writing psychology essays

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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Tips for Writing Psychology Papers

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Hero Images / Getty Images

Writing in psychology is formal, concise, and straightforward. When writing a psychology paper, avoid using metaphors, anecdotes, or narrative. Your paper should be well-cited and the point should be clear. In almost all cases, you will need to structure your paper in a specific way and follow the rules of APA format. 

Learn more about writing in psychology and how to write a psychology paper.

The Importance of Writing in Psychology

Writing is important in psychology because the study and practice of psychology involves complex concepts. Writing is an important way to note observations, communicate new ideas, and support theories.

Most psychology courses require a significant amount of writing, including essays, case studies, research reports, and other papers . Start by viewing each class assignment as an opportunity to learn and practice. Check out resources offered by your school, such as tutors or writing labs, and learn more about the different types of psychology writing.

The following resources offer tips, guidelines, and advice on how to write psychology papers. If you are struggling with writing a psychology paper, following some of the guidelines below may help.

Basic Tips for Writing a Psychology Paper

If you have never written a psychology paper before, you need to start with the basics. Psychology writing is much like other types of writing, but most instructors will have special requirements for each assignment.

When writing a psychology paper, you will be expected to follow a few specific style guidelines. Some important tips to keep in mind include:

• Back up your words and ideas with evidence. Your work should be well-cited using evidence from the scientific literature. Avoid expressing your opinion or using examples from your own life.
• Use clear, concise language. Get directly to the point and make sure you are making logical connections between your arguments and conclusions and the evidence you cite.
• Avoid literary devices. Metaphors, anecdotes, and other literary devices you may have used in other types of writing aren't appropriate when you are writing a psychology paper.
• Use the correct format. Most psychology writing uses APA style, but your instructor may have additional formatting requirements.
• Check the rubric. Before you start a psychology paper, you'll need to learn more about what you should write about, how you should structure your paper, and what type of sources you should use. Always check the grading rubric for an assignment before you begin writing and brush up on the basics.

Types of Psychology Writing

There are a few different types of psychology papers you may be asked to write. Some examples and how to write them are listed below.

How to Write a Psychology Case Study

Students taking courses in abnormal psychology , child development , or psychotherapy will often be expected to write a case study on an individual—either real or imagined. Case studies vary somewhat, but most include a detailed history of the client, a description of the presenting problem, a diagnosis, and a discussion of possible treatments.

This type of paper can be both challenging and interesting. You will get a chance to explore an individual in great depth and find insights into their behaviors and motivations. Before you begin your assignment, learn more about how to write a psychology case study .

How to Write a Psychology Lab Report

Lab reports are commonly assigned in experimental or research-based psychology courses. The structure of a lab report is very similar to that of a professional journal article, so reading a few research articles is a good way to start learning more about the basic format of a lab report.

There are some basic rules to follow when writing a psychology lab report. Your report should provide a clear and concise overview of the experiment, research, or study you conducted. Before you begin working on your paper, read more about how to write a psychology lab report .

How to Write a Psychology Critique Paper

Psychology critique papers are often required in psychology courses, so you should expect to write one at some point in your studies. Your professor may expect you to provide a critique on a book, journal article , or psychological theory .

Students sometimes find that writing a critique can actually be quite challenging. How can you prepare for this type of assignment? Start by reading these tips and guidelines on how to write a psychology critique paper .

Remember to Edit Your Psychology Paper

Before you turn in any type of psychology writing, it is vital to proofread and edit your work for errors, typos, and grammar. Do not just rely on your computer's spellchecker to do the job! Always read thoroughly through your paper to remove mistakes and ensure that your writing flows well and is structured logically.

Finally, always have another person read your work to spot any mistakes you may have missed. After you have read something so many times, it can become difficult to spot your own errors. Getting a fresh set of eyes to read through it can be very helpful. Plus, your proofreader can ask questions and point out areas that might not be clear to the reader.

Know the Rules of APA Format

Not learning APA format is a mistake that costs points for many students. APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association and is used in many different types of science writing, especially the social sciences. Before you hand in any writing assignment, always double-check your page format, in-text citations, and references for correct APA format. If you need directions or examples, check out this guide to APA format .

A Word From Verywell

Writing psychology papers is an important part of earning a degree in psychology. Even non-majors often find themselves writing such papers when taking general education psychology classes. Fortunately, paying attention to the directions provided by your instructor, familiarizing yourself with APA style, and following some basic guidelines for different types of psychology papers can make the process much easier.

Levitt HM. Reporting qualitative research in psychology: How to meet APA style journal article reporting standards . American Psychological Association; 2020. doi:10.1037/0000179-000

Willemsen J, Della Rosa E, Kegerreis S. Clinical case studies in psychoanalytic and psychodynamic treatment . Front Psychol . 2017;8:108. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00108

Klein RM, Saint-Aubin J. What a simple letter-detection task can tell us about cognitive processes in reading . Curr Dir Psychol Sci . 2016;25(6):417-424. doi:10.1177/0963721416661173

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Writing Guide for Psychologists

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Updated August 17, 2022

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More so than other social science and science-related disciplines, psychology requires practitioners to engage in various types of writing throughout their academic and professional careers. Beginning with their college applications, prospective students must supply a writing sample to demonstrate their ability to convey ideas clearly and effectively. Throughout their time in school, learners hone writing skills by learning about various styles associated with essays, research papers, and exams. They also learn how to properly cite sources to avoid plagiarism.

Graduates use writing in a variety of important ways. Whether reviewing literature, contributing an article to an academic journal, writing a report about their own research, or keeping detailed client notes, psychologists continually use writing to advance both their careers and the profession as a whole. Psychology's precise nature requires practitioners to expertly convey nuance. The following guide highlights some of the types of writing aspiring psychologists engage in while at school, provides helpful information about common writing styles, and offers a number of resources for those looking to learn more.

Types of Writing Psychologists Will Do in School

Personal statements.

As the introduction between a college and you, personal statements serve an important function. Personal statements provide the space for applicants to differentiate themselves by sharing unique interests, accomplishments, and life experiences in a well-crafted essay. When reading personal statements, admissions panels look at what makes a student tick and, most importantly, why they fit within the program. Rather than submitting carbon-copy statements to every school, students should take time to personalize each statement.

Some of the common application essay prompts students may encounter include:

• Describe the background, interests, and talents that make you who you are.
• Can you name a time when you found yourself questioning or challenging an idea or belief that previously informed your worldview? What did that process look like?

When sitting down to write an essay, students must consider how to portray themselves.

According to Purdue University's Online Writing Lab , students should consider a number of approaches, including what's unique about their story, how their life story has been shaped, how they became interested in the field, and how they hope to use the degree. Above all, students should avoid writing a generic essay that could easily belong to another applicant. They should highlight their personality, as admissions specialists want a true sense of you. While not every school requires a personal statement, learners should take advantage of schools that provide the option of submitting one as it allows them to further establish what they bring to the table.

Once students reach college, professors expect them to embrace numerous psychology writing styles. Exams also require students to perfect their writing, as exams take the form of essays rather than multiple choice or short answer questions. Because students typically enter the exam without having first seen an essay prompt, they must develop a plan of action for whatever faces them on testing day. Aside from keeping up with all required reading, learners should spend time thinking about how to apply the knowledge gained to real-world questions.

When testing day arrives, remember to embrace all of the writing rules. After developing a solid thesis, create an outline of the three main points that you plan to convey and jot down notes to support the main argument. Take a moment to review the prompt once more, ensuring your argument and outline thoroughly answer each question. Remember to write each sentence in a way that supports the overarching thesis. While students should avoid rushing through the essay, they must also remember to leave ample time for proofreading, as careless mistakes cause point deductions.

Research Papers

Research papers provide another avenue for students to demonstrate their psychology writing style and skill. Unlike essays, which tend to rely heavily on the student's point of view, research papers call on learners to highlight the views of others and draw conclusions about existing primary and secondary sources.

When selecting a research topic, psychology provides students with a wide range of options. In addition to focusing on particular branches of the discipline, students also explore disorders, therapies, historical psychology figures, case studies, and literature reviews. After selecting a topic, learners must form an outline incorporating the various sections expected within a research paper. Professors set specific guidelines, but a standard assignment consists of an introduction, literature review, outline of methods, results of any findings, a discussion of the topic at hand, conclusion, and list of references.

When starting, learners should ensure that they fully understand the writing prompt and follow any guidelines. They should also select a sound thesis with qualitative evidence to back it up. Students then create a comprehensive outline of points and sub-points to guide the argument. When sitting down to write, use the active voice, follow style conventions, proofread, and make sure to write an accurate bibliography.

How Do You Write an Essay?

During the course of their college career, students come across various types of writing in psychology. Essays take multiple forms, making it imperative that students familiarize themselves with each.

• Collapse All

Narrative essays may initially seem like the easiest of all writing forms, but those who earn the highest scores recognize the importance of ensuring that the reader learns something new or thinks that the story provides an insightful angle. When writing a narrative essay, make full use of all five senses to draw the reader in and help them experience the setting.

Expository essays help students learn how to properly conduct research and express their findings in an academic arena. Rather than relying on existing knowledge, students should use these essays to fully delve into research and demonstrate how their findings helped them uncover a new perspective or way of looking at something. Although expository essays ultimately call on students to express their opinions, research should inform the opinions they form.

Persuasive essays require students to use evidence and reasoning skills to persuade the reader that their point of view represents a logical conclusion. When sitting down to write this type of essay, students need to ensure that their sources strongly support the argument they want to make.

Comparative

These types of essays call on the student to examine two topics and draw conclusions about their similarities and differences. Students should use qualitative research for each topic and craft a new, logical, and interesting argument.

Cause and Effect

As the name implies, cause and effect essays require students to examine a situation or event that caused something else to occur (i.e., the effect). One example might include an individual experiencing trauma (such as fighting in a war) and then developing post-traumatic stress disorder. When crafting this type of essay, students must establish a strong relation between the cause and the effect.

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Citations Guide for Psychology Students

Learning how to properly attribute research articles and sources counts as one of the most important parts of becoming a psychologist . When students fail to acknowledge the ideas of others, they plagiarize by passing off someone else's work off as their own. Many students commit accidental plagiarism by failing to understand the rules of citations. If caught, students may face suspension or even expulsion, especially if it happens multiple times.

American Psychological Association (APA) Style

Established in 1929 by the American Psychological Association, APA Style serves as the primary style guideline for individuals working within the behavioral and social sciences. Whether writing an academic paper or compiling an article or literature review, APA Style provides all of the information needed to correctly cite sources and avoid plagiarism. Unlike citation forms that emphasize authorship, APA style emphasizes the date of publication to help readers ascertain how recent the research and ideas appear in the available literature.

Example: (Author last name, author first initial. (year of publication). Title of publication. Location of publication: publisher) Frankl, V.E. (2006). Man's search for meaning . Boston: Beacon Press.

Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)

A variety of disciplines use the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) to bring uniformity and clarity to readers. Regardless of whether the text focuses on literature, history, the sciences, or medicine, CMS serves as a uniting form of citation that allows users to introduce both notes within the text and a full bibliography at the end of the work. Footnotes and endnotes count as common methods used by CMS. While they both add clarification to the main text, footnotes appear on the page at the bottom, and endnotes appear near the end of the work. User should use the 17th edition of the CMS, it's latest update.

Example: (Author last name, author first name. Title. City of publication: Publisher, Year of publication) Frankl, Viktor Emil. Man's Search for Meaning . Boston: Beacon Press, 2006.

Modern Language Association (MLA) Format

Created by the Modern Language Association (MLA), humanities students and scholars most commonly use this style of citation because it emphasizes authorship. When using MLA, writers cite the name of the author within the text and organize the bibliography (known as the Works Cited page) at the end of the paper. Disciplines commonly using this form of citation include English, history, anthropology, philosophy, and literature. Many high school teachers use MLA, meaning lots of students possess some familiarity with this style upon reaching college.

(Author last name, author first name. Title. Publisher, Release year) Frankl, Viktor Emil. Man's Search for Meaning. Boston: Beacon Press, 2006.

Associated Press (AP) Style

Associated Press Style (AP) caters to disciplines related to news writing and journalism. AP style focuses on numbers, dates, and abbreviations rather than end-of-chapter citations to ensure that writers maintain uniformity across publications. The Associated Press updates their style guides regularly, making it imperative for students and professionals alike to ensure that they follow the most recently established best practices.

The Best Writing Style for Psychology Majors

Students and scholars of psychology most commonly use the American Psychological Association writing style. Designed with psychology and other science-related disciplines in mind, APA style provides the clearest method for citing the types of materials typically encountered. Most psychology college professors require students to use APA style to prepare them for professional writing for psychology practice; however, some introductory classes may allow students to use MLA.

Common Writing Mistakes Students Make

Active vs. passive voice.

Writing in the active voice allows students to convey findings clearly and succinctly by calling on the subject of the sentence to perform the action. Passive sentence construction, conversely, allows the subject to receive the action. While not technically incorrect, passive sentences tend to weaken the persuasive nature of a sentence -- as they require more words (and prepositional phrases, in particular) -- and sometimes muddle a sentence's meaning. Understanding how to use active voice presents little difficulty, but executing active-voice sentences often requires sustained focus and practice. Examples of active and passive sentences include:

Passive: The man was scratched by a feral cat. Active: A feral cat scratched the man.

Passive: My shoe was left in the car by accident. Active: I left my shoe in the car by accident.

Passive: The picture has fallen off the wall. Active: The picture fell off the wall.

Punctuation

Students make a variety of punctuation and grammar errors. Some of the most common punctuation errors include the overuse or underuse of apostrophes and commas, adding unnecessary quotation marks, and failing to understand colon and semicolon rules. Examples of these mistakes include:

Apostrophes Incorrect: The professor took five point's off of your test. Correct: The professor took five points off of your test.

Incorrect: Its time to apply for graduation. Correct: It's time to apply for graduation

Quotation Marks Incorrect: The teaching assistant told me I wrote the "best paper he's ever read." Correct: The teaching assistant told me I wrote the best paper he's ever read.

Commas Incorrect: Within the field of psychology students are expected to use proper punctuation. Correct: Within the field of psychology, students are expected to use proper punctuation.

Incorrect: Today, we have a test. Correct: We have a test today.

Semicolons versus Colons Incorrect: I am interested in three types of psychology; developmental, school, and educational Correct: I am interested in three types of psychology: developmental, school, and educational.

Incorrect: I'm looking forward to summer break: I need time to rest. Correct: I'm look forward to summer break; I need time to rest.

Grammar mistakes take many forms, but students who closely observe the rules of writing quickly learn how to avoid them. Whether struggling with subject-verb agreement, unclear pronoun usage, or incorrectly using words, students can make easy repairs to these sentences. Examples of how to correct these common mistakes include:

Subject-verb agreement Incorrect: My colleague and I was happy with our grades. Correct: My colleague and I were happy with our grades.

Unclear pronoun usage Incorrect: Our professor told my colleague that he didn't like his writing style initially. Correct: Our professor encouraged my colleague by complimenting his improved writing style.

Incorrect word usage Incorrect: When they're group excepted our invitation, their were no spaces left for others. Correct: When their group accepted our invitation, there were no spaces left for others.

Writing Resources for Psychology Students

• Purdue Online Writing Lab : Every students seeking writing advice should bookmark Purdue University's OWL. The site provides endless resources to help them excel as writers both in college and beyond.
• APA Style : Psychology most commonly uses APA style for citations, and students should know the most updated rules. APA also provides several online and printed resources.
• Writing in Psychology Resources : The University of Connecticut offers an extensive list of resources for psychology students, including guides on how to read research articles, summarize reports, report statistics, and take examinations.
• Psychology Writing Resources : The University of Toronto offers help on APA style guidelines, scientific article writing, and best practices within the field.
• Tips and Advice for Writing Psychology Papers : Very Well Mind takes psychology students through the steps of learning to write great psychology papers and offers helpful tips and resources along the way.

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How to Write a Psychology Essay

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In most psychology and related courses, learners are expected to write short essays or extended exam-style answers about research studies or theories. I want to share some tips about how to structure this type of essay.

It will be especially useful if you are a student in your final years of school (e.g. A-Level, AP, Higher), as well as for college and university students.

THE STRUCTURE

The most common way of structuring an essay is to base it around three parts — an introduction, main body, and conclusion. I suggest that you stick that structure! It works well, and is also what a marker will be expecting to see.

At the same time, you should remember that this structure is only a foundation. Each of the sections will need to be tweaked to fit the needs of each particular essay.

Overall, the introduction sets the scene, and tells the reader (or marker) all of the background that they need to know before you really get started with the topic. The main section is where you really delve into the particular topic, including arguments for or against an idea, while the conclusion is where you sum up this argument and identify issues that rise. I’ll now explain each of these in turn.

INTRODUCTION SECTIONS

There are several things that should be included in a good introduction. It should state the aim of the essay, and provide enough background information to put the main issue into context.

For example, in an essay analysing the Asch (1951) study of conformity , you might begin by explaining the key context around conformity and social psychology at the time, defining some terms (especially what is meant by ‘conformity’) and giving relevant quotes and references. For example, you could point out that social processes at the time were viewed mainly in terms of individuals’ thoughts and feelings, but that Asch and others argued that social behaviour is more than the sum of its (individual) parts.

Your introduction could also give a very brief synopsis of the study itself, without going into lots of methodological details. Finally, your introduction should usually state the goal of the essay, along the lines of: “in this essay, I will argue that the Asch study is flawed.”

MAIN BODY OF THE ESSAY

The main body of your essay will be the majority of the piece in terms of word count. It is often divided into a further three subsections — for the issue, against the issue, and ‘on balance’ — but this does depend on the essay topic. In a short essay, three paragraphs might work well, but in longer essays, each of these parts will need to be expanded further.

Let’s imagine a short essay evaluating the classic Milgram (1963) study of obedience , for example. Here, your introduction will already have briefly summarised the study. A good structure for the main body might be:

• A paragraph supporting the study. This will give details, but will not be purely descriptive. Instead, you should use facts about the study to support an argument for its strengths. For example, you might point out that this study was the first of its kind, that it has been hugely influential, and that notwithstanding its ethical issues, it appears that the participants took the task seriously and believed in what they were doing, increasing the validity of the findings.

• A paragraph criticising the study. Here, you will present the other side of the argument (weaknesses). Again, you should use facts to build an argument. So don’t say things like, “this was a lab study, and therefore artificial”. That would simply be stating a fact. Instead, explain what this means in terms of the findings. A better comment would be: “Milgram’s study was a lab experiment. This meant that it was artificial, and we have to question how realistic the situation is when compared to everyday life. Granted, there are historical examples of people committing atrocities because they were ordered to do so by an authority figure. But in everyday life, it is very uncommon for a civilian to be ordered to give a deadly shock to a complete stranger. Outside of an experimental situation, it is entirely possible that most people would refuse such an order.”

• A paragraph weighing up the strengths and weaknesses. Taking into account further facts about the study as well as broader research ideas, this section allows you to present counterpoints to some of the arguments raised so far, and try to balance the discussion. It therefore sets up the final conclusion of your essay.

THE ESSAY CONCLUSION

Your essay’s conclusion should re-emphasise the main points you have made so far, and will also reflect back on the original aim of the essay. This allows you to show that what you have been talking about does indeed meet your aims, and that you have successfully answered the question (or fulfilled the task).

For example, an essay discussing the methodology of the research by Pozzulo et al (2011) into eyewitness memory might state something like: “In this essay, I have explained how the experimental methodology of the essay distinguished it from previous research…”

Of course, no essay will completely resolve an ongoing scientific debate. You therefore might choose to raise further issues that are unresolved here, or highlight alternative views, using terms like ‘however’, and ‘on the other hand’, or ‘it shouldn’t be forgotten that…’.

A strong ending will reinforce the main point, linking in to the original stated aim of the essay, e.g. “On the whole, though, the Pozzulo et al (2011) study demonstrates why experimental methodology is so important if we are to understand the processes at work when eyewitnesses try to remember faces that they have seen.”

OTHER POINTS TO CONSIDER

Overall, the 3-part essay structure is a coherent basis for writing essays, suitable for students at all levels. Even a lengthier essay (for example the 3000-word essays that my Masters students write about theories of learning) is completed in more or less the same way, with each of the three parts proportionally longer, and subdivided where necessary.

In fact, this blog post is following a similar structure, too. The first four paragraphs formed an introduction to what I was talking about. I then had a main body with three subsections (the three sections of the essay), and you have now reached my conclusion section!

The reason that this structure works so well is that the introduction and conclusion serve to put the main information into context and to comment on what it means. They also mirror each other — the end reflects back on what was said at the beginning. A similar format is used in storytelling, and people respond well to writing where everything seems to fit together and make sense.

At the same time, remember that every essay is different. Make sure that you check the guidelines for your own essay carefully. Refer to the marking criteria (if available), and if anything is unclear, discuss the requirements with your teacher/lecturer.

Good luck with your essay writing :)

Originally published on my Medium page here.

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How to Write Brilliant Psychology Essays

• Paul Dickerson - University of Roehampton, UK
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“This book is one I wish I had bought at the start of my Psychology degree.” – Five-star review Essay writing is a key part of the Psychology degree and knowing how to write effective and compelling academic essays is key to success.  Whether it's understanding how to implement feedback you receive on essays, how to stop procrastinating or what makes an effective introduction, this book covers it all. Drawing on insights derived from teaching thousands of students over a 25-year period How to Write Brilliant Psychology Essays provides the keys that will unlock your writing potential.

Ace your Assignment  provide practical tips to help succeed

Exercises  help try the theory out in practice

Take away  points highlight the key learnings from each chapter

Online resources  provide even more help and guidance.

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Paul Dickerson, Emma McDonald and Christian van Nieuwerburgh discuss  study skills, wellbeing and employability  and explore   how university lecturers and student welfare teams can better  support Psychology students  through their university journey.

Students enjoyed this text - they found it easy to read and the author's dry sense of humour appealed to many. Not just for psychologists!

A really useful guide for students, breaking down the components of what constitutes a good essay and written from a subject-specific view - highly recommend

I have recommended this to my first year tutorial groups as it provides them with everything they need to know about producing an excellent psychology essay.

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What this handout is about

This handout discusses some of the common writing assignments in psychology courses, and it presents strategies for completing them. The handout also provides general tips for writing psychology papers and for reducing bias in your writing.

What is psychology?

Psychology, one of the behavioral sciences, is the scientific study of observable behaviors, like sleeping, and abstract mental processes, such as dreaming. Psychologists study, explain, and predict behaviors. Because of the complexity of human behaviors, researchers use a variety of methods and approaches.  They ask questions about behaviors and answer them using systematic methods. For example, to understand why female students tend to perform better in school than their male classmates, psychologists have examined whether parents, teachers, schools, and society behave in ways that support the educational outcomes of female students to a greater extent than those of males.

Writing in psychology

Writing in psychology is similar to other forms of scientific writing in that organization, clarity, and concision are important.  The Psychology Department at UNC has a strong research emphasis, so many of your assignments will focus on synthesizing and critically evaluating research, connecting your course material with current research literature, and designing and carrying out your own studies.

Common assignments

Reaction papers.

These assignments ask you to react to a scholarly journal article.  Instructors use reaction papers to teach students to critically evaluate research and to synthesize current research with course material.  Reaction papers typically include a brief summary of the article, including prior research, hypotheses, research method, main results, and conclusions. The next step is your critical reaction. You might critique the study, identify unresolved issues, suggest future research, or reflect on the study’s implications.  Some instructors may want you to connect the material you are learning in class with the article’s theories, methodology, and findings. Remember, reaction papers require more than a simple summary of what you have read.

To successfully complete this assignment, you should carefully read the article. Go beyond highlighting important facts and interesting findings. Ask yourself questions as you read: What are the researchers’ assumptions? How does the article contribute to the field? Are the findings generalizable, and to whom?  Are the conclusions valid and based on the results?  It is important to pay attention to the graphs and tables because they can help you better assess the researchers’ claims.

Your instructor may give you a list of articles to choose from, or you may need to find your own.  The American Psychological Association (APA) PsycINFO database is the most comprehensive collection of psychology research; it is an excellent resource for finding journal articles.  You can access PsycINFO from the E-research tab on the Library’s webpage.   Here are the most common types of articles you will find:

• Empirical studies test hypotheses by gathering and analyzing data. Empirical articles are organized into distinct sections based on stages in the research process: introduction, method, results, and discussion.
• Literature reviews synthesize previously published material on a topic.  The authors define or clarify the problem, summarize research findings, identify gaps/inconsistencies in the research, and make suggestions for future work. Meta-analyses, in which the authors use quantitative procedures to combine the results of multiple studies, fall into this category.
• Theoretical articles trace the development of a specific theory to expand or refine it, or they present a new theory.  Theoretical articles and literature reviews are organized similarly, but empirical information is included in theoretical articles only when it is used to support the theoretical issue.

You may also find methodological articles, case studies, brief reports, and commentary on previously published material. Check with your instructor to determine which articles are appropriate.

Research papers

This assignment involves using published research to provide an overview of and argument about a topic.  Simply summarizing the information you read is not enough. Instead, carefully synthesize the information to support your argument. Only discuss the parts of the studies that are relevant to your argument or topic.  Headings and subheadings can help guide readers through a long research paper. Our handout on literature reviews may help you organize your research literature.

Choose a topic that is appropriate to the length of the assignment and for which you can find adequate sources. For example, “self-esteem” might be too broad for a 10- page paper, but it may be difficult to find enough articles on “the effects of private school education on female African American children’s self-esteem.” A paper in which you focus on the more general topic of “the effects of school transitions on adolescents’ self-esteem,” however, might work well for the assignment.

Designing your own study/research proposal

You may have the opportunity to design and conduct your own research study or write about the design for one in the form of a research proposal. A good approach is to model your paper on articles you’ve read for class. Here is a general overview of the information that should be included in each section of a research study or proposal:

• Introduction: The introduction conveys a clear understanding of what will be done and why. Present the problem, address its significance, and describe your research strategy. Also discuss the theories that guide the research, previous research that has been conducted, and how your study builds on this literature. Set forth the hypotheses and objectives of the study.
• Methods:   This section describes the procedures used to answer your research questions and provides an overview of the analyses that you conducted. For a research proposal, address the procedures that will be used to collect and analyze your data. Do not use the passive voice in this section. For example, it is better to say, “We randomly assigned patients to a treatment group and monitored their progress,” instead of “Patients were randomly assigned to a treatment group and their progress was monitored.” It is acceptable to use “I” or “we,” instead of the third person, when describing your procedures. See the section on reducing bias in language for more tips on writing this section and for discussing the study’s participants.
• Results: This section presents the findings that answer your research questions. Include all data, even if they do not support your hypotheses.  If you are presenting statistical results, your instructor will probably expect you to follow the style recommendations of the American Psychological Association. You can also consult our handout on figures and charts . Note that research proposals will not include a results section, but your instructor might expect you to hypothesize about expected results.
• Discussion: Use this section to address the limitations of your study as well as the practical and/or theoretical implications of the results. You should contextualize and support your conclusions by noting how your results compare to the work of others. You can also discuss questions that emerged and call for future research. A research proposal will not include a discussion section.  But you can include a short section that addresses the proposed study’s contribution to the literature on the topic.

Other writing assignments

For some assignments, you may be asked to engage personally with the course material. For example, you might provide personal examples to evaluate a theory in a reflection paper.  It is appropriate to share personal experiences for this assignment, but be mindful of your audience and provide only relevant and appropriate details.

Writing tips for psychology papers

Psychology is a behavioral science, and writing in psychology is similar to writing in the hard sciences.  See our handout on writing in the sciences .  The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association provides an extensive discussion on how to write for the discipline.  The Manual also gives the rules for psychology’s citation style, called APA. The Library’s citation tutorial will also introduce you to the APA style.

Suggestions for achieving precision and clarity in your writing

• Jargon: Technical vocabulary that is not essential to understanding your ideas can confuse readers. Similarly, refrain from using euphemistic phrases instead of clearer terms.  Use “handicapped” instead of “handi-capable,” and “poverty” instead of “monetarily felt scarcity,” for example.
• Anthropomorphism: Anthropomorphism occurs when human characteristics are attributed to animals or inanimate entities.  Anthropomorphism can make your writing awkward.  Some examples include: “The experiment attempted to demonstrate…,” and “The tables compare…”  Reword such sentences so that a person performs the action: “The experimenter attempted to demonstrate…”  The verbs “show” or “indicate” can also be used: “The tables show…”
• Verb tenses: Select verb tenses carefully. Use the past tense when expressing actions or conditions that occurred at a specific time in the past, when discussing other people’s work, and when reporting results.  Use the present perfect tense to express past actions or conditions that did not occur at a specific time, or to describe an action beginning in the past and continuing in the present.
• Pronoun agreement: Be consistent within and across sentences with pronouns that refer to a noun introduced earlier (antecedent). A common error is a construction such as “Each child responded to questions about their favorite toys.” The sentence should have either a plural subject (children) or a singular pronoun (his or her). Vague pronouns, such as “this” or “that,” without a clear antecedent can confuse readers: “This shows that girls are more likely than boys …” could be rewritten as “These results show that girls are more likely than boys…”
• Avoid figurative language and superlatives: Scientific writing should be as concise and specific as possible.  Emotional language and superlatives, such as “very,” “highly,” “astonishingly,” “extremely,” “quite,” and even “exactly,” are imprecise or unnecessary. A line that is “exactly 100 centimeters” is, simply, 100 centimeters.
• Avoid colloquial expressions and informal language: Use “children” rather than “kids;” “many” rather than “a lot;” “acquire” rather than “get;” “prepare for” rather than “get ready;” etc.

Reducing bias in language

Your writing should show respect for research participants and readers, so it is important to choose language that is clear, accurate, and unbiased.  The APA sets forth guidelines for reducing bias in language: acknowledge participation, describe individuals at the appropriate level of specificity, and be sensitive to labels. Here are some specific examples of how to reduce bias in your language:

• Acknowledge participation: Use the active voice to acknowledge the subjects’ participation. It is preferable to say, “The students completed the surveys,” instead of “The experimenters administered surveys to the students.”  This is especially important when writing about participants in the methods section of a research study.
• Gender: It is inaccurate to use the term “men” when referring to groups composed of multiple genders. See our handout on gender-inclusive language for tips on writing appropriately about gender.
• Race/ethnicity: Be specific, consistent, and sensitive with terms for racial and ethnic groups. If the study participants are Chinese Americans, for instance, don’t refer to them as Asian Americans. Some ethnic designations are outdated or have negative connotations. Use terms that the individuals or groups prefer.
• Clinical terms: Broad clinical terms can be unclear. For example, if you mention “at risk” in your paper, be sure to specify the risk—“at risk for school failure.”  The same principle applies to psychological disorders. For instance, “borderline personality disorder” is more precise than “borderline.”
• Labels: Do not equate people with their physical or mental conditions or categorize people broadly as objects. For example, adjectival forms like “older adults” are preferable to labels such as “the elderly” or “the schizophrenics.” Another option is to mention the person first, followed by a descriptive phrase— “people diagnosed with schizophrenia.”  Be careful using the label “normal,” as it may imply that others are abnormal.
• Other ways to reduce bias: Consistently presenting information about the socially dominant group first can promote bias. Make sure that you don’t always begin with men followed by other genders when writing about gender, or whites followed by minorities when discussing race and ethnicity. Mention differences only when they are relevant and necessary to understanding the study. For example, it may not be important to indicate the sexual orientation of participants in a study about a drug treatment program’s effectiveness. Sexual orientation may be important to mention, however, when studying bullying among high school students.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

American Psychological Association. n.d. “Frequently Asked Questions About APA Style®.” APA Style. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://apastyle.apa.org/learn/faqs/index .

American Psychological Association. 2010. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Landrum, Eric. 2008. Undergraduate Writing in Psychology: Learning to Tell the Scientific Story . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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WRITING ESSAYS

Writing psychology essays for examination boards requires a structured approach and a clear understanding of the assessment objectives (AOs). Here's a beginner's guide with general advice:

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A THEORY (EXPLANATION) AND A RESEARCH STUDY?

Psychological Theory:

What it is: A big idea that explains why things happen in psychology.

IN PSYCHOLOGICAL JARGON: A theory in psychology is a broad, abstract, and comprehensive framework or set of principles that seeks to explain and organise phenomena within a specific area of psychology.

IN LAYMAN’S TERMS: U Helps us understand and make sense of psychological stuff..

The primary purpose of a psychological theory is to provide a conceptual understanding of why certain psychological processes or behaviors occur. It helps researchers and psychologists make sense of observed phenomena by proposing explanations.

Research Study in Psychology:

What it is: A specific project where psychologists gather data and conduct to test if a theory is right or wrong.

Nature: A research study in psychology is a specific, systematic, and empirical investigation or experiment conducted to gather data and test hypotheses related to a particular psychological phenomenon or theory.

Purpose: To see if a theory actually works in real life :

The primary purpose of a research study is to collect real-world, empirical evidence that either supports or challenges existing psychological theories or hypotheses. It aims to provide concrete data and draw conclusions based on observations and measurements.

In summary, a theory is a broad conceptual framework that explains psychological phenomena, while a research study is a specific, practical endeavour to gather empirical evidence that either supports or refutes the claims made by a theory. Theories guide research studies by providing a foundation for understanding and generating hypotheses that can be tested through empirical research.

THEORY AND RESEARCH STUDY APPLIED TO ASCH

Psychological Theory (Asch's Theory on Conformity):

A psychological theory is a broad, general framework or explanation that aims to describe and predict behaviour or phenomena within a specific area of psychology.

Asch's theory on conformity, for instance, proposes that individuals tend to conform to group norms and opinions, even when they know those opinions are incorrect. It provides a conceptual understanding of why people conform in social situations.

Research Study (Asch's Lines Experiment):

A research study is a specific, systematic investigation conducted to gather empirical evidence and test hypotheses related to a particular psychological phenomenon or theory.

Asch's research study on lines involved a controlled experiment where participants were asked to judge the length of lines. This study aimed to empirically test and validate his theory on conformity by observing how participants conformed to incorrect judgments made by others in a group setting.

In summary, a psychological theory is a broad explanation, while a research study is a specific experiment or investigation designed to test and support that theory with empirical evidence. Asch's theory on conformity served as the conceptual framework, and his lines experiment was the empirical study used to validate this theory.

ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES

In AQA Psychology, the assessment objectives (AOs) are categorised as follows:

AO1 - Knowledge and Understanding (The Reporter):

AO1 is like a reporter who provides detailed descriptions and explanations of psychological theories, concepts, or research studies.

This objective involves demonstrating your knowledge and understanding of psychological ideas by accurately describing theories, concepts, or the aims, procedures, findings, and conclusions of research studies.

Think of AO1 as the "who, what, when, where, and why" of psychology. It's about presenting the facts and information clearly and concisely.

AO2 - Application and Analysis (The Analyst):

AO2 is akin to an analyst who goes beyond mere description and applies psychological theories or research findings to real-world situations or novel scenarios.

This objective involves taking the knowledge acquired in AO1 and using it to analyze, evaluate, and make connections between different psychological ideas or concepts.

While you didn't mention an analogy for AO2, you can think of it as the "how" of psychology. It's about applying your understanding to answer questions or solve problems.

AO3 - Evaluation (The Scientist):

AO3 is analogous to a scientist who critically evaluates and assesses psychological theories, research studies, or findings.

In AO3, you focus on evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of theories or research, considering the validity, reliability, and ethical issues, and drawing reasoned conclusions.

Just like a scientist conducts experiments to test hypotheses, in AO3, you use your knowledge to evaluate the validity and reliability of psychological theories and research.

All AO3 responses should follow the PEEL structure (Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link, Evaluation, and Synthesis) to ensure a comprehensive evaluation.

So, in summary, AO1 is about reporting factual information, AO2 involves applying and analyzing that information, and AO3 requires evaluating and critiquing psychological theories, research, or findings, following the PEEL structure.

In psychology, the acronym APFC stands for Aims, Procedures, Findings, and Conclusions.

When students are asked to describe or outline a research study for A01, they must include these elements (APFC) in their responses.

For example, when discussing Asch's study on conformity for A01, students would include the Aims, Procedures, Findings, and Conclusions of the study.

However, when it comes to A03, which involves evaluation, students should focus on the Findings and Conclusions (FC) of the research study.

During evaluation (A03), students should not provide a detailed study description but instead use the Findings and Conclusions to support their arguments and evaluations.

This approach ensures that students provide a clear distinction between A01 and A03, with A01 including a comprehensive description of the study (APFC) and A03 emphasizing evaluation based on the Findings and Conclusions (FC) of the research.

PEEL PARAGRAHS

Point (P): The behavioural approach in psychology emphasizes the significance of observable behaviours as a means to understand and explain human actions.

Explanation (E): This approach contends that behaviours can be studied objectively, and through the process of conditioning, associations between stimuli and responses can be identified. Behavioural psychologists believe that external factors and environmental influences play a crucial role in shaping an individual's behaviour.

Evidence (E): Classic experiments like Pavlov's dog, where dogs were conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, and Skinner's operant conditioning studies, demonstrate the principles of the behavioural approach in action. These experiments provide empirical evidence of how behaviours can be modified through learning and environmental factors.

Link (L): In summary, the behavioural approach offers valuable insights into understanding and modifying behaviours, making it a fundamental perspective within psychology. By focusing on observable actions and their causes, it provides practical applications in various fields, such as education and therapy.

This PEEL point highlights the key aspects of the behavioural approach, including its focus on observable behaviours, the role of conditioning, and the empirical evidence supporting its principles.

Here are two evaluative points for Asch's study on conformity using FC (Findings and Conclusions):

Support from McCarthy and Nicholsons' Research (FC): Asch's findings on conformity have received support from subsequent research conducted by McCarthy and Nicholson. Their study replicated Asch's experiment in a more naturalistic setting, where participants had to make judgments in a real-world context. The researchers found that individuals were still susceptible to conformity, even in situations outside the lab. This support enhances the validity of Asch's findings, suggesting that they apply to real-life scenarios and are not limited to the controlled conditions of a laboratory. Therefore, Asch's conclusions about the influence of group pressure on conformity are further substantiated by the consistent findings of McCarthy and Nicholson.

Limited Generalisability (Conclusions): One limitation of Asch's study lies in the generalizability of its conclusions. Asch primarily used male college students as participants in his experiments, which raises concerns about the extent to which the findings can be applied to a broader population. The study's sample may not represent the entire population, particularly regarding age, gender, and cultural diversity. Consequently, it is uncertain whether Asch's conclusions about conformity would hold for individuals from different demographic backgrounds or age groups. This limitation suggests that the scope of Asch's conclusions might be narrower than initially proposed and should be considered with caution when applied to diverse populations.

APFC to Asch's study on conformity:

Aims (A): Solomon Asch conducted this study to investigate the extent to which people would conform to the opinions of a group, even when they knew the group's answer was incorrect. He aimed to understand the factors that influence conformity.

Procedures (P): In Asch's experiment, participants were shown a line and then asked to choose the matching line from a set of comparison lines. They did this in a group of confederates, who were instructed to give incorrect answers on some trials. The real participant was seated in a position where they had to respond after the confederates.

Findings (F): Asch found that participants conformed to the incorrect answers given by the group on a significant number of trials. About 75% of participants conformed at least once, even when they knew the group was wrong. This demonstrated the powerful influence of group pressure on individual behaviour.

Conclusions (C): From his study, Asch concluded that social pressure and the desire to fit in with a group could lead individuals to conform and give incorrect answers. He highlighted the importance of social factors in shaping human behaviour.

So, in applying APFC to Asch's study, we have outlined the Aims, Procedures, Findings, and Conclusions of his research on conformity. This approach provides a comprehensive understanding of the study's key components

let's label the Findings and Conclusions and structure the evaluation using the PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link) framework with signposting:

ASCH EVALUATION

Point (P): Asch's study on conformity provides valuable insights into human behaviour.

Evidence (E): The study's findings revealed that many participants conformed to incorrect group judgments on simple perceptual tasks, even when they knew the group was wrong. This demonstrated the powerful impact of group pressure on individual decision-making.

Explanation (E): These findings suggest that individuals are often willing to compromise their judgment to fit in with a majority, highlighting the strength of normative social influence and the need for social approval. This phenomenon is crucial in understanding how social norms and group dynamics influence behaviour.

Link (L): Now, let's evaluate these findings and conclusions regarding their significance and limitations.

Point (P): One significant aspect of Asch's study is its experimental rigour and controlled conditions.

Evidence (E): Asch carefully manipulated variables such as group size and unanimity, ensuring that the influence of group pressure could be systematically studied.

Explanation (E): This controlled approach allowed for the establishment of causal relationships between group pressure and conformity, increasing the internal validity of the findings.

Link (L): However, it's essential to consider the external validity of these findings and their applicability to real-world situations beyond the laboratory.

Point (P): Conclusions drawn from Asch's study have been influential in the field of social psychology.

Evidence (E): Asch's conclusions suggest that individuals are highly susceptible to social influence, even when it conflicts with their judgments.

E xplanation (E): This insight has been foundational in understanding phenomena like groupthink, herd behaviour, and the role of conformity in decision-making.

Link (L): Nevertheless, it's vital to acknowledge the study's limitations, such as its sample composition and potential cultural biases.

Point (P): Asch's study has been both praised and criticized for its ecological validity.

Evidence (E): Critics argue that the artificial nature of the tasks and the laboratory setting may not accurately reflect real-life situations where conformity occurs.

Explanation (E): This limitation raises questions about the ecological validity of Asch's findings and whether they can be applied to everyday scenarios.

Link (L): In conclusion, while Asch's study provides valuable insights into the power of conformity, researchers and psychologists should consider its limitations and the need for research in more naturalistic settings to fully understand the complexities of human behaviour in social contexts.

GENERAL ADVICE ON MARKS AND COMMAND WORDS

In AQA psychology essays, the maximum score is 16 marks.

A 16-mark essay combining A01 and A03 comprises six marks for A01 and ten marks for A03.

If A02 (application) is included in a 16-mark essay, the breakdown is six marks for A01, four marks for A02, and six marks for A03.

A01 is limited to a maximum of 6 marks and often involves command words like "outline" and "describe."

A03 focuses on evaluation and commonly uses command words like "evaluate."

When the essay question includes "outline and evaluate" or “ discuss” this means it is an essay with A01 and A03.

In essays where A01 and A03 are combined The outline part) typically allocates 1/3 of the marks to A01 and 2/3 to A03 (evaluation).

For instance, in a 10-mark question, this translates to approximately 3-4 marks for A01 and 6-7 marks for A03.

Examiners closely review essays to ensure students maintain a balanced approach with around 1/3 for A01 and 2/3 for A03 in “outline and evaluate or “discuss” essays.

In essays where A01, A02 and A03 are combined, the breakdown is A01 = 3/8, A02 = 1/4, A03 = 3/8

ESSAY TIMINGS

I f you aim to spend 1 minute per mark when writing a 16-mark essay for AQA psychology, you can allocate your time as follows:

A01 (6 marks): Spend approximately 6 minutes on this section. In A01, you typically outline or describe relevant theories, concepts, or research studies related to the question.

A02 (10 marks): Dedicate around 10 minutes to this section. A02 involves applying your knowledge by discussing, analyzing, and providing examples or evidence to support your arguments. You may also need to consider counterarguments or alternative viewpoints.

By following this time allocation, you should be able to complete your 16-mark essay within 16 minutes. Remember that these time recommendations are approximate and can vary based on your writing speed and familiarity with the topic. It's essential to practice under timed conditions to improve your efficiency and ensure that you can effectively convey your knowledge and analysis within the given time frame.

HOW MUCH DO YOU WRITE FOR A 16-MARK ESSAY?

T he number of pages a 16-mark essay in AQA psychology would translate to depends on several factors, including your handwriting size, line spacing, and the size of the paper you're using. Generally, if you're writing neatly and using regular lined paper, a 16-mark essay could span approximately 1.5 to 2 pages. However, this is just a rough estimate, and the actual length can vary from person to person.

It's more important to focus on the content and structure of your essay rather than its length. Ensure you address the question, provide a clear argument, support your points with evidence, and use a well-structured essay format, including an introduction, main body, and conclusion. The quality of your essay matters more than its length.

PUTTING IT ALTOGETHER

Understand the Assessment Objectives (AOs):

AO1 (A01): Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of psychological concepts, theories, research studies, and research methods.

AO2 (A02): Apply psychological knowledge and understanding to analyze, evaluate, and generate hypotheses.

AO3 (A03): Evaluate psychological theories, research studies, methodologies, and practical applications.

Read and Analyse the Question:

Carefully read and underline key terms and command words in the question, such as "outline," "evaluate," "discuss," or "apply."

Ensure you know what is being asked of you for each AO.

Plan Your Essay:

Create a clear essay plan or outline before you start writing. Allocate time for each section based on the marks available.

Your essay should have an introduction, main body, and conclusion.

Introduction (AO1):

Begin with a clear introduction that provides context and outlines the key points you will discuss.

State the main arguments or theories you will address.

Main Body (AO2/AO3):

Address the main points or theories one by one.

Use the PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link) structure for each point:

Point: Make a clear point or argument.

Evidence: Provide evidence such as research findings, studies, or theories.

Explanation: Explain the significance of the evidence and how it supports your point.

Link: Connect your point to the essay question and the next point you will discuss.

Use clear and concise language. Avoid overly complex sentences.

Application (AO2):

When required, apply psychological knowledge to real-life examples or scenarios.

Show how the theories or concepts you discuss can be applied to practical situations.

Evaluation (AO3):

For evaluation questions, consider both the strengths and weaknesses of theories, research studies, or methodologies.

Use critical thinking to weigh the evidence and come to a reasoned conclusion.

Avoid making unsupported claims; use empirical evidence to support your arguments.

Use Proper Citations:

When referencing studies or theories, cite them properly using the author's name, publication year, and other relevant details.

Conclusion (AO1/AO2/AO3):

Summarize the main points you've discussed in the essay.

If the question requires evaluation, provide a balanced final assessment of the topic.

Proofread and Edit:

Review your essay for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.

Ensure that your writing is clear and concise.

Practice and Get Feedback:

Practice writing essays under timed conditions to improve your time management skills.

Seek feedback from teachers, peers, or online resources to identify areas for improvement.

Time Management:

Allocate time wisely. If the essay is worth 16 marks, consider spending about 1 minute per mark.

Stay Calm and Stay Focused:

Manage exam stress by staying calm and focused during the exam. Stick to your plan and avoid rushing.

Remember that practice is key to improving your essay-writing skills. Over time, you'll become more proficient at structuring and writing psychology essays for AQA exams.

FULL ESSAY EXAMPLE: ASCH

Title: Solomon Asch's Conformity Experiment (16 marks) Time 20 minutes max ; GRADE C/B

Description of Asch's Conformity Theory (6 Marks - AO1):

Introduction: Solomon Asch's Conformity Experiment, conducted in the 1950s, remains a classic and influential study in the field of social psychology. This essay will first provide a brief description of Asch's theory of conformity, followed by an evaluation of its strengths and weaknesses, applying the PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explanation, and Link) structure.

Point: Solomon Asch's conformity theory focuses on the idea that individuals often conform to group norms and opinions, even if they disagree with those views.

Evidence: Asch conducted a series of experiments where participants were asked to judge the length of lines. They were placed in a group of confederates who intentionally provided incorrect answers to see if the real participants would conform to the group's incorrect judgments.

Explanation: The results of Asch's experiments revealed that a significant proportion of participants conformed to the group's incorrect judgments, even when they knew the group was wrong. This demonstrates the power of social influence and the tendency of individuals to conform to avoid social discomfort or being seen as deviating from the group.

Link: In summary, Asch's theory of conformity highlights how social pressure can lead individuals to abandon their judgments and conform to group norms, a phenomenon observed in his line-judgment experiments.

Evaluation of Asch's Conformity Theory (10 Marks - AO3):

Point 1 - Strengths of Asch's Conformity Experiment (PEEL): Point: One strength of Asch's research is its experimental rigour, making it highly controlled and replicable.

Evidence: Asch carefully designed his experiments, ensuring that the Confederates' responses were scripted and consistent across trials. This control enhances the reliability of the study.

Explanation: This methodological strength means that other researchers can replicate the study with a high degree of accuracy, strengthening the credibility of Asch's findings.

Link: The methodological rigour of Asch's experiments bolsters the validity and trustworthiness of his conformity theory.

Point 2 - Weaknesses of Asch's Conformity Experiment (PEEL): Point: One significant weakness of Asch's research is the limited ecological validity.

Evidence: Participants in Asch's experiments were presented with a contrived task of line judgment, which does not represent real-world conformity situations accurately.

Explanation: In everyday life, conformity occurs in more complex and emotionally charged situations, such as peer pressure in adolescence or conformity to societal norms. Asch's controlled experiments do not capture these nuances.

Link: The lack of ecological validity in Asch's research raises questions about the generalizability of his findings to real-life situations.

Conclusion: In conclusion, Solomon Asch's conformity theory has substantially contributed to our understanding of social influence. His controlled experiments, while methodologically robust, lack ecological validity, which limits their applicability to real-world conformity scenarios. Despite this limitation, Asch's work remains a cornerstone in the field of psychology, highlighting the powerful impact of social pressure on individual behaviour.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Writing in Psychology Overview

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation.

Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology.

Writing in psychology includes the following principles:

• Using plain language : Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology.
• Conciseness and clarity of language : The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information.
• Evidence-based reasoning: Psychology bases its arguments on empirical evidence. Personal examples, narratives, or opinions are not appropriate for psychology.
• Use of APA format: Psychologists use the American Psychological Association (APA) format for publications. While most student writing follows this format, some instructors may provide you with specific formatting requirements that differ from APA format .

Types of writing

Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types.

Experimental reports: Experimental reports detail the results of experimental research projects and are most often written in experimental psychology (lab) courses. Experimental reports are write-ups of your results after you have conducted research with participants. This handout provides a description of how to write an experimental report .

Critical analyses or reviews of research : Often called "term papers," a critical analysis of research narrowly examines and draws conclusions from existing literature on a topic of interest. These are frequently written in upper-division survey courses. Our research paper handouts provide a detailed overview of how to write these types of research papers.

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A Guide On Writing a Psychology Essay

The best way to deal with the "how to write an essay for psychology" question is to actually define a narrow area you would want to delve into and research. It is quite a fascinating paper for those students who major in psychology. Of course, you must carry out research before moving to the paper drafting phase. It is called an "essay," however, there can be some slight differences compared to other types of essays.

The most exciting part is that students who attend courses like abnormal psychology may be asked to write a paper on a scenario they once encountered or one that they can think of and recreate in detail. Often, it's better to try getting a thorough understanding of the essay requirements before diving into writing to avoid going off-point.

Psychology Essay Writing Guidelines

Before you sit to write a psychology essay, make sure you read the requirements and a question set thoroughly and understood what is required of you. If you can answer what's asked and required of you, you can start writing a draft. The easy way to gain the understanding is to identify and mark the keywords (such as evaluate, discuss, etc.) as they will guide and continuously remind you as you are writing.

As a student already studying psychology, you probably have knowledge on the subject, but it is essential to expand it through some journal articles, textbooks, news, the Internet, etc.

An essay on psychology presupposes carrying out substantial research on the topic. You should not just gather the relevant information: your task is to read it, assess it and critically evaluate the material to be able to use it in your essay. If psychology isn't your major, it's okay to consider it difficult enough to write an essay on this discipline. You didn't spend much time studying it, so it's essential for you to lack the understanding of the human mind, consciousness, and the way they work.

Essay On Psychology: Structure Guidelines

Whatever essay type you need to write, a standard or core structure should be used in your writing. It consists of the intro, body, and the final part - a conclusion. Following this structure is an excellent way to write a psychology essay: your reader will have a better understanding of your paper's main ideas and thoughts. In addition, it is an order the audience should follow when going through your writing. A five-paragraph structure is the most popular one, however, in this type of paper, you may have even more sections because everything depends on the number of arguments and points you are ready to provide.

Formatting Your Psychology Essay In APA

There are different styles that a student can choose to format the psychology paper. The format used for this type is called APA and is the one that most students should use.

• Introduction
• Theme 1~ point 1-3
• Theme 2~ point 4-5
• Theme 3~ point 6

If the essay is five pages or more, the APA format requires it to be divided into the following segments:

• The Abstract

The citation should, by all means, follow the set of rules as information that is wrongly referenced may lead to plagiarism and also result in marks lost. The student is to be careful in their writing, and also below are some things to note in APA text citation:

• The title of the source is to be in the capital.
• Use initials for the title in case the author's name is not provided.
• The initials and the name of the author should be capitalized.

If you are not paraphrasing, it is imperative to write the page number in quotes.

If you are not sure about getting this format correctly, do not go for the APA citation generators, as it will be substandard. Instead, it will be advisable to use the BestCustomWriting.com professional writers to check if your work is written accordingly to the required format.

Psychology Essay: Tips On Writing an Introduction

The introduction is the first paragraph of your paper, and its significance is huge. This section lets your readers understand what the paper is about. The task of the writer here is to summarize the background information and help the audience understand the value of the paper.

Remember that the end of your introduction should have a thesis statement - it's often considered the main sentence of the whole paper. It may be two to three sentences that are important to the audience, which will tell the main ideas of your paper.

It could be more meaningful to write the introduction after you finish the body because then you will have your main points clearly written. However, the choice is up to the writer.

Psychology Essay: Tackling Body Paragraphs

Every paragraph should be on a different concept or idea. You begin each by introducing an idea and then explain or develop it with some facts and examples. Remember that if you are actually telling the readers the information they haven't heard before, it shouldn't be your mere opinion but vivid evidence from your research.

The Secret of Crafting a Conclusion For Your Psychology Paper

The ideas and thoughts you mention in the main sections must be summarized in this final part. Note that the thesis statement should be paraphrased and restated to avoid repetition. The conclusion is more or less the same length as the introduction.

Good Psychology Essay Topics

Selecting the winning topic is extremely important because it allows you to maintain proper focus and comply with your professor's instructions. Let's take a look at some interesting ideas for psychology essay topics:

• Can a person suffering from depression take Prozac and avoid side effects?
• How does insomnia negatively affect the mental state of a human being?
• Why do children really need to play?
• Can a person's mental health issues be solved or improved by exercise?
• Is there any correlation between old age and decline in mental health?
• How can stress, which is not dealt with, affect a person's health?
• Explain the Bipolar disorder.
• How is work performance affected by depression?
• How do certain habits begin, and how can they be changed or stopped?
• Effect of violent films on children.
• The impact of abortion on females' mental health.
• What is the best way of assisting children after their parents' divorce?
• Are students having breakfast livelier than those who do not?
• How a minor got molested can have a lasting effect on their subsequent lives.
• Why do good girls fall for bad guys?
• Are stay-at-home mothers able to raise happier and more successful children?
• The psychological issues homeless people have to deal with.
• Effects of postpartum depression on the mother and child.
• The psychology behind long-lasting marriages.
• Obsession with fast foods.

Sometimes, researching a good topic can be even more frustrating than writing a psychology paper itself, especially if you're dealing with a multifaceted discipline like psychology. Students need to decide which psychology branch they would like to focus on, and it's very easy for them to lose their bearings in such a diverse environment. They should invest a lot of time and effort into researching so they don't have any difficulty organizing and structuring information in their research topic. Please, keep in mind that writing a research paper also requires students to do a lot of reading and carry out extensive fieldwork.

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Writing Psychologically-Realistic Characters in Fiction

A psychiatrist-novelist reveals her writing methods..

Updated May 22, 2024 | Reviewed by Jessica Schrader

• As readers, we usually want fictional characters to be both unique and psychologically realistic.
• Psychiatrist-novelists have a well of clinical experience teaching them how people feel, behave, and grow.
• Writing techniques that help create psychologically-realistic characters are illustrated.
• .Novelists have sometimes-unconscious reasons for choosing certain themes and characters to write about.

Good novelists create characters who are complex. unique, and have relatable human needs and feelings. Joyce Carol Oates is one of our best contemporary novelists, and has created a host of memorable characters. including a hippie, an imagined Marilyn Monroe, and a teenage boy. When she and I met and exchanged novels, she said: “You’re a psychiatrist and a novelist. What a great combination!”

There certainly are superb novelists who are also psychiatrists. Dr. Daniel Mason, for example, is both an inpatient psychiatrist and one of our finest contemporary writers of fiction. However, non- psychiatric physicians have also written psychologically rich characters. Dr. Abraham Verghese, for example, specializes in internal medicine. And many of the greatest novelists of all time who created complex characters: Dickens, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky were neither psychiatrists nor physicians.

So how, then, are psychiatrist novelists “a great combination"?

The advantages of being a psychiatrist-novelist

Humans are fascinated by other people and their behaviors. From earliest childhood , we listen to and read stories to show how people face challenging situations. We psychiatrists have an added advantage. In our clinical work, we are privileged to hear the most private thoughts and feelings of many people: their fears, the different ways they have tried to protect themselves in difficult and often traumatizing relationships and situations. We also see how they change and grow. When creating fictional characters, we have access to this well of knowledge to write imaginary but psychologically realistic people.

The challenges

When it comes down to the writing, though, physicians have a disadvantage. We're trained to write clinical case histories in a rigid format: presenting problem, history of present illness, past medical history, family history, and so on. This is totally unlike the process fiction authors must master to write characters that come alive on the page. We physicians must put aside that ingrained pattern of straightforward reporting if we are to write good fiction.

One psychiatrist-novelist’s process of writing

Is our process of writing fiction different from that of other novelists? What follows is my own method. I tend to think it is not; readers here may hazard their own guess.

Finding a topic gripping to the novelist

A novelist will spend countless hours in his/her imagination , even more writing sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, then even more rewriting. Because of this heavy expenditure of energy and time, we must find a topic that fascinates us so much we are willing (or needing) to invest the months and years necessary to write about it.

In my case, the idea for my novel of psychological suspense, The End of Miracles , came directly from my clinical work as a psychiatrist. Over a period of a few months, I was asked to see three women, each with an extended false pregnancy , a condition technically named pseudocyesis.

In addition to my clinical interest in evaluating and treating them, and my scientific interest in studying their hormone levels, I also thought: wouldn’t it be fascinating to write a novel in which, at some point, the main character develops pseudocyesis?

Why was this topic so appealing? Only during the course of writing did the realization of the likely roots of my fascination become apparent.

Having an overarching goal

I'd long harbored a creative need to write a novel. I also wanted to add an engrossing book to the world of literature in return for the pleasure I’ve received from reading fiction since my childhood. As a psychiatrist, I set myself additional goals . I wanted to show psychiatrists as they really are, not as the devious or incompetent stereotypes so often portrayed in books or films. I wanted to show that people who develop a serious mental illness are not that different from the rest of us.

Creating the characters

One method I used was to become an actor. I'd pretend to be a particular character and then "listen to" their inner monologue and dialogue. Probably the easiest chapters to write were about the psychiatrist in the novel. I simply imagined myself in my own office, sitting across from the main character, Margo, and having a therapeutic session with her.

Writing the psychological roots of behaviors

It was very important to me to make Margo’s thoughts and actions grow out of her psychology. Once I'd written enough to know her feelings and behaviors in the present, I added to prior chapters instances of thoughts and experiences that were roots of the current ones.

In the process of writing this way, I discovered a possible clue as to why I was so attracted to the theme of a false pregnancy. A memory came to mind: 5-year-old me seeing my mother very pregnant, seeing babies in fancy carriages, seeing women nursing their babies. Likely I wanted a baby then, too—yet never got to have one. But these women who’d developed false pregnancies with distended abdomens had found a solution to that problem! Why hadn’t I thought of that? Well, now I had.

Writing suspensefully

I’ve read many thrillers, and now used the techniques I’d observed in them to create tension and a page-turning experience for my own readers. In the most suspenseful sections, I kept chapter lengths short and hinted in their last sentences that something crucial was about to happen,

Sending the book out into the world

Publication was a joy mixed with an unexpected momentary sense of loss. In a way, it resembled what it’s like when a baby is born: for many months, you’ve had a private, intimate relationship, and then it ends. Similarly, when my novel was published, there was a brief sadness about sending it out into the world to make new relationships with its readers.

The audiobook re-creation

When we read a book, we're not actually reading the same book as its other readers. We filter what we see on the page through our own experiences and understanding of the world. With an audiobook, the narrator voices the story and the characters through their own response to the text.

For The End of Miracle 's Audible audiobook, I listened to many of their narrators read aloud sections of other books and of my own before choosing the one whose voice resonated best with the story. I would be entrusting this person to be a kind of co-creator with me. It’s been gratifying to read comments of those who’ve both read and listened, writing they very much liked the print version and loved the audiobook. Then, I am reassured that I made the right choice.

The effect on one listener, though, was unexpected and humorous. My teenage grandson wrote on his Facebook page: “After reading the novel I listened to the audiobook and it was a relief to hear the phrase ‘egg showered in sperm’ in someone else’s voice instead of my grandmother’s.”

Starkman, M. (2016) The End of Miracles: A Novel, She Writes Press.

Monica Starkman, MD is a professor of psychiatry emerita at the University of Michigan. Her novel The End of Miracles is a suspenseful story about a woman who unravels psychologically after harrowing infertility and a tragic miscarriage, the shocking choices she makes, and the psychiatrists and close ones who try to save her.

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