vegetarian and non vegetarian essay

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Vegetarianism Essay

This is a model  vegetarianism essay .

As I always stress, you should  read the question very carefully  before you answer it to make sure you are writing about the right thing.

Take a look at the question:

Every one of us should become a vegetarian because eating meat can cause serious health problems.

To what extent do you agree or disagree?

Staying on topic

If you rush to start writing and don't analyse the question and brainstorm some ideas you may include the wrong information.

There are religious or moral arguments for not eating meat, but if you discuss those you will be going off topic .

This question is specifically about the health problems connected to eating meat.

So you must discuss in your answer what some of these problems are and if you think there are real health risks or not.

Knowing about the topic

And don't get worried that you do not know much about diet and health.

As part of your IELTS study it will help if you know the basics of most topics such as some health vocabulary in this case, but you are not expected to be an expert on nutrition.

Remember, you are being judged on your English ability and your ability to construct an argument in a coherent way, not to be an expert in the subject matter. So relax and work with

Organisation

In this vegetarianism essay, the candidate disagrees with the statement, and is thus arguing that everyone does not need to be a vegetarian.

The essay has been organised in the following way:

Body 1: Health issues connected with eating meat (i.e. arguments in support of being a vegetarian Body 2: Advantages of eating meat

Now take a look at the model answer.

Model Essay

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.

Write about the following topic:

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own experience or knowledge.

Write at least 250 words.

IELTS Vegetarianism Essay - Sample Answer

Vegetarianism is becoming more and more popular for many people, particularly because of the harm that some people believe meat can cause to the body. However, I strongly believe that it is not necessary for everybody to be a vegetarian.

Vegetarians believe that meat is unhealthy because of the diseases it has been connected with. There has been much research to suggest that red meat is particularly bad, for example, and that consumption should be limited to eating it just a few times a week to avoid such things as cancer. Meats can also be high in saturated fats so they have been linked to health problems such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

However, there are strong arguments for eating meat. The first reason is that as humans we are designed to eat meat, which suggests it is not unhealthy, and we have been eating meat for thousands of years. For example, cavemen made hunting implements so that they could kill animals and eat their meat. Secondly, meat is a rich source of protein which helps to build muscles and bones. Vegetarians often have to take supplements to get all the essential vitamins and minerals. Finally, it may be the case that too much meat is harmful, but we can easily limit the amount we have without having to cut it out of our diet completely.

To sum up, I do not agree that everyone should turn to a vegetarian diet. Although the overconsumption of meat could possibly be unhealthy, a balanced diet of meat and vegetables should result in a healthy body.

(264 words)

You should begin by intoducing the topi c. The introduction in this vegetarianism essay begins by mentioning vegetarians and the possible harm of eating meat .

It then goes on to the thesis statement , which makes it clear what the candidate's opinion is.

The first body paragraph has a topic sentence which makes it clear that the paragraph is going to address the possible health issues of eating meat.

Some reasons and examples are then given to support this.

The second body paragraph then has a topic sentence which makes it clear that the main idea is now about the arguments for eating meat .

The conclusion in this vegetarianism essay then repeats the opinion and gives the candidates final thoughts.

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Vegetarian Diet: An Overview through the Perspective of Quality of Life Domains

Shila minari hargreaves.

1 Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia (UnB), Campus Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, Brasilia, DF 70910-900, Brazil; rb.bnu@zpataner

António Raposo

2 CBIOS (Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies), Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal

Ariana Saraiva

3 Department of Animal Pathology and Production, Bromatology and Food Technology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Trasmontaña s/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain; tp.kooltuo@32_anaira

Renata Puppin Zandonadi

Associated data.

The study did not report any data.

Vegetarianism has gained more visibility in recent years. Despite the well-described effects of a vegetarian diet on health, its influence on the quality of life of the individuals who follow it still needs to be properly investigated. Quality of life relates to a subjective perception of well-being and functionality, and encompasses four main life domains: physical, psychological, social, and environmental. The adoption of a vegetarian diet, despite being a dietary pattern, could potentially influence and be influenced by all of these domains, either positively or negatively. This review aims to present an overview of the background, conceptualization, features, and potential effects of vegetarianism in all quality of life domains. The choice of adopting a vegetarian diet could have positive outcomes, such as better physical health, positive feelings related to the adoption of a morally correct attitude, an increased sense of belonging (to a vegetarian community), and lower environmental impact. Other factors, however, could have a negative impact on the quality of life of those choosing to abstain from meats or other animal products, especially when they go beyond one’s control. These include the environment, the social/cultural group in which a person is inserted, gender-based differences, economic aspects, and a limited access to a wide variety of plant-based foods. It is important to understand all the effects of adopting a vegetarian diet—beyond its nutritional aspects. Not only do studies in this area provide more consistent data, but they may also contribute to mitigating all factors that might prevent individuals from adopting a vegetarian diet, or that may have a negative impact on the quality of life of those who already follow it.

1. Introduction

Vegetarianism has its origins in 3200 BC, when ancient Egyptian civilizations started adopting vegetarian diets based on the belief that abstaining from meat consumption would facilitate reincarnation [ 1 ]. In India, another important cradle of vegetarianism, this practice was also associated with the fact that Hindus see cows as sacred and uphold nonviolence principles [ 2 ]. Later, Greek philosophers also adopted a vegetarian diet, with Pythagoras being a leading figure among them—indeed, for many centuries, vegetarianism was known as the “Pythagorean” diet [ 3 , 4 ]. In the Christian Era, vegetarianism lost its strength, gaining some visibility again only in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged the Church’s views that animals had no souls, and that their only purpose on Earth was to serve human beings [ 1 , 5 ].

Throughout history, the expansion of vegetarianism has been associated with religions that preach respect for all living beings and adopt nonviolence principles, such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism, the Hare Krishna movement, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. In addition, in the 20th and 21st centuries, science has observed several health benefits potentially associated with the reduction in meat consumption. Such benefits have strengthened the practice of vegetarianism around the world, and attracted more and more followers [ 4 ].

Currently, the worldwide prevalence of vegetarianism is not uniform. Asia is the continent with the highest prevalence, with 19 percent of the population adopting this practice [ 6 ]. India, the single country with the highest prevalence in the world (almost 40 percent of the population), contributes to the results of the Asian continent [ 7 ]. The prevalence in Africa and the Middle East is about 16 percent; and in Central and South America, 8 percent. The lowest prevalence of vegetarianism is found in North America (about 6 percent of the population are vegetarians) and Europe, where vegetarianism is adopted by only 5 percent of the population.

Vegetarianism encompasses different types of diets, classified according to how restrictive they are. Generally, vegetarianism is understood as the exclusion of meat from one’s diet, but other less restrictive eating patterns can also be classified within the scope of vegetarianism. These include, for example, flexitarians, who consume meat sporadically, or even once a week; pescatarians, who avoid all meat, except fish and seafood; and ovolactovegetarians, who banish all types of meat but consume products of animal origin, such as eggs and dairy products. A strict vegetarian diet, on the other hand, excludes all foods of animal origin. Veganism is a broader concept, which involves the adoption of a strict vegetarian diet, as well as the exclusion of other consumer items made from animal products, or which rely on animal exploitation, such as cosmetics and clothing items [ 8 , 9 ]. For didactic purposes, a strict vegetarian diet is often referred to as a vegan diet.

Different motivations can lead to adopting a vegetarian diet [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Ethical concerns are the main reasons, building on the idea that animal slaughter for human consumption is morally inappropriate. Another important motivation is health and the potential beneficial effects of vegetarianism. Religions that encourage abstaining from meat consumption and concerns about the environmental impacts of meat production are also important motivators for adopting vegetarianism [ 7 , 9 ].

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), quality of life (QoL) is a subjective concept that comprehends physical, psychological, social, environmental, and spiritual aspects [ 14 , 15 ]. Changes in eating patterns can influence individuals’ QoL, both positively and negatively [ 16 ]. A systematic review study assessed the nutritional quality of vegetarian diets, and found—based on data from 12 surveys—higher nutritional quality levels among vegetarians than omnivores [ 17 ]. According to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics [ 18 ], vegetarian diets are nutritionally adequate for all stages of life, as long as they are well planned. However, some precautions need to be taken to minimize the risk of nutritional deficiencies.

In view of the recent growth in the number of individuals adopting a vegetarian diet, as well as the wider interest in the topic in recent years, it is critical to understand the different effects of vegetarianism on one’s QoL. Therefore, this review aims to present an overview of the background, conceptualization, features and potential effects of vegetarianism considering all QoL domains.

2. Historical Background of Vegetarianism

Over most of their 24 million years of evolution, humans’ anthropoid ancestors were almost exclusively vegetarian, except for the occasional ingestion of insects and larvae. Anatomically, both humans and their ancestors present significant features that distance them from meat-eating animals, including, for example, wide flat teeth and more mobile jaws, which facilitate the chewing of grains and seeds, as opposed to sharp teeth and jaw movements on a vertical axis, which are characteristic of carnivores. In addition, carnivorous animals have shorter intestines, which enable the rapid elimination of toxins, unlike humans and other predominantly herbivorous animals, with long intestines that allow longer digestion, fermentation and absorption processes [ 19 , 20 ].

However, possibly due to other reasons linked to survival, self-defense and territorial protection, hominids began hunting other species, which led to the introduction of meat in the diet of Homo erectus , considered the first hunters. Humans’ ability to survive on different types of food was an essential factor in our evolution, which allowed our species, Homo sapiens sapiens , to adapt to the most diverse conditions and spread throughout the planet [ 19 , 20 ].

During the Paleolithic era, different food types were consumed, such as wild plants, seafood, reptiles, birds, and mammals. After the emergence of agricultural practices (about 13,000 years ago), there is no evidence that humans were essentially vegetarian, and the domestication of animals, including for consumption, became a routine activity by that time. However, it is speculated that many farmers lived primarily as vegetarians due to the wider availability of crops [ 19 ].

It is not known for certain when people started voluntarily abstaining from meat. However, the first reports date from 3200 BC in ancient Egypt, when the practice was motivated by religious factors, based on the belief that not consuming meat would facilitate reincarnation [ 1 ]. Another important region that is part of the history of vegetarianism is India, where the practice is also linked to religious issues. Hinduism has two basic principles among its foundations: ahimsa, or the principle of nonviolence (which includes violence against humans and other animals); and the recognition of the cow as a sacred animal [ 2 ].

Some of the philosophers of the pre-Christian era also contributed to the spread of vegetarianism. The practice was adopted at that time for health reasons as well as for religious, ecological, and philosophical reasons. It was believed that the act of killing another living being for food would have a brutal influence on one’s mind, negatively affecting one’s body and soul [ 3 ]. The supporters of vegetarianism included big names like Plato, Prophyry, Diogenes and Plutarch. The most prominent philosopher in this field was Pythagoras, who lived in the 6th century BC. Due to his influence, vegetarianism was known as the “Pythagorean” diet over many centuries, a name that lasted until the middle of the 19th century in Europe and the Mediterranean region [ 4 , 19 ].

In Ancient Greece, it was believed that animals could think and communicate, and that humans should be responsible for their lives. In addition, the Greeks believed that eating meat would be harmful to one’s health and mind [ 21 ]. Vegetarianism was also present during the Roman Empire, influenced by the Greek culture. However, with the rise of Christianity, abstaining from animal consumption lost its importance. Famous Christian thinkers such as Saint Thomas Aquinas and Saint Augustine sought to provide rational justifications for the exploitation and consumption of animals, spreading the idea that, unlike animals, human beings have souls and free will, and that animals are inferior beings, placed on Earth at the service of humans [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Only a few monks still maintained the practice, based on the belief that meat consumption would hinder their spiritual progress in some way because it was linked to impulsive behaviors [ 5 ].

In the 15th century, vegetarianism was advocated by Leonardo da Vinci, who believed that there was no distinction between the murder of humans and animals. However, it was only after the spread of Darwin’s theory of evolution that vegetarianism gained strength again in the late 18th century and early 19th century. Darwinism refuted the idea that human beings are fundamentally different from other animals—therefore, there were no plausible justifications for meat consumption [ 5 ]. At that time, the first vegetarian societies also began to emerge, and some Christian groups began to preach in favor of abstaining from meat based on the belief that animals should also be worthy of pity. It was only then that the term “vegetarianism” came to be used. Despite the general belief that it refers to “eating vegetables”, the term actually derives from “vegetus”, a Latin word that means “active” or “vigorous” [ 22 ]. An important name in the history of vegetarianism, in addition to the various vegetarian groups and societies that emerged in the 20th century, was Mahatma Gandhi, who contributed to its dissemination [ 19 ].

Albert Einstein believed that humanity’s evolution toward a vegetarian diet would be fundamental for the survival of life on Earth [ 21 ]. In Europe, the first International Vegetarian Union was founded in 1908, after other vegetarian societies had already emerged in several countries. From the 1960s onwards, a greater concern with food and health, associated with evidence of the potential benefits of a vegetarian diet for disease prevention, contributed to the spread of vegetarianism. Religious practices that preach respect for life and adopt nonviolence principles, such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism, the Hare Krishna movement, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church, were also fundamental to this growth. Therefore, the world has seen a significant rise and expansion of the practice since the mid-20th century [ 4 ].

In recent years, vegetarianism has gained more visibility and a greater number of followers. Rosenfeld [ 23 ] describes a great expansion in the scientific literature on the psychological and social effects of choosing a vegetarian diet. Some topics started to attract more attention, such as motivations; barriers to adopting such diets; differences between vegetarians and vegans; morality; and gender differences. New research lines have emerged to explore issues associated with personal identity and social and cultural experiences [ 23 ].

Adherence to a vegetarian diet goes beyond food. Vegetarianism can be considered a social identity, as it reflects the motivations, feelings, and attitudes of those who choose to adopt it [ 24 ]. The main motivations for choosing a vegetarian diet are related to ethical and health aspects. Animal welfare is the main motivator, followed by concerns with major environmental impacts caused by the production and consumption of food of animal origin. Regarding health, general well-being and weight maintenance are the factors that most motivate the adoption of vegetarianism [ 23 ]. In addition, religious aspects can lead individuals to adopt a vegetarian diet, and religions such as Hinduism, Adventism and Spiritism preach abstaining from meat. Other less frequent factors, such as aversion to the taste of meat, food intolerances and allergies, and the influence of other people (family members, for example) can also be considered motivators for adopting a vegetarian diet [ 4 , 7 , 9 , 21 ].

There are several types of vegetarian diets commonly described in the literature. The most consensual classification consists of four different types, namely: (1) flexitarian or semivegetarian diet, in which people consume meat sporadically (up to once a week) or exclude red meat, but consume white meat; (2) pesco-vegetarian or pescatarian diet, which excludes all meats, except fish and seafood; (3) ovolactovegetarian diet, which excludes all types of meat, but allows products of animal origin, such as dairy products and eggs; and (4) strict vegetarianism, which excludes all products of animal origin [ 8 , 25 ].

In addition to these categories, other diets can be considered subclassifications of vegetarianism, namely: (1) raw vegan diet, which is mostly based on food in its most natural (raw) state, with an emphasis on the choice of organic and self-grown products; (2) frugal or frugivorous diet, which is similar to the raw vegan diet, but with 70–80 percent of the diet being composed of fruits, with a small proportion of nuts, seeds and some vegetables; and (3) macrobiotic diets, which encompass various degrees of restriction but are primarily composed of whole grains, soybeans, algae and some vegetables [ 25 , 26 ].

3. Quality of Life

According to the WHO, QoL is a multifactorial concept that includes the following domains: physical (physical state), psychological (affective and cognitive state), social (interpersonal relationships and social roles in the lives of individuals) and environmental (quality of the environment in which individuals live). Conceptual, pragmatic and empirical dimensions, as well as spiritual and religious aspects, can also contribute to people’s QoL and their ability to perform certain activities, or “functionality”. Building on that, QoL is defined as “individuals’ perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns” [ 14 , 15 ].

The terms “quality of life” and “well-being” are often used to indicate how well an individual feels. There is, however, a problem of interpretation resulting from the subjectivity of these concepts, which may acquire a broader or more specific connotation depending on the context. QoL can be subdivided into: the quality of the environment in which one lives, involving the physical structure of the environment and people’s integration in the society in which they live; physical and mental health, encompassing a wide range of individual capacities; usefulness, which involves the feeling of “being useful”, contributing to the welfare of other people, society, and the environment; and the appreciation of life, which is associated with tangible (wealth, for example) and intangible (such as life satisfaction and happiness) aspects [ 27 ].

Although it is difficult to group all these qualities into a single concept, the best general indicator of QoL would be how happy you feel and how long you live. The concept of “well-being”, in turn, usually denotes QoL in a wider sense, as well as a positive subjective assessment of life, or an appreciation of life. However, sometimes the concepts of “well-being” and “quality of life” are used interchangeably [ 27 ].

The connection between vegetarianism and QoL may be analyzed through different perspectives [ 14 , 15 ]. In the context of vegetarianism, each QoL domain proposed by the WHO (physical, psychological, social, and environmental) may be influenced by the adoption of a vegetarian diet. The opposite may also be said, that is, specific aspects of each domain might influence one’s decision to adopt a vegetarian diet. Moreover, these influences could be either positive or negative. The possible connections between vegetarianism and QoL domains are illustrated in Figure 1 .

Connections between aspects of vegetarianism and quality of life domains. The arrows indicate the direction of the influence, that is, whether a given domain influences or is influenced by certain aspects of vegetarianism. The plus (+) and minus (−) symbols indicate positive and negative influences, respectively. NCD: noncommunicable diseases; VD: vegetarian diet.

3.1. Physical Domain

The physical domain refers to aspects as pain, discomfort, energy, fatigue, sleep, and rest. Aspects that positively contribute to a general feeling of physical well-being are therefore relevant for understanding QoL. These include better general health, lower rates of chronic and inflammatory diseases, and lifespan [ 28 ].

3.1.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Physical Domain

Positive influence.

Following a vegetarian diet may lead to better health outcomes and a lower risk of noncommunicable diseases, which could positively influence the QoL physical domain ( Figure 1 ). A nutritionally adequate diet is essential to achieving and maintaining good overall health. A systematic review published by Parker and Vadiveloo [ 17 ] compared the quality of vegetarian and nonvegetarian diets based on diet quality indexes. That review included 12 studies and showed that vegetarians have better diet quality results than omnivores. Furthermore, among vegetarians, vegans achieved the best results. Although different indexes were used in the studies, several common points allowed a combined analysis of the results. Higher consumption of fruits, green vegetables, whole grains, and vegetable sources of protein—and lower consumption of saturated fat and sodium—contributed to the best results found among vegetarians [ 17 ].

A cross-sectional study carried out with vegetarians in Brazil (n = 3319) observed that vegetarians have better diet quality markers than the general Brazilian population, according to parameters used in a national annual survey carried out by the Ministry of Health [ 29 , 30 ]. It was observed that a higher proportion of vegetarians had a more adequate daily consumption of fruits and vegetables [ 29 ] compared to the general Brazilian population (38.1 percent versus 23.1 percent), based on WHO recommendations (five servings a day) [ 31 ]. In addition, a lower regular weekly consumption of soft drinks and artificial juices was also observed among vegetarians (3.9 percent versus 14.4 percent). Of the different types of vegetarians, vegans showed the best results. It was also observed that vegetarians in Brazil follow the recommendations set out in the Dietary Guidelines for the Brazilian Population with regard to consuming more fresh foods and fewer processed and ultraprocessed foods [ 32 ].

Vegetarian diets, including strict vegetarianism (veganism), are considered healthy and nutritionally adequate, and can supply people’s nutritional needs at all life stages, as long as such diets are well planned [ 18 ]. Moreover, the benefits related to the prevention and better control of chronic diseases among vegetarians have already been described, and could also lead to positive outcomes in their QoL.

The role of intestinal microbiota in the regulation of several biological functions and in the prevention of chronic diseases is well known, as well as the fundamental role of the diet in the microbiota and intestinal health of individuals [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. Excessive protein consumption could alter intestinal microbiota patterns by stimulating the proliferation of bacteria capable of fermenting amino acids. Such fermentation results in the production of molecules responsible for increased intestinal permeability, inflammation, and even cancer [ 36 ]. The consumption of vegetable sources of protein, on the other hand, is not associated with such adverse effects, possibly because they contain carbohydrates and fibers, which could mitigate the potentially deleterious effects observed in the intestine caused by the ingestion of proteins [ 36 ]. The intake of saturated fats, present mainly in animal foods, is another factor that contributes to an increase in systemic inflammation, possibly through the activation of Toll-like receptors (TLR), which, once activated, trigger a proinflammatory intestinal and systemic immune response [ 37 ]. The activation of TLRs and the subsequent inflammatory cascade result in an increased risk of metabolic disorders and chronic diseases, such as cancer, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular diseases [ 37 ].

Vegetarian diets usually have a higher content of carbohydrates and fibers, in addition to lower levels of proteins and fats—in particular saturated fats. Studies comparing the microbiota of vegetarians and nonvegetarians show that a plant-based diet can benefit the diversity and profile of the bacteria that make up the intestinal microbiota. In addition to differences observed in the microbiota, with a more favorable bacterial profile, a vegetarian diet (with high consumption of whole foods, fruits, and vegetables) leads to increased production of metabolites from the fermentation of prebiotics and phytochemicals by these bacteria, which also have a positive effect on the host’s health, both at intestinal and systemic levels, contributing to the prevention of chronic diseases [ 38 ].

Among chronic diseases, cardiovascular diseases account for 43.6 percent of deaths worldwide [ 39 ]. Positive results in the control of cardiovascular disease risk factors were observed in clinical trials that promoted lifestyle changes, including adopting vegetarian, vegan, and plant-based diets [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. A review of observational studies conducted in 2018 assessed cardiovascular risk factors in vegans. In most countries, vegetarian diets were associated with a lower intake of energy and saturated fat, and a better cardiovascular profile (lower body weight, LDL cholesterol levels, blood pressure, fasting glucose, and triglycerides) [ 44 ].

A 2019 review study conducted by the Diabetes and Nutrition Study Group (DNSG) of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) associated vegetarian eating patterns with a 28 percent reduction in the incidence of coronary heart disease, and a 22 percent drop in mortality from such conditions. That study gathered data from systematic reviews with meta-analyses correlating different dietary patterns and cardiometabolic outcomes in diabetic patients [ 45 ]. Following a balanced vegetarian diet can reduce systemic inflammation and the risk of diabetes, two factors that are closely linked to the onset and progression of cardiovascular disease [ 46 ].

The consumption of refined carbohydrates, saturated fats, processed meats, and sugary drinks increases the risk of type-2 diabetes, especially when combined with low consumption of dietary fibers. On the other hand, a low-calorie plant-based diet has a protective effect [ 47 ].

The prevalence of diabetes among vegetarians is 1.6 to 2 times lower than among omnivores [ 48 ]. In a 24-week controlled trial with diabetics, the individuals who followed a vegetarian diet showed greater weight loss (6.2 kg versus 3.2 kg, on average), better insulin sensitivity (30 percent versus 20 percent), greater reduction in visceral fat and medication use, in addition to a better hormonal profile (increased adiponectin and reduced leptin) and better levels of antioxidants, as compared to the ones following a standard diet for diabetes control [ 49 ].

Several factors contribute to the reduction in risks and a better control of diabetes. The first one is vegetarians’ better weight control. It is known that both obesity and the accumulation of visceral fat are linked to increased insulin resistance, which contributes to the onset of diabetes [ 47 ]. Vegetarians’ lower intake of saturated fats [ 17 ] also contributes to reducing the risk of diabetes. It has been shown that reducing the consumption of saturated fats or replacing them with unsaturated fats may contribute to improving insulin sensitivity [ 50 ]. Other factors, such as higher fiber intake [ 51 ], lower ferritin levels and lower intake of heme iron [ 52 ] among vegetarians are also related to better insulin resistance and lower risk of diabetes.

A vegetarian diet may also contribute to improving inflammation control. Foods of plant origin—when consumed in their most natural form—are rich in antioxidants, which can assist directly in the control of free radicals in the body (as in the case of antioxidant vitamins C and E), or even through several signaling pathways that modulate our immune response and the production of antioxidant compounds and enzymes, suppressing inflammatory responses [ 48 , 53 , 54 ]. Therefore, a plant-based diet that is rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, seeds, and nuts can help to control inflammatory processes.

A vegetarian diet may also bring benefits regarding cancer prevention. In addition to vegetarians’ better weight control results [ 55 ], which can be considered a protective factor against cancer [ 56 ], their higher consumption of dietary fibers could have protective effects due to the modulation of the intestinal microbiota. In addition, as previously described, excessive protein consumption can lead to an increased production of inflammatory metabolites by the intestinal microbiota [ 36 ], and the consumption of saturated fats (found mainly in foods of animal origin) is capable of activating Toll-like receptors in immune system cells. This stimulates the production of proinflammatory cytokines [ 37 ], and all these factors together can create a cancer-promoting environment.

In addition to the most common chronic diseases mentioned above, adopting a vegetarian diet can help to prevent and treat other inflammatory diseases. A healthier microbiota, higher consumption of antioxidants and lower consumption of potentially inflammatory compounds, in addition to better weight control, are important factors that positively contribute to the health of vegetarians. In fact, how long an individual has been following a vegetarian diet may have an important influence on their results—which depend on continuous exposure to this type of dietary pattern. In a study that evaluated only individuals who had been on a vegetarian diet for at least 15 years (n = 45), lower levels of oxidative stress markers were observed compared to omnivorous individuals (n = 30) [ 57 ].

Furthermore, promising results have already been achieved with the adoption of a vegetarian diet by individuals suffering from fibromyalgia, for example, including improvements in pain symptoms, QoL, sleep quality, and anxiety depression [ 58 ]. In autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes—and low in animal foods—can help to control some of the symptoms [ 59 ]. A vegetarian diet could also be a beneficial tool to prevent other autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis [ 60 ], due to its role in the health of the intestinal microbiota [ 61 ].

Several factors related to lifestyle may influence the emergence of diseases and how long an individual can live. Habits such as regular physical activities, stress control, good personal relationships, and a balanced diet have a positive impact on longevity [ 62 ]. A more detailed analysis of the dietary patterns followed by the world’s longest-living populations, who live in regions known as Blue Zones, can help us understand important food-related aspects that might contribute to improving people’s health and life expectancy. The five regions considered Blue Zones are: Loma Linda (California—United States), Nicoya (Costa Rica), Sardinia (Italy) Ikaria (Greece), and Okinawa (Japan). In all of them, individuals adopt a predominantly plant-based diet, with sporadic meat consumption (on average five times a month, in small portions). On the other hand, the consumption of legumes is frequent in all of them, being part of their daily diet, in addition to vegetables, tubers, cereals, fruits, and other regional foods, including dairy products [ 63 ].

The increased consumption of fruits and vegetables—rich in phytochemicals—may contribute to longevity through several mechanisms. The control of low-grade inflammation provided by antioxidant protection can prevent cell structure damage, slowing down the aging process [ 64 ]. On the other hand, prioritizing the consumption of proteins from animal sources could have a negative impact on one’s life expectancy. The profile of the amino acids found in these foods, with a higher content of methionine and branched-chain amino acids, leads to greater stimulation of IGF-1 and mTOR, in addition to greater cell proliferation. This contributes to the cellular senescence process and, consequently, to aging [ 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ].

These potential health benefits of consuming a mostly or strictly plant-based diet can contribute to better physical health and well-being, resulting in better QoL. In fact, a cross-sectional study conducted with a total of 4628 individuals in the United Kingdom (with a wide range of diseases and conditions) showed that people who were ill had lower QoL scores than those feeling well. Post hoc comparisons indicated higher differences in the physical domain, especially among patients with musculoskeletal conditions (arthritis/arthroplasty, chronic pain), and those with cardiovascular disease awaiting a heart transplant [ 69 ]. Therefore, a diet that helps to prevent chronic and inflammatory diseases could also reduce the negative effects of these conditions on people’s QoL.

Negative Influence

Despite the potential health benefits from adopting a vegetarian diet, special attention should be given to the adequacy of iron, zinc, vitamins B12 and D, calcium, iodine, omega-3, and protein in adults [ 70 ], and especially in infants [ 71 ]. Low intake of such nutrients could lead to nutritional deficiencies and impair an individual’s health [ 70 , 72 ], with a negative impact on their QoL.

Vitamin B12 deficiency should be highlighted, as this nutrient can only be found in animal-origin foods. Vegetarians (especially vegans) have been shown to have lower levels of serum vitamin B12. In addition, increased homocysteine levels [ 73 , 74 , 75 ] are observed, a metabolite that is elevated due to deficiency of vitamin B12 (and other nutrients), and which is associated with increased inflammation. B12 deficiency and increased homocysteine can lead to neurological problems, anemia and developmental delay in children, in addition to increasing the risks of cardiovascular disease, dementia, osteoporosis and death [ 73 , 75 ]. For this reason, it is necessary to monitor and supplement vitamin B12 levels among this groups, and possibly encourage the intake of fortified foods.

Iron, an essential mineral used for hemoglobin formation and oxygen transport in the body, also needs to be carefully adjusted. Vegetarians have been shown to have lower serum ferritin levels, a protein responsible for storing iron in the body. Lower levels of iron could increase the risk of developing anemia [ 76 ], which might also be caused by vitamin B12 deficiency [ 75 ]. In this scenario, an inadequately planned vegetarian diet could negatively affect aspects related to “energy and fatigue” in the physical domain of QoL [ 28 ].

Bone health should also be addressed when considering the potential negative effects of a vegetarian diet. A systematic review published in 2019 showed that vegetarians and vegans had lower bone mineral density than omnivores, and vegans also had higher fracture rates. Such results were unlikely explained only by lower calcium intake, as bone health encompasses many complex mechanisms and depends on different nutrients [ 77 ]. A recent cross-sectional study also found lower bone health in vegans when compared to omnivores (measured using quantitative ultrasound—QUS) [ 78 ], which reinforces the need for proper diet planning and careful bone health monitoring among vegetarians.

3.1.2. Influence of the Physical Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

Seeking health improvement is one of the reasons why people chose to adopt a vegetarian diet [ 7 ]. According to Hopwood et al. [ 79 ], health was the most common reason why nonvegetarians considered adhering to a vegetarian diet. Vegetarianism is currently being more widely studied, and a growing number of scientific papers about the topic have been published over the past few years [ 80 ]. Consequently, the topic has received more attention from the media, and more information is reaching the general population. As more people are informed about the health benefits of adopting a vegetarian diet, the need or desire to improve their health might serve as a trigger. A study conducted in Germany with 329 vegans showed that more than two-thirds of them (69.6 percent), despite having more than one motive for following the diet, included health and well-being among them [ 81 ].

In this sense, following a vegetarian diet is both the cause and consequence of the positive outcomes related to the physical domain. People who seek health improvement may be prone to adopting a vegetarian diet; and, once they do it, the physical benefits may serve as further motivation for maintaining their new diet.

3.2. Psychological Domain

The psychological domain is related to positive or negative feelings, self-esteem and body image/appearance, and thinking/learning/memory/concentration. Different aspects of vegetarianism can either influence or be influenced by psychological factors ( Figure 1 ) [ 28 ].

3.2.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Psychological Domain

Avoiding meat and other animal products can enhance positive feelings arising from the fact that person is adopting an attitude that confirms their beliefs. The positive psychological impact goes beyond the individual sphere, as it can also increase social connections with others adopting similar ideas and behaviors. According to Rosenfeld and Burrow [ 24 ], being a vegetarian goes beyond the choice of a dietary pattern, as it gives individuals a new social identity, which influences their way of thinking, behaving, and socializing. The adoption of a plant-based diet can have a positive effect on well-being and contentment, which could positively impact someone’s QoL [ 82 ].

The different motivations for adopting vegetarianism are also able to influence individuals psychologically. Those who adopt vegetarianism for ethical reasons tend to create more aversion to meat due to the association between its consumption and animal suffering. Such individuals also exclude more animal foods and tend to adopt stricter diets than those who become vegetarians for health or environmental reasons [ 23 ]. That does not necessarily implicate a negative outcome, though. As it has been shown by Cruwys et al. [ 83 ], vegetarians and vegans are more likely to report no barriers to diet adherence (25.2 percent of vegans and 15.6 percent of vegetarians) when compared to individuals following a gluten-free, paleo, or weight-loss diet. Indeed, both vegans and vegetarians had higher diet adherence when compared to the other groups, which might be connected to positive psychological effects related to the social identification within the vegetarian/vegan community.

Potentially negative outcomes of vegetarianism in the psychological domain could be related to mental health impairment. The data related to the effect of vegetarianism on mental health are conflicting. Adopting a vegetarian diet was positively associated with a better mood in a cross-sectional study with Seventh-day Adventists [ 84 ]. A study of South Asians living in the United States found that the likelihood of depression was 43 percent lower among vegetarians [ 85 ]. However, a contrary association has also been observed: in the United Kingdom, a positive association of depressive symptoms was found in men, even after adjusting for confounding factors such as nutritional deficiencies and sociodemographic data [ 86 ]. Similar results were found among adolescents in a study conducted in Turkey, in which higher levels of anxiety, as well as eating disorders, were observed. That study raises the possibility that a vegetarian diet might be adopted among young people as a way of limiting food intake, and that it might be related to preexisting eating disorders [ 87 ].

Discrepant results have already been observed in a study that evaluated mental health in representative population samples from Germany, Russia, and the United States, in addition to samples from students in China and Germany. An increase in anxiety and depression was observed only in the sample from China, but the result was considered mild since a vegetarian diet would explain only 1 percent of the variance in cases of depression and anxiety. In addition, the motivations that led Chinese students to adopt a vegetarian diet differed from those of the other groups studied, being more related to cultural and economic factors [ 88 ]. A study with Chinese elderly people also found a positive association between adopting a plant-based diet and depression compared to a meat-based diet. However, the correlation was observed only in men [ 89 ].

A French cohort’s cross-section study carried out a separate analysis by types of vegetarian diets, and identified a positive association between depressive symptoms and a fish diet and an ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet. However, no association was found with a vegan diet, which contradicts the idea that a stricter diet (excluding more or all animal products) would lead to more severe symptoms of depression [ 90 ]. The authors claim that differences in motivation (between vegans and other vegetarians) may have contributed to this group’s lack of association. In addition, the same study found a positive association between depressive symptoms and the exclusion of items from the diet, both for foods of animal and vegetable origin. That is, the more items excluded (not types of food, but number of products excluded), the greater the symptoms. Such a result could indicate that the higher levels of depression found in vegetarians in several studies could reflect an increase in risk related to diet restriction, and not necessarily to vegetarianism itself [ 90 ].

Another point that needs to be considered is that studies on depression in vegetarians are predominantly transversal, and therefore do not enable the determination of a cause-and-effect relationship. A study that evaluated mental disorders and adopting a vegetarian diet in the previous 12 months (through interviews with a population sample in Germany) also found a positive association between the two variables. However, the time difference between the beginning of both suggests that mental disorders preceded the change in diet, thus refuting the hypothesis that vegetarianism might cause mental disorders [ 91 ].

A systematic review study carried out by Medawar et al. [ 92 ] points out that, despite several health benefits related to adopting a vegetarian diet, its effect on mental health has yet to be properly studied. It is possible that nutritional deficiencies, such as lower levels of vitamin B12, contribute to worsening the nervous system’s health. On the other hand, a diet that favors a more balanced intestinal microbiota, such as a vegetarian diet, positively contributes to the maintenance of neurological functions due to its importance in modulating the gut-brain axis [ 92 ]. In a meta-analysis study published in 2016, it has also been observed that the consumption of fruits and vegetables is inversely associated with the risk of depression [ 93 ]. Vegetarians consume more fruits and vegetables than omnivorous individuals [ 17 ], and also tend to have better health markers and lower risk of other chronic diseases [ 94 ]. In view of this, the conflicting results on the relationship between vegetarianism and depression may reflect a lack of standardization with regard to diet quality and adequate intake (or supplementation) of nutrients in some of the studies, as well as the possibility already raised of reverse causality.

3.2.2. Influence of the Psychological Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

The main reason individuals decide to adopt a vegetarian diet is because of ethical/moral reasons [ 7 , 9 ], which is related to compassion and empathy towards the animals. Since some people feel that eating animal products is wrong, abstaining from their consumption could contribute to a better psychological state. Adopting a vegetarian diet can bring about positive feelings, such as altruism and a sense of purpose, while the pursuit of such guilt-free peace of mind could also positively influence one’s choice to adopt a vegetarian diet. A study conducted by Antonetti and Maklan [ 95 ] showed that experiencing either guilt or pride could change consumers’ behavior and their intention to purchase more sustainable products. Building on that, feeling guilty about eating animal products could lead to a behavioral change, and feeling proud of doing it could reinforce the maintenance of a vegetarian diet.

Moreover, some individuals adopt a vegetarian diet due to spiritual or religious reasons [ 7 ]. Spirituality is a concept related to people’s quest for the meaning in life and a connection to a higher or sacred power. On the other hand, religiousness is related to the degree in which an individual believes, follows, and practices a religion, which might influence how one chooses to live their lives [ 96 ]. An individual who follows a religion that preaches abstention from animal products might feel encouraged to adopt a vegetarian diet. Good adherence to the diet could, in this case, be a positive psychological reinforcement, as it would be in line with their own beliefs. As it has already been demonstrated, high levels of spirituality and religiosity are associated with better social, psychological, and environmental QoL outcomes [ 96 ].

Despite the positive outcomes related to the adoption of a vegetarian diet, some challenges can be found. For many, the barriers to adopting vegetarianism outweigh the possible benefits, and may prevent them from taking that step. Studies corroborate the evidence that attachment to the taste of meat constitutes an obstacle to adopting vegetarianism [ 97 , 98 ]. In addition, other barriers may be considered, such as the fear that a vegetarian diet could be nutritionally inadequate or monotonous, or that it may not favor satiety; the belief that preparing vegetarian meals is harder; difficulties in finding options when eating in restaurants; living with people who eat meat; and a lack of knowledge about meat-free eating [ 97 , 99 , 100 , 101 ]. Especially among men, meat is considered a “comfort food”, and its intake is associated with strength, muscle building, and masculinity. These beliefs represent a barrier to reducing meat consumption, as demonstrated by a study with soldiers from Norway who evaluated their perception of the implementation of the “Meatless Monday” program [ 97 ]. The program is a worldwide campaign, adopted in more than 40 countries, which aims to make people aware of the advantages of reducing meat consumption [ 102 ].

These results are in line with older studies conducted by Lea et al. [ 103 , 104 ]. Having a taste for meat was considered the main barrier for the adoption of a vegetarian diet, but other important factors have also been described, such as, for example, difficulties in changing one’s eating pattern; the fact that family and friends may still eat meat; little knowledge about the subject; and difficulties in finding vegetarian options when eating out [ 103 ].

Moreover, according to another study from Lea et al. [ 104 ], some of the factors that prevent or hinder the adoption of a plant-based dietary pattern are related to one’s family (family members or close people do not adopt this eating pattern); convenience (difficulty finding options or preparing food); health (fear of iron, protein and other nutrient deficiencies); cost and lack of options for eating out; and lack of information about vegetarianism. The low prevalence of adopting a plant-based diet among the participants demonstrates that several factors discourage its adoption—even though it is a more flexible dietary pattern than a vegetarian diet.

All these barriers interconnect with the social domain, as they are influenced by the social context in which an individual is inserted. Nevertheless, the negative psychological effects refer to how individuals react to these fears or barriers, which might negatively affect their choice of adopting a vegetarian diet. As described by Schmitt et al. [ 105 ], the perception of discrimination, both about an individual and a group, has an impact on well-being, with potential psychological consequences (contributing to mental stress, anxiety, depression) and affecting other aspects, such as self-esteem, humor, and satisfaction with life [ 105 ].

3.3. Social Domain

The social domain related to QoL includes personal relationships and social support [ 28 ]. In fact, having good social connections is essential for mental health and well-being, positively influencing one’s QoL. In this case, the consequences of adopting a vegetarian diet have to be analyzed based on the social and cultural group in which an individual is inserted, as well as the attitudes of close people towards vegetarianism.

3.3.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Social Domain

Unlike other dietary patterns, vegetarianism goes beyond the definition of one’s food choices. Rather, it is defined as a social identity, which consists of how a person identifies themselves in terms of the social group in which they believe to belong. A study conducted with young vegan women revealed that not only did they identify with the diet, but they also passionately engaged in a “vegan lifestyle”. The choice of becoming a vegan had positive effects in many different ways, including social relationships, and identification and sense of connection with the vegan subculture [ 106 ]. Therefore, the choice of following a vegetarian diet can enhance one’s connection with other people who share the same life philosophy [ 107 ], strengthening social bonds and positively influencing one’s QoL ( Figure 1 ).

Many of those who decide to adopt vegetarianism suffer rejection from others and are victims of stereotyping and discrimination. Such negative attitudes towards vegetarians and vegans are known as “vegaphobia” or “veganophobia”, a term already spread in the scientific literature. A possible explanation for the discrimination against vegetarians and vegans is related to the cognitive dissonance suffered by individuals who eat meat. In this context, cognitive dissonance refers to the contradiction experienced by individuals who like animals and feel compassion for them, but, at the same time, consume meat. Therefore, individuals who eat meat may discriminate against vegetarians not out of fear or dislike, but because they represent an affirmation that eating meat is not necessary and is, therefore, unjustified [ 108 ].

In order to avoid conflict and embarrassment, many vegetarians prefer to omit their dietary choice. In fact, social aspects are so relevant that the greatest reason why vegetarians make exceptions and eat meat is due to pressure from friends, family, and coworkers. According to Rosenfeld and Tomiyama [ 109 ], in a qualitative study that evaluated dieters’ motivations to break their diet, 51 percent of individuals reported having already eaten meat after adopting vegetarianism. In general, their justifications do not involve missing meat itself, but rather an attempt to avoid uncomfortable situations in a social context. The fear of being rude or offending some family culture or tradition, the need to make a good impression, or the fear of being stigmatized are some of the most important factors that lead vegetarians to stop following their diets momentarily. Such a study reinforces the idea that vegetarianism goes far beyond a dietary choice, creating a social identity that influences the entire context in which an individual is inserted [ 109 ].

The negative consequences of a vegetarian identity usually have a stronger impact on vegans than vegetarians because the former suffer more rejection and are viewed more negatively by omnivores [ 23 ]. Such discrimination comes not only from nonvegetarian people, but also from the media, as demonstrated by Cole and Morgan [ 110 ] in a study that evaluated how veganism was reported in UK newspapers. Such a study concluded that the media tends to present vegans as sentimentalists, fanatics and extremists, in addition to mocking veganism and considering it impossible to maintain in practice.

3.3.2. Influence of the Social Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

Vegetarians and vegans also showed more adherence to their diet when compared to individuals who follow a paleo, gluten-free, or weight-loss diet. Social identification was an important predictor of adherence in both quantitative and qualitative analyses. According to Cruwys et al. [ 83 ], vegetarians and vegans described their diet not as an individual choice, but as a manifestation of their social ethics. Ethical and moral concerns were considered the most important facilitators of diet adherence, and a lack of adherence would go against the group’s moral code. Feeling part of a social group can also positively influence how strictly one sticks to a dietary pattern. The sense of belonging and the in-group social reinforcement could make it easier for individuals to maintain their dietary patterns, provided they feel supported by the group.

Vegetarians that have a close circle of vegetarian contacts (friends, family or coworkers) have been shown to have higher QoL than those who do not [ 13 ]. In this case, they can be positively influenced by their social environment. Moreover, just as the social context in which vegetarians are inserted may influence their adherence to the diet, individuals who eat meat may also be influenced by living with vegetarians. In their study, Geerts, Backer, and Erreygers [ 108 ] described some characteristics of meat-consuming individuals, with emphasis on the fact that meat consumption is considerably lower among those living with vegetarians in the same household. In addition, discrimination against vegetarians was less common among individuals who had vegetarians in their household or circle of friends. Thus, greater acceptance and lower levels of veganophobia among meat consumers (resulting from their close contacts with vegetarians) may have a positive influence on other individuals’ feeling more comfortable when adopting a vegetarian diet.

Cultural aspects are relevant predictors of meat consumption. The consumption of different species of animals varies between cultures. Animals considered suitable for consumption in some countries may not be seen in the same way by individuals of other nationalities. As demonstrated by Ruby [ 111 ], in countries considered individualistic (such as the United States and Canada), a feeling of disgust is the primary attitude of certain individuals when faced with the idea of eating certain animals. On the other hand, in more collectivist nations, such as China and India, cultural norms influence individual emotions and the sense of morality, being the greatest predictor for not consuming meat.

Moreover, gender differences may also influence one’s choice of eating or avoiding animal products. Meat consumption is usually seen as a symbol of masculinity and dominance over other species in several cultures where meat is considered a proper food for men [ 23 , 97 ]. In addition, men tend to eat less fruits and vegetables; care less about the nutritional properties of the food they eat; and agree more with the belief that a healthy diet needs to include meat [ 7 , 112 ]. According to Rosenfeld and Tomiyama [ 98 ], men are more resistant to adopting a vegetarian diet, mainly because they believe that a meatless diet would not be tasty. In addition, women are more likely to believe that meat consumption is harmful to the environment and that adopting vegetarianism is a plausible and healthy choice [ 113 ]. In fact, large population studies such as the Epic-Oxford [ 114 ] and the Adventist Health Study 2 [ 115 ] identified a higher proportion of females among vegetarians, with 78 percent and 65 percent of the sample consisting of women.

Such gender differences may influence the adoption of vegetarianism depending on the sociocultural context in which an individual is inserted. A study by Ruby et al. [ 116 ] with participants from Argentina, Brazil, the United States, and France (countries that are among the largest consumers of beef in the world) revealed that men consume beef more frequently and enjoy the taste of it more, while women show more negative attitudes towards the consumption of red meat, such as disgust. The same study also demonstrated that there are cultural differences related to the acceptance of vegetarianism. American women showed greater admiration for vegetarianism, while French women were the ones who admired vegetarians the least. Participants from Brazil and Argentina, considering the entire sample, demonstrated more positive attitudes toward beef consumption, followed by participants from France and, finally, from the United States [ 116 ].

3.4. Environmental Domain

The environment in which an individual is inserted also exerts an important influence on their QoL. Living in a safe and healthy environment, with proper social care and an efficient transport system, opportunities for acquiring new information and skills, as well as recreation/leisure areas, are all relevant factors. Moreover, having good financial resources can positively contribute to a good QoL. On the other hand, factors that have a negative impact on the environment, such as pollution and climate change, could also negatively affect one’s QoL [ 28 ].

3.4.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Environmental Domain

Following a more sustainable diet, which will contribute to a healthier environment, could positively influence QoL ( Figure 1 ). In general, plant-based diets are more sustainable than those based on animal foods, as they require fewer natural resources for food production and have a lower impact on the environment. An omnivorous diet is estimated to require 2.9 times more water, 2.5 times more energy, 13 times more fertilizers, and 1.4 times more pesticides than a vegetarian diet [ 117 ]. In addition, meat and dairy production contribute 80 percent of all gas emissions from food production, and 24 percent of total greenhouse gases coming from food. Livestock production uses about 70 percent of all agricultural land globally, and consumes 29 percent of all water spent on agriculture [ 118 ].

Regarding the analysis of different types of diets, the data from 34 articles gathered in a systematic review showed that the more a diet is plant-based, the more sustainable it is. The vegan diet was considered the most sustainable of all, with the lowest greenhouse gas emissions and the least environmental impact, especially when based on locally produced foods and with a lower consumption of ultraprocessed meat substitutes. Ovolactovegetarian diets have a greater environmental impact than vegan diets, and it has been shown that 40 percent of greenhouse gases from ovolactovegetarian diets are attributed to the consumption of dairy products [ 118 ].

The production of animal-origin food is very inefficient in terms of energy, as it requires the use of many resources (water, energy, land, food) to keep animals alive. The animals themselves use much of the energy and nutrients in the form of food to maintain their metabolism, whereas only a small part of it is actually stored and converted into food for humans in the form of meat. This amount of energy wasted during production, standardized through the rate of the conversion of energy into protein, varies considerably from one animal to another. Whereas 4 calories from fossil fuels are required for each calorie of chicken protein that is produced, 40 calories are required for the production of 1 calorie of beef protein. For pork and dairy production, the rate is 14 fuel calories for each calorie of protein. In the case of eggs, the value is similar to that of beef (39 calories). On average, the energy used to produce each gram of animal protein (25 kcal/g) is 11 times greater than that used to produce vegetable proteins (2.2 kcal/g) [ 119 ].

In general, in the case of plant-origin foods, the higher the protein concentration, the greater the energy efficiency (which means that such foods need less energy to provide greater amounts of protein, as they are more concentrated in protein). Such an association does not exist for foods of animal origin, as their energy demand is very high—in fact, a decline in energy efficiency is observed as protein concentration increases (that is, foods with a higher protein concentration are those that demand more energy) [ 120 , 121 ].

According to Aleksandrowicz et al. [ 122 ], the change from a typical Western diet to more sustainable food patterns could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and land use related to food production by up to 80 percent, in addition to a 50 percent reduction in water use. In that study, all diets involved reducing or replacing animal foods with others of plant origin (such as, for example, vegetarian, vegan, Mediterranean and pescatarian diets), in addition to replacing the consumption of ruminant animals with monogastric animals [ 122 ]. Similar results were observed in a study by Rosi et al. [ 12 ] in Italy, which showed that vegetarian diets (ovolactovegetarian and vegan) had a lower ecological footprint in the three aspects assessed: CO 2 production, water consumption, and land use. Corroborating these data, a global analysis of different dietary strategies to reduce the environmental impact and improve health estimated that, in developed countries, the replacement of animal foods with plant-origin foods could reduce the number of premature deaths by up to 12 percent, and greenhouse gas emissions by up to 84 percent [ 123 ].

3.4.2. Influence of the Environmental Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

Environmental issues are part of the motivations that lead individuals to reduce meat consumption or adopt a vegetarian diet. The concept of sustainability applied to food refers to a diet that, in addition to being nutritionally adequate and healthy, respects biodiversity and ecosystems, is accessible, culturally accepted, and contributes to preserving natural resources [ 124 ].

A motivation to live in a healthier and more sustainable environment may positively influence people to adopt and maintain a vegetarian diet, as it has already been proved that a more plant-based diet has a lower environmental impact when compared to animal-based diets [ 122 ]. Individuals who are naturally engaged in sustainability and environmental issues are more likely to have positive feelings related to a sense of altruism achieved from adopting a vegetarian diet. The possibility of protecting their own environment and contributing to a better world can bring a sense of purpose in life [ 125 ], which could positively influence diet adherence and QoL.

Adopting a vegetarian diet may depend on other factors beyond an individual’s will. Economic aspects, both at the global level (economic situation of the country) and the individual level (income and social status), could influence food choices. In general, the lower the income, the greater its influence on food. People with higher income suffer less from fluctuations in food prices and are more demanding in their choices. Likewise, in poorer countries, the consumption of certain foods is highly influenced by their prices, which does not occur with the same intensity in developed countries [ 126 ]. The influence of economic aspects on the nutritional quality of a diet is quite variable. For example, it has been shown that increased income leads to a higher intake of fruit. However, the same increase might lead to eating out more often, or consuming more processed foods, in addition to eating more meat and fewer legumes [ 126 ]. Moreover, a cross-sectional study carried out in the United States showed that lower income levels were associated with poorer quality of food—in particular, lower consumption of fruits and vegetables and higher consumption of sugary drinks and frozen desserts [ 127 ].

The economic context is one of the factors that may influence the adoption of vegetarianism. On the one hand, the price of animal-origin foods may cause individuals to reduce their consumption. A study carried out in Canada found that an increase in meat price led 37.9 percent of individuals to reduce or eliminate their consumption. Still, as it is a food that is part of local culture, individuals value meat consumption more than any other food group. Therefore, despite economic issues, cultural aspects may also be considered an important barrier to reducing meat consumption [ 128 ]. In Australia, it has been shown that price increases are the biggest motivators for reductions in meat consumption, a factor that was considered more relevant than health, religious, ethical, and environmental aspects, among others [ 129 ]. Therefore, understanding the economic context in which individuals live is essential for understanding the motivations that lead them to reduce their meat consumption and possibly adopt vegetarianism.

Reducing meat consumption also depends on access to various plant-origin foods, which is also limited by economic issues. In Brazil, for example, the consumption of fruits and vegetables is influenced by prices and family income, with the cost burden being indicated as the primary barrier [ 130 ]. Data from the Brazilian Household Budget Survey (POF) showed that individuals from lower income groups spend a higher percentage of their budget on food. Families with a monthly income of up to BRL 1908.00 spend 22.6 percent of their household budget on food, compared with only 7.6 percent among families whose monthly income exceeds BRL 23,850.00 [ 131 ]. One of the barriers to adopting a vegetarian diet is the perception that it would be more expensive [ 98 ]. However, a vegetarian diet could be considered cheaper than an omnivorous diet, since meat is often the most expensive food item. In Brazil, a national survey from 2017–18 revealed that over 20 percent of all household food expenses were spent on “meats, viscera and fish”, a percentage higher than to any other food item [ 131 ]. Still, a vegetarian diet could become more expensive when more meat-substitute foods (which are less accessible) are consumed [ 132 ].

Another factor that could hinder the adoption of a healthy vegetarian diet is the logistics involving access to fresh fruits and vegetables. As they are perishable foods and are usually eaten fresh (unlike meats and other foods, which are often frozen and stored for longer), many types of fruits and vegetables require more frequent trips to the market, and adequate storage to minimize losses. Therefore, the consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables could be affected by people’s lack of time to purchase these foods frequently, and by losses resulting from inadequate storage. In other words, the perishability of fruits and vegetables could generate a cost increase. In addition, especially among low-income individuals, a more restricted access to fresh food is a factor that negatively influences its consumption [ 133 ]. Moreover, lower education levels could also negatively influence one’s decision to adopt a vegetarian diet, as a positive association has been demonstrated between higher educational levels and the adoption of a vegetarian diet [ 114 , 134 ]. In view of this, educating individuals to make healthier and more economically viable choices could encourage more people to adopt vegetarianism. Public policies that help reduce prices and facilitate access to fruits, vegetables, and other plant-origin foods could also help more people to reduce their meat consumption.

4. Vegetarians’ Quality of Life

A vegetarian diet’s effect on QoL was assessed in a cross-sectional study carried out with runners. A convenience sample was selected from German-speaking countries, namely Germany, Switzerland and Austria, and a total of 281 individuals (158 vegetarians and 123 omnivores) participated in the study. The instrument used to assess QoL was the WHOQOL-BREF, which was applied virtually to the study subjects. The results showed that all participants scored high on QoL, regardless of the type of diet adopted, with no difference between groups. Therefore, it was concluded that runners have high levels of QoL, and that a vegetarian diet was as good as an omnivorous diet for this population segment [ 135 ].

In Brazil, a specific questionnaire to evaluate the QoL of vegetarians was developed and validated, since other studies used only general questionnaires or others that were not specific to vegetarians [ 13 ]. The responses showed that vegetarians have satisfactory levels of QoL (average scores between 70 and 80 on a 100-point scale). Among the different types of vegetarians, vegans were the ones with the highest scores. Other factors that had an influence on participants’ QoL included their age, how long they had been following a vegetarian diet, and whether they had other vegetarians in their close circle of contacts [ 13 ].

In a clinical trial conducted with diabetic patients, the effect of a vegetarian diet on their QoL and eating behavior was compared to a standard diet used to treat type 2 diabetes. QoL was assessed using the Obesity and Weight-Loss QoL questionnaire (OWQOL) and Weight-Related Symptom Measure questionnaire (WRSM). Both diets led to positive effects on QoL and mood, but the effect was stronger in the group that followed a vegetarian diet, demonstrating that such a dietary pattern can have positive effects not only on the physical health, but also on the mental health of patients with type 2 diabetes [ 136 ].

Older studies [ 137 , 138 , 139 ] show similar results, with positive QoL outcomes when individuals were exposed to a vegetarian diet. Katcher, Ferdowsian, Hoover, Cohen, and Barnard [ 137 ] developed a workplace study in a US-based company as part of a health promotion program, in which volunteers adopted a vegan diet for 22 weeks. At the beginning and the end of the period, individuals answered the Food Acceptability Questionnaire—FAQ (SF) and the Work Productivity and Activity Impairment questionnaire (WPAI). The responses to the questionnaires showed that individuals who adopted the vegan diet reported improvement in general health, physical fitness, mental health, vitality and overall satisfaction with the diet, in addition to the reduced cost of food items. However, they reported more difficulty in finding options when eating out. Still, the vegan diet was effective in improving the participants’ QoL. QoL was also assessed in a study conducted at a health institute in the United States that offers a raw vegan diet to visitors and guests. Participants who remained at the institute for at least a week and who would maintain the raw vegan diet after leaving the institute were selected. A QoL analysis was performed at the beginning of the study and 12 weeks after the intervention, with a questionnaire that evaluated individual satisfaction with taste, food cost, convenience (ease of buying, planning and preparing food), and self-care perception. Individuals who followed the raw vegan diet for 12 weeks were compared to those who did not. There was an improvement both in the parameters of general QoL (assessed by SF-36), as well as in the QoL associated with changes in the diet, cost aspects and the perception of self-care. This shows the positive effect that this type of food can have in QoL, when used as a clinical treatment [ 138 ]

A study conducted in the United States by Barnard, Scialli, Bertron, Hurlock, and Edmonds [ 139 ] assessed the acceptability of a low-fat vegan diet in women. The study was carried out with 35 nonmenopausal women divided into two groups: one adopting the diet for a period equivalent to two menstrual cycles, and the other group not following any diet, with a crossover design. The low-fat vegan diet had high adherence and good acceptability, although the participants reported that maintaining the diet required more effort. They also reported weight loss and improved sleep, digestion and energy levels, which can positively contribute to improving QoL.

5. Summary of Knowledge and Future Directions

Adopting a vegetarian diet can have a positive influence on all four QoL domains. Better health outcomes and lower rates of noncommunicable diseases have a positive impact on the physical domain. Positive feelings associated with doing something good, together with a feeling of belonging or stronger in-group bonds created with the vegetarian community, have a positive effect on the psychological and social domains, respectively. Finally, the lower environmental impact of vegetarian diets benefits the environmental domain.

On the other hand, negative effects on QoL might also result from adopting a vegetarian diet. Despite better overall health, a nonbalanced vegetarian diet could lead to nutritional deficiencies that would be detrimental to health, affecting the physical domain. As vegetarians are still a minority group, rejection and stigmatization from nonvegetarians may have a negative impact on the social domain. The psychological and mental effects of a vegetarian diet are not clear, although some studies point to an increased risk of depression.

Several aspects of different QoL domains can also have an impact on one’s decision whether or not to adopt a vegetarian diet. Improving one’s health can be an important motivator to try a vegetarian diet. Ethical/moral and religious/spiritual reasons are important psychological aspects that can lead to the adoption of vegetarianism, while an attempt to reduce one’s environmental impact can motivate someone to adopt such a diet. Becoming part of a social group and achieving a sense of belonging can also be a trigger for someone to become vegetarian.

Just as some individuals might feel motivated to follow a vegetarian diet for a number of different reasons, others might feel discouraged due to psychological, social, or environmental factors. A fear of being stigmatized or excluded from their social group could hinder one’s intention of becoming a vegetarian. Moreover, cultural aspects that enhance meat consumption could have the same effect, together with the connection that people make between meat and masculinity. Finally, since the adoption of an alternative dietary pattern also relies on environmental factors, such as food availability and economics, individuals may face difficulties when adopting a vegetarian diet if they lack a good supply of plant-based food options.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, vegetarianism can either influence or be influenced by different QoL domains. The choice of adopting a vegetarian diet can have positive consequences, such as better physical health, positive feelings related to the adoption of a morally correct attitude, an increased sense of belonging (to a vegetarian community) and lower environmental impact. On the other hand, factors that go beyond an individual’s control, such as the environment and social/cultural group in which they are inserted, as well as gender-based differences, economic aspects, and limited access to a wide variety of plant-based foods, can negatively impact the QoL of those choosing to abstain from meats or other animal products. Despite the low number of studies on vegetarianism and quality of life, the existing evidence points toward a more positive impact. It is important to understand all the effects of adopting a vegetarian diet—beyond its nutritional aspects. Not only do studies in this area provide more consistent data, but they may also contribute to mitigating all factors that might prevent individuals from adopting a vegetarian diet, or that may have a negative impact on the quality of life of those who already follow it. Further studies are necessary to understand how strongly these connections between QoL domains and vegetarianism can influence the individuals who adopt this dietary pattern.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknoledge the “Programa de Pós Graduação em Nutrição Humana da Universidade de Brasília (PPGNH/UnB)” and Luiz Eduardo S. Hargreaves for the support.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; methodology, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; investigation, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; writing—review and editing, S.M.H., A.R., A.S. and R.P.Z.; visualization, S.M.H., R.P.Z., A.R.; supervision, R.P.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

IELTS Blog & IELTS Mock Test

Ielts exam preparation for a higher band score., ielts essay: everyone should adopt a vegetarian diet.

You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.

Write about the following topic:

Everyone should adopt a vegetarian diet because eating meat can cause serious health problems.

Do you agree or disagree?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own experience or knowledge.

Write at least 250 words.

Model Answer 1:

People should consume more vegetables and fruits and as little meat as possible because intake high amount of meat can cause serious health issues. In my opinion, the consumption of a vegetarian diet is a better way to live a healthy life and I agree with the notion.

Firstly, vegetarian diets are cheaper and more healthy. If the majority of people become vegetarians, a nation needs to struggle less to become self-sufficient on food production. Moreover, such diets are easily accessible both for the poor and rich citizens. Most importantly, plant-based food provides necessary vitamins and food values, especially fibre, which protect us from many dangerous diseases. Not to mention, producing vegetarian food is more ecologically sustainable, and it reduces damage to the environment.

On the contrary, a certain portion of meat is necessary for a balanced diet because it contains protein, calcium and other vitamins. Nevertheless, these can be also gained from alternative sources like beans, mushrooms and nuts. Most meats are cholesterol-rich, which is detrimental to the human body and cause diseases. On top of that, deadly illnesses like cardiovascular diseases, obesity and brain haemorrhage are increasing gradually all around the world due to a high intake of red meat in different countries and I believe a vegetarian diet is a perfect solution to all these problems.

In conclusion, a healthy diet determines our wellbeing and life expectancy. Since a vegetarian diet is far beneficial than meats, we should choose wisely and decrease our meat intake as little as possible.

[By – Amraiz Ali Shahzad ]

Model Answer 2:

When it is perfectly possible to lead a healthy life by eating plant-based food, I see no justification for killing birds or animals for our food. Therefore, I completely agree with the argument that everyone should adopt a vegetarian diet.

There are several benefits to following a vegetarian diet. To start with, plant-based food is rich in vitamins, minerals, anti-oxidants and other nutrients required for good health. What’s more, most fruits and vegetables contain little or no cholesterol or calories. Research has shown that vegetarians are less likely to develop health-related problems like obesity, cancer or heart diseases. Health benefits are not the only reason to follow a vegetarian diet. When we obtain our food from plants, we can also stop cruelty to animals.

By contrast, non-vegetarian foods such as fish and meat are high in cholesterol, fat and calories. Regular consumption of red meat is known to increase a person’s risk of cancer and heart disease. In addition, unlike fruits or vegetables, fish and meat cannot be eaten raw. The slaughtered animal may have some illness. If half-cooked meat is eaten, it can cause deadly infections in human beings. In fact, many cases of food poisoning are caused by the consumption of contaminated meat.

The quality of non-vegetarian food has also deteriorated over the years. Seafood has become contaminated due to the pollution in ocean water. It is a well-known fact that farm animals are given steroids to grow rapidly. When we eat their meat, the steroid also enters into our body. This leads to several problems like precocious puberty in children.

To conclude, vegetarian diets are healthy and do not constitute cruelty to animals. Therefore, I believe that everyone should adopt vegetarianism.

[Written by – Manoj ]

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Vegetarian or Non-Vegetarian, Essay Example

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My typical daily diet includes some type of meat; therefore, I am not a vegetarian. However, I do my best to include lean meat products in my daily diet and try to refrain from products that are too fatty or processed. The vegetarian diet typically involves the consumption of plant-based foods as the primary source of nutrients, and vegetarians with fewer dietary restrictions (i.e. vegans) also consume dairy products. It is important for vegetarians to have a healthy and balanced diet that includes a variety of different foods from the various food groups, such as fresh vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and dairy products. It is important to consider these alternatives in the development of a successful vegetarian diet strategy.

As with other types of diets, a vegetarian food pyramid also exists and provides a basis for a healthy diet and encourages the highest level of consumption of grains, then high protein foods such as nuts and legumes, then vegetables, fruits, and fats (Mayo Clinic). The daily dietary recommendations are as follows: 2 servings of fats, 2 servings of fruits, 4 servings of vegetables, 5 servings of legumes and nuts, and 6 servings of grains (Mayo Clinic). Each of these recommendations is an important contributor to a healthy vegetarian diet on a daily basis.

A plant-based diet is important for optimal health and nutrition for vegetarians; however, there is a greater risk of vitamin deficiencies for this group, such as calcium, iron, Vitamin B12, and zinc (MedlinePlus). It is important for vegetarians to focus on these items in their diet plans in order to achieve successful nutritional outcomes (MedlinePlus). Any plant-based diet must incorporate a variety of different food products to achieve proper nutrition; however, another area to consider is the ability to obtain adequate amounts of energy from the plant-based foods that are consumed (Abraham). It is expected that a plant-based diet will provide sufficient energy for daily living and will also contribute to a healthier lifestyle and a leaner approach to eating (Abraham). For those persons interested in a vegetarian diet, experimentation with new types of foods, such as soy products and veggie-based products such as burgers are a good start towards this direction (Abraham). These examples offer variety in the plant-based diet and support the development of a healthier direction to acquire proper nutrition (Abraham).

It is evident that for vegetarians, plant-based diets provide a level of energy and positive health that supports greater wellbeing (NIH). One of the key benefits to a vegetarian plant-based diet is the likelihood of greater overall health and a reduced risk of chronic illness (NIH). Vegetarian diets also represent a set of personal beliefs regarding food and nutrition, whether they are based upon religious preferences or customs, or the general need to consume healthier foods (NIH). Therefore, it is important to recognize the reasons why a vegetarian diet is preferred and how to integrate these types of foods into the daily diet (NIH). Long-term vegetarians have demonstrated lower levels of cancer and generally weigh less than meat eaters, and also reduce the risks associated with high cholesterol and heart disease (NIH). As a result, the vegetarian diet provides many health-related benefits to those who prefer this type of nutrition (NIH). For vegetarians, the concept of consuming plant-based foods is relatively simple and provides numerous benefits, and for those interested in a vegetarian diet, it is recommended that experimenting with different types of foods that might be unfamiliar is a strategy to determine if this type of diet will provide the desired benefits without losing the taste and the variety that certain meat-based diets offer (NIH).

Works Cited

Abraham, L., 2013. “Vegetarian diet: plant-based eating good for health and energy.” 28 March 2013: http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2013/02/18/vegetarian-diet_n_2712282.html

Mayo Clinic, 2013. “Nutrition and Healthy Eating.” 28 March 2013: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/vegetarian-diet/HQ01596

MedlinePlus, 2013. “Vegetarian diet: how to get the best nutrition.” 28 March 2013: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/vegetarian-diet/HQ01596

National Institutes of Health, 2012. “Digging a vegetarian diet.” 28 March 2013: http://newsinhealth.nih.gov/issue/jul2012/feature1

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What’s the difference between vegan and vegetarian?

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What’s the difference? is a new editorial product that explains the similarities and differences between commonly confused health and medical terms, and why they matter.

Vegan and vegetarian diets are plant-based diets . Both include plant foods, such as fruits, vegetables, legumes and whole grains.

But there are important differences, and knowing what you can and can’t eat when it comes to a vegan and vegetarian diet can be confusing.

So, what’s the main difference?

What’s a vegan diet?

A vegan diet is an entirely plant-based diet. It doesn’t include any meat and animal products. So, no meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, dairy or honey.

What’s a vegetarian diet?

A vegetarian diet is a plant-based diet that generally excludes meat, poultry, fish and seafood, but can include animal products. So, unlike a vegan diet, a vegetarian diet can include eggs, dairy and honey.

But you may be wondering why you’ve heard of vegetarians who eat fish, vegetarians who don’t eat eggs, vegetarians who don’t eat dairy, and even vegetarians who eat some meat. Well, it’s because there are variations on a vegetarian diet:

a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet excludes meat, poultry, fish and seafood, but includes eggs, dairy and honey

an ovo-vegetarian diet excludes meat, poultry, fish, seafood and dairy, but includes eggs and honey

a lacto-vegetarian diet excludes meat, poultry, fish, seafood and eggs, but includes dairy and honey

a pescatarian diet excludes meat and poultry, but includes eggs, dairy, honey, fish and seafood

a flexitarian , or semi-vegetarian diet, includes eggs, dairy and honey and may include small amounts of meat, poultry, fish and seafood.

Are these diets healthy?

A 2023 review looked at the health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets from two types of study.

Observational studies followed people over the years to see how their diets were linked to their health. In these studies, eating a vegetarian diet was associated with a lower risk of developing cardiovascular disease (such as heart disease or a stroke), diabetes, hypertension (high blood pressure), dementia and cancer.

For example, in a study of 44,561 participants, the risk of heart disease was 32% lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians after an average follow-up of nearly 12 years.

Further evidence came from randomised controlled trials. These instruct study participants to eat a specific diet for a specific period of time and monitor their health throughout. These studies showed eating a vegetarian or vegan diet led to reductions in weight, blood pressure, and levels of unhealthy cholesterol.

For example, one analysis combined data from seven randomised controlled trials. This so-called meta-analysis included data from 311 participants. It showed eating a vegetarian diet was associated with a systolic blood pressure (the first number in your blood pressure reading) an average 5 mmHg lower compared with non-vegetarian diets.

It seems vegetarian diets are more likely to be healthier, across a number of measures.

For example, a 2022 meta-analysis combined the results of several observational studies. It concluded a vegetarian diet, rather than vegan diet, was recommended to prevent heart disease.

There is also evidence vegans are more likely to have bone fractures than vegetarians. This could be partly due to a lower body-mass index and a lower intake of nutrients such as calcium, vitamin D and protein.

But it can be about more than just food

Many vegans, where possible, do not use products that directly or indirectly involve using animals.

So vegans would not wear leather, wool or silk clothing, for example. And they would not use soaps or candles made from beeswax, or use products tested on animals.

The motivation for following a vegan or vegetarian diet can vary from person to person. Common motivations include health, environmental, ethical, religious or economic reasons.

And for many people who follow a vegan or vegetarian diet, this forms a central part of their identity .

So, should I adopt a vegan or vegetarian diet?

If you are thinking about a vegan or vegetarian diet, here are some things to consider:

eating more plant foods does not automatically mean you are eating a healthier diet. Hot chips, biscuits and soft drinks can all be vegan or vegetarian foods. And many plant-based alternatives , such as plant-based sausages, can be high in added salt

meeting the nutrient intake targets for vitamin B12, iron, calcium, and iodine requires more careful planning while on a vegan or vegetarian diet. This is because meat, seafood and animal products are good sources of these vitamins and minerals

eating a plant-based diet doesn’t necessarily mean excluding all meat and animal products. A healthy flexitarian diet prioritises eating more whole plant-foods, such as vegetables and beans, and less processed meat, such as bacon and sausages

the Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend eating a wide variety of foods from the five food groups (fruit, vegetables, cereals, lean meat and/or their alternatives and reduced-fat dairy products and/or their alternatives). So if you are eating animal products, choose lean, reduced-fat meats and dairy products and limit processed meats.

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Everyone should become vegetarian – IELTS Writing Task 2

Updated On Feb 28, 2024

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Effective IELTS Essay Connectors for Writing Task 2 & Task 1

The Essay Writing section of the IELTS Writing Module can be a difficult task for many IELTS Aspirants. Thus, it is vital that you polish your essay writing skills before attempting the IELTS.

Below is a sample IELTS Essay for the IELTS Essay topic:

Everyone should become vegetarian because they do not need to eat meat to have a healthy diet. Do you agree or disagree?

Opinion essay (Agree/disagree)

Introduction

• Paraphrase the topic of the essay and give an insight into it.
• State your side of the argument and mention what can be anticipated from the essay.
• Paragraph 1- Non-vegetarian diets are considerably higher in the total intake of protein, which is highly beneficial for the body. As scientists show, protein can not only improve overall health and fitness but also can contribute to reinforcing the immune system.
• Paragraph 2- Meat is also a fertile source of many nutrients, such as iron or zinc. It is already recognized that while iron helps in producing tissues inside the body, zinc is indispensable in helping to transport oxygen to different parts of the body, thus allowing the proper functioning of all body organs.

Reemphasize your opinion in conclusion and give a summarized argument for that.

Sample Essay

In the last few decades, vegetarianism has entered the mainstream of many societies, most notably in western countries. It is suggested by those who side with vegetarians that meat is not a necessary element in a healthy diet and that going vegan is the way to go in modern times. Personally, I reckon that this view has flaws.

In the first place, non-vegetarian diets are considerably higher in the total intake of protein, which is highly beneficial for the body. As scientists show, protein can not only improve overall health and fitness but also can contribute to reinforcing the immune system. As vegetarian diets hardly meet daily protein requirements, those who follow are generally more vulnerable to fatigue even when doing physically undemanding tasks, or they can be more susceptible to common diseases such as flu or cold.

In the second place, meat is also a fertile source of many nutrients, such as iron or zinc. It is already recognized that while iron helps in producing tissues inside the body, zinc is indispensable in helping to transport oxygen to different parts of the body, thus allowing the proper functioning of all body organs. Besides, when consuming meat, the body will also be absorbing numerous kinds of vitamins, which strengthen bones and promote the health of the teeth or the eyes.

Although, going entirely vegetarian or vegan is a matter of choice of lifestyle and could placate the need for nutrition to a decent extent, however, when it comes to a wholesome dietary sufficiency, going for a typical vegetarian diet couldn’t serve the purpose for the entirety.

To conclude, the above-mentioned points have manifestly shown that the benefits derived from following a wholesome diet overshadow those from vegetable-only ones. Thus, it is not advisable to become vegetarians.

• To enter the mainstream of…: become popular
• This view has flaws: This view can be argued against.
• To reinforce the immune system: make the immune system stronger.
• They can be more susceptible to common diseases: they are more likely to get sick.
• Indispensable (adj.): very important.
• To be more vulnerable to fatigue: to be more likely to get sick
• Be a fertile source of many nutrients: be very nutritious
• To strengthen bone structures: make the bones stronger.
• Manifestly (adv.): obviously.

Band 9 Sample Essay

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There has been a considerable surge in the inclination towards a vegetarian diet and eradicating meat from everyday meals. Some people hold the view that going stringently vegetarian could serve the purpose of their dietary requirements. However, I find myself standing in disagreement with this and think that meat should be included in the diet for nutritional needs. In the forthcoming sections, this essay will discuss the reasons for this opinion.

The most eminent reason for the inclusion of meat in a diet is nutrition adequacy. Drawing a comparison between an entirely vegetarian diet and a combination of veggies and meats have shown by the researches that vegetables alone couldn’t satiate the requirement that our physiologies need up to the mark. Predominantly, the protein requirement which is suggested by the nutritionists to be one gram proportional to the kilos we weigh is not sufficed by the vegetarian meal alone. Various macro and micronutrients which are abundantly found in the meat content bolsters our body and enhances our diet.

Moreover, the people who are specifically indulged in strenuous and vigorous exercises and physical activities should ineluctably incorporate meat in their daily food platter as in this case, the dietary and metabolic needs are only met when a nutritional regime has a confluence of vegetables and meat. The people in a toilsome profession that includes labour and intense work schedule should reportedly not miss on their nonvegetarian food source as they couldn’t efficiently perform otherwise. 

Though veganism and vegetarianism owing to the efflux and rise in the trend have been gaining grounds and have been able to find various dietary substitutes especially, for their dietary protein enrichment, the replacement of meat and the essential constituent of it is irrefutable and couldn’t be replaced, let alone its complete displacement.  

In conclusion, therefore, it could be conspicuously stated that going vegetarian could be a trend and the latest bandwagon, the wholesome virtues of an integrated diet couldn’t be supplanted.

Bonus topic:

Everyone should adopt a vegetarian diet because eating meat can cause serious health problems. To what extent do you agree or disagree?

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Diet quality of vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets: a systematic review

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Haley W Parker, Maya K Vadiveloo, Diet quality of vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets: a systematic review, Nutrition Reviews , Volume 77, Issue 3, March 2019, Pages 144–160, https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy067

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Vegetarian diets are consistently associated with improved health outcomes, and higher diet quality may contribute to improved health outcomes. This systematic review aims to qualitatively compare the a priori diet quality of vegetarian and nonvegetarian diets.

Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol, 2 online databases (Web of Science and PubMed) were searched for English language studies comparing diet quality among vegetarian and nonvegetarian adults using an a priori diet quality index. Two reviewers assessed study eligibility. Comparisons were made between total and component (when available) diet quality scores among the 12 studies meeting inclusion criteria.

Lacto-ovo vegetarians or vegans had higher overall diet quality (4.5–16.4 points higher on the Healthy Eating Index 2010 [HEI-2010]) compared with nonvegetarians in 9 of 12 studies. Higher HEI-2010 scores for vegetarians were driven by closer adherence to recommendations for total fruit, whole grains, seafood and plant protein, and sodium. However, nonvegetarians had closer adherence to recommendations for refined grains and total protein foods. Higher diet quality in vegetarian diets may partially explain improvements in health outcomes compared with nonvegetarians; however, more research controlling for known confounders like health consciousness is needed.

Vegetarian diets have been repeatedly and consistently associated with improved health outcomes, 1 including reduced risk of chronic diseases, such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and obesity, 2–4 as well as increased life expectancy. 5 Due to the substantial burden of chronic disease, vegetarian diets have been increasingly recommended as a strategy for improving population health, 6 although the mechanism by which vegetarian diets improve health outcomes is not completely understood. Advocates of vegetarian diets often contend that vegetarian diets are more healthful, but the diet quality of vegetarian diets has not been systematically evaluated, making it difficult to exclude competing explanations such as increased health consciousness among vegetarians.

Types of vegetarian diets

Diet quality typically indicates concordance of a dietary pattern with evidence-based recommendations about food and nutrient intake to promote health and reduce risk of chronic disease. 21 The advantage in assessing diet quality over assessing intake of individual nutrients is that diet quality offers a more holistic assessment, accounting for the synergy between foods and nutrients. 22 Diet quality may be measured using an a priori index where an individual’s intake is compared with either a predetermined standard (ie, national nutrition recommendations) or the sample’s intake distribution. 23 Alternatively, a posteriori approaches can be used to analyze dietary patterns (eg, principle component analysis); however, this review will focus on the a priori assessment of diet quality because a posteriori methods of assessment are data-driven, rather than recommendation-driven. 24 Components, which collectively determine overall diet quality, reflect intake of specific food groups and/or nutrients. 25 Components can be classified as either adequacy components, which are scored directly (higher intake, higher scores) and represent food groups/nutrients where increased intake is encouraged (ie, fruits and vegetables), or moderation components, which are scored inversely (higher intake, lower score) and represent food groups/nutrients where decreased intake is encouraged (ie, added sugar). 25 Without understanding the diet quality of vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets, it is difficult to ascertain whether vegetarianism improves adherence to dietary recommendations, subsequently increasing diet quality and reducing the risk of adverse health outcomes, 26–28 or whether health consciousness associated with vegetarian lifestyles improves health outcomes.

Health consciousness is favorably associated with chronic disease and mortality risk regardless of dietary pattern 29 and may be an important confounding or mediating variable in the association between vegetarianism and improved health outcomes. Vegetarians are more likely to engage in healthful behaviors such as avoiding tobacco, limiting alcohol, being physically active, and maintaining a healthy weight. 30–32 Additionally, health is a commonly cited motivation for following a vegetarian diet, 33 and this regard for health may translate to other behaviors, leading to systematic differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in many health-related facets. Populations where vegetarian diets are common tend to be health conscious (eg, Seventh Day Adventists 34 ), which may confound the understanding of the relationship between vegetarianism and health outcomes. Furthermore, vegetarians and health-conscious nonvegetarians have been found to have similar mortality rates in several studies, 35–37 suggesting that the health benefits associated with vegetarianism may be heavily influenced by health consciousness rather than the exclusion of meat.

To date, it is unclear to what degree the association between vegetarianism and improved health outcomes is explained by health consciousness, elimination of meat, and consumption of healthful foods. Thus far, most studies examining the association between vegetarianism and health outcomes fail to consider diet quality as a confounding and/or mediating variable, making it difficult to identify the mechanism. Assessing and comparing the diet quality of nonvegetarian and vegetarian diets (including more- and less-restrictive diets; ie, vegan, pesco-vegetarian, and semi-vegetarian) can help elucidate the underlying mechanism(s) through which vegetarianism confers protection. Therefore, the purpose of this systematic review is to compare the diet quality (including total and component scores) of vegetarian and nonvegetarian diets.

PICOS criteria for inclusion and exclusion of studies

Overall diet quality of vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets

Scores for vegetarian diets are for lacto-ovo vegetarian diets unless noted otherwise.

Abbreviations: AHEI, Alternative Healthy Eating Index; BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; DII, Dietary Inflammatory Index (low score reflects better adherence to recommendations); HEI, Healthy Eating Index; MDS, Mediterranean Diet Score; mHEI, Modified Alternative Healthy Eating Index; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; OR, odds ratio.

Significantly different from nonvegetarians at P  < 0.05.

Significantly different from nonvegetarians at P  < 0.01.

Vegetarians and vegans scored an average of 38.5 collectively; separate scores were not reported.

Study selection flow diagram.

From the included studies, information was collected regarding type(s) of vegetarian diet(s) examined, diet quality index(es) used, and the mean and standard deviation of vegetarian (and/or vegan, semi-vegetarian, and pesco-vegetarian when available) and nonvegetarian diet quality scores for total and component scores when provided. Studies were also evaluated for their risk of bias based on the methods of participant selection and dietary pattern categorization, measurement of diet history and diet quality, study design, statistical analyses, and control for confounding variables.

Eleven of the 12 included studies made comparisons between the diet quality of (lacto-ovo) vegetarian and nonvegetarian diets (4 studies also compared more- and/or less-restrictive diets), and 1 study solely compared a vegan diet with a nonvegetarian diet. Half of the studies were completed in the United States (n = 6), and the other half were completed in various Western countries (Belgium, Canada, Australia, Italy, and Germany).

Throughout the 12 studies, 7 different diet quality indexes were used, including Healthy Eating Index (HEI; n = 6), Alternative Healthy Eating Index (AHEI; n = 2), Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS; n = 2), Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII; n = 1), Rapid Eating and Activity Assessment for Patients (n = 1), Italian Mediterranean Diet Index (n = 1), and Healthy Eating Quiz (n = 1), and 1 study used an index created for the study (note that some studies used multiple indexes). The HEI and AHEI assess both nutrient and food group intake 7 , 39–43 , 47 and the remaining indexes either focused on nutrient intake (ie, DII 9 ) or food groups (ie, MDS, 7 , 39 Rapid Eating and Activity Assessment for Patients, 8 Healthy Eating Quiz, 45 Italian Mediterranean Diet Index 46 ). Higher scores on all of the indexes (with the exception of the DII, which is scored inversely 9 ) are associated with greater adherence to dietary recommendations presumed or shown to improve health outcomes. Overall scores can be compared among the different indexes; however, components vary greatly across indexes and can only be compared across certain, similar indexes (eg, versions of the HEI and AHEI).

Although the diet quality indexes used differed among the included studies, total diet quality was generally calculated using a combination of adequacy and moderation components; adequacy components assessed adherence to recommended food groups, and moderation components were scored inversely and assessed adherence to recommendations to limit food groups or nutrients associated with adverse health outcomes. To elucidate the mechanisms through which diet quality is influenced by vegetarian and nonvegetarian status, results will first compare overall diet quality, followed by diet quality in adequacy and moderation components. Lastly, findings for diet quality among dietary patterns that are more (ie, vegan) and less (ie, semi-vegetarian and pesco-vegetarian) restrictive than lacto-ovo vegetarian will be reported.

Overall diet quality in lacto-ovo vegetarian diets

Overall diet quality was significantly ( P  < 0.05) higher in vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets in 8 of 11 studies, 2 studies found no differences, and 1 study found that diet quality was significantly ( P  < 0.05) lower in vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets. Of the 11 studies, 10 were observational studies, and 1 was a randomized control trial. Observational studies categorized dietary patterns in 1 of 2 ways, either using participant self-reported vegetarian status (n = 6) or objectively categorized vegetarian status based on the absence of meat, poultry, and fish in participant-reported dietary recalls (n = 3). The categorization method used was not reported for 1 study. 44 Because research shows that approximately 64%–80% of self-identified vegetarians also report meat intake on diet recalls, 13 , 48 , 49 use of self-reported vegetarian status may lead to misclassification. In the 6 studies examining self-reported vegetarian status in convenience samples, vegetarians had consistently higher diet quality compared with nonvegetarians (4.5–7.4 points higher on the HEI and 0.5 points higher on the MDS). 7 , 8 , 39 , 41 , 45 , 46 Vegetarians also had higher diet quality in 2 nationally representative samples, including 1 study within the 2007–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) using objective categorization 40 and 1 study from Germany (categorization method not provided). 44 Among NHANES 2007–2012 participants, those who reported no meat, fish, or poultry on their 24-hour recall had significantly higher scores on the HEI-2010 (72.81 vs 56.44; P  < 0.001) and AHEI-2010 (49.73 vs 38.49; P  < 0.001) scores compared with participants who reported meat, fish, or poultry on their recalls. 40

In the remaining 3 studies, there were either no differences in diet quality among vegetarians and non-vegetarians 9 , 42 or vegetarians had significantly lower diet quality than nonvegetarians ( P  < 0.05). 43 In a 2-month weight loss trial, participants were randomized to consume 1 of 5 avoidance diets (vegan, vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, or nonvegetarian) and were given advice on foods to exclude as well as guidelines for a low-glycemic-index and low-fat diet. 9 At baseline, 2 months, and 6 months, diet quality was measured by the DII. 9 Although no differences in diet quality between the vegetarian and nonvegetarian groups were detected, 9 adherence to assigned dietary pattern was low (for vegetarian, 77% adhered to the diet at 2 months and 39% at 6 months 50 ) and may have resulted in misclassification bias. It is also difficult to discern the influence of dietary pattern on diet quality in a weight loss trial because the goal of weight loss may have increased diet quality independent of dietary pattern. Similarly, a study examining the NHANES 1999–2004 data did not detect any differences in HEI-2005 scores between vegetarians and nonvegetarians (50.5 vs 50.1), although diet quality differed by dieting status. 42 Among dieters (consuming at least 500 kcals below estimated energy needs), vegetarians had lower HEI-2005 scores than nonvegetarians (47.3 vs 51.0, P  < 0.01), and the finding was reversed for nondieters (53.0 vs 49.7; P  < 0.01), 42 indicating that differences in diet quality between dietary patterns may be influenced by restricted energy intake. Lastly, in a study examining data from the Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (1994–1996), vegetarians scored significantly lower on the HEI-1995 than nonvegetarians (60.8 vs 63.2; P  < 0.05). 43 However, it is important to note that the diet quality indexes used may influence conclusions about diet quality among vegetarians and nonvegetarians. The HEI-1995 and HEI-2005 assessed total protein foods (called “meat and beans” in the earlier HEI). 51 , 52 However, unlike the more recent HEI-2010, a subscore for plant and seafood protein was not included in HEI-1995 and HEI-2005. 51–53 Thus, it is likely that differences between the HEI-1995/HEI-2005 and HEI-2010 contributed to the differing conclusions drawn as findings from a more recent NHANES 2007–2012 study indicated significant differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians when assessing diet quality with the HEI-2010 ( P  < 0.05). 40

Diet quality in adequacy component scores

Comparisons of average Healthy Eating Index adequacy component scores between vegetarian and nonvegetarian dietary patterns

A dash (–) indicates this was not assessed/reported.

Abbreviation: HEI: Healthy Eating Index.

Significantly different from nonvegetarian at P < 0.05.

Named meat and beans in the HEI-2005.

Scores reported for the HEI-2005 reflect the oils component score.

Fruit. All 4 studies assessing component scores for total fruit found higher scores in vegetarian versus nonvegetarian diets. 7 , 39 , 42 , 43 Differences in total fruit scores between dietary patterns were larger in convenience samples (0.9–1.2 points) 7 , 39 compared with nationally representative studies (0.33–0.7 points). 42 , 43 Three of the studies separately analyzed whole fruit scores (excluding juice), 2 of which found that vegetarians also scored higher on whole fruit than nonvegetarians within health-conscious convenience samples of Belgian adults. 7 , 39 However, a nationally representative US study found no differences in whole fruit scores between vegetarians and nonvegetarians, 42 suggesting that fruit juice intake may be high in the broader vegetarian population, thus obscuring differences in total fruit intake between dietary patterns. Therefore, although total fruit scores were consistently higher in vegetarians, scores for whole fruit intake were less consistent.

Whole grains. Whole-grain component scores were generally higher in vegetarians compared with nonvegetarians, with vegetarians scoring significantly higher in 2 of 3 studies, 7 , 42 and a third study found scores to be comparable between dietary patterns. 39 Vegetarians in an NHANES 1999–2004 sample scored more than 50% higher than nonvegetarians on the whole-grain component score (1.55 vs 0.92 out of 5; P  < 0.01) of the HEI-2005. 42 Another study, which used the HEI-2010, also found that vegetarians scored significantly higher than nonvegetarians (7.6 vs 6.8 out of 10; P  < 0.01). In the third study, although insignificant, vegetarians scored marginally higher when matched with nonvegetarians by sex, age, body mass index, physical activity, alcohol use, and tobacco use on the HEI-2010 whole-grains component score (9.1 vs 8.2 pts; P  = 0.052). 39 Overall, whole-grain intake appears to be higher in vegetarians.

Protein. In all 3 studies assessing component scores for total protein foods, vegetarians scored lower than nonvegetarians. 7 , 39 , 42 In an NHANES 1999–2004 analysis using the HEI-2005, vegetarians obtained an average score of less than half that of nonvegetarians (3.66 vs 8.46 of 10 total points; P  < 0.01) on the meat and beans component. 42 However, plant protein consumption was not assessed in the HEI-2005 as it was in later versions of the HEI, 53 and further food group analyses indicated that the vegetarians consumed significantly more plant proteins (including soy, nuts, and legumes) than nonvegetarians ( P  < 0.01). 42 For the HEI-2010, the meat and beans component from the HEI-2005 was divided into total protein foods and seafood and plant protein, where some plant proteins could contribute points in both categories. 53 This modification allowed vegetarian diets to obtain higher scores on the HEI-2010 compared with the HEI-2005, as indicated in 2 other studies that assessed seafood and plant protein with the HEI-2010 and found that vegetarians scored higher than nonvegetarians. 7 , 39 Therefore, although vegetarians scored lower in the total protein foods component, they scored higher on the seafood and plant protein component.

Vegetables. Less consistent findings were observed for other adequacy components. Vegetable intake was assessed in 3 studies; 2 found no significant differences between dietary patterns, 7 , 39 and 1 found that vegetarians scored lower than nonvegetarians in an NHANES 1999–2004 sample (3.04 vs 2.74 points on total vegetables HEI-2005 score; P  < 0.01). 42 However, subgroup analyses revealed that vegetarians consumed significantly more dark green vegetables (0.15 vs 0.11 cups per day; P  < 0.01) and significantly less potatoes (0.25 vs 0.41 cups per day; P  < 0.01) than nonvegetarians, 42 potentially revealing differences in the quality of vegetables consumed between these groups. Although unprocessed potatoes are a rich source of nutrients such as potassium and fiber, 54 in the United States, potatoes are commonly consumed with added fat and sodium (eg, French fries, potato chips, etc), 55 , 56 which may diminish the health benefits associated with vegetable consumption, 57 making potato preparation method an important consideration in the contribution of vegetables to diet quality. Therefore, although vegetarians and nonvegetarians appeared to consume similar amounts of total vegetables, higher vegetable scores in nonvegetarians may have been driven by increased potato consumption, and the relative quality of vegetables consumed among vegetarians may be higher.

Dietary fat. Findings in the dietary-fat component scores varied across studies. The HEI components for fats were recently restructured from the oils (unsaturated fats from plants and fish) and saturated fat components used in the HEI-2005 to the fatty-acids component (ratio of unsaturated to saturated fat) in the HEI-2010, 53 making direct comparisons difficult. In 2 studies using the HEI-2010, vegetarians scored higher on the fatty-acids component (unsaturated fat/saturated fat) in 1 unadjusted analysis 7 ; however, in a second study, vegetarians matched with nonvegetarians by lifestyle factors scored lower (the increased score in nonvegetarians was attributed to fish intake). 39 Using the HEI-2005, a study within NHANES 1999–2004 found no difference in oils (unsaturated fats from plants and fish) scores between dietary patterns, but saturated fat scores were significantly higher (lower consumption, in line with recommendations) in vegetarians ( P  < 0.01). 42 Overall, vegetarians appear to have lower intake of saturated fat, and unsaturated fat intake appears to be similar between vegetarians and nonvegetarians.

Dairy. Findings for dairy component scores were also inconsistent; 1 study found that vegetarians scored higher than nonvegetarians, 42 and in 2 studies, scores were comparable. 7 , 39 In an NHANES 1999–2004 sample, dairy component scores were higher in vegetarians compared with nonvegetarians (5.66 vs 4.86; P  < 0.01). 42 However, 2 studies examining convenience samples of Belgian adults found no differences in dairy scores between dietary patterns, 7 , 39 although 1 study included soy beverages as protein food rather than as a dairy food, 7 which could have artificially decreased dairy component scores in participants who consumed calcium-fortified soymilk. It should be noted that dairy is assessed as an adequacy component on the HEI, 53 but on other indexes such as the MDS, 20 dairy is a moderation component. Consequently, the influence of dairy intake on overall diet quality depends on both the index used and the foods contributing to the dairy component.

Diet quality in moderation component scores

Comparisons of average Healthy Eating Index moderation component scores between vegetarian and nonvegetarian dietary patterns

Inverse scoring was used on all moderation components, therefore higher scores are more desirable. A dash (–) indicates this was not assessed/reported.

Abbreviation: HEI, Healthy Eating Index.

Significantly different from nonvegetarian at P  < 0.05.

Among samples of Belgian adults, refined-grain component scores in vegetarians were 0.9–1.3 HEI-2010 points lower than the nonvegetarians scores. 7 , 39 Similarly, in an NHANES 1999–2004 analysis where refined-grain intake was assessed but not as a component score (the HEI-2005 only accounted for total and whole-grain intake), vegetarians consumed more refined grains (6.64 vs 6.11 ounces per day; P  < 0.01). 42 No differences between dietary patterns in empty calorie scores (comprised of calories from solid fat, added sugar, and alcohol in excess of recommendations) were observed in any of these 3 studies. 7 , 39 , 42 Vegetarians consumed less sodium per day compared with nonvegetarians in 2 of 3 studies: 1068 mg less in a convenience sample 7 and 467 mg less in an NHANES 1999–2004 sample. 42 However, in a sample where vegetarians and nonvegetarians were matched by lifestyle characteristics, they had similar sodium component scores, 39 so in this population, sodium intake may be related to health consciousness. Compared with nonvegetarians, vegetarians appear to have higher refined-grain intake, similar empty calorie intake, and potentially lower sodium intake.

Diet quality in more- and less-restrictive diets

To better understand the contribution of vegetarianism to overall diet quality, it is pertinent to examine the diet quality of more- and less-restrictive dietary patterns (relative to lacto-ovo vegetarian). The vegan diet is similar to the vegetarian diet but further restricts all animal products, including eggs and dairy. Less-restricted vegetarian diets, such as semi-vegetarian and pesco-vegetarian, have been recently popular as liberalized vegetarian diets. 58 Pesco-vegetarian is commonly defined as a vegetarian diet that includes fish, whereas the definitions for semi-vegetarian vary widely but involve limited meat intake. 58

Of the 12 included studies, 5 studies examined more- and/or less-restrictive vegetarian diets; 1 weight loss trial compared a vegan and nonvegetarian diet, 47 1 observational study compared vegan, lacto-ovo vegetarian, and nonvegetarian diets, 46 and 2 studies (a weight loss trial and an observational analysis) examined vegan, pesco-vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, lacto-ovo vegetarian, and nonvegetarian diets. 7 , 9 Lastly, 1 observational study examined many different dietary patterns, including vegan, vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian, paleo, and low carbohydrate; however, diet quality scores of the individual dietary patterns were not reported. 8

Vegan diets. Five total studies assessed the diet quality of vegan diets, and findings generally indicated that vegans scored higher than nonvegetarians. One study compared AHEI scores among individuals participating in a 22-week weight loss trial who were assigned to either a low-fat vegan diet or a nonvegetarian, control diet (the American Diabetic Association diet); those assigned to the vegan diet significantly increased AHEI total and all component scores from baseline ( P  < 0.01), whereas the control group did not change AHEI scores. 47 Another study examined diet quality among various dietary patterns in distance runners using the Rapid Eating and Activity Assessment for Patients and found that self-identified vegans and vegetarians (data not shown for individual patterns) had better diet quality scores compared with nonvegetarians (38.5 ± 3.6 vs 32.8 ± 4.5; P  < 0.001). 8

In the remaining 3 studies, diet quality scores were compared across a range of diets, including vegan, vegetarian, and nonvegetarian, and in 2 studies, pesco-vegetarian and semi-vegetarian diets were also compared. 7 , 9 , 46 A dose–response relationship between dietary pattern restriction and diet quality was seen in 2 observational studies where vegans had the highest diet quality, followed by vegetarians, then nonvegetarians. 7 , 46 In a purposefully selected sample of Italian adults, Rosi et al 46 found that on the Italian Mediterranean Diet Index, vegetarians scored (6.0 ± 2.0) significantly higher than nonvegetarians (4.0 ± 3.0; P  < 0.05) and significantly lower than vegans (7.0 ± 2.0; P  < 0.05). Similarly, in a cross-sectional study among a convenience sample of Belgian adults, vegans scored significantly higher on the HEI-2010 and MDS compared with vegetarians and nonvegetarians ( P  < 0.01). 7 Higher HEI-2010 scores in vegans compared with vegetarians were driven by higher component scores for total protein foods, seafood and plant protein, fatty acids, sodium, refined grains, and empty calories. 7 One experimental study where participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 dietary patterns did not observe any differences among DII scores for those assigned to vegan, vegetarian, and nonvegetarian diets at both the 2- and 6-month follow-ups. 9 However, in weight loss trials, overall energy restriction, rather than dietary pattern, may be more influential on diet quality. Additionally, the version of the DII used in the included study solely assessed nutrient intake, 9 which may lead to potential confounding by fortified foods otherwise not recommend in a healthful dietary pattern. Preliminary evidence suggests that the diet quality of vegan diets are, at minimum, comparable with vegetarian diets, and there is some indication of a dose–response relationship between restrictiveness of vegetarian dietary pattern and diet quality, suggesting that diet quality of vegan diets may be higher than vegetarian diets.

Less-restrictive diets (semi-vegetarian and pesco-vegetarian). Only 2 studies examined the diet quality of semi-vegetarians and pesco-vegetarians, and both studies made comparisons among semi-vegetarian, pesco- vegetarian, vegan, vegetarian, and nonvegetarian diets. 7 , 9 One experimental trial found that 6 months after the intervention, there were no differences in DII scores across the 5 dietary patterns. 9 However, at 2 months, participants assigned to vegan, vegetarian, and pesco-vegetarian diets had better DII scores (−1.2 ± 0.5, −1.0 ± 0.5, −0.7 ± 0.5, respectively; lower scores are desirable) than those assigned to a semivegetarian diet (1.3 ± 0.6). 9 In an observational study using the HEI-2010, scores were similar among self-reported vegetarians (58.7 ± 8.9), semi-vegetarians (59.4 ± 7.4), and pesco-vegetarians (58.7 ± 7.9), all of whom scored significantly higher than nonvegetarians (54.2 ± 9.0; P  < 0.01) and significantly lower than vegans (65.4 ± 8.3; P  < 0.01). 7 On the MDS, pesco-vegetarians scored similar to vegans, whereas semi-vegetarians scored significantly lower than vegans ( P  < 0.01). 7 However, vegans, semi-vegetarians, and pesco-vegetarians all scored significantly higher ( P  < 0.01) than both vegetarians and nonvegetarians. 7 Because only 2 studies to date have made diet quality comparisons involving semi-vegetarian and pesco-vegetarian diets and the findings were inconsistent, more research is needed to determine the relative diet quality of these dietary patterns.

The risk of bias varied considerably amonng the 12 included studies. For participant selection, although most studies (n = 8) featured convenience samples, nationally representative studies were also common (n = 4). Although 2 of the 4 nationally representative studies did not find that vegetarian diets were higher in diet quality than nonvegetarian diets, this was likely due to the diet quality indexes used rather than the sample. 42 , 43 Aside from these 2 studies, findings were similar in both convenience samples and nationally representative studies, indicating that there is a low risk of bias from participant selection in the overall findings.

For dietary pattern categorization, all studies in this review (n = 6) that categorized participants using self-identified dietary patterns found that vegetarians had higher diet quality than nonvegetarians. Because research suggests that self-identified vegetarians often report meat consumption on dietary assessments, 13 , 48 , 49 studies using self-report are at increased risk for misclassification of dietary patterns. Some included studies (n = 3) categorized dietary patterns objectively (based on diet recall) within nationally representative samples, 1 of which found that vegetarians had higher diet quality than nonvegetarians. 40 Although 2 of the studies using objective categorization in nationally representative samples did not find that diet quality was higher in vegetarians, this is likely due to the diet quality indexes and not the classification method used. 42 , 43 Therefore, dietary pattern categorization is an unlikely source of bias.

Measurement of diet history and diet quality are also unlikely sources of bias in the overall conclusions. Almost all studies used reputable methods (24-hour recalls, weighted food records, or food frequency questionnaires) for diet history collection. Although 1 study used a nonvalidated, modified subset of questions from a validated food frequency questionnaire, this is unlikely to impact the overall risk of bias. 45 For measurement of diet quality, 6 studies used validated indexes, 8 , 39 , 42 , 43 , 46 , 47 1 study developed a new index for the purpose of the study and did not validate it, 44 and 5 studies made alterations to validated indexes. 7 , 9 , 40 , 41 , 45 In the cases of modifications, the validity of the measurement of diet quality may have been compromised, thus modestly increasing the risk of bias. For example, Clarys et al 7 categorized all soy beverages as protein foods instead of dairy foods on the HEI-2010. This alteration likely led to lower dairy component scores and higher component scores for both total protein foods and plant and seafood protein for soymilk consumers, resulting in an overall increase in total HEI-2010 scores. Without further validation it is not clear whether the scores obtained with this change (and similar changes in other studies) accurately reflect diet quality. However, the influence of the nonvalidated diet quality indexes on the overall conclusions is likely modest because most modifications were minor and most studies used validated and commonly used diet quality indexes (ie, HEI and MDS) where higher scores are correlated with more favorable health outcomes 20 , 59–62 and findings were similar between the studies that did and did not use validated indexes.

Lack of control for confounding variables in this body of evidence was identified as a potential source of bias in the overall conclusions. Because vegetarians are more likely to be health conscious 30–33 and health consciousness is related to diet quality, 34 health consciousness can confound the relationship between vegetarian diets and diet quality. Despite the repeated indications of increased health consciousness in vegetarians, only 1 study in this review controlled for covariates related to health consciousness by matching vegetarians and nonvegetarians on lifestyle characteristics such as smoking, physical activity, and body mass index. 39 Even with controlling for some lifestyle factors, vegetarians still scored significantly higher than nonvegetarians on the HEI-2010 and MDS ( P  < 0.05), 39 suggesting that health consciousness is not exclusively driving the association between vegetarian diet and improved health outcomes.

Study design should also be considered when examining confounding by health consciousness, which is mainly a concern in observational studies due to lack of randomization. Two included studies were randomized control trials, 1 of which found no differences in diet quality 6 months after assignment to 1 of 5 dietary patterns, 9 and the other study found that participants assigned to a low-fat vegan diet significantly improved diet quality scores over those assigned to a diabetic diet ( P  < 0.01). 47 However, these were weight loss trials where the assigned dietary pattern may have played a relatively minor role in diet quality. Therefore, it is difficult to decipher the influence that the lack of control for confounding by health consciousness had in the overall conclusions. Overall, there is an indication that vegetarian diets are higher in diet quality compared with nonvegetarian diets; however, conclusions should be interpreted cautiously because some level of confounding due to health consciousness is expected.

This systematic review compared diet quality between vegetarian and nonvegetarian diets in an effort to understand the role of diet quality in the relationship between vegetarian diets and improved health outcomes. Collectively, observational studies suggest that vegetarian diets are higher in overall diet quality compared with nonvegetarian diets. In studies using the HEI-2010 (most commonly used index), vegetarians scored between 4.5 and 16.4 points (out of 100 points) higher than nonvegetarians. 7 , 39 , 40 Few observational studies (n = 2) in this review found that vegetarians had similar or lower diet quality than nonvegetarians, and those that did used versions of the HEI that assessed adherence to older dietary recommendations. 42 , 43 The limited number of studies examining HEI component scores (n = 4) suggests that higher diet quality in vegetarians may have been driven by higher scores for whole grains, total fruits, plant and seafood protein, and sodium and lower scores for refined grains and total protein foods. However, few studies controlled for lifestyle characteristics, which may confound these findings. Diet patterns more and less restrictive than the lacto-ovo vegetarian diet had less consistent associations with diet quality. Although limited evidence suggests that diet quality in vegan diets is comparable with or better than the diet quality of vegetarian diets, findings for less-restrictive vegetarian diets were inconsistent, which may be due in part to variable definitions of semi-vegetarian.

Studies included in this review were published between 2001 and 2017, spanning a period of time where changes in the definition of a high-quality diet in accordance with dietary recommendations occurred due to progressive understanding of healthy diets. 63 For example, elucidation of the health benefits associated with plant protein consumption prompted changes in dietary recommendations calling for increased consumption as well as increased acceptance of vegetarian diets, which were previously thought to be nutritionally inadequate but are now regarded as safe and protective against chronic diseases. 64 In this review, several studies using diet quality indexes that reflected previous dietary recommendations (ie, HEI-1995 and HEI-2005) 42 , 43 had findings that were inconsistent with studies using indexes reflecting more recent dietary recommendations (ie, HEI-2010). 7 , 39 , 40 For example, Farmer et al 42 analyzed NHANES 1999–2004 data with the HEI-2005 and noted that vegetarians scored substantially lower than nonvegetarians on the meat and beans component but consumed significantly ( P  < 0.01) more plant proteins and met the protein recommended dietary allowance. Had diet quality been evaluated with a more recent version of the HEI where plant protein scores more favorably than animal proteins (excluding fish), vegetarians may have scored higher than nonvegetarians. Furthermore, although none of the included studies used the most recent version of the HEI, the HEI-2015, changes made to the HEI-2010 in developing the HEI-2015 involved further incentives for the consumption of legumes. On the HEI-2010, legumes contributed points in only 2 categories (either total vegetables and greens and beans or total protein foods and seafood and plant protein) 53 ; however, the HEI-2015 allows legumes to contribute points in all 4 categories, 65 a change that is likely to increase scores for vegetarians.

Substitutions that increase diet quality

The diet quality of vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets is somewhat dependent on the index used but more so determined by the foods consumed in place of meat, fish, and poultry. Many diet quality indexes penalize red and processed meat consumption 19 , 20 , 61 due to associations with increased risk of chronic disease and mortality. 10–12 Therefore, replacing red and processed meat, which is void of fiber and generally contains saturated fat and added sodium, with fiber-rich plant proteins, will likely increase diet quality and improve health outcomes. 66 Furthermore, some vegetarian replacements for red meat have been shown to reduce cardiovascular disease risk in substitution analyses: risk of coronary heart disease was reduced by 30% when 1 serving of red meat per day was replaced with 1 serving of nuts 67 and replacing red meat with vegetables also resulted in decreased risk of myocardial infarction. 68

Although replacing red meat with vegetables may be beneficial, this review did not find that vegetarians consumed more vegetables than nonvegetarians. However, it is important to note that there was some suggestion that nonvegetarians may have higher potato intake than vegetarians, potentially obscuring the relationship between vegetable intake and dietary pattern. This speculation is consistent with findings from a nationally representative study where diet recall– and self-identified nonvegetarians had higher fried potato consumption compared with diet recall– and/or self-identified lacto-ovo vegetarians. 13 Consumption of tomatoes, lettuce, and other vegetables were descriptively higher in diet recall– and/or self-identified lacto-ovo vegetarians compared with diet recall– and self-identified nonvegetarians. 13 Total vegetable intake also varied by categorization method; participants who consumed meat, regardless of self-identified dietary pattern, had similar vegetable intake, whereas vegetable intake in diet recall–identified vegetarians was significantly higher than nonvegetarians (250 ± 14 g vs 159 ± 8 g; P  < 0.05). 13 Taken together, this also suggests that the health consciousness associated with identifying as vegetarian may substantially contribute to diet quality and health outcomes.

Substitutions that lead to decreases in diet quality

Not all vegetarian substitutions for meat, fish, and poultry will result in improved diet quality and health outcomes. For instance, replacing fatty fish is more controversial because fatty fish consumption is associated with a reduced risk of mortality. 69 , 70 Additionally, poultry consumption is generally not associated with mortality risk. 71 In a substitution analysis, substituting vegetables for poultry did not impact myocardial infarction risk, although risk increased when vegetables replaced fatty fish. 68 Fatty fish is weighted more heavily on many diet quality indexes (compared with vegetables and plant proteins) because of differences in recommendations. For example, on the AHEI, 2 servings of fatty fish per week, 1 serving of nuts and legumes per day, and 5 servings of vegetables per day are considered optimal. 61 Therefore, consuming any vegetarian food in place of fatty fish could negatively impact diet quality. Consequently, one might expect pesco-vegetarian diets to be higher in diet quality than vegetarian diets. However, in this review, only 1 study found that pesco-vegetarian diets were higher in diet quality compared with vegetarian diets when assessing diet quality with the MDS; when diet quality was assessed with the HEI-2010, scores were similar. 7

Substitutions that lead to variable changes in diet quality

Although the evidence is limited, articles in this review suggested that vegan diets may be higher in diet quality than vegetarian and nonvegetarian diets. Elimination of eggs and dairy distinguishes vegan from vegetarian diets, and there is currently a lack of consensus regarding the health impacts of these foods. Dairy foods may be protective against some cardiovascular diseases 72 but are generally not associated with all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality, 73 and findings regarding egg consumption and mortality and disease are inconsistent. 69 , 74–76 On the HEI, dairy is an adequacy component and eggs contribute to total protein foods 53 but other diet quality indexes rarely assess total protein foods, and dairy consumption is penalized on some indexes. 20 Therefore, the health outcomes associated with egg and dairy consumption are not well established, and the effects of consumption on diet quality are dependent on the index used.

Although there is no strong consensus regarding the health impacts of egg and dairy consumption, whole grains have been consistently shown to protect against chronic disease and mortality. 77 Therefore, in diet quality indexes, whole-grain consumption is commonly incentivized (adequacy component), whereas refined-grain consumption is penalized. 53 , 61 In this review, vegetarians consumed more whole and refined grains, suggesting that these foods may be used to take the place of meat, fish, and poultry. Consuming refined grains in place of saturated fat (commonly found in meats and dairy) increases cardiovascular disease risk, although the association reverses when whole grains replace saturated fat. 78 Because some vegetarian exchanges can result in lower diet quality and poorer health outcomes, it’s important that healthful exchanges are highlighted in the promotion of vegetarian diets.

Limitations and strengths

This systematic review adds to the understanding of the diet quality of vegetarian diets by synthesizing the current research using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology. This review featured a variety of study designs in diverse populations and using various diet quality indexes, contributing to the quality of insight provided on vegetarian diets and their impacts on diet quality. Some limitations of the present review must also be noted. Relatively few studies included component score analyses, and of the studies that did include component score analyses, there were a variety of indexes used. Because compatibility between indexes is low, it was not possible to make direct comparisons. Additionally, the lack of control for confounding variables related to health consciousness limits the strength of the conclusions drawn in this review.

On a broader scale, limitations involved with examining diet quality should be considered. Although examining diet quality offers a more holistic assessment of the overall diet compared with examining individual nutrients/food groups, little is known about the relative importance of the individual components. Although diet quality scores from various indexes have been shown to be associated with mortality and chronic disease risk, 26–28 scoring criteria (ie, component point values, maximum score criteria) are oftentimes arbitrary, and indexes may not adequately account for the synergistic relationships present within and between nutrients and food groups. 23 Nevertheless, although refinements to diet quality indexes have the potential to improve their predictive validity, examining overall diet quality rather than the contributions of individual foods and nutrients toward health provides an avenue to begin exploring the interrelationships between foods and nutrients that exist within complex dietary patterns.

Findings indicated that vegetarians generally have higher diet quality than nonvegetarians. However, these results should be interpreted with caution because the studies included in this review largely did not control for confounding by health consciousness. Further research controlling for confounding variables is needed to ascertain whether vegetarian diets, or the health consciousness associated with vegetarian diets, leads to improved diet quality. Additionally, interventions involving vegetarian diets are vital to understand the impact of vegetarian diet interventions on diet quality because they can help to reduce confounding by health consciousness, which may be present when analyzing self-selected dietary patterns. In guidance for individuals seeking to follow vegetarian diets, recommendations must clearly suggest healthful substitutions (eg, plant-based protein sources, fruits, vegetables, and whole grains) for animal products because some substitutions may reduce diet quality and attenuate observed health benefits (eg, refined grains and other processed foods).

The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance in formulating search terms provided by the research librarians at the university libraries of the University of Rhode Island and Montana State University, as well as the graduate students in the department of Nutrition and Food Sciences at the University of Rhode Island who assisted with editing the manuscript.

Author contributions. Both authors contributed to the conception of the research question. Additionally, both authors created the search terms and independently screened the articles obtained. The analysis, risk of bias assessment, and manuscript draft writing were completed by H.P. M.V. provided support and guidance on the analysis and manuscript preparation, confirmed findings, and critically reviewed the draft for important intellectual content.

Funding. The authors have no funding sources to disclose.

Declaration of interest. The authors have no relevant interests to disclose.

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Lifestyle & Interests — Vegetarianism

Essays on Vegetarianism

Vegetarianism is a lifestyle choice that has gained popularity in recent years due to its many health and environmental benefits. The decision to become a vegetarian is often based on ethical, environmental, and health concerns. As a result, there are many different aspects of vegetarianism that can be explored in an essay. In this article, we will discuss a wide range of essay topics related to vegetarianism, including the importance of the topic, advice on choosing a topic, and a.

The Importance of the Topic

Vegetarianism is an important topic because it has the potential to have a significant impact on both our health and the environment. Many people choose to become vegetarians because they believe it is a more ethical and sustainable way of living. By reducing or eliminating the consumption of animal products, individuals can help reduce the demand for factory farming, which is a major contributor to environmental degradation and animal cruelty.

In addition to the ethical and environmental benefits, vegetarianism has also been linked to improved health outcomes. Research has shown that a plant-based diet can lower the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer. By exploring essay topics related to vegetarianism, individuals can gain a better understanding of the potential benefits and challenges of this lifestyle choice.

Advice on Choosing a Topic

When choosing a topic for an essay on vegetarianism, it is important to consider the specific aspects of the lifestyle that are of interest. Some potential essay topics include the health benefits of a vegetarian diet, the environmental impact of animal agriculture, the ethical considerations of consuming animal products, and the challenges of maintaining a vegetarian lifestyle. By choosing a topic that is personally meaningful, individuals can create a more compelling and well-researched essay.

In addition to choosing a topic that is of personal interest, it is also important to consider the audience for the essay. For example, if the essay is intended for a general audience, it may be beneficial to choose a topic that provides an overview of vegetarianism and its potential benefits. On the other hand, if the essay is intended for a more specialized audience, such as individuals interested in nutrition or environmental sustainability, it may be beneficial to choose a more specific topic that delves into the science or policy implications of vegetarianism.

In conclusion, vegetarianism is an important topic that has the potential to have a significant impact on both our health and the environment. By exploring a wide range of essay topics related to vegetarianism, individuals can gain a better understanding of the potential benefits and challenges of this lifestyle choice. Whether the essay focuses on the health benefits of a vegetarian diet, the environmental impact of animal agriculture, the ethical considerations of consuming animal products, or the challenges of maintaining a vegetarian lifestyle, there are many different aspects of vegetarianism that can be explored. By choosing a topic that is of personal interest and considering the audience for the essay, individuals can create a compelling and well-researched essay that contributes to the ongoing conversation about vegetarianism.

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Vegetarian Diet as a Health-Conscious Lifestyle Essay

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Every year a great number of people make a conscious decision to transit from omnivore to vegetarian lifestyle. Their motivation for making the transition ranges from extreme dissatisfaction with killing and eating animals to beliefs that meat is an unhealthy product that is detrimental to their health. The relationship between the vegetarian diet and person’s health- conscious lifestyle has been established.

For this reason, a transition to a vegetarian lifestyle may be considered an indicator of the individual’s awareness of the general principles of the main behavioral nutrition principles. Appropriate measures need to be imposed for raising the public awareness concerning the benefits of vegetarianism and providing people with an opportunity to make a conscious decision between omnivore and vegetarian lifestyles.

Though the direct relationship between the vegetarian dietary and the vegetarians’ lower prevalence of chronic diseases and lower BMI is questionable, the link between the transition to vegetarianism and other healthy lifestyle behaviors is obvious. Bedford & Barr (2005) noted that “other lifestyle behaviors [besides the vegetarian dietary] commonly observed in health conscious individuals may be responsible for the observed beneficial health effects” (Diets and selected lifestyle practices).

The individual’s long-term vegetarian dietary cannot be an occasional decision, contradicting the rest of the life views and habits. Thus, excluding meat products from one’s dietary is not the only measure a person would impose, taking care of one’s health. These would include physical activity, refuse from harmful habits, such as smoking or alcohol drinking, and analysis of constituents before choosing a product.

Bedford & Barr (2005) concluded that “Vegetarians were more likely than non-vegetarians to consider various health conditions and food/nutrition concerns when choosing foods” (Diets and selected lifestyle practices). A decision to make a transition to the vegetarian diet and following experience of sorting the products is related to the person’s conscious healthy nutrition behavior.

At the same time, being a social phenomenon, vegetarianism cannot be limited to the health issues. Making a transition from omnivore to vegetarian lifestyle, besides the impact on the person’s health, people consider the public opinion and the community’s reaction on their decision. Lea, E. & Worsley, A. (2000) “even when meat is believed to be unhealthy, dietary change may not occur unless social and other issues are overcome” (p. 43).

In that regard, according to the cognitive dissonance theory, people might even alter their opinions for the purpose of justifying their meat-eating or vegetarian behavior. While the question concerning the impact of adequate meat intake on the individual’s health remains doubtful, most people have got certain beliefs and biases concerning the issue.

Lea, E. & Worsley, A. (2000) pointed at peace, contentment, animal welfare and environmental benefits of vegetarianism besides its positive impact on health and included these components into their questionnaire aimed at researching the public opinion concerning the impacts of transition to a vegetarian dietary.

It appeared to be that the answers of the participants of the survey varied not only in the relation to their vegetarian or omnivore lifestyle but their gender, age, income and other demographic characteristics as well. Lea, E. & Worsley, A. (2000) concluded that “for non-vegetarians it was social concerns about vegetarianism and health benefits that were most important, while for vegetarians it was red meat appreciation and health benefits of vegetarianism that were important” (p. 44).

It means that the negative beliefs concerning the healthiness of meat products are widely spread among both vegetarians and non-vegetarians. However, this misconception that it I the meat that causes the chronic diseases should be overcome. For the purpose of raising the public awareness of the positive consequences of the vegetarian lifestyle, the broader context of issues related to meet need to be taken into consideration.

Thus, according to the results of the survey conducted by Lea & Worsley (2000), the current focus is on meat as the cause of various chronic diseases. Overcoming this prejudice, the emphasis should be shifted on the perceived benefits of vegetarianism and advantages of the plant-based diets, considering the environmental and animal welfare issues at the same time. The question of origin of the belief about detrimental impact of meat on human health is rather controversial.

It might be generated on the basis of the perceived benefits of vegetarianism or, on the contrary, result in raising popularity of vegetarian dietaries. Identifying the factors that are important for generating people’s beliefs about meat would be helpful for correcting their distorted views.

Considering the broader context of the vegetarian issues and enhancing the people’s nutrition knowledge would provide them with an opportunity to make a conscious transition from omnivore to vegetarian lifestyle, realizing all its benefits for an individual in particular and the society in general.

Providing accurate information concerning the benefits of vegetarianism and the related issues is important for improving the people’s nutrition culture and transiting to healthier lifestyle. Overcoming the misconception about meat as an unhealthy product, people would not need to alter their opinions concerning meat products for justifying their dietaries.

Considering the animal welfare and environmental issue for solving the problem would shift the emphasis from the issue of the harmful impact of meat-eating on human health to the received benefits of vegetarianism.

Reference List

Beford J. & Barr S. (2005). Diets and selected lifestyle practices of self-defined adult vegetarians from a population-based sample suggest they are more ‘health conscious.’ International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity , 2:4. Available from: www.ijbnpa.org/content/2/1/4.

Lea, E. & Worsley, A. (2000). The Cognitive contexts of beliefs about the healthiness of meat. Public Health Nutrition, 5 (1), 37-45.

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Vegetarianism Essay Writing: Essay on Vegetarian Food IELTS Writing Exam

Vegetarianism essay-ielts writing section.

The following is the template for the vegetarianism essay.

We always tell the fact that you should read the query question carefully. This is important because you should know at what topic you are going to write.

Let’s see the following example question

We should divert our eating habits towards vegetarian because if you eat too much meat then you can have health problems.  How much you disagree or agree with the above statement?

Some important points to be considered before starting writing your opinion on the given topic.

• Staying on the Topic

It is very important that you should stay on the topic while writing a response to the question. If you don’t look carefully at the question and don’t try to brainstorm some of the ideas, then it is very likely that you will end up including the vague information. For example, consider the above statement which contains arguments that are related to morals and religion but if you include those then you’ll be off-topic.

So, looking at the above statement it can be inferred that you should only add that information which is related to health problems caused by the meat.

• Having All of the Information

You don’t have to worry if you do not have much information about the given topic which in this case is health and diet. The examiner does not want you to write the complex vocabulary words but wants to test your ability of English writing. If you’re having the information about the basics of the topic and know only some basic vocabulary, then you are good to go.

The examiner will only judge you on the basis that how beautifully you have constructed the argument even when you are not the subject expert. So, be relax and write what you know about the topic.

Organization of the Essay in IELTS Writing Section

In the model answer given in this article then we have disagreed with the above statement thus saying that everyone should not eat vegetables.

The model essay is organized as follows

It explains the issues of health caused by consuming meat. This is the argument that supports the fact of being vegetarian.  

I t explains the benefits of consuming meat.

Given Below is the example essay.

Model Essay

You have 40 minutes to complete the following task.

Write a response to the following topic.

Give appropriate reasons in support of your answer and also include the examples relevant to the topic based on your knowledge or experience.

You must write 250 words at least.

Model Answer:

Consuming vegetable diet is becoming popular nowadays and many people are diverting their eating habits towards eating vegetables from eating meat. This is mainly because people think that consuming meat will cause harm to their bodies. However, I believe that consuming vegetables is not compulsory for everyone.

Vegetarians strongly believe that consuming meat is very unhealthy as it can cause a lot of diseases to them. Moreover, there is also scientific evidence that suggests that eating red meat can cause diseases. One should eat red meat less such as once or twice a week to prevent cancer from happening. Additionally, meat has a high amount of saturated fats which cause the problems of health such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

However, on the other hand, there are arguments which support that humans should eat meat. Firstly, the human body is designed in a way that it must consume meat, which tells us that eating meat is not dangerous. Moreover, humans have been consuming meat since the dawn of the time which tells us that our bodies have adapted to it. Secondly, meat has a lot of protein in it which is needed by our body to build muscles. People who are vegetarian have to eat some supplements which contain such minerals and vitamins they can’t have from vegetables. So, eating too much meat can cause harm but if we limit our meat consumption and have a balanced diet then we can avoid diseases.

In conclusion, I would say that not everyone should turn towards a vegetarian diet. Although eating excessive meat can always cause diseases. So, we should turn ourselves towards having the diet which is a balance between meat and vegetables to keep our bodies healthy.

Comments and Suggestions for writing Essay in IELTS Writing Section

You should always begin the essay by the introduction of the topic. In our case, we have started by giving the vegetarianism introduction and telling about the harms of consuming meat.

Further, it depends upon a thesis statement to make it very clear that what is the opinion of the candidate.

The second paragraph has topic sentence. This makes clear that the following paragraph will tell about the issues of health caused by eating meat. Examples are also given in support of the argument.

The third paragraph also has the topic sentence. This also makes clear that further information will be on the benefits of eating meat.

Lastly, the conclusion is given in the final paragraph by giving the final thoughts.

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How to Become a Vegetarian (or Simply Eat More Plants)

Your health and cooking questions, answered.

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By Hetty Lui McKinnon and Alice Callahan

Hetty Lui McKinnon, a cookbook author and New York Times Cooking contributor, has been a vegetarian for 30 years. Alice Callahan, who has a Ph.D. in nutrition, is a Times reporter covering nutrition and health.

• May 22, 2024

Longtime vegetarians already know: To be a vegetarian is to eat really well. But if you’re looking to make the switch to vegetarianism or just a more plant-forward diet, you may have questions, even concerns.

What should I cook? How do I think about meals? How will I know if I’m getting enough protein? A vegetarian diet doesn’t have to be especially health-focused, though it can be, just as it can be comforting and flexible. It should never feel limiting or restrictive, but rather nourishing, even joyous.

Whether you’ve been slowly cutting meat from your diet or you’ve just started giving thought to vegetarianism, this guide — from Hetty Lui McKinnon, a cookbook author and vegetarian of 30 years, and Alice Callahan, a Times reporter who focuses on food and health and follows a plant-forward diet at home — is meant to aid in the transition.

Below, we’ll help you get started in the kitchen — and answer some of the most common health questions you may have, with nutrition experts as our guide.

Where do I even start?

Veg-ifying your favorite meals: We tend to cook and eat what we know, but giving up meat doesn’t mean leaving behind beloved flavors. If you love chicken Parm, opt for one made with mushroom or eggplant instead. If you enjoy the vibrant flavors of larb, make it with mushrooms or tofu , just as you can create an adobo with either eggplant or cauliflower , riff on Indian butter chicken by using chickpeas , and satisfy your schnitzel or breaded cutlet craving with halloumi or tofu . Change takes time, but it is much easier if you lean on familiar flavors and dishes.

Find all the vegetarian recipes you need to get started on NYT Cooking.

Shopping smarter: You may not start eating lots of vegetables the day you decide to become a vegetarian — and that’s OK. However, learning to love vegetables, and a range of them, will make your meals more interesting. Make sure your weekly shopping list includes three or four hearty vegetables, like broccoli, green beans, peppers, summer squash or cauliflower, along with a bunch or two of herbs, and some leafy greens, like baby spinach or arugula. And don’t forget about frozen vegetables: Peas, corn and spinach are excellent in easy weeknight meals and can often be better and fresher from frozen. Then, add items that will lend heft — eggs, tofu, canned legumes, pasta, noodles and tortillas are just a few options.

What kinds of ingredients should I be shopping for?

Vegetables: Having many of the five basic tastes — sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami — vegetables can take on a number of characteristics depending on how they’re cooked.

Take broccoli . Eaten raw, it is mildly bitter with a grassy aftertaste. A quick blanch in salted water unveils its natural sweetness, and high-heat cooking in a pan , in the oven or on a grill results in crisp edges with an earthy smokiness. Treat vegetables well, and you’ll be rewarded in spades.

Complex carbohydrates: Complex carbohydrates like brown rice, quinoa , barley, spelt and oats take longer for your body to digest than simple carbohydrates — and make you feel satisfied for longer. Pasta and noodles are easy options for vegetarians; going heavy on the vegetables and lighter on the pasta can make for a nutrient-rich meal.

Lentils, chickpeas, cannellini beans, black beans and pinto beans — among others — can also anchor dishes and add protein. Crisp them in the oven for a mouthwatering snack or salad topper , combine them with vegetables to make burger patties , whip them into a dip or use them as the main attraction in soups , stews and curries .

Tofu: For vegetarians, tofu is not only an excellent source of protein, but it’s also highly versatile, absorbing flavors and taking on all kinds of textures. Don’t limit yourself to one type or one way to prepare it. Crisp extra-firm or firm tofu in a pan, in the oven or air fryer ; braise firm or medium-firm in a simple savory sauce; crumble and scramble various kinds with spices; or blend silken to make a creamy sauce for noodles or pasta. Blocks of soft, jiggly silken tofu can also be topped with a spicy dressing for a quick no-cook dinner, broken into stews like mapo tofu or jjigaes , or blended into soups to add body and a creamy finish.

Umami: Umami, or savoriness, plays a pivotal role in vegetarian dishes, making every one richer and tastier. There are many vegetarian sources of it. Mushrooms are perhaps the most well known, offering a “meaty” texture to dishes as well. Others include nuts and nut butters ; tomato; seaweed; alliums like onions, garlic, shallots, leeks and scallions; seasoned oils like chile oil, chile crisp and salsa macha ; and fermented foods like kimchi , pickles , soy sauce, miso, gochujang, doubanjiang and more.

Find more grilled veggie recipes , sheet-pan vegetarian recipes , tofu recipes , bean soups and stews , and vegetarian pastas on NYT Cooking.

How can i make easy dinners.

On those “I don’t know what to cook” days, stick to a simple formula. As a starting point, think of this as a “meat and three” for vegetarians. And remember: There is no one way to be vegetarian, so, for it to stick long-term, make sure it suits your lifestyle, pantry and the flavors that you crave.

Start with a vegetable or two, cooked to your preference: roasted , grilled , pan-fried, air-fried, steamed or raw.

Add a base starch or two: rice, quinoa, pasta, noodles, legumes.

Add an optional green: spinach, kale, salad leaves.

Add a sauce: tahini , pesto , seasoned oil, yogurt, vinaigrette .

Add some extras: Tofu, tempeh or eggs for heft, herbs for vibrant freshness, nuts and seeds for a textural crunch.

How will I know if I’m getting enough protein?

Federal guidelines recommend that most adults should consume at least 0.36 grams of protein per pound of body weight every day. For an average 185-pound adult, this translates to 67 grams of protein per day.

If you include at least one serving of a high-protein food with every meal, you’ll most likely hit that goal, said Reed Mangels, a retired nutrition professor and co-author of “The Dietitian’s Guide to Vegetarian Diets.”

Beans, lentils, nuts, nut butters, seeds, tofu, eggs and dairy products are all good sources. And remember: The grains and vegetables on your plate contribute small amounts of protein, too.

What other nutrients should I be mindful of?

The biggest concern is vitamin B12 , said Sudha Raj, a professor of nutrition at Syracuse University and a lifelong vegetarian. B12 deficiencies can lead to a host of blood and nerve cell issues, which could result in fatigue, anemia, nerve problems and mental issues like depression, memory loss and confusion. The vitamin is found only in animal-based foods and a few fortified foods, like nutritional yeast and many plant-based milks and breakfast cereals. If you’re following a vegetarian diet, it’s a good idea to take a B12 supplement, Dr. Raj said.

A handful of other nutrients can sometimes come up short when following a plant-based diet, including iron, calcium, vitamin D, zinc and omega-3 fatty acids.

Incorporating a variety of food groups into your meals will help you meet these needs, Dr. Raj said. Beans, lentils, soy products and whole grains are all high in iron; and eating them with vitamin C-rich foods, like tomatoes, citrus fruits, cabbage or potatoes, will enhance your absorption of iron .

If you’re not consuming dairy, vegetables like kale, bok choy and mustard greens can help you get enough calcium. Flax seeds, chia seeds and nuts can add zinc and omega-3 fatty acids — along with a satisfying crunch — to your meals.

Some helpful nutrients are included in fortified plant milks , too; just check their nutrition labels to be sure they’re good sources of calcium, vitamin D and B12. Ideally, choose an unsweetened version, or at least one with less than 10 grams of added sugars per serving, said Matthew Landry, a nutrition scientist at the University of California, Irvine.

You can also consider taking a multivitamin as a nutritional “insurance policy,” Dr. Mangels said, though it’s usually not necessary with a well-planned diet.

How can I feel full?

If you simply cut meat from your meals without adding hearty plant-based foods, you may end up hungry, Dr. Mangels said. Fill your plate with nourishing staples that provide fiber and protein, like beans, whole grains, tofu and vegetables, she suggested. And be sure to include good sources of fats like nuts, seeds, avocados, yogurt, cheese, eggs and cooking oils.

You may find that you need to increase your serving sizes or eat more frequently to feel satisfied, Dr. Mangels said — “there’s nothing wrong with snacking,” she added.

Will following a vegetarian diet improve my health?

It’s likely. Studies suggest that adopting a balanced plant-based diet can improve your cholesterol levels and reduce your blood pressure, and it may help you lose a bit of weight, Dr. Landry said. Emerging evidence suggests that it may reduce inflammation in your body and support a healthy gut microbiome , he added.

But it’s not an all-or-nothing proposition. Any shift toward eating more plants and less meat — making a stir-fry with tofu instead of chicken, or replacing half of the beef in your chili with beans — will probably benefit your health, he said.

Follow New York Times Cooking on Instagram , Facebook , YouTube , TikTok and Pinterest . Get regular updates from New York Times Cooking, with recipe suggestions, cooking tips and shopping advice .

Hetty Lui McKinnon has developed thousands of recipes, including a number for New York Times cooking, and written five vegetarian cookbooks. She has been a vegetarian for 30 years.

Alice Callahan is a Times reporter covering nutrition and health. She has a Ph.D. in nutrition from the University of California, Davis. More about Alice Callahan

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Mariachi’s in Fort Worth to close after serving vegan Tex-Mex for 6 years

M ariachi’s Dine-In, a Fort Worth restaurant that served a two-sided menu of vegan and non-vegan Tex-Mex , will close after dinner on June 1, 2024, owner Ashley Miller confirmed.

When Mariachi’s opened in 2018 in a Fort Worth gas station , it was a pioneer in vegan and vegetarian restaurants in the Dallas-Fort Worth area. Miller and then-chef Angel Fuentes came up with a Mexican menu meant to feed eaters of all kinds.

“I want to provide hospitality — a place where people can eat with their entire family,” Miller said. “There were so many couples: Maybe the girlfriend is vegan, the boyfriend is not.”

She said Mariachi’s felt like a place that valued and honored that choice. The project was also personal to her, as she has now been vegetarian for 17 years.

The menu today ranges from “classic” options like birria tacos with beef; burritos with the option of carne asada, chorizo or chicken; and a burger. The vegan side of the menu offered some of the same dishes, minus the meat and dairy. The jackfruit birria tacos were popular, Miller said, as were the burritos with vegan substitutes for beef, chorizo and more.

In 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Miller signed a new lease at 5724 Locke Ave., where the restaurant remains today. Fuentes did not make the move with Miller and later opened a vegan Mexican restaurant in place of the old Mariachi’s. His Guapo Taco shop is still open there.

Miller said Mariachi’s survived for the next three years with an interesting mix of customers: Some who were vegan or vegetarian would make the drive for meat-free food. Others were neighbors from the historically poor neighborhood of Como or the tony area near Ridglea Country Club — both a mile or two from the taco shop.

Miller was proud of Mariachi’s something-for-everyone personality.

In late 2023, Miller partnered with a chef to open another take on vegan food: barbecue. On the two days a week Mariachi’s was closed, VBQ served “brisket” made out of seitan and a vegan version of burnt ends from the Mariachi’s kitchen. It lasted just a few months before the chef left and Miller focused again on the taco shop.

Miller is now closing the restaurant to move to Washington State with her partner, who works for a nuclear reactor company near Seattle. Miller plans to take a break from restaurants but says she might go back to bartending.

After the restaurant closes, Miller said she has planned an outing to Hurricane Harbor with the Mariachi’s staff. She said they’re “like family.”

“The culture here, and the people, are what I’ll definitely miss,” she said.

But it was tough running a business during COVID and battling inflation. “I won’t miss the fluctuations of [food] prices,” she said.

Mariachi’s Dine-In is at 5724 Locke Ave., Fort Worth. Open for lunch and dinner until the end of the day on June 1, 2024.

For more food news, follow Sarah Blaskovich on X (formerly Twitter) at @sblaskovich .

©2024 The Dallas Morning News. Visit dallasnews.com. Distributed by Tribune Content Agency, LLC.