeling Production Processes Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Investigates how writers plan to produce discourse for different purposes to report, to generalize, and to persuade, as well as how writers plan for sentence level units of language. To learn about planning, an observational measure of pause time was used" (ERIC).

Merriam, S. B. (1985). The Case Study in Educational Research: A Review of Selected Literature. Journal of Educational Thought, 19.3, 204-17.

The article examines the characteristics of, philosophical assumptions underlying the case study, the mechanics of conducting a case study, and the concerns about the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the method.

---. (1988). Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Merry, S. E., & Milner, N. eds. (1993). The Possibility of Popular Justice: A Case Study of Community Mediation in the United States . Ann Arbor: U of Michigan.

". . . this volume presents a case study of one experiment in popular justice, the San Francisco Community Boards. This program has made an explicit claim to create an alternative justice, or new justice, in the midst of a society ordered by state law. The contributors to this volume explore the history and experience of the program and compare it to other versions of popular justice in the United States, Europe, and the Third World."

Merseth, K. K. (1991). The Case for Cases in Teacher Education. RIE. 42p. (ERIC).

This monograph argues that the case method of instruction offers unique potential for revitalizing the field of teacher education.

Michaels, S. (1987). Text and Context: A New Approach to the Study of Classroom Writing. Discourse Processes, 10, 321-346.

"This paper argues for and illustrates an approach to the study of writing that integrates ethnographic analysis of classroom interaction with linguistic analysis of written texts and teacher/student conversational exchanges. The approach is illustrated through a case study of writing in a single sixth grade classroom during a single writing assignment."

Milburn, G. (1995). Deciphering a Code or Unraveling a Riddle: A Case Study in the Application of a Humanistic Metaphor to the Reporting of Social Studies Teaching. Theory and Research in Education, 13.

This citation serves as an example of how case studies document learning procedures in a senior-level economics course.

Milley, J. E. (1979). An Investigation of Case Study as an Approach to Program Evaluation. 19th Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research. (Address). San Diego.

The case study method merged a narrative report focusing on the evaluator as participant-observer with document review, interview, content analysis, attitude questionnaire survey, and sociogram analysis. Milley argues that case study program evaluation has great potential for widespread use.

Minnis, J. R. (1985, Sept.). Ethnography, Case Study, Grounded Theory, and Distance Education Research. Distance Education, 6.2.

This article describes and defines the strengths and weaknesses of ethnography, case study, and grounded theory.

Nunan, D. (1992). Collaborative language learning and teaching . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Included in this series of essays is Peter Sturman’s "Team Teaching: a case study from Japan" and David Nunan’s own "Toward a collaborative approach to curriculum development: a case study."

Nystrand, M., ed. (1982). What Writers Know: The Language, Process, and Structure of Written Discourse . New York: Academic Press.

Owenby, P. H. (1992). Making Case Studies Come Alive. Training, 29, (1), 43-46. (ERIC)

This article provides tips for writing more effective case studies.

---. (1981). Pausing and Planning: The Tempo of Writer Discourse Production. Research in the Teaching of English, 15 (2),113-34.

Perl, S. (1979). The Composing Processes of Unskilled College Writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 13, 317-336.

"Summarizes a study of five unskilled college writers, focusing especially on one of the five, and discusses the findings in light of current pedagogical practice and research design."

Pilcher J. and A. Coffey. eds. (1996). Gender and Qualitative Research . Brookfield: Aldershot, Hants, England.

This book provides a series of essays which look at gender identity research, qualitative research and applications of case study to questions of gendered pedagogy.

Pirie, B. S. (1993). The Case of Morty: A Four Year Study. Gifted Education International, 9 (2), 105-109.

This case study describes a boy from kindergarten through third grade with above average intelligence but difficulty in learning to read, write, and spell.

Popkewitz, T. (1993). Changing Patterns of Power: Social Regulation and Teacher Education Reform. Albany: SUNY Press.

Popkewitz edits this series of essays that address case studies on educational change and the training of teachers. The essays vary in terms of discipline and scope. Also, several authors include case studies of educational practices in countries other than the United States.

---. (1984). The Predrafting Processes of Four High- and Four Low Apprehensive Writers. Research in the Teaching of English, 18, (1), 45-64.

Rasmussen, P. (1985, March) A Case Study on the Evaluation of Research at the Technical University of Denmark. International Journal of Institutional Management in Higher Education, 9 (1).

This is an example of a case study methodology used to evaluate the chemistry and chemical engineering departments at the University of Denmark.

Roth, K. J. (1986). Curriculum Materials, Teacher Talk, and Student Learning: Case Studies in Fifth-Grade Science Teaching . East Lansing: Institute for Research on Teaching.

Roth offers case studies on elementary teachers, elementary school teaching, science studies and teaching, and verbal learning.

Selfe, C. L. (1985). An Apprehensive Writer Composes. When a Writer Can't Write: Studies in Writer's Block and Other Composing-Process Problems . (pp. 83-95). Ed. Mike Rose. NMY: Guilford.

Smith-Lewis, M., R. and Ford, A. (1987). A User's Perspective on Augmentative Communication. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 3, 12-7.

"During a series of in-depth interviews, a 25-yr-old woman with cerebral palsy who utilized augmentative communication reflected on the effectiveness of the devices designed for her during her school career."

St. Pierre, R., G. (1980, April). Follow Through: A Case Study in Metaevaluation Research . 64th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. (Address).

The three approaches to metaevaluation are evaluation of primary evaluations, integrative meta-analysis with combined primary evaluation results, and re-analysis of the raw data from a primary evaluation.

Stahler, T., M. (1996, Feb.) Early Field Experiences: A Model That Worked. ERIC.

"This case study of a field and theory class examines a model designed to provide meaningful field experiences for preservice teachers while remaining consistent with the instructor's beliefs about the role of teacher education in preparing teachers for the classroom."

Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

This book examines case study research in education and case study methodology.

Stiegelbauer, S. (1984) Community, Context, and Co-curriculum: Situational Factors Influencing School Improvements in a Study of High Schools. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Discussion of several case studies: one looking at high school environments, another examining educational innovations.

Stolovitch, H. (1990). Case Study Method. Performance And Instruction, 29, (9), 35-37.

This article describes the case study method as a form of simulation and presents guidelines for their use in professional training situations.

Thaller, E. (1994). Bibliography for the Case Method: Using Case Studies in Teacher Education. RIE. 37 p.

This bibliography presents approximately 450 citations on the use of case studies in teacher education from 1921-1993.

Thrane, T. (1986). On Delimiting the Senses of Near-Synonyms in Historical Semantics: A Case Study of Adjectives of 'Moral Sufficiency' in the Old English Andreas. Linguistics Across Historical and Geographical Boundaries: In Honor of Jacek Fisiak on the Occasion of his Fiftieth Birthday . Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

United Nations. (1975). Food and Agriculture Organization. Report on the FAO/UNFPA Seminar on Methodology, Research and Country: Case Studies on Population, Employment and Productivity . Rome: United Nations.

This example case study shows how the methodology can be used in a demographic and psychographic evaluation. At the same time, it discusses the formation and instigation of the case study methodology itself.

Van Vugt, J. P., ed. (1994). Aids Prevention and Services: Community Based Research . Westport: Bergin and Garvey.

"This volume has been five years in the making. In the process, some of the policy applications called for have met with limited success, such as free needle exchange programs in a limited number of American cities, providing condoms to prison inmates, and advertisements that depict same-sex couples. Rather than dating our chapters that deal with such subjects, such policy applications are verifications of the type of research demonstrated here. Furthermore, they indicate the critical need to continue community based research in the various communities threatened by acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) . . . "

Welch, W., ed. (1981, May). Case Study Methodology in Educational Evaluation. Proceedings of the Minnesota Evaluation Conference. Minnesota. (Address).

The four papers in these proceedings provide a comprehensive picture of the rationale, methodology, strengths, and limitations of case studies.

Williams, G. (1987). The Case Method: An Approach to Teaching and Learning in Educational Administration. RIE, 31p.

This paper examines the viability of the case method as a teaching and learning strategy in instructional systems geared toward the training of personnel of the administration of various aspects of educational systems.

Yin, R. K. (1993). Advancing Rigorous Methodologies: A Review of 'Towards Rigor in Reviews of Multivocal Literatures.' Review of Educational Research, 61, (3).

"R. T. Ogawa and B. Malen's article does not meet its own recommended standards for rigorous testing and presentation of its own conclusions. Use of the exploratory case study to analyze multivocal literatures is not supported, and the claim of grounded theory to analyze multivocal literatures may be stronger."

---. (1989). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage Publications Inc.

This book discusses in great detail, the entire design process of the case study, including entire chapters on collecting evidence, analyzing evidence, composing the case study report, and designing single and multiple case studies.

Amanote Research

Case studies in library and information science ethics. eds. elizabeth a. buchanan and kathrine a. henderson. jefferson, n.c.: mcfarland & co., 2009. 165p. alk. paper, $49.95 (isbn 9780786433674). lc2009-034606., college and research libraries - united states, doi 10.5860/0700299.

Available in full text

May 1, 2009

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National Center for case study teaching in science

Method assessment.

WHAT DO WE KNOW about case study teaching? The use of problem-based learning (one form of case study teaching) in medical schools has received close scrutiny from researchers. As the use of case-based teaching more broadly increases in undergraduate college and K-12 classrooms, a significant body of literature is beginning to accumulate on the assessment of the method and other active learning pedagogies.

Research Articles

Faculty perceptions on the benefits of case teaching.

We surveyed over 100 science teachers we had trained over a year-and-a-half-long period. One of the things we asked them was what they thought the benefits of case-based teaching were for their students. Here’s what they had to say.

Cases and Critical Thinking

When we teach, we want our students to learn more than just a collection of facts – we also want them to become better critical thinkers. We believe that carefully constructed cases can provide pedagogical tools that teach not only content knowledge, but also critical thinking skills. We are currently engaged in an NSF-funded study that is looking at whether cases can be used to improve students' critical thinking skills.

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Case Study

Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
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Writing a Case Study
About Informed Consent
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Bibliography

The term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which are used in most circumstances to generalize across populations. This tab focuses on the latter--how to design and organize a research paper in the social sciences that analyzes a specific case.

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or among more than two subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in this writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a single case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

Does the case represent an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
Does the case provide important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
Does the case challenge and offer a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in practice. A case may offer you an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to the study a case in order to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
Does the case provide an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings in order to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
Does the case offer a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for exploratory research that points to a need for further examination of the research problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of Uganda. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a particular village can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community throughout rural regions of east Africa. The case could also point to the need for scholars to apply feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation.

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work. In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I. Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

What was I studying? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
Why was this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the research problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II. Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would include summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to study the research problem and the underlying research questions.
Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in the context of explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III. Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular subject of analysis to study and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that frames your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; c) what were the consequences of the event.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experience he or she has had that provides an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of his/her experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using him or her as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, cultural, economic, political, etc.], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, why study Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research reveals Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks from overseas reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE: The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should be linked to the findings from the literature review. Be sure to cite any prior studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for investigating the research problem.

IV. Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is more common to combine a description of the findings with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings It is important to remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V. Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and needs for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) restate the main argument supported by the findings from the analysis of your case; 2) clearly state the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in and your professor's preferences, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented applied to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were on social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood differently than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009; Kratochwill, Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education . Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 : General, theoretical [context-independent knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 : One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 : The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 : The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 : It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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J Med Libr Assoc
v.109(3); 2021 Jul 1

Practical considerations for a library's research data management services: the case of the National Institutes of Health Library

Soojung kim.

1 rk.ca.unbj@gnujoosmik , Department of Library and Information Science, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju, South Korea

Sue Yeon Syn

2 ude.auc@nys , Department of Library and Information Science, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC

Associated Data

Interview codes are available in the appendix. Full transcripts cannot be shared due to participant confidentiality concerns.

This study investigates research data management (RDM) services using a crosstab framework with the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Library as a case study to provide practical considerations for libraries seeking to improve their RDM services.

We conducted semistructured interviews with four librarians who provide data services at the NIH Library regarding library user characteristics, RDM services provided, RDM infrastructure, and collaboration experiences. Through the analysis of interview transcripts, we identified and analyzed the NIH Library's RDM services according to Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)'s three categories of RDM services and the six stages of the data lifecycle.

The findings show that the two models' crosstab framework can provide an overview of an institution's current RDM services and identify service gaps. The NIH Library tends to take more responsibility in providing education and expertise services while relying more on information technology departments for curation services. The library provides significant support for data creation, analysis, and sharing stages to meet biomedical researchers' needs, suggesting areas for potential expansion of RDM services in the less supported stages of data description, storage, and preservation. Based on these findings, we recommend three key considerations for libraries: identify gaps in current services, identify services that can be supported via partnerships, and get regular feedback from users.

Conclusion:

These findings provide a deeper understanding of RDM support on the basis of RDM service categories and the data lifecycle and promote discussion of issues to be considered for future improvements in RDM services.

INTRODUCTION

In recent decades, the increasing volume of data-driven research and changing funding agency policies for research data management (RDM) have posed significant challenges for researchers who are not well versed in RDM practices and sharing [ 1 , 2 ]. In response, many libraries have expanded their services to address researchers' growing demand for RDM support.

Several earlier studies discuss the RDM roles of libraries and library services [ 3 – 5 ]. The demand for RDM services has been strong, particularly in the health sector [ 6 ]. Accordingly, health science libraries have developed a wide range of RDM services: instruction and consultation for data management plans (DMPs) [ 7 ]; training on data analysis tools and online bioinformatics application guides [ 8 ]; qualitative data analysis, data visualization, and data wrangling [ 9 ]; training on clinical data management [ 9 , 10 ]; developing data dictionaries and standardized data request forms [ 11 ]; and file management, assigning metadata to data, naming variables, and finding an appropriate data repository [ 12 ]. A recurring theme characterizing RDM services is collaboration among stakeholders. Meeting the various needs that arise throughout the data lifecycle cannot be assigned to a single unit within an institution. Collaborations and partnerships among libraries, information technology (IT) departments, and other internal or external units are key to the development and success of RDM services [ 11 – 14 ].

This study investigates RDM services using the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Library as a case study and provides practical considerations for libraries seeking to extend their RDM services. The NIH's RDM services were analyzed based on Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)'s RDM service categories [ 15 ] and the data lifecycle. In the RDM process, data pass through a series of stages, from creation to preservation and reuse. Given that “the concept of the research data lifecycle plays a central role in organizing and structuring services” [ 16 ], analyzing RDM services at each stage of the data lifecycle to identify areas to introduce new services can be useful. Because NIH is one of the world's leading medical centers, it was selected to examine RDM services relating to a wide range of data management scenarios in biomedical research. The NIH Library serves career-level researchers and related staff [ 17 ], but their RDM services apply to many academic libraries whose faculty and students are considered professional and future researchers who manage data. This study's findings can be useful for specialized and research libraries that serve researchers, particularly in biomedical fields, that aim to develop or improve their RDM support services.

The NIH Library serves the NIH Intramural Research Program, the largest biomedical research institution globally, numbering approximately 1,200 principal investigators, 4,000 postdoctoral fellows, and many other employees. The NIH Library also serves other institutions in the US Department of Health and Human Services [ 18 ].

The NIH Library created a data services team in 2013 [ 18 ]. In addition to a team leader, two other librarians help implement the team's operational and strategic objectives. Data services librarians work closely with the bibliometrics team of two librarians, which provides bibliometrics services and is actively involved in data services training. Another team related to data services is the editing team, which strategizes with researchers to select target journals for their manuscripts and assists them with creating and formatting datasets for inclusion in publications.

The library has a matrix structure that maintains essential library functions and organizational structures, although cross-functional groups perform much of the work. The data services team, bibliometrics team, editing team, and other units are the library's structural units, but library services or projects can be implemented collaboratively by librarians in multiple units, which allows for flexibility in utilizing librarians' knowledge and enables library resources to be used most effectively.

Conceptual framework

To develop a systematic approach to characterizing the types of RDM services available at NIH, we borrow from two different models: OCLC's RDM services categories and the data lifecycle model. The OCLC's RDM service categories were identified by characterizing RDM service components in a review of more than a dozen research libraries in North America, Europe, and Australia, with the goal of “provid[ing] a useful heuristic for visualizing the scope of the RDM service space” [ 15 ]. The categories include (1) education services that aim to raise awareness of RDM's importance, instruct researchers in basic RDM skills, and introduce RDM tools and resources; (2) expertise services that offer decision support and customized solutions for RDM problems encountered by researchers; and (3) curation services that provide the technical infrastructure and related services that support RDM throughout the research process.

Additionally, we used the data lifecycle stages to determine which specific RDM services provide support for particular stages. From four data lifecycle models (DataONE Life Cycle [ 19 ], UK Data Service Research Data Lifecycle [ 20 ], Digital Curation Centre Curation Lifecycle Model [ 21 ], and United States Geological Survey Data Lifecycle [ 22 ]), we identified six stages: (1) creation, (2) description, (3) storage, (4) analysis, (5) sharing, and (6) preservation. In the creation stage, researchers generate original data or collect preexisting data from other sources. In the description stage, researchers create appropriate metadata or describe data to support storage and retrieval with the self-generated or collected data in hand. In the storage stage, data are stored appropriately in certain formats. In the analysis stage, data are analyzed to produce results. In the sharing stage, researchers publish data through journals, place them in institutional or public repositories to share with other researchers, or both. In the preservation stage, data are managed for long-term preservation. These six stages of the data lifecycle, together with OCLC's RDM services categories, provide a useful framework for identifying the current coverage and gaps in RDM services provided by the NIH. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework used in this study for RDM services assessment.

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Conceptual framework of the study

Data collection and analysis

We collected data through semistructured interviews with four librarians, two data services librarians, and two bibliometrics librarians in November 2018 following Institutional Review Board approval from the Catholic University of America. Interview questions asked about library user characteristics, the existing infrastructure of RDM at the library and NIH, the types of RDM services provided at each stage of the data lifecycle, difficulties experienced in providing RDM services, and collaborative experiences ( Appendix 1 ). Interviews were recorded and transcribed for analysis, and the transcripts' coding was aligned with the categories of the interview questions. Predetermined categories derived from OCLC's RDM service categories and the data lifecycle guided the coding process in identifying the types of RDM service offered by the NIH. Under the interview question categories, detailed codes were added to the code categories as they emerged. The two authors coded each transcript individually, compared coding results, and discussed them to resolve discrepancies. The final version of the codes used in the analysis is available in Appendix 2 .

Because users' feedback was brought up multiple times during the interviews, the librarians gave us the aggregated results of feedback surveys collected in 2018. We used these data to better explain and interpret the interview content. Surveys were distributed to 372 trainees in selected training classes in 2018 and received 246 responses concerning participants' satisfaction level, expectations for the training classes, and interests in future training sessions.

Institutional environment

The NIH Library serves multiple campuses. Also, because NIH comprises twenty-seven separate institutes and centers [ 23 ], each of which has its own IT infrastructure, these institutes and centers also handle curation services (data management and servers). This leads to some educational services not being able to be provided to all members of the NIH, although the library's primary RDM services include training classes (see Educational Services section). The NIH's IT department, the Center for Information Technology (CIT), provides integrated services for backup and preservation (see Curation Services section).

The NIH Strategic Plan for Data Science manifests another aspect of the institutional environment that shapes the NIH Library's services. In 2018, the NIH released its first Strategic Plan for Data Science to reinforce the mission of “storing, managing, standardizing and publishing the vast amounts of data produced by biomedical research” [ 24 ]. The NIH Library aligns itself closely with the plan, as shown in the data services team leader's remark, “Our goal now is to support the NIH strategic plan.” Because “one of the major pillars of the new Strategic Plan for Data Science is FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable) Principles” and the data generated in NIH have high potential to be shared with the public, it is essential to teach NIH researchers how to make data usable by others. To do this, librarians promote the use of common data elements (CDEs), which are elements that are common to multiple datasets across different clinical studies [ 25 ]. By specifying standardized vocabularies, definitions, and value sets for data, CDEs facilitate the comparison and combination of data from different studies. The NIH provides an extensive repository of CDE collections [ 26 ], which librarians encourage researchers to use.

User characteristics and needs

According to training participants' feedback survey, 39% (N=25 of 64 respondents from June to December) were fellows and trainees working with actual data. Other participants included intramural researchers (17%, N=15), scientific administrators/analysts (11%, N=11), and clinical staff (4.7%, N=3), among others. A possible explanation for the high participation of fellows is that they may not remain at the institute for extended periods, so continuous training may be necessary for newly arriving fellows. Librarians also observed that fellows are more proactive in acquiring new skills that “they can apply during their future careers.”

One interesting and unusual aspect of the NIH Library is that researchers are not required to apply for research funding. Because the library serves only intramural researchers who do not need DMP support, the library does not offer training on writing DMPs, even though this is an essential component of RDM services in many libraries [ 27 ]. As one librarian put it, “Since we don't do data management plans, here we look for opportunities where we can talk about best practices … In all of our classes we talk about this best practice for scientific computing, and it's related to storage, data curation, managing data.”

Collaboration experiences

At the NIH Library, collaboration operates at multiple levels and may involve other library units, other NIH units, or external partners. The NIH Library's matrix structure brings together librarians with diverse skillsets and expertise to work on specific projects. Thus, when the data services team leader announces a new project and puts out a call for support, other librarians may volunteer to join the project team on a provisional basis. Furthermore, librarians “work collaboratively with everybody who does data science at NIH to partner on training.” This interorganizational collaboration enables more efficient use of resources and expertise. For example, the library provides basic statistics training (e.g., Overview of Common Statistical Tests) but has thus far not supported advanced statistics techniques. Since the creation of a chief statistician position in the biostatistics division at the NIH Clinical Center, this person has been able to teach advanced statistics classes for the library.

What is vital in such collaboration is communication. The NIH formed the Training Collaborative Forum, which consists of representatives of various training units within the NIH who administer mandatory training (e.g., Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act), technical training (e.g., Excel), and for-credit training (e.g., Introduction to Microbiology) [ 28 ]. The NIH Library joined this forum to understand the broader training landscape at NIH and avoid potential conflicts in RDM services [ 28 ]. Besides coordinating courses and sharing information, the library and other training units collaborated in marketing efforts. An upcoming outreach initiative is that the library and other training units “will have a single orientation presentation for researchers who were not aware of how much support was available to them and whom to contact to get those support services.” The idea is that “only one representative from this joint effort will be going into the labs and that can rotate from any of the divisions which can speak competently about what we do.” Librarians expected to streamline the marketing process and make it more efficient.

External partnerships such as the Carpentries are also particularly beneficial for education services. The Carpentries is a fiscally sponsored project that teaches foundational coding and data science skills to researchers [ 29 ] by organizing hands-on workshops that cover concepts and tools researchers can apply to their research. The library brought this training to the NIH by hosting some Carpentries workshops (e.g., Data Carpentry's Genomics Workshop). A librarian commented on the benefit of the workshop with, “What I want to do is a pre-training assessment. So, where people were before they took the training and where they are afterward. We just don't have the manpower, capabilities.” Another mentioned collaboration with software vendors, “We partner with software that we subscribe to, MATLAB, SPSS, JUMP, STATA. We just did a couple of sessions on artificial intelligence and machine learning and data science. We don't have a capacity to do that, so we reached out to our vendors to come in and do training for that.”

Education services

The educational goal of the Data Services team is “increasing the capacity for everyone at NIH to do data science at some level.” In 2014, the library conducted a survey to assess researchers' perceived data literacy skills and identify topic priorities for training [ 17 ]. The results of this survey helped guide the development of classes [ 28 ]. Librarians also collect trainee feedback twice a year in June and December to improve their training and plan for the next year's education. Table 1 shows a list of data service–related classes offered during 2018 to 2020. The range of topics is broad, from data analysis to machine learning, with R classes offered most often. In each month of 2018, four R classes were held, resulting in more than 800 people receiving R training that year. Librarians planned to expand R training by adding two more classes in 2019 in response to the feedback survey, in which respondents most frequently recommended R for a new class suggestion.

Data services classes offered during 2018–2020 *

Year	Class titles
2018	Introduction to R Introduction to R and RStudio Introduction to R Data Types APIs in R R Custom Functions R Txt Mning Tidy Data and the R Tidyverse Wrangling Data Using the R Tidyverse Data Visualization Data Visualization in Base R Data Visualization in ggplot MATLAB for Scientists: Working with Images & Video Deep Learning in MATLAB Bibliometrics for portfolio analysis Software Carpentry (Two-Day Workshop) From RePORTER to Web of Science and Incites Overview of Common Statistical Tests Electronic Lab Notebook (ELN) Discussion Top 10 FAIR Data Things Global Sprint
2019	Introduction to Categorical Data Introduction to MATLAB Hands-on Workshop Openness and Reproducibility Workshop Data Carpentry Genomics Two-Day Workshop
2020	Meta-Analysis: Quantifying a Systematic Review Statistical Considerations in Preparing Your Manuscript Hands-On Virtual Lab: Machine Learning Introduction to Taxonomies Data Management and Sharing (Planned on September)

A problem that inevitably arises in the multicampus environment is that offline training sessions are offered only at a limited number of campus locations, where software subscription and access may be restricted. As a tentative solution, the library currently relies on a corporate model of software training for some of its educational services; this entails a “train-the-trainer” model to reach out to instructors and researchers who can attend in-person sessions and later deliver RDM training to their colleagues at other campus locations. Librarians also deliver training in a webinar format for researchers who cannot make it to in-person training sessions. However, they believe that “programming works better […] when you're in an in-person environment,” emphasizing the importance of in-person communication. The training participants' feedback survey showed that 67% of participants in 2018 attended in-person sessions (N=165 of 246), whereas 33% joined the webinars (N=81 of 246).

Education services primarily oriented toward researchers working at the analysis stage mostly involve data analysis applications (e.g., MATLAB). This aligns with researchers' keen interest in learning-specific tools rather than more general best practices in RDM, as evidenced in this remark by one librarian: “Most people come in, and they are like, ‘I want to develop a histogram in ggplot. I don't want to know about best practices for scientific computing. I don't want to know about Introduction to Visualization. I just want to use the tool.'” This remark shows the task-oriented nature of researchers' goals in taking classes and explains why they are application specific.

While their training mainly addresses data analysis needs, librarians have recently begun to emphasize data sharing. In an “Openness and Reproducibility Workshop: A Day of Open Science” in 2019, participants first learned about general issues in data sharing and then how to use the Open Science Framework (OSF), an open-source Web platform that helps researchers create, store, collaborate, and share projects. The workshop focused on OSF's advanced features that facilitate the reproducibility of research data.

Expertise services

Librarians receive one-on-one consultation requests from researchers on an ad hoc basis, often when researchers visit the Technology Hub at the library, which is collaborative workspace with technology. Researchers request in-person consultations when trying to learn about specific hardware and software or experience difficulties with secondary datasets for their projects. The most common requests for one-on-one consultation are data wrangling to transform raw data from one data format to another. One librarian gave an example of such consultation requests: “A researcher [who] was dealing with six files, and each one was about 3 gigabytes so he couldn't import them into STATA or SPSS; so [librarian's name] and I worked together to sort of split those files up in R, and then do the type of analysis for them and then join them back in a comma-separated file for him to import.” The librarian referred to data wrangling as “the greatest challenge […] Taking data that is not formatted in the way they need for their analysis is the most common request that we get.”

Other consultation requests include asking for data visualization and writing assistance. For data visualization, researcher requests tend to be technical, such as creating particular visualization formats in response to a journal's requirements or for a presentation. The Editing team provides classes that cover topics from generating hypotheses to data presentation and even journal selection. Librarians help researchers with formatting datasets to share with publications. Data formatting requests may also include assistance with adding metadata to datasets.

Curation services

The NIH's CIT is closely involved in RDM support in terms of the IT infrastructure at the NIH institutional level. It provides “the NIH community with a secure and reliable IT infrastructure and a variety of IT services to support mission-critical research and administration” [ 30 ]. Per its Strategic Plan for Data Science, the NIH maximizes all of the resources available, including people and tools. This maximization of resources encourages collaboration among the various NIH units in serving the community, including the CIT and NIH Library.

One of the major services provided by the CIT is a daily, automatic backup service for the servers connected to campus computers. It also manages NIH researchers' institutional servers for data storage and preservation, such as a centralized database called BTRIS (Biomedical Translational Research Information System), where clinical data are stored. Researchers tend to trust such services and infrastructure and rely on them for their data creation, storage, sharing, and preservation. For example, in one lab, a high volume of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data are stored on a shared drive on the server so that the lab members granted access to the data could download them with ease. Because MRI data are usually extensive, a shared drive was deemed a more viable option than email or USB, not only for storage but also for transferring data among research collaborators. Moreover, researchers tend not to preserve datasets themselves, but instead rely entirely on CIT for long-term storage. For example, they would contact CIT to retrieve old files instead of digging up their back-up files in an emergency. In addition to CIT, IT departments at each center level also provide curation services.

For the NIH Library, instead of providing technology infrastructure, librarians introduce researchers to alternative options for preserving data, such as Amazon S3, Figshare, or other scientific frameworks, helping them make the right decisions to meet their needs. However, “[Librarians] are not as open with cloud computing being in the public sector as it might be in academia,” probably because of concerns about data security. They leave it to researchers to choose the option that works best for them for preservation. The library's participation in curation services is limited to providing the technology hub and introduction of public repositories, while CIT supports more essential services for data storage and preservation.

Data lifecycle

We laid out the NIH's RDM services based on OCLC's RDM service categories and the data lifecycle ( Table 2 ).

NIH's research data management services

Data creation	Description	Storage	Analysis	Sharing	Preservation
	Electronic lab note online discussion		Application-specific classes	Data ethics training (e.g., HIPPA) Common Data Elements	Introduction of public repositories
Technology consultation, Secondary data consultation			Data wrangling Visualization	Visualization Writing services
Institutional databases (e.g., CRIS, BTRIS) Data management hardware and software	Data management hardware and software Guide to other resources (e.g., Amazon S3, Figshare)	Institutional servers and databases (e.g., CRIS, BTRIS) Guide to other resources (e.g., Amazon S3, Figshare)	Application support within institution (mostly domain-specific applications)	Institutional databases (e.g., CRIS, BTRIS) Technology hub	Institutional servers

The data creation stage is supported by the library mainly through consultation and technological support with databases, hardware, and software. Supporting the data analysis and sharing stages are training sessions, oneon-one consultations, and technological support for hardware, software, and institutional databases. Among the six stages of the data lifecycle, these three seem well provided for in terms of concrete RDM support through various types of services. On the other hand, the data lifecycle's remaining stages (description, storage, and preservation stages) are less well supported. Regarding the data preservation stage, librarians introduce a list of public repositories so that researchers can select an appropriate one for their purposes. CIT supports both back-up storage and archival storage for preservation. For the data description stage, although some efforts such as “Electronic Lab Notebooks (ELN) Online Discussion” provide instruction on using an ELN to describe and document research data, further support for this stage could improve RDM practices. Although training classes at the NIH Library mainly assist with the data analysis stage, there are efforts to increase training in data sharing and other stages of the data lifecycle. Among the three categories of RDM services, the library tends to take more responsibility in the education and expertise services categories while relying more heavily on CIT for the curation services category.

We investigated the NIH's RDM services through the lens of OCLC's RDM services categories and the data lifecycle. Our findings suggest several key practical considerations for librarians and other RDM stakeholders in developing data support services for their research communities.

Identify gaps in current services

Although many other studies adopt a data lifecycle model as a framework for assessing current data services (e.g., [ 31 – 33 ]), we combined the data lifecycle model with OCLC's RDM services categories to overview current data services at an institution. The two models' crosstab format not only lays out the landscape for the types of data services provided and the stages of RDM they serve, but it also identifies gaps.

We found that the NIH Library provides strong support for data creation, analysis, and sharing via various types of RDM services. This support is understandable considering the needs of biomedical researchers and trends in biomedical fields. Biomedical projects are increasingly adopting secondary data, and researchers are sharing more data through repositories, as journals and funding agencies often require researchers to share data in various formats [ 34 ]. In response to rapidly increasing needs, the emphasis of RDM services is inevitably on data creation, analysis, and sharing stages.

Although the data description, storage, and long-term preservation stages are less supported by the NIH Library, the significance of RDM will eventually require attention to these stages and suggests a potential need for the library's expansion of RDM services. Indeed, to fill this gap, the library plans to offer a new course, Data Management and Sharing, in Fall 2020. It is worth noting that, in addition to library services, the crosstab should include RDM services provided by other units in the institution, such as the IT department. Because not all RDM-related services can be provided solely by a library, it is useful to understand who supports RDM services and what areas can be supported by other units of an institution.

Identify services that can be supported via partnerships

The gaps identified from the two models' crosstab may be due to the library's lack of resources. Key factors that have made some of the RDM services offered by the NIH Library successful are the library's flexibility, clear understanding of institutional context and users' specific needs, and institutional support from the NIH. Despite being comprised of only three librarians, the library's flexibility enables the data services team to easily collaborate with others who possess the necessary expertise to make RDM services available to users. Similarly, other libraries can build up project-based collaboration while maintaining existing functional structures if the staff includes skilled librarians rather than seeking expertise outside the library.

The library also draws on other units within the NIH and external partners with different skills that complement one another. Previous literature also highlights close collaboration between an institution's service units as key to the success of RDM services [ 11 – 14 ]. Such collaboration maximizes RDM service resources at the institutional level, reduces duplicated services, and publicizes services to a wider range of users. Using the NIH Library as a case shows that libraries do not have to stretch services beyond their capacity but instead can successfully work with other units that can supplement resources and knowledge. For example, the library expanded its educational services, particularly statistical applications training such as R, as a direct result of increased demand from users. On the other hand, CIT provides the institution's IT infrastructure; therefore, instead of providing similar services, it would be more important for the library to communicate with CIT to let them know the potential use of their services in data management and how CIT's services result in filling the crosstab.

Opportunities for collaboration also exist with external vendors or organizations. For example, the NIH Library works with software vendors for training on specific software purchased by the library and with the Carpentries for training in data skills and data literacy assessment. The NIH Library also brought in other NIH units and external partners to supplement their capacity (e.g., lack of human resources) and capabilities (e.g., data literacy assessment). Thus, rather than trying to serve all data management stages, it may be more efficient for a library to recognize their gaps in RDM services and identify ways to fill those gaps. As shown by the NIH Library, gaps can be reduced through collaboration at different levels if a library can identify partnerships for some types of RDM services.

Get regular feedback from users

A number of existing studies share examples of current RDM services and researcher needs (e.g., [ 3 – 6 ], [ 10 ]). However, the types of services needed may differ by institution and research community. It is good to review best practices and service cases to improve a library's RDM services. However, to ensure successful reception of the services, improvements in and implementation of RDM services should be based on users' changing needs within the institutional environment and culture, as well as research community trends. For example, due to NIH researchers' busy schedules, the library provides multiple delivery options for its services, including in-person training, webinar training, one-on-one consultations, and training-the-trainee programs. These decisions regarding service formats may not apply to other institutions or libraries with different resources or user needs.

Depending on trends and priorities in research communities, the needs of researchers may change. Thus libraries should be flexible to changing needs and reflect their RDM services accordingly. The NIH Library was able to identify researchers' increasing needs for support of data sharing to respond to expectations from the research community. Also, the NIH Library actively seeks input from NIH researchers and feedback on their services. For instance, based on training participants' feedback, they prioritized their training sessions to include more R classes.

Examining the NIH Library as a case study enabled us to explore a health science library's RDM services based on OCLC's RDM services categories and the data lifecycle model, which reveals the landscape of a library's RDM services. Our findings provide a method for other health science libraries to determine which RDM services support users' RDM practices, identify gaps in services, explore how RDM services can be provided through partnership, and understand researchers' changing needs through RDM service assessment. This method also highlights the importance of having multiple assessment approaches to allow libraries to improve their services and realize the use and allocation of resources at an institutional level. However, a limitation of this study is its focus on only one specific case, which restricted the number of interviewees. Consideration of other research institutions for comparison may provide a more comprehensive understanding of library RDM services and future research models.

In conclusion, we examined institutional and library-provided RDM services according to OCLC's RDM services categories and the data lifecycle using the NIH Library as a case study. This study demonstrates the use of a crosstab analysis of these two models to categorize current RDM services and identify service gaps. The NIH Library provides an example for understanding RDM support within the institutional environment and potential expansion of RDM services. This study contributes to the existing literature in three ways. First, it analyzes RDM services through the lens of OCLC's RDM services categories and the data lifecycle to identify areas for new or improved services. Second, using the NIH Library as a case study, it demonstrates how to utilize a crosstab analysis of two models to analyze RDM services within an institution. Third, it highlights practical considerations for designing and implementing RDM services offered by health science libraries.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by LG Yonam Foundation of Korea. We would like to express our gratitude to the NIH Library librarians who agreed to participate in the interviews. This paper was proofread by the Writing Center at Jeonbuk National University in July 2020.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Supplemental files.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, tracking the research trends in the library and information science: a case study of india.

Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication

ISSN : 2514-9342

Article publication date: 14 June 2022

Issue publication date: 9 January 2024

The study aims to present an insight into the research landscape of Library and Information Science (LIS) by India using a bibliometric visualization tool. The study analyses the research growth and trends, highly cited articles, productive publication titles, institutional and country collaboration.

Design/methodology/approach

The data were downloaded from the Web of Science Core Collection for a period of 20 years and analysed through VOSviewer, a data visualization software.

The results indicate that the overall annual contributions are increasing, although with uneven and slow growth from 2001 to 2014. However, the highest contributions and impact is witnessed over the past few years. All the top 10 cited papers are related to the area of information processing and management. The visualization technique made it clear that the area of research has made a transition from traditional concepts of library and information to novel ones involving big data, machine learning, altmetrics, etc. Also, the Indian Institute of Technology System, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Indian Institute of Management System have made the highest contributions. Furthermore, India shares maximum collaborations with the USA, followed by England and China.

Research limitations/implications

The findings of this study would help readers to gain understanding about the contribution of India for the development of the LIS. It would also help researchers to identify the hotspots and left out areas of research in the Indian context that require further investigation, thus would help in policy decisions and future research. Furthermore, researchers will be sensitized about the network visualizations that can also help them to get connected with the peers. The study can also help the journals to recognize the trending topics, which will provide the researchers with the opportunities to work on the same. Funding agencies can also be benefitted by the findings of the current study as they will be informed about the research areas which need to be funded.

Originality/value

There are not many research studies that highlight the research trends in the area of LIS from India and visualize the collaboration among institutions and countries. The study tries to showcase the research trends and collaborative frameworks in the field of LIS in terms of network visualization.

Bibliometrics
Data visualization
Research output-India
Library and Information Science research
Network visualization
Scientometrics
Research trends

Acknowledgements

Conflict of interest: There is no potential conflict of interest in the research.

Gupta, S. and Gul, S. (2024), "Tracking the research trends in the library and information science: a case study of India", Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication , Vol. 73 No. 1/2, pp. 202-218. https://doi.org/10.1108/GKMC-11-2021-0184

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Many assume that major oil and gas companies adamantly oppose climate-friendly regulation, but that's not true. A study of 30 years of corporate advocacy by Jonas Meckling finds that energy companies have backed clean-energy efforts when it aligns with their business interests.

12 Mar 2024

How Used Products Can Unlock New Markets: Lessons from Apple's Refurbished iPhones

The idea of reselling old smartphones might have seemed risky for a company known for high-end devices, but refurbished products have become a major profit stream for Apple and an environmental victory. George Serafeim examines Apple's circular model in a case study, and offers insights for other industries.

27 Feb 2024

How Could Harvard Decarbonize Its Supply Chain?

Harvard University aims to be fossil-fuel neutral by 2026 and totally free of fossil fuels by 2050. As part of this goal, the university is trying to decarbonize its supply chain and considers replacing cement with a low-carbon substitute called Pozzotive®, made with post-consumer recycled glass. A successful pilot project could jump start Harvard’s initiative to reduce embodied carbon emissions, but it first needs credible information about the magnitude and validity of potential carbon reductions. Harvard Business School professor emeritus Robert Kaplan and assistant professor Shirley Lu discuss the flow of emissions along the supply chain of Harvard University’s construction projects, the different methods of measuring carbon emissions, including the E-liability approach, and the opportunity to leverage blockchain technology to facilitate the flow of comparable and reliable emissions information in the case, “Harvard University and Urban Mining Industries: Decarbonizing the Supply Chain.”

30 Jan 2024

Can Second-Generation Ethanol Production Help Decarbonize the World?

Raízen, a bioenergy company headquartered in São Paulo, is Brazil’s leader in sugar and ethanol production and the world’s leading ethanol trader. Since its creation in 2011, the company had primarily produced first-generation ethanol (E1G) from sugarcane, a crop that can also be used to produce sugar. In 2015, Raízen also started to produce second-generation ethanol (E2G), a biofuel derived from residual and waste materials, such as cane bagasse and straw – which don’t compete with food production. The company’s growth strategy focused on developing and boosting a low carbon portfolio that focused on E2G, based on the belief that Raízen—and Brazil—could help the world decarbonize and profit from the energy transition. Paula Kovarsky, Raízen’s chief strategy and sustainability officer, was confident the company could become a global green energy champion. But after the board’s approval for the first round of E2G investments, she faced a complex challenge: how to expand the market for second-generation ethanol and other sugar-cane waste biofuels, in order to ensure Raízen’s long-term growth? Harvard Business School professor Gunnar Trumbull and Kovarsky discuss the company’s strategy for bringing second-generation ethanol to the world in the case, “Raízen: Helping to Decarbonize the World?”

29 Jan 2024

Do Disasters Rally Support for Climate Action? It's Complicated.

Reactions to devastating wildfires in the Amazon show the contrasting realities for people living in areas vulnerable to climate change. Research by Paula Rettl illustrates the political ramifications that arise as people weigh the economic tradeoffs of natural disasters.

17 Jan 2024

Are Companies Getting Away with 'Cheap Talk' on Climate Goals?

Many companies set emissions targets with great fanfare—and never meet them, says research by Shirley Lu and colleagues. But what if investors held businesses accountable for achieving their climate plans?

09 Jan 2024

Could Clean Hydrogen Become Affordable at Scale by 2030?

The cost to produce hydrogen could approach the $1-per-kilogram target set by US regulators by 2030, helping this cleaner energy source compete with fossil fuels, says research by Gunther Glenk and colleagues. But planned global investments in hydrogen production would need to come to fruition to reach full potential.

02 Jan 2024

Should Businesses Take a Stand on Societal Issues?

Should businesses take a stand for or against particular societal issues? And how should leaders determine when and how to engage on these sensitive matters? Harvard Business School Senior Lecturer Hubert Joly, who led the electronics retailer Best Buy for almost a decade, discusses examples of corporate leaders who had to determine whether and how to engage with humanitarian crises, geopolitical conflict, racial justice, climate change, and more in the case, “Deciding When to Engage on Societal Issues.”

10 Trends to Watch in 2024

Employees may seek new approaches to balance, even as leaders consider whether to bring more teams back to offices or make hybrid work even more flexible. These are just a few trends that Harvard Business School faculty members will be following during a year when staffing, climate, and inclusion will likely remain top of mind.

19 Sep 2023

What Chandrayaan-3 Says About India's Entrepreneurial Approach to Space

India reached an unexplored part of the moon despite its limited R&D funding compared with NASA and SpaceX. Tarun Khanna discusses the significance of the landing, and the country's advancements in data and digital technology.

12 Sep 2023
What Do You Think?

Who Gets the Loudest Voice in DEI Decisions?

Business leaders are wrestling with how to manage their organizations' commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion. If you were a CEO, which constituency would you consider most: your employees, customers, or investors? asks James Heskett. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

26 Jul 2023

STEM Needs More Women. Recruiters Often Keep Them Out

Tech companies and programs turn to recruiters to find top-notch candidates, but gender bias can creep in long before women even apply, according to research by Jacqueline Ng Lane and colleagues. She highlights several tactics to make the process more equitable.

18 Jul 2023

Will Global Demand for Oil Peak This Decade?

The International Energy Agency expects the world's oil demand to start to ebb in the coming years. However, Joseph Lassiter and Lauren Cohen say the outlook will likely be more complex, especially as poor and fast-growing regions seek energy sources for their economies.

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NCCSTS Case Studies
The NCCSTS Case Collection, created and curated by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, on behalf of the University at Buffalo, contains over a thousand peer-reviewed case studies on a variety of topics in all areas of science. Cases (only) are freely accessible; subscription is required for access to teaching notes and ...
(PDF) Exploring Case Study Method for Library and Information Science
The case study is frequently used in library science research and refers to the application of a descriptive research approach to get a comprehensive investigation of an individual, entity ...
Case Study Methods and Examples
The purpose of case study research is twofold: (1) to provide descriptive information and (2) to suggest theoretical relevance. Rich description enables an in-depth or sharpened understanding of the case. It is unique given one characteristic: case studies draw from more than one data source. Case studies are inherently multimodal or mixed ...
Distinguishing case study as a research method from case reports as a
As another example, the description of the academic context is one of the most salient components of the case study written by Clairoux et al., which had the objectives of (1) describing the library instruction offered and learning assessments used at a single health sciences library and (2) discussing the positive outcomes of instruction in ...
An integrated method for interdisciplinary topic identification and
In this study, Information Science and Library Science is selected as a case study. The research has clearly shown that more accurate and comprehensive results can be achieved for interdisciplinary topic identification and prediction by employing this integrated method. Further, the integration of different methods has promising potential for ...
Designing and Conducting Case Studies
The Case Study Method: A Case Study. Library and Information Science Research, 6. The article describes the use of case study methodology to systematically develop a model of online searching behavior in which study design is flexible, subject manner determines data gathering and analyses, and procedures adapt to the study's progressive change.
NCCSTS Case Collection Teaching Resources Publications
Edited by Clyde Freeman Herreid. Originally published in 2006 by NSTA Press; reprinted by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) in 2013. Collection of 40+ essays examining every aspect of the case study method and its use in the science classroom. The book is available for purchase through NSTA.
(PDF) Case Studies in Library and Information Science
Barbara M. Wildemuth. Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited, 2009. 421p. Alk. Paper, $50 (ISBN 9781591585039). LC 2008-053745 College and Research Libraries
PDF A Case Study of Periodical Use by Library and Information Science Students
A Case Study of Periodical Use by Library and Information Science Students. of Periodical Use by Library and Information Science Students. ammy IvinsFrancis Marion U. iversity, PO Box 1000547, Florence, SC, 29502. Email: [email protected] is a lack of information in the literature about the sources used for research by modern Master of ...
Method Assessment
Intended for faculty interested in conducting research on case-based teaching in science, this annotated bibliography lists research articles on empirical studies that focus primarily on case-based teaching and learning in the sciences. Included are evidence-based articles with an articulated research design, meta-analyses of research on the ...
Writing a Case Study
Case Study Research: Principles and Practices. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. "The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research."
Using case study in library research
Social Science Information Studies (1981), 1(221-230) 1981 Butterworths USING CASE STUDY IN LIBRARY RESEARCH LAWRENCE STENHOUSE* Professor of Education, Director of Centre for Applied Research in Education, University of East Anglia, Norwich, England ABSTRACT An examination of the case study approach which combines conceptual clarification with a pragmatic discussion of technique.
Using case study in library research
Abstract. An examination of the case study approach which combines conceptual clarification with a pragmatic discussion of technique. The author sees the emergence of the case study as a consequence of the difficulties of applying the methodology of the sciences to problems 'in which human behaviour, action or intention play a large part'.
Case Study Methodology of Qualitative Research: Key Attributes and
A case study is one of the most commonly used methodologies of social research. This article attempts to look into the various dimensions of a case study research strategy, the different epistemological strands which determine the particular case study type and approach adopted in the field, discusses the factors which can enhance the effectiveness of a case study research, and the debate ...
National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science
This website provides access to an award-winning collection of peer-reviewed case studies. The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science also offers a five-day summer workshop and a two-day fall conference to train faculty in the case method of teaching science. In addition, they are actively engaged in educational research to assess ...
Digital Literation: Case Study Library Science Students
The population in this study is the Open University library science students aged 20-24 years, who take tuton classes in the 2019.1 ... [Show full abstract] period.
Practical considerations for a library's research data management
Examining the NIH Library as a case study enabled us to explore a health science library's RDM services based on OCLC's RDM services categories and the data lifecycle model, which reveals the landscape of a library's RDM services. Our findings provide a method for other health science libraries to determine which RDM services support users' RDM ...
Case Study Method: A Step-by-Step Guide for Business Researchers
Although case studies have been discussed extensively in the literature, little has been written about the specific steps one may use to conduct case study research effectively (Gagnon, 2010; Hancock & Algozzine, 2016).Baskarada (2014) also emphasized the need to have a succinct guideline that can be practically followed as it is actually tough to execute a case study well in practice.
Tracking the research trends in the library and information science: a
The study analyses the research growth and trends, highly cited articles, productive publication titles, institutional and country collaboration.,The data were downloaded from the Web of Science Core Collection for a period of 20 years and analysed through VOSviewer, a data visualization software.,The results indicate that the overall annual ...
NCCSTS Case Studies Guidelines
Instructors may use our cases in their classrooms according to "fair use" guidelines without contacting us for permission. This includes modifying a case to fit your course or to "personalize" a case for your students. Whenever using one of our cases, you must acknowledge the author (s) and cite the National Science Teaching Association as ...
The engagement of academic libraries in open science: A systematic
Abstract. Open science is reshaping the environment of scholarly communication. In this context, academic libraries are beginning to redefine or expand their functions and role. Using a systematic review and meta-synthesis approach, this study analyses 65 literature related to the engagement of academic libraries in open science.
Science: Articles, Research, & Case Studies on Science
by Desmond Dodd. Many assume that major oil and gas companies adamantly oppose climate-friendly regulation, but that's not true. A study of 30 years of corporate advocacy by Jonas Meckling finds that energy companies have backed clean-energy efforts when it aligns with their business interests. 12 Mar 2024. HBS Case.
A Research on the Biophilic Concept upon School ...
3. Study Case. The education process in Iraq suffers from a clear quality decline and a clear lack of the spaces allocated for the completion of that process, as schools are no longer able to provide the educational process requirements efficiently but rather have a degree of negativity that affects the educational process results.
2024 Most Popular Library Science Degree Programs Ranking in the West
Benefits of getting a Library Science degree online: An online graduate from San Jose State University found that the flexibility of an online program allowed her to balance work and study effectively, leading to her successful career as a Librarian. This option can be particularly advantageous for those who need to maintain employment while ...

An integrated method for interdisciplinary topic identification and prediction: a case study on information science and library science

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Designing and Conducting Case Studies

Definition and Overview

Educational Applications

Types and Design Concerns

Types of Case Studies

Identifying a Theoretical Perspective

Designing a Case Study

Conducting Case Studies

Method: Single or Multi-modal?

Participant Selection

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Composing the Case Study Report

Issues of Validity and Reliability

Commentary on Case Studies

Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Studies

Concerns about Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability

Annotated Bibliography

Related Links

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National Center for case study teaching in science

Research Articles

Cases and Critical Thinking

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Case Study

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

Structure and Writing Style

Writing Tip

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science

Practical considerations for a library's research data management services: the case of the National Institutes of Health Library

Sue Yeon Syn

Associated Data

Conclusion:

INTRODUCTION

Conceptual framework

Data collection and analysis

Institutional environment

User characteristics and needs

Collaboration experiences

Education services

Expertise services

Curation services

Data lifecycle

Identify gaps in current services

Identify services that can be supported via partnerships

Get regular feedback from users

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