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Enabling the security of global time in software-defined vehicles (sgts, macsec), automated ai-based annotation framework for 3d object detection from lidar data in industrial areas., radar-based approach for side-slip gradient estimation, towards a new approach for reducing the safety validation effort of driving functions using prediction divergence, how can a sustainable energy infrastructure based on renewable fuels contribute to global carbon neutrality, fitting automotive quality and safety expectations to free and open source software, miller cycle and internal egr in diesel engines using alternative fuels, computational method to determine the cooling airflow utilization ratio of passenger cars considering component deformation, reduction of flow-induced noise in refrigeration cycles, additively manufactured wheel suspension system with integrated conductions and optimized structure, investigation of stator cooling concepts of an electric machine for maximization of continuous power, graph based cooperation strategies for automated vehicles in mixed traffic, automated park and charge: concept and energy demand calculation, optimization-based battery thermal management for improved regenerative braking in cep vehicles, what is going on around the automotive powernet - an overview of state-of-the-art powernet, insights into the new trends, and a simulation solution to keep pace with architectural changes., software-supported processes for aerodynamic homologation of vehicles, optimal and prototype dimensioning of electrified drives for automated driving, fmcw lidar simulation with ray tracing and standardized interfaces, a novel approach for the safety validation of emergency intervention functions using extreme value estimation, low nox emissions performance after 800,000 miles aging using cda and an electric heater.

197 Vehicles Topics & Essay Ideas to Write about

If you love cars, you can learn more about them while writing a paper on automotive research topics. In case you have not decided on the subject, StudyCorgi has compiled a list of exciting car research topics and questions to discuss. Feel free to use the ideas below for your persuasive essay, research project, and other writing assignments.

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• Gas Cars vs.Electric Cars Essay: Compare & Contrast
• My Dream Car: Personal View
• The Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles
• Tesla in China: Assessing the Electric Vehicles Industry
• The Autonomous Vehicles
• The Glo-Bus Simulation Strategy: Business Approaches
• Volkswagen Cars Company: Professional Marketing Components
• How Hybrid Cars Work This paper is a report of research done on hybrid vehicles and how they operate in relation to energy and the environment.
• The American Automobile Industry’s Porter’s Five Forces Analysis The U.S. automobile industry has experienced a wide range of changes due to the recording environmental challenges, emerging competitors, and customer expectations.
• Luxury Cars Consumerism in the Middle East This paper analysis consumer perceptions of luxury cars in the Middle East through a prism of historical and market developments, consumer behavior, and psychological aspects of purchase and ownership.
• The Advancements in Electric Car Technology This paper explores the advancements and improvements in electric car technology based on practical, environmental, and innovative aspects.
• Performance Management in Enterprise Rent-A-Car The work plan aimed at enhancing productivity management in Enterprise Rent-A-Car implies developing a special program involving digital analytical equipment.
• Machine Learning in Tesla Self-Driving Cars It can be concluded that assessing the prospects for using machine learning in electric vehicles will solve many problems for transportation.
• Electric Vehicles and Their Environmental Impact This essay argues that electric automobiles can become a sustainable alternative to combustion engines, but only as a part of a broader paradigm shift.
• Electric Cars: Advantages and Disadvantages Electric cars have a lower maintenance cost since they have few movable parts, reducing the number of elements that may need replacing or maintenance, but their price is high.
• Electric Vehicles and Their Impact on Climate Change Internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) that have dominated the market over the recent decades are now giving way to electric vehicles (EV) experiencing rapid growth.
• Automobile Sector: Negative and Positive Impact This paper presents the new advents in the automobile sector and its impact on society; focuses on the growth of industries, the creation of mobile society, etc.
• Car Seat Safety and Educational Awareness Programs The paper discusses car seat safety and highlights the safety procedures and recommendations needed to be taken care of.
• Transportation: Electric Cars Effects At present, electric cars offer their owners a relatively impressive amount of services and advantages for a comparatively low price.
• Human Factors in Car Development and Production The goal of the study is to define the extent to which the human factor in production and development affects the number of car accidents.
• Electric Cars and Their Future: Informative Speech Choosing electric cars will reduce the level of gas emissions in the air and provide opportunities for recycling and usage of renewable sources of energy instead of gasoline.
• Electric Vehicles vs. Traditional Cars As the price of gasoline continues to grow, understanding the benefits of EVs becomes more crucial, even if a person does not seek to reduce their environmental impact.
• Electric and Gasoline-Powered Cars Comparing electric and gasoline-powered vehicles becomes crucial for everyone who wants to make responsible decisions in this respect.
• The Importance of Properly Changing the Oil of Your Car One of the most routine maintenance procedures suggested by your car manufacturer is the regular changing of your automotive oil.
• Artificial Intelligence in Self-Driving Cars The paper states that artificial intelligence in self-driving vehicles cannot conclude several favorable outcomes – or, the “least bad” effects.
• Saudi Arabia Bus Market Analysis The report aims at assessing Saudi Arabia’s bus industry. Both internal and external environments are favorable for the rapid development of the industry.
• Social Norms and Behaviors on Public Transportation: On the Bus The “bus” culture is an everyday occurrence for the majority of the population, with its own unique set of rules and norms.
• Daimler Company’s Smart Cars Marketing Strategy This work explains Daimler’s business and marketing strategy for introducing the Smart Car into global international markets and examines its advantages and disadvantages.
• Report on Toyota Car Manufacturer This paper provides an overview of Toyota Motor Corporation, including its organizational structure, HR functions, and approach to human resource management.
• How Hybrid Cars Differ From Traditional Cars A hybrid car does not cause more trouble than a traditional one and in some cases, it turns out to be even more profitable.
• Tata Motors in Global Ultra-Low-Cost Car Market The essay investigates Tata Motors’ attempts to enter the global ultra-low-cost car market, the problems it might face and its pricing strategy to create a competitive advantage.
• Surviving Without a Car: A Guide Surviving without a car provides a great benefit in social, physical, environmental and financial terms. The paper presents several steps to survive without a car.
• Gender Stereotyping in Audi’s Used Car Ad Audi’s Used Car Ad was chosen because it sparked outrage on Chinese social media and worldwide because of the severe misogyny and stereotyping.
• Consumer Decision-Making Process in the Automobile Industry Green cars, also known as environmentally friendly vehicles, are cars that produce a reduced amount of pollution into the environment.
• Electric vs. Gas (Internal Combustion Engine) Cars The automotive industry is experiencing some of the most drastic revolutions yet since the inception of the first car by Ford.
• The Risks Associated with Using Credit to Purchase an Automobile or a Major Appliance Credit occurs where the payment method is progressive or in installments with an agreed specified time between the seller and the buyer.
• Autonomous Vehicles Overview Autonomous vehicles will alter the transport system by navigating without humans. The system works because of a mix of hardware and software that executes the program over the device.
• A Car: Technical Specifications & Safety Features The paper provides an overall description of the car that includes the various highlights of the vehicle, its standard & safety features as well as technical specifications.
• Are Connected and Automated Vehicles the Silver Bullet for Future Transportation Challenges?
• What Kind of Regulations on Private Vehicles Are Best Suited to a City in Reducing Congestion?
• How Will Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Help the Environment?
• Can Vehicle-to-Grid Revenue Help Electric Vehicles on the Market?
• Why Are Hybrids Vehicles Better Than Gas Vehicles?
• What Are the Effects of Motor Vehicles on the Environment?
• Are Hybrid Vehicles the Future of Internal Combustion Vehicles?
• What Vehicles Are Made 100% in the USA?
• Are the New Vehicles Coming Out These Days Safer Than Before?
• Do Hybrid Vehicles Have a Future?
• Has the Financial Crisis Provoked Consumers to Buying More Used Cars in the UK?
• What Is the Future of Fuel for Vehicles?
• How Can Electric Vehicles Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions?
• Are There Environmental Benefits of Driving Electric Vehicles?
• What Are 5 Important Safety Features in a Family Vehicle?
• Why Should Americans Embrace Alternative Fuel Vehicles?
• Can the Built Environment Help Reduce Our Reliance on Personal Motor Vehicles?
• Are Electric Cars Better Than Petrol/Diesel Cars?
• What Factors Influence the Adoption of Electric Vehicles?
• Is There a Near-Term Market for Vehicle-To-Grid Electric Vehicles?
• What Are the Benefits of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles?
• Are Electric Cars the Future of Transportation?
• What Is the Role of Electric Vehicles in the Decarbonization of the Car Transport Sector in Europe?
• Can Hybrid Cars Reduce the Dependency on Fossil Fuels?
• Are Hybrid Cars Becoming Safer or More Harmful to the Environment?
• Procurement Management in Car Manufacturers For any project to be implemented, resources are needed. These can be either services or materials required to accomplish the project.
• Autonomous Vehicles as a Replacement for the Human Workers This paper explores autonomous vehicle technology and how it is expected to replace human workers within the next two decades.
• Airline and Car Industries’ Operations Design The airline and automotive industries have similarities in the fact that they both fall under the very important category of transport and communication.
• Cadillac Motor Car Division’s Quality Management Many aspects of quality control are key to Cadillac’s competitive position on the market as they promote higher efficiency and improved product quality.
• Value Proposition of Smart Technology and Self-Driving Cars This paper will focus on the business opportunities of smart technology and self-driving cars by discussing customer fears, wants, and needs.
• Avellin in Passenger-Car Motor Oil Market The pricing strategy that Avellin employed during presales needs a remedy. It would be more profitable if the company had employed a skimming pricing strategy.
• Car Emissions and Global Warming The emissions problem that is caused by the excessive use of cars is an issue that affects most of the modern world and needs to be addressed as soon as possible to prevent further adverse impact.
• Cars in Popular Culture and Mass Media The entirety of ideas, fancy images, attitudes, and perspectives within the cultural mainstream define what is known as popular (or pop) culture.
• Automobile Manufacturers’ Corporate Governance This paper conducts a performance analysis of three automobile manufacturers, Ford, BMW, and Toyota Motors, focusing on regulatory frameworks and corporate governance.
• Electric Cars and Trade Paradigm Global businesses and working environments are complex and require an in-depth assessment of issues for proper management.
• Cars: Disadvantages of This Mode of Transport Cars are an essential part of the modern lifestyle that we rarely pay attention to the numerous disadvantages of this mode of transport.
• Going International With Malaysian Made PROTON Cars This report analyzes various intricacies associated with international marketing in light of the situation Malaysian car manufacturing company PROTON Berhad faces.
• A Supply & Demand Analysis of a Car Market Currently in the News The car market which includes SUVs and pickup trucks has been facing a decline in demand in the US automobile market. The essay discusses the reasons for the shift in demand in automobiles by consumers.
• Innovative Automobile Design of RWB Porsche 911 The car I chose combines the German automotive industry elements and Japanese design ideas. It is the RWB Porsche 911, an author’s variation of the famous German sports car.
• Audi Car Company: The Advertising Strategy Audi uses innovative advertising methods to reach its target audience and in the past the advertisements have caused a sensation both among customers and the creative industry.
• The Wave of the Future: Driverless Car Technology Driverless cars already exist here in the United Kingdom, America, and China. All are experimental and yet deliver a very high promise for a future filled with safer cars, roads.
• Comparison of Hybrid and Gasoline Vehicles This report is about the analysis and comparison of hybrid and gasoline vehicles, and would use qualitative research method.
• Car Wash Company’s Employee Management The situation in the Car Wash may lead to its eventual collapse. When employees are not satisfied with their work environment, they will not work to their full potential.
• Car Sales Forecast and Financial Strategy The paper considers factors to predict sales rates efficiently. The forecast of sales rates is quite hard to carry out due to a variety of factors affecting it.
• Al Ghandi Auto Group: Electric Car Marketing Plan The company’s array of products and services addresses every need a conventional motorist may have, ranging from selling and buying cars to repairs and maintenance.
• Alternative Fuels and Personnel in Automobile Industry This paper is aimed to consider two important issues connected with the automobile industry. The first is fuel alternatives. The other is the staff and potential productivity.
• The Rise in Prices of Used Vehicles Used vehicles have had one or more retail owners in the past. The price of these cars soared by 42% from December 2019 to October 2022.
• Self-Driving Cars’ Impact on Employment The effect of using self-driving cars is a drastic reduction in workplaces that is likely to become more pronounced as fewer people will be engaged in the car industry.
• The Death of 30 Chickens in the Car Accident The accident happened at the corner of Waco Dr. And Valley Mill Drive. The driver of a truck full of chickens turned left in the wrong place.
• Autocratic Success in the American Car Industry The volatility of the car industry market has led several companies to bankruptcy, and American Chrysler was on the verge of extinction in 2009 following of the financial crisis.
• Laptop Computers in Police Cars: Benefits & Drawbacks This paper will investigate these problems and their prevalence with respect to the utilization of laptops in police vehicles.
• The Automobile Industry and Its Impact on Michigan The automobile industry was initially established in Michigan in the begging of twentieth century before decentralizing to other parts of the U.S and the rest of the world.
• The Trolley Problem and Self-Driving Cars The Trolley Problem is an ethics thought experiment that deals with the choice of saving several people by killing one. It is used in various moral and ethical discussions.
• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Uses, Challenges, and Purposes The UAVs’ biggest challenge remains their ability to adhere to the Federal Aviation Regulations’ (FARs) right of way stipulations.
• MG Rover Group’s Car Production and Business Ethics MG Rover business was a very important economic pillar in the motor industry in Britain, contributing greatly to employment opportunities and governments’ revenue.
• Electric Vehicles: Addressing Air Pollution The environmental damages and air pollution levels are partially the result of the extensive use of vehicles that run on gas. However, electric vehicles can solve this problem.
• Mini Vehicles’ Macroeconomic Environments The natural environmental force focuses on how the business contributes to maintaining the surroundings that people exist in by adhering to corporate social responsibilities.
• Private Car Driver-Linking Service iDriveYourCar has capitalized on the technology to develop a website and an app, which connect individuals owning private cars with top-rated drivers.
• The One Seat Electric Car’s Market Entry This report will detail the launch strategy of the electric one-seater car, including the rationale for selecting it, the target market, organizational structure, and cash flow.
• The Impact of a Car’s Technology on the Purchase Decision of a UK Customer The role of a car’s technology, brand, performance, maintenance costs, perceived quality, spare parts availability, price, and resale value on the purchase by a UK customer.
• The Shift in Demand for Tesla Electric Vehicles So far, Tesla has only two serious competitors – Volkswagen and BMW, and this cannot be called a sufficient condition for a substantial price reduction.
• Rolls-Royce Motor Cars in Singapore The Asian market is the perfect economic destination regarding population growth and financial potential. That is the reason why Rolls-Royce chose Singapore to open its filial.
• The Future of Automated Cars The autonomous technology for cars will allow decreasing the incidence of car crashes and offer substantial benefits to the industry, environment, and society.
• The transition to electric vehicles is inevitable.
• The pros and cons of autonomous cars.
• Should governments subsidize electric vehicles?
• Are hydrogen fuel cell vehicles a viable green alternative?
• Do ride-hailing services increase traffic congestion?
• Should speed limits be changed to improve safety?
• Can advancer driver assistance systems prevent traffic accidents?
• Is car sharing a sustainable solution for reducing emissions?
• How will electric vehicles affect global oil demand?
• Is banning gasoline-powered cars feasible?
• System Management Within Automobile The objective of the essay is to give a brief account of the recent technologies with their respective architectures that can be used in the upgrade of an automobile computer system.
• The Technology of Self-Driving Cars Cars operating at higher levels of autonomy require certain infrastructure, and their successful operation depends on a variety of factors, including climate and road traffic.
• Car Washing Techniques: Like a Pro There are many different ways to clean a car, but it is important to know how to do it without damaging your car in the process.
• Supply Chain Management for the Sedan Car This report is to provide the supply chain management for the sedan car, a vehicle that operates in the automotive industry worldwide.
• Electric Vehicles in the UK Automotive Manufacturing Industry The statistics show that the international manufacturers of engines have a higher tendency of locating their car manufacturing plants in the UK than other nations.
• US Car Manufacturing: International Promotion Mix The car manufacturing industry in the United States of America is quite competitive as the business environment in the country has transformed significantly.
• Auto Car Companies Industry in China With the ever-growing and stable development of China’s economy, the Chinese domestic auto industry has become one of the most vibrant sectors of China’s economy.
• Contract Law: Josh Hartly’s and the Car Dealer Case This essay examines a case study that outlines the nature and application of the mutual mistakes policies in a contract law. Both Josh and the sales person enter into the contract.
• Owning a Private Car: Expense Analysis Owning a private car is prestigious; however, it is associated with a number of costs. This paper gives a stringent analysis of these expenses.
• Environmental Analysis of the Ford Motor Company’s Electric Vehicles The paper provides the findings of a SWOT analysis of Ford company to detect its competitive advantage in the market of electric vehicles.
• Brexit and the Car Industry Issues This case study analysis aims to identify some of the problems that might arise in the car and vehicle industry due to Brexit.
• How to Change Engine Oil in an Automobile Engine Changing the engine oil is a process of great significance for it extends the operational life of a car’s engine. This paper describes the process of changing engine oil.
• Differences between Gasoline and Electric Cars With increased public concern about global warming and environmental protection, electric cars have become a popular trend in the automotive industry.
• Automobile Security System : Product Description Cars being stolen is one of the major problems faced in the United States which has created huge loss to the car drivers and also the insurance business.
• The United Kingdom’s Car Market The UK is known as one of the biggest car markets in the world. This paper gives a brief analysis of the current state of the car market in the UK.
• Enterprise Rent-A-Car: Services and Workplace Enterprise Rent-A-Car wishes to remain the preferred premier rental car company, provide red carpet customer service, and provide the best place to work to its employees.
• Car Emission Effects on Global Warming Car emissions are expected to aid policy makers in national governments, automobile manufacturers, fuel industry CEOs and city planners.
• The Eco-Friendly Automobile Debut The automotive industry intends to transform dramatically, with a new emphasis on creating eco-friendly automobiles worldwide.
• Electric and Gas-Powered Vehicles Compared With the development of technologies and the growing need to take care of the environment, new models of vehicles started to appear.
• Electric Cars as Advances Leading to Sustainability Research shows that utilizing electric vehicles is good for the environment because they emit less pollution than cars running on gas or diesel.
• Leasing vs. Buying a Car: Math & Critical Thinking Leasing allows you to drive a vehicle that people cannot buy due to its cost. Buying a car seems more relevant in today’s realities, as it meets people’s needs in the long term.
• Infant Industry Support of the Car Industry The infant industry is a newly emerging industry that requires attention and support from the state. As part of car building, countries are increasing their technical equipment.
• Tesla Motors as the Most Compelling Car Company Tesla is an American electric vehicle and clean energy company based in Palo Alto, California. The company was founded in 2003 by a group of engineers in Silicon Valley.
• Why an Electric Car Is the Best Option Electric cars have been brought to the market to encourage low-emission vehicles, which will have side advantages for society, the environment, and the economy.
• Electric Vehicles: The Roles in Air Pollution The main purpose of electric vehicles is to eliminate the direct contribution to air pollution through emissions.
• Electric Cars: On the Way to Improve People’s Life This paper hypothesizes that electric cars improve people’s life for good by significantly diminishing harmful emissions and protecting the natural environment people live in.
• Switching to Electric Cars: Impact This paper argues that the change to electric cars was caused by the general public’s appeal to nuanced technology that is marketed as more innovative and sustainable.
• Electric Cars Sales: Impact of High Gas Prices This article dwells on increasing demand for electric cars in the market as a response to the gas price increase and uncertainty surrounding gas supply to the US from Russia.
• Tesla Motors Firm’s Amphibious Car Project Tesla has already established an image as a market pioneer, and another ambitious undertaking would further reinforce it.
• Clientele of Luxurious Vehicles: The Purchasing Decisions In this paper the researchers focus on assessing significant factors that influence the purchasing decision among the clientele of luxurious vehicles.
• The Difference Between Buying a New Car and Leasing Cars are expensive, and their prices can be out of reach for many individuals. Even though long-term auto loans exist, it can get tough to acquire a vehicle.
• Benefits of Electric Vehicles Compared to Gas Vehicles This essay analyzes several benefits of electric vehicles compared to gas vehicles. It has shown a more positive impact on the environment.
• 5G Networks and V2x Communications in the Car Industry The key growth drivers for the globally connected vehicle market are the increasing demand for autonomous driving technology and the spread of data-driven decision-making.
• Autonomous Vehicles (Ground, Marine, and Air) This paper examines the literature regarding the application of autonomous vehicles, noting the issues raised and how they impact the future of unmanned vehicles.
• Advantages Which Advertisements Provide to Car Dealership Business Prosperity The paper states that advertising allows organizations to focus on their clients and build long-lasting relationships with them.
• Climate Change and Tesla’s Electric Cars The paper discusses environmental sustainability. Using Tesla company electric vehicles is the best decision for tackling the climate change problem.
• Firearms and Cars: Threats to Life The paper argues the rules for issuing, carrying, and using of firearms require more detailed, elaborate interventions from the state and society as a whole.
• Electricity Source Determines Benefits of Electrifying China’s Vehicles Article “Electricity Source Determines Benefits of Electrifying China’s Vehicles” states by reducing emissions from power generation, health, environmental benefits may be achieved.
• Cybersecurity in connected cars: vulnerabilities and threats.
• The causes of users’ resistance to the adoption of in-vehicle infotainment systems.
• Current trends in electric vehicle battery technology.
• Global approaches to autonomous vehicle regulation.
• The impact of automated and connected vehicles on urban design.
• The opportunities and challenges of biometric vehicle access.
• The movement toward the circular economy in automotive manufacturing.
• The effects of emissions standards on the automobile industry.
• Benefits of using augmented reality in car repair and maintenance.
• The potential of applying robots in automotive assembly.
• Colonel Cars Incorporated Issues Colonel Cars Inc. plans to introduce an innovative speaker system in their cars’ steering wheels and prepares an advertising campaign centered around it.
• Autonomous Vehicles for Company Portfolio This paper recommends that senior managers consider automated vehicles as part of the company’s portfolio of development projects and internal research in the next budget cycle.
• Aspects of Autonomous Vehicles A combination of stoicism and pragmatism may inform a course of action regarding the use of autonomous vehicles, despite the frameworks’ conflicting natures.
• Alternative Vehicles: Electric and Hybrids This study investigates the demand for alternative vehicles and defines the market in hopes that the auto producers will produce affordable environmentally-friendly vehicles.
• General Motors 2035: Phasing Out Gasoline and Diesel-Driven Vehicles General Motors (GM) has set the 2035 target date to phase out gasoline- and diesel-driven vehicles from its showrooms globally.
• Car Seatbelt Legislation for Teenagers in Maryland The epidemiology of injuries in society, both occupational and not, are conditioned by the way of life of the citizens.
• Product Proposal: An Electric Car With One Seat The topic chosen for the project is an electric car with one seat, which is cheaper than the standard electric or fuel-powered vehicles.
• The Significance of Self-Driving Cars Over the years, the automobile industry has seen many technological changes, the most notable one being self-driving cars.
• How Car Emissions Affect Global Warming This paper examines the concept of global warming with a focal point on the emissions of gases by cars and other automobiles.
• Computational Engineering for Automobile Applications Several computational-fluid-dynamics (CFDs) have to be capable of adopting the usage of simulations for validating insights into the entirety of performances of process-equipments.
• Path Planning for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Depending on the purpose of the autonomous underwater vehicle, route planning can be divided into 2 categories: point-to-point and full coverage, which are compared in this paper.
• Unmanned Surface Vessels and Aerial Vehicles Caharcteristics Unmanned marine vehicle systems are used in a wide range of commercial and military spheres. System options satisfy all the criteria with some differences in cost, range, and flight time.
• Fully Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Competition This paper presents an analysis of works from the Robosub international student teams competition for the development of fully autonomous underwater vehicles.
• Unmanned Ground Vehicles and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles UGS and UAS share a commonality in their C3, which is that they can be both controlled from a ground control station (GCS).
• Automobile Advent and Its Impact on American Culture The most notable changes in the advent of the automobile by American culture were the human social aspects of morality, values, and self identity.
• Automobile Workers vs. Johnson Controls The primary ingredient in the manufacture of batteries at Johnson Controls (“JC”) is lead. It was discovered that lead exposure entails health risks to employees, especially to the fetus carried by female employees.
• Chuck Plunkett “Prius Effect”: Energy Efficient Cars Harmful Effects on the Environment The main idea of the article is that energy-efficient cars made the light rail, which has harmful effects on the environment, less attractive for the passengers.
• Honda Pilot Car’s Ownership and Its Benefits Honda Pilot is a car that is highly recommended by customers and has been rated highly by car journals and has had the distinction of being awarded a number of awards as well.
• Energy Efficient Cars: Difficulties in Optimization The essay discusses the problem of optimizing the energy efficiency potential and reveals the universal classification of the automobile vehicles.
• Automobile Industry and Its Evolution in the US The book entitled “Twentieth-Century Technologies” mainly focuses on the automobile industry and its evolution in the United States.
• Car Accidents Statistics and Policy Change A policy change is required in order to reduce the number of car accidents and protect people from injuries and death as a result of traffic accidents.
• Power Sources for Unmanned Vehicles A hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell produces electrical power through an electrochemical reaction, which involves the oxidation of hydrogen.
• Nissan Electric Cars Nowadays and in Future This paper describes and analyzes the situation presented in the article “Nissan Sees 2025 as Turning Point for Electric Cars” by Campbell.
• Hybrid Electric and Gasoline Powered Vehicles The hybrid electric vehicles are gradually gaining preference over the gasoline-powered vehicles following gradual shifts the global economic dynamics.
• Terrorism and The Peshawar School Bus Bombing This work analyzes the concept of terrorism and its usage in both domestic and foreign policy and also overviews terrorist attack, the Peshawar school bus roadside bombing.
• Mustang Cars’ Convertible and Price Regression Analysis From the statistical analysis and the hypothesis tests, we can conclude that the convertible options of the Mustang cars lay sufficient influence on the prices.
• No Student Car: Reducing College Expenses The student car is probably the most expensive and least useful ongoing expense. Unless you have a job that requires commuting, this should be a non-negotiable sacrifice.
• Rental Car Feasibility for Injured Driver The injured person must keep in mind that the selected car selected provides a cost-effective solution to his needs and safety on the road in case any mishap occurs.
• Car Industry’s Marketing: Advertising and Promotion Car industry has been developing day by day in many countries. The major purpose of this industry is to create, develop, improve, market, and sell motor vehicles, cars in particular.
• Zhejiang Gonow Automobile Company: Global Marketing The purpose of this report is to prepare a global marketing plan for the Chinese company Zhejiang Gonow Automobile Ltd (ZGA), producing pickup and sport-utility vehicles.
• Car Dealing Problem and Contract Validity An offer made by a car dealer, Brad Benson, to give a Florida pastor, Terry Jones, a new car if he abstains from burning a Quran can be considered a valid contract.
• Ecological Balance: Environmentally Friendly Cars To achieve a balance, resilience, and interconnectedness in the system environmental scholars have to come up with a few collections of guiding principles to assist the contemporary society.
• Global Warming: Car Emissions Effects The paper will answer the question on how the car emissions affect the global warming. It has been noted that in the UK, cause various health problems to the people.
• Mitsubishi Motors’ Automobile Advertising This is an analysis of printed advertising designed by Mitsubishi Motors to present their auto Outlander Sport in MensHealth in February 2011.
• The BNW Car New Models BNW Company has decided, in order not to lose its market, to make a special and a more extraordinary car that its customers will surely love: the BNW Z1.
• The Green Motor Car Company Marketing Green motor cars buyers can benefit from saving money on fuel, and creating a popular image of environmentally friendly person.
• Tariffs on Car Imports in Ukraine In March 2014, the “Globe and Mail” carried a story on Ukraine’s move to impose new tariffs on car imports and the possible economic consequences of this initiative.
• The Danger of Leaving a Child in a Hot Car in Florida Hyperthermia leads to death of four children every year in the state. Since 1997, hyperthermia contributed to the death of more than 600 children in the country.

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This essay topic collection was updated on January 20, 2024 .

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Conducting Action Research to Improve Operational Efficiency in Manufacturing: The Case of a First-Tier Automotive Supplier

• Original Research
• Published: 05 October 2022
• Volume 36 , pages 427–459, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• J. Vicente Tébar-Rubio   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9258-2439 1 ,
• F. Javier Ramírez 2 &
• M. José Ruiz-Ortega 2  

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Optimising available resources and minimising production costs and throughput time is vital for first-tier suppliers in the worldwide automotive sector. To develop this type of optimisation and efficiency, MAHLE applied Action Research (AR) in one of its factories located in Spain. A multidisciplinary collaborative work team was created with the aim of deploying the AR initiative in combination with Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma tools. Four improvement and learning cycles were deployed and key performance metrics were defined to collect and measure data in order to analyse the improvements achieved. The application of the AR initiative in the production line of a power filter device enabled improvements in both production times and quality indicators in the manufacturing process. The most outstanding results were the improvements made in the decrease in initial throughput time (34.78%) and in average daily rejections (73.53%). In addition, the AR initiative generated practical and theoretical contributions for business and academia, allowing the AR initiative to be applied in other areas of the company, and contributing to the current state of the art in the industrial application of this methodology.

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Introduction

The development and industrialisation needs of the modern world have become increasingly demanding in recent years, with tight delivery times needing to be met and adequate quality guaranteed (Avelar-Sosa et al. 2018 ; Caldas-Miguel et al. 2020 ). Therefore, mechanisms must be established for correct communication between company departments to coordinate all manufacturing and management processes in the most efficient ways (Barclay et al. 2021 ).

The automotive industry is a strategic sector in the Spanish economy and has become one of the pillars of the country’s industry. According to the Spanish Association of Automotive Suppliers (Sernauto 2020 ), the sales of the automotive sector in Spain were 69,500 M€ in 2019, representing 5.58% of gross domestic product (GDP) (ANFAC 2020 ). This sector is characterised by strong investment from the market’s leading groups and high employability. However, the automotive industry is currently undergoing a process of restructuring, as connectivity and digitisation are the main trends among leaders in the sector. In addition, as future restrictions on use depending on energy source are currently unclear, consumers are uncertain about options when purchasing vehicles. This restructuring and variation in the number of vehicle sales means that first-tier suppliers have to demonstrate their ability to incorporate the necessary changes taking into account the diversity that each environment or manufacturer may demand (Pavlínek 2020 ).

Therefore, in order for this environment to remain profitable, it is necessary for first-tier suppliers to improve production processes and to increase the industry’s competitive capacity (Dwaikat et al. 2018 ). Thus, it is essential to exploit the capacities and resources of the production chain so production costs can be rationalised and the demands of manufacturers in the sector can be met (Marodin et al. 2019 ). Considering this demand, the present study focuses on the implementation of continuous improvement tools in the manufacturing process of a factory belonging to the multinational company MAHLE, a first-tier supplier for the leading car manufacturers that it is laying the basis for the worldwide introduction of electric mobility (MAHLE 2020 ). We chose Action Research (AR) (Coughlan and Coghlan 2002 ), combined with Lean Manufacturing (LM) (Womack et al. 1990 ; Marin-Garcia and Bonavia 2011a ) and Six Sigma (SS) (Prabhushankar et al. 2008 ; Alhuraish et al. 2017 ) as the methodology. AR is an approach with important positive implications, in which the researcher is immersed in the object under investigation, which gives him a privileged point of view on the question to be investigated (Chen et al. 2018 ; Surendra and Nazir 2019 ). AR is emerging as a dominant methodology (Gibbons and Burgess 2010 ; Battistella et al. 2015 as it involves a process of permanent adjustment with the aim of making progress in continuous improvement (Larrea 2019 ). In this sense, AR allows us to cover the gap between academic research and the real needs of the company (MacDonald 2012 ; Eden and Ackermann 2018 ). In addition, LM is a methodology that seeks the systematic elimination of waste in order to improve process performance (Ohno 1988 ; Bhasin and Burcher 2006 ), while SS is an approach that strives to achieve the maximum possible defect reduction (Linderman et al. 2003 ; Aboelmaged 2010 ).

In addition to the reasons described above, the decision to carry out an improvement project of this magnitude was mainly motivated by the rapid growth of the factory. As one of the multinational’s important production centres, dedicated to the manufacture of electrical and electromechanical components for the automotive sector, it organised production lines without taking into account the maximum use of space or the possible saving in operating times to reduce the cycle time of the product. Further, it failed to sufficiently train employees in the elimination of waste and too much time was dedicated to activities that added no value to the final product, resulting in bottlenecks above the cycle time, unnecessary stock, etc. Thus, it was necessary to rationalise and optimise resources, focusing on growing efficiently, and guaranteeing the adequate quality of processes and products.

Continuous improvement can be defined as a stable and learned pattern of collective activity through which the organisation systematically generates and modifies its operational routines to improve effectiveness. Although continuous improvement is widely practised, organisations exhibit difficulties in its implementation, largely due to a poor understanding of change management in continuous improvement initiatives (Butler et al. 2018 ). A better understanding of the practices involved in these continuous improvement processes would help to eliminate uncertainty about them. AR, which can be defined as a research approach in which members of the organisation become co-researchers by participating in the transformation of theory into an active research process (Butler et al. 2008 ), is helpful in achieving this understanding. The main goal of AR is to help improve conditions that are unsatisfactory for agents. AR is useful in explanatory studies focusing on the analysis of cause-effect relationships, as well as in the implementation of change, and is therefore often used in organisations with the aim of improving their strategies, practices and processes (Collatto et al. 2018 ; Tiwari and Khan 2019 ). In this sense, it is necessary for the researcher to know the intended outcomes as well as the rationale for achieving them (Surendra and Nazir 2019 ). Therefore, this work adds to the existing literature on the development of continuous improvement activities under the AR approach, which contributes to greater efficiency of improvements and a better understanding of the processes underlying them. Thus, this work contributes to the state of the art with a methodological framework that combines AR with other continuous improvement initiatives, particularly Lean Six Sigma (L6S) and its actual application to the operational improvement of a production process in a company in the automotive industry.

With this background, the need to implement and develop an continuous improvement (CI) initiative to optimise resources and improve the production process is justified. Furthermore, this study provides theoretical and practical contributions to the current state of the art showing the potential that the AR methodology combined with continuous improvement tools can provide in a first-level supplier.

The Lean Manufacturing initiative is based on production efficiency through the elimination of waste (Ohno 1988 ). In relation to its scope of application, the Lean philosophy is potentially applicable to all areas of an organisation, although in general, it is usually associated with the operations area (Möldner et al. 2020 ). The Six Sigma methodology is an improvement philosophy embedded in the organisation and focused on reducing variation in processes or services (Indrawati and Ridwansyah 2015 ). The combination of both initiatives results in Lean Six Sigma (L6S), which has been shown to be a useful management strategy that helps organisations operate more efficiently. Therefore, in conducting this work, we have chosen this combination of continuous improvement practices because it allows companies to achieve substantial improvements in meeting their objectives through the achievement of near-perfect quality levels, as well as a significant reduction in waste and process variability, resulting in higher customer satisfaction and significant cost reductions (Gupta et al. 2020 ). In addition, we have chosen L6S because its principles initially address the elements that are critical for customer quality and the causes of the longest process cycle times (Raval et al. 2018 ), which are essential for the company under analysis.

Therefore, the main aim of the paper is to present a framework of analysis to apply continuous improvement tools under AR methodology in a first-tier automotive supplier factory. In particular, the model was implemented in the production line of a power filter device, a key component of the electric vehicle (EV). This production line showed many inefficiencies, resulting in low productivity and high rejection rates. The main contributions of the research are summarised as follows. First, the proposed methodology improves the state of the art in the combined use of AR with continuous improvement procedures, providing the automotive industry with a powerful tool to identify inefficiencies and apply continuous improvement methods, allowing the efficiency of production lines in the automotive sector to be enhanced. Second, the methodology was conducted and applied in a real manufacturing site using the power filter device, a key component for the EV’s propulsion system, as the case study. This allowed us to obtain more realistic outcomes that are cumulatively improved depending on the learning cycles involved. Third, the work generates knowledge for both academia and industry in terms of lessons learned, helping improve understanding in the application of advanced continuous improvement initiatives in other sectors and facilitating the application of the designed initiative in other areas of the factory.

The paper is structured as follows. The next section provides an overview of the main topics and areas of knowledge addressed in this research. The methodology is then defined and the case study presented. Next, the implementation of the CI initiative is described. Finally, results, managerial implications and conclusions complete the paper.

Literature Review

The role of first-tier suppliers in the automotive industry.

The automotive industry is currently a strategic sector in the world economy. In recent years, vehicle production had been growing until 2017, although there was a period of decline between 2008 and 2009 due to the global financial crisis (ACEA 2020a ). At the start of 2018, the global car market was almost flat. However, in the second half of the year, sales in the sector fell. Since the beginning of 2019, there has been less vehicle demand in most countries as economies have slowed and business and customer confidence has stagnated (Leighton 2020 ). According to total figures for the market, there was a global drop in sales from 94,416 million units in 2018 to 90,266 million in 2019 LMCautomotive ( 2020 ).

In Europe, there was a 2.5% drop in sales in the automotive market at the beginning of 2019. Production in Germany, one of the engines of the automotive industry, is stagnated. Italy was close to recession and other countries also saw sales fall as a response to uncertain conditions. Such uncertainty was influenced by economic motives, such as Brexit, but also by the direction of fuel policies. In fact, sales of diesel-fuelled vehicles are currently falling, and end customers are postponing the purchase of a new vehicle due to uncertainty about future policies and which vehicle energy sources will be dominant in the future, in regulatory and fiscal terms (Leighton 2020 ). Furthermore, the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the automobile industry is unprecedented. Most vehicle manufactures had to stop production and development sites for months along 2020. Although the exact impact of this situation in the full-year 2020 is unknown, (ACEA 2020b ) reports that more than 1.1 million of workers in the automotive sector were affected by halts in production during the lockdown period, and that the production losses in the European Union (EU) were more than 2.4 million vehicles just between March and May 2020. This represents 13% of total production in 2019. This trend is also causing the leading car manufacturers to produce most of their models in multiple variants according to energy source. In this way, they launch different vehicle variants to the market with the possibility of choosing the type of fuel depending on the vehicle variant, namely diesel, petrol, electricity or natural gas, among others (Leighton 2020 ).

An OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) is the company that manufactures the car, being the first-tier suppliers key factors in the OEM supply chains. First-tier suppliers must have the necessary skills and resources to supply on time critical components to the OEMs and with the expected quality, based on robust agreements and usually running over several years for each project. Thus, first-tier suppliers must decide strategies in order to deal with this transformation of the automotive industry. Below are five points that describe the current situation of first-tier suppliers (Berger 2019 ):

(1) Several projected changes in the automotive industry are fast becoming reality. Therefore, serial manufacturing assembly lines must be conscientiously designed with Lean concepts in order to be easily modified in case of future need.

(2) All these changes affect products, customers, employees and the legislative framework. A continuous improvement mindset is needed in all organization levels, since the aforementioned changes during product lifetime generate several improvements in assembly lines.

(3) There is little time to prepare for action in response to changes. Taking into account the speed and frequency of the changes, rigorous monitoring of the assembly line indicators is needed in terms of performance but without forgetting quality. Therefore, Lean Six Sigma is an important methodology to follow up process capability.

(4) All suppliers are obliged to deal with the same market environment but need individual response measures. In order to create a clear differentiation in this changing market, Lean philosophy once again plays a fundamental role during assembly line design.

(5) Each automotive supplier needs to identify the changes in the market that most affect them. These changes must be addressed with a focus on improvements in the current product and process, following the continuous improvement of the whole.

In most contracts between OEMs and first-tier suppliers, suppliers not only commit themselves by contract to manufacture components for the OEM in serial production, but it is typically stipulated that they must supply components for a certain number of years after the end of serial production of the product, as replacement components. Similarly, the contract also usually includes the first-tier supplier, in the case of specific customer requirements, being responsible for the design and development product stages, so that once the entire process is validated, serial production starts (Eber et al. 2019 ).

In the automotive sector, the time to market is usually long. Months or even years may pass between project acquisition and transition to serial production. This situation can be explained because not only does the project have to be analysed initially to accept the requirements of the OEMs, but the product also has to follow several phases of prototyping, validations and customer audits until the serial production (Tolmay 2017 ). All these stages are standardised and well defined by rules, which are followed by the leading OEMs, either literally, or by extending or specifying them to their own ways of managing project milestones (Volpato 2004 ). In this way, the phases of an automotive project are divided into stages and the quality personnel of OEMs must be coordinated with their counterparts in the first-tier suppliers to supervise and approve the each step (Balakrishnan and Suresh 2019 ).

Lean Six Sigma

The term “Lean Manufacturing” (LM) or “Lean Production” was first used by Womack et al. ( 1990 ) in their book “The Machine that Changed the World”. However, its principles were developed in the mid-20th century by Taiichi Ohno at the Toyota Motor Company.

LM was popularised by the International Motor Vehicle Programme (IMVP), formed by researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). This organisation defines Lean as a philosophy that, when implemented, reduces the time from customer order to delivery by eliminating sources of waste in the production flow (Antony et al. 2021 ). Lean thinking is based on doing more with less, i.e. providing more value using fewer resources. To this end, a series of tools are used to manage the organisation more effectively, eliminating non-value-added operations and focusing activity on what customers perceive as the value of the service they demand (Abdulmalek and Rajgopal 2007 ; Bai et al. 2019 ). Since the collapse of the financial markets in 2008 and the subsequent recession, individuals and businesses have been forced to learn to achieve more with less. In this sense, a large number of organisations have started to implement Lean theory in order to introduce ways and means to reduce time and costs, and to make organisations provide goods and services with higher quality and lower cost that in the past (Psomas 2021 ).

Meanwhile, the Six Sigma concept was developed in the 1980s by the US Motorola Company, after its managers became aware of the threat posed by Japanese products, characterised by high levels of quality and very low levels of defects (Linderman et al. 2003 ). The Six Sigma methodology is an improvement philosophy embedded in the organisation and focused on reducing variation in processes or services (Puram and Gurumurthy 2021 ). Six Sigma is a path to excellence that differentiates itself by having an organisational structure dedicated to the improvement methodology, with a team specially trained to search for improvement opportunities and their subsequent implementation. It follows an orderly method and establishes measurable objectives using a wide range of improvement tools to reduce variability (Qayyum et al. 2021 ). Six Sigma philosophy, beyond its statistical significance, has become a measure of quality that is part of the company culture and seeks to increase effectiveness and efficiency in organisations (Widodo and Soediantono 2022 ).

The combination of Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma results in the L6S philosophy, which is a process improvement programme that combines tools to reduce the time required to provide products or services with techniques for improving quality, contributing substantially to increased customer satisfaction (Arumugam et al. 2014 ; Pereira et al. 2019 ). At first glance, their approaches differ, which sometimes leads us to question their compatibility, but if we understand their fundamental principles, a perfect complementarity between the two can be achieved (Cheng and Chang 2012 ; Zhu et al. 2018 ; Araman and Saleh 2022 ). The application of this combination is particularly appropriate to the case study selected in this work, since the problems detected in the production process require tools that make time reduction compatible with the elimination of errors and quality improvement. As the combination of these two systems, L6S is a proven management strategy that helps organisations to operate more efficiently (Patel and Patel 2021 ). According to many business analysts and quality improvement experts, L6S is the most popular business performance improvement methodology in the history of business development (de Mast et al. 2022 ). Table  1 shows the main tools of the L6S approach.

The L6S philosophy is developed through small transformations in the form of projects, which will be based on a number of fundamental principles: 1)focusing the organisation on customer and their needs, 2) increasing the speed of processes by eliminating downtime, 3) ensuring that processes are under control and conform to customer specifications, 4) designing services to meet customer needs, 5) implementing change actions and 6) ensuring that the results achieved are sustained over time.

Continuous Improvement

Continuous improvement refers to actions focused on obtaining high-quality products, process and services (Sunder and Prashar 2020 ; Kang et al. 2016 ; Doshi and Desai 2019 ). Large companies typically have a dedicated continuous improvement department in order to improve these issues, which generates cost and time optimisation, resulting in better performance and efficiency (Pereira et al. 2019 ). The continuous improvement philosophy is not only a quality tool for improving a process, but also the renewal of organisational efforts to prevent stagnation. Continuous improvement comprises tasks conducted by all employees and not only by experts, like other philosophies designed to achieve improvements (Cole 2001 ). Moreover, the idea of an organisation proactively and continuously looking to solve strategic problems has become a major objective as a manufacturing best practice (Delbridge and Barton 2002 ).

According to Marin-Garcia and Bonavia ( 2011b ), there are currently two main types of strategic production priorities, 1) strategies only focused on the efficiency costs (reduction of inventories, investments and production costs) and 2) strategies that, going further, also seek the differentiation of the company through the quality of its products (reduction of errors and improvement of the quality perceived by the customer), in flexibility (different types of products, modification of the volume of production or design modifications), or in delivery of the final product (time to market). It can be difficult for a company to satisfy several priorities at the same time, and even more when priorities seem incompatible. It is therefore necessary to make efforts to use tools and techniques that allow companies to confront such priorities efficiently. Moreover, some companies may apply differentiation techniques to improve their situation but after adopting the methodology, they consciously stop using it Marin-Garcia et al. ( 2009 ).

Therefore, continuous improvement of production and quality is necessary to identify and prioritise existing problems, eliminate or reduce activities that add no value to the product, reduce cycle time, or eliminate errors, among others. All these activities are the basis of techniques included in the philosophy of LM (Jack-Kie et al. 2019 ), such as 5S or Value Stream Mapping (VSM). 5S are based on strategies to keep the shop floor clean and tidy. However, its function goes further, since apart from being a tool with a specific application, its objective is to implement a standard of workplace Lean practices (Agrahari et al. 2015 ). A VSM is a Lean technique used for schematic description of material flows in a process, in order to determine and eliminate wastes (unnecessary times and/or activities) that do not provide added value to the final product (Shou et al. 2017 ). In the same way that LM focuses on the elimination of times that add no value, there also exist techniques built on the analysis of data and statistics that focus on the elimination of errors, being a great contribution to the improvement of quality, such as the study of rejection rates using Pareto analysis. These techniques make up the SS philosophy and, used in combination with LM techniques, result in the Lean Six Sigma (LSS) methodology.

Methodology

AR is a methodological process for carrying out improvement activities by maintaining what has already been improved. According to Fu-quan and Huang ( 2012 ), and Chen et al. ( 2018 ), AR is emerging as the dominant methodological orientation for the near future. It is a permanent process of adjustment, whose objective is to advance along the path of continuous improvement (Larrea 2019 ). The underlying theme in AR is the ability for individuals to learn from one another, which suggests that co-created learning is at its core (Tossavainen 2017 ). In general, the aim of AR is not only to discover facts, but also to help change certain conditions considered unsatisfactory by the community. In this way, the researcher must know the results they intend to achieve and why they should be achieved (Naslund and Norrman 2019 ; Surendra and Nazir 2019 ).

Following (Baskerville and Myers 2004 ) and (Butler et al. 2008 ), we can define AR as a research approach in which members of the organisation become co-researchers as they help to translate theory into an active research process. The application of AR assumes that the responsibility for theorising lies with researchers and members of the organisation (Battistella et al. 2015 ). In general, all actors involved in the process of AR agree that its development is an enriching experience (Cap et al. 2019 ).

AR has this positive effect for many reasons. The most important is that AR is always relevant to the participants. Relevance is guaranteed because the focus of each research project is determined by the researchers, who are in turn the main client of the results obtained. AR can be of great use in the field of business management since it analyses a phenomenon from within the company, which makes it possible to cover the gap between academic and research work in this field and the activities and needs of the company. In this sense, it is a methodology that enables a response to research needs in business management: interdisciplinary research, practical research, research related to the real world, and the use of new methods (Carr 2007 ; MacDonald 2012 ; Eden and Ackermann 2018 ).

In addition, AR is useful in explanatory studies focused on the analysis of cause-effect relationships, as well as in the implementation of changes (it promotes the success of a certain intervention). Thus, it is often used in organisations with the aim of improving strategies, practices and processes (Collatto et al. 2018 ; Tiwari and Khan 2019 ).

AR is also used in other areas, such as institutions (Kregel and Coners 2018 ), education (Liu and Li 2020 ), healthcare (Prasad et al. 2018 ), or aeronautical applications (Brookes et al. 2007 ). Evidence of this is found in the work by Garrido-Vega et al. ( 2016 ), with the application of AR to solving problems in the final painting of aerostructures by a local supplier with limited experience in the use of continuous improvement projects. Thanks to the application of AR combined with Six Sigma techniques, the quality of the product was improved, the time and cost of rework operations was reduced, and the number of non-conforming products decreased (Garrido-Vega et al. 2016 ). Another example is found in McManners ( 2016 ), in which the author applied AR in order to analyse the relationship between the aviation industry and its stakeholders and environmental factors. This study was developed in three phases. Phase 1 was a comprehensive analysis of aviation, phase 2 was about seeking ideas from the car industry because it is a related sector facing similar challenges, and phase 3 consisted of interviews across stakeholder groups. Its main conclusion was that the active engagement with people provided by AR can be the key to brokering solutions to economic and technical challenges, which can be extended to the car industry because of the aforementioned parallelism.

AR was chosen as the methodology in this case of study for three main reasons. First, there is considerable theoretical and practical interest involved in applying such a complex methodology and contributing to the state of the art by seeking improvements in a real production process (Kerr et al. 2019 ). Secondly, it is important to highlight the instructive generation of cooperative or participatory work that involves applying the tools used within this methodology to obtain improved solutions. Finally, it should be highlighted that the first author of this paper has been involved in all the practical work developed in this study and has acted as the main researcher on the project.

According to Susman and Evered ( 1978 ); Coughlan and Coghlan ( 2002 ); McManners ( 2015 ), and Garía-Navarro et al. ( 2019 ), AR takes place in seven stages: 1) Preparatory research, 2) Action research planning, 3) Data collection, 4) Data analysis and action planning, 5) Action implementation, 6) Action evaluation, and 7) Learning. Furthermore, and following (Baker and Jayaraman 2012 ), the Action Implementation stage is deployed in several improvement and learning cycles, with each one being divided into five steps: Diagnosing, Action Planning, Action Taking, Evaluation, and Specifying Learning.

Figure  1 shows a general view of the proposed AR methodology. The first step of the project involves the preparatory research, in which a comprehensive and accurate picture of the problem to solve is created (McManners 2015 .) This is followed the Action Research Planning stage, where the first action steps in the applicability of AR are detailed, such as the selection of the case to be studied and the AR team. Next is the Data Collection stage, where the main data and information sources collected in the field to improve the process are described. Subsequently, in the Data Analysis and Action Planning stage, an in-depth analysis of the information collected is performed. This is followed by the preparation of the implementation stage. Within the Action Implementation stage, several AR improvement and learning cycles are developed, consisting, in turn, of the five stages of Diagnosing, Action Planning, Action Taking, Evaluation, and Specifying Learning. After this is the Action Evaluation stage, in which the results obtained and improvements achieved are analysed. Finally, in the Learning stage, the contribution to academia and industry is defined. Within the Action Implementation stage, the Diagnosing phase evaluates the information available from the field. In the Action Planning phase, the techniques to be used and the key performance variables to be measured are defined. In the Action Taking phase, the previously selected tools are put into practice. In the Evaluation phase, the results obtained after applying the improvement tools are analysed. Finally, in the Specifying Learning phase, an overview of the learning cycle is generated, as well as its contribution to both industry and academia, with this being a key factor in the application of the AR methodology (Cap et al. 2019 ). This structure is repeated if further improvements are sought in the resulting process.

Action research methodology. Adapted from (Susman and Evered 1978 ; Coughlan and Coghlan 2002 ; McManners 2015 ), and (Garía-Navarro et al. 2019 )

Reliability, Validity and Generalizability

In relation to reliability, in qualitative research, this refers to, and underlies, the consistency of the research (Grossoehme 2014 ). In our case, since the data was extracted from the original source, we verified the accuracy in terms of form and context by comparing the answers obtained among the different workers (a form of triangulation) with constant comparison. In addition, the scope and analysis of the data performed by the AR team was complete, including all the agents involved in the process.

In terms of validity, in qualitative research, this concept refers to the appropriateness of the tools, processes and data used in the study (Leung 2015 ). In this sense, through the comparison with similar previous studies, we verified that the research question is valid to achieve the proposed objective, that the methodology is appropriate to answer the research question, and that the research design is valid for the methodology used. Finally, we checked the validity by testing that the results and conclusions are valid according to the sample and the context.

With regard to generalisability, although this is not an expected attribute of qualitative research (Leung 2015 ), a pragmatic approach to assessing generalisability would be to adopt the same criteria as for validity, using triangulation and constant comparison. According to (Kvale and Brinkmann 2009 ), applying the proximal similarity model, the generalisability of our study would be similar to others in time, place, population and social context.

MAHLE Company

MAHLE (MAHLE 2020 ) is a multinational company in the automotive sector; it acts as a first-tier supplier for the leading car manufacturers, and is known as one of the main pioneers and technological drivers for the future of mobility. The company was created in 1920 with an innovative mission: the use of internal combustion pistons for cars made of light alloy instead of heavy cast iron. After its first success, the company has grown constantly; one of every two vehicles in the world today has a component made by MAHLE. The company is committed to making transport more efficient, more environmentally friendly and more comfortable. The multinational is involved in continuous optimisation of the combustion engine, but also promotes the use of alternative fuels and is laying the basis for the worldwide introduction of electric mobility. Therefore, MAHLE has a broad product portfolio, addressing fields related to powertrain and air conditioning technology, but also those related to electrical and electronic systems of all kinds. In addition, MAHLE has always had a significant presence in the motor racing world, and has been involved in systems related to mobile machinery, rail transport, and marine applications.

MAHLE has an important production centre in Motilla del Palancar (Cuenca, Spain), which is also close to the company’s research, development and innovation centre (R &D) in Paterna (Valencia, Spain). The production plant in Motilla del Palancar manufactures a wide variety of products, including control units and power electronics for electric auxiliary components and thermal management systems, as well as power converters for e-mobility solutions. For all these reasons, the plant is an expert in mechatronic systems for the automotive industry. One of the main projects at this plant is the Power Filter Device (PFD) with some operations in a critical situation mainly in terms of lead-time and quality. This product is described in detail in the next section.

Power Filter Device

The PFD is a key component for the management of the battery charge in EV engines. It is an Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) filter that works to avoid the emission of harmonics to the electrical network and possible leakage currents in both alternating and direct current. It shows the best properties to reduce energy leaks and electromagnetic interference and to preserve the life of the electric engine (citealtelectronicdesign). Figures  2 ( a ) and 2 ( b ) show a general view of the PFD and its position in the motor of a vehicle.

Power filter device

In order to demonstrate the use of this element in relation to other components of the EV, it should be noted that the inverter is an essential component that transfers the energy provided by the batteries in direct current, modifying the signal to provide alternating current to the motor. A rectifier transforms the energy obtained by the regenerative brake or from an external charger in the same way to power the battery. Currently, investments are being made in multiple transistors generating different voltages. These components can give rise to the harmonic distortions mentioned above, which also cause heating of the other electrical components and it is here that filters are needed to reduce these negative effects.

PFD Assembly Line

The production assembly line needed to manufacture the PFD requires rigorous product and process quality compliance, in order to satisfy customer requirements, which, in the automotive world, are very high. In addition to controls needed to avoid defects, it is necessary to have the controls to detect such possible errors. Taking into account the necessary production operations and the associated controls, there is still a need to satisfy very tight production times, expressly agreed to yield competitive results in line with the current situation of need of customers, namely, major vehicle manufacturers, which are to be adapted to the e-mobility of the future.

The manufacturing process of the PFD requires multiple types of materials, previous operations of sub-assembly and several electronic circuits already built with surface mounted devices (SMD) and through-hole components (THC). These last two elements constitute the printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). All of these stages are undertaken in the MAHLE factory in Motilla del Palancar (Spain). However, the most critical operations are the coil assembly operations (with a total of 15 different operations), when the mechanical elements of the product are connected, measured and validated with the electronic components, leaving the product ready to be completed with the final operations and managed by logistics to be sent to the customer.

The critical part of the PFD production process is the coil assembly line, which was initially highly inefficient, with a multitude of errors in different operations, and with production times far from the cycle time needed to fulfil customers’ orders. Changes and improvements were urgently needed to make the product manufacturing process profitable, which was the key for compliance with the customer and the commitment to the continuity of manufacturing new versions of the PFD at MAHLE. Table  2 shows the main operations involved in the manufacturing process of the coil assembly line.

These operations names shown in Table  2 and description are defined by the authors and company production leaders, taking into account the steps needed to build the Power Filter Device, customized product of the company, so it comes from the company know-how.

Given the critical status of the project and that the researcher was working at the MAHLE production centre as a Project Quality Engineer, the possibility of creating an improvement methodology to tackle the line problems was considered. In addition, this would serve as a pilot line to prove the effectiveness of this methodology, which could then be applied in future production assembly line projects and, with the knowledge generated contributing to the current state of the art. Working inside the company, the researcher was able to propose that one of the fundamental pillars of this new methodology could be AR. In this way, the desired methodology would emerge from the combination of AR techniques and continuous improvement techniques.

Deployment of The AR Initiative

This section details the deployment of the phases carried out to complete the AR initiative. The schedule followed for its application was: Kick-off (June 2019), Action Research Planning (June 2019 to September 2019), Data Collection (October 2019 to March 2020), Data Analysis and Action Planning (April 2020), Action Implementation (May 2020 to August 2020), Action Evaluation (September 2020) and Learning (From October 2020).

Stage 1. Preparatory Research

Most MAHLE production plants are of a mechanical nature. A plant with production totally focused on electromechanical components for EVs represents a great contribution to renewal and improved ecological contribution. The plant in which the researcher and first author of this paper works meets these requirements, and the PFD, being one of the main products of the factory, requires an optimal production process with quality and ideal production times in order give MAHLE an advantageous position in the market, and to develop a competitive advantage that allows it to continue growing in the automotive industry of the future. In this way, an optimisation of the manufacturing of the PFD is key. An AR application can take this optimisation to the highest level and can also ensure learning not only for the company but also for the current state of the art of the practical application of this methodology in the current automotive industry.

Stage 2. Action Research Planning

In this stage, there were two main issues to be solved: the selection of the case study and the selection of the AR team. As regards the case study, as mentioned, one of the factory’s key projects was in a critical situation. Specifically, the coil assembly line showed low performance with a negative effect on the quality, cost and production times. Therefore, it was selected to be the project in which to implement this methodology. Regarding the AR team, it was necessary to select a multidisciplinary team with which to guarantee the success of the CI initiative. In this sense, the group was selected with the first author of this paper as the head of the AR team and the quality team responsible for the pilot project within the company. In addition, the team included a manager for the industrialisation of the project, the person in charge of project production giving active support for the line improvement approach, and the quality and industrialisation managers providing resources to implement the improvement proposals.

Stage 3. Data Collection

The data collection stage performed between October 2019 to March 2020 was a key step for the AR deployment, based on information collected in different ways:

Meetings: more than thirty meetings were held in order to present the project to the key people, to collect all the data needed to continue through the different AR stages, and to have dedicated follow-ups with the AR team.

Interviews: fifteen interviews (30 min per interview) were conducted with Management (Plant Manager, Quality Manager, Production Manager, Project Manager), Middle managers (Project Quality Engineer, Production Engineer, Process Engineer, Production Administrator, Quality Factory Engineer, Team Leader) and operators on the line. These interviews were conducted to understand the global structure of the line and product, as well as the way of recording data and the day-to-day work of the assembly line. Moreover, direct observation by the author of the present article was also important to understand said day-to-day work. Data sources. Registers of controls, production and quality from the beginning of production were collected by different means: company intranet, Enterprise Resource Planning software (ERP) and rejection indicators included in the line wall local servers that are part of the Shop Floor Management (SFM).

Thus, we were able to establish the initial situation of the pilot line, as a base from which to identify the points of improvement necessary as an application of AR methodology. The data collection process led the AR team to better understand the production line issues, the complexity of the operations, and all the difficulties hindering the improvement of these processes. Quality documentation based on process control plans, flow chart diagrams, and Process Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (PFMEA) analyses was revised. In addition, the AR team selected and collected several Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) taking into account needs of improvement in the assembly line. Additionally, the AR team defines below each of these KPIs according to the existing data of the line:

Throughput time (TpT). Total time required by a product to cover the entire productive process, from the raw material (input) to the final product (output).

Total production. Total number of finished parts ready to be sent to the customer. This is composed of the reworked parts plus the first time good parts. It is measured in parts per day.

Rejections. This shows the number of bad parts in the production process and is composed of the reworked parts rate and the non-reworked parts. The reworked parts are called NRFT (Not Right First Time) parts and the non-reworked as “scrap” parts. Taking into account quality objectives (maximum rejection rate), it is easy to see whether the line meets the quality goal. On occasions, the only method to improve quality is to learn from mistakes, and so it is important not only to measure quality, but also to establish containment actions in response to problems and seek the root causes in order to solve them and avoid them reoccurring.

Good parts produced per day. These are the parts correctly manufactured first time. It is measured in parts per day.

Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE). This indicator measures industrial machinery effectiveness and is used as a tool within the continuous improvement philosophy. It is measured as a percentage in order to clearly show process performance.

Number of operators. This is the total number of operators needed to be working on the line to achieve the production goal.

Customer Returns. This is an important KPI in manufacturing, as a claim with a customer return can cost a great deal of money and loss of confidence. Despite the negative nature of this point, it can help the manufacturer determine problems in the production line when customer returns are analysed. The goal of this KPI must be 0.

Rejection costs. This indicator allows non-quality costs to be quantified.

Productivity. This serves to analyse the productive capacity of the line. It is measured as the ratio between the good parts manufactured per day and the hours worked per day.

Stage 4. Data Analysis and Action Planning

Once the data were collected, all the information was analysed. Four main types of problems were detected, taking into account cost saving, time optimisation, and high performance assurance, as follows:

High rejection rates in different operations. This is extremely important, taking into account that unnecessary costs are created and time needs to be invested when parts leave the line with specific rejection analysis tasks and containment and corrective actions tasks that usually require costs dedicated to putting them in place. For example, depending on the issue and the action, the quality department acts as moderator in the analysis and industrialization needs to introduce more testing stages, Poka-yoke jigs in the line, etc.

TpT values higher than specified. The level of optimization of the operations was underestimated, and operation times were unbalanced, with this directly affecting the profitability of the line.

Customer claims. Related to the first point, having quality issues negatively affects the line (cost, time, etc.) but customer claims are even more serious, since they are quality issues that were not detected in the plant, and, therefore, cause issues in the assembly of the car, or in the worst case, for the final user of the car. In conclusion, these types of issues are wholly related to time and cost, since deeper analysis of the issues is required, with containment and corrective actions. Sorting activities at customer level are also typically required in order to find all parts that may also be affected before the break point of the issue.

Low productivity and OEE. All the above mentioned issues that affect time and cost decrease the productivity of the line. Moreover, related to the rapid deployment of the line, Overall Equipment Efficiency is badly affected, and, therefore, both of these are also key issues to be prioritized within the improvements needed in the assembly line.

Based on this analysis, the AR team agreed on the following plan:

Deploying the implementation of the CI initiative through four improvement and learning cycles of diagnosing, action planning, action taking, evaluation and specify learning.

The first cycle was to consist of the analysis of the initial situation, the improving of throughput times and OEE using tools such as PFMEA, PCP, a rejection rate study and performing an initial VSM. The second cycle was to focus on quality improvement, to reduce the rejection rate, thus improving productivity and OEE. To this end, 5S and Pareto diagrams were used. In the third cycle, the continuous improvement of quality and operation times was to continue, improving total production and reducing rejections. To do this, layer audits and Reverse Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (RFMEA) were to be applied. Finally, the fourth cycle consisted of optimising the line and reducing the number of operators. Thus, improvements were achieved in throughput time, productivity, rejections, OEE and productivity, using line balancing.

Specifying learning for each cycle, from the perspective of both industry and academia, in the form of scientific contributions to the current state of the art being one of the priorities of the CI initiative.

Stage 5. Action Implementation

Diagnosing . In order to have an overview of the line to be improved, the critical part of the assembly, the coil assembly line (15 operations) was highly inefficient, with a multitude of errors in different operations, and with production times far from the cycle time required to fulfil customers’ orders. Changes and improvements were urgently needed to make the product manufacture profitable, which is key for compliance with customers and for the commitment compliance with the customer and the commitment to the continuity of manufacturing new versions of the PFD at MAHLE. Once the line status had been established, it was time to set the roles of the AR team.

Action Planning . In this stage, the working plan for Cycle 1 was defined. Additionally, this stage involved the analysis of the Voice of Customer (VOC) and definition of the methodology to apply the 5S Lean concept. Moreover, the proposal of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and their measurement procedures was carried out.

Action Taking . During this phase, we performed the technical analysis of the production line, taking times and operation videos. With all this information, the initial VSM shown in Fig.  3 was built. VSM was performed in order to identify the different levels and phases of the process and assign the operation times to the operations described in Table  2 . As shown in this initial VSM, the initial throughput time was 21.27 minutes, with most operations being unbalanced and some having a high rejection rate. All this prevented the desired cycle time (120 seconds) being reached and the required quality level of the product manufactured. Note regarding Fig.  3 :

TT is the takt time, defined as the amount of time an item needs to be completed if a customer’s on-time delivery deadline is met. It is measured in seconds.

C/T is the cycle time, defined as the amount of time each part takes to complete a specific task from start to finish. It can change depending on each operation but cannot be higher than the TT. It is measured in seconds.

C/O is the operators per cycle/operation. This variable is included in the format but is not used since the number of operators is already included on top of each operation in Fig.  3 (in the yellow circles).

OEE/Util: Overall Equipment Efficiency already described in point 5.3: this indicator measures industrial machine effectiveness and is used as a tool within the continuous improvement philosophy. It is measured as a percentage, in order to clearly show process performance.

’As Is’ or current state VSM for coil assembly line

Moreover, in this cycle stage, the current rejection rate was determined, which was a goal to improve and to take into consideration in the PFMEA, which treats the 10 most critical risks previously identified. In the PFMEA analysis, it was necessary to consult all the auxiliary tools necessary to understand and locate each risk on the line. These tools are the process flow diagram and the Process Control Plan (PCP).

Evaluation . This phase consisted of the revision of all the main strengths and weaknesses of the coil assembly line, using as initial data the VSM performed and the documentation analysed. It was the starting point for a continuous improvement action plan with the possible improvements to the line.

Specify learning . It was found that the company had valuable data from which to start an improvement plan of this level. The practical application of a methodology of this type, with field data and known tools, makes this work a major contribution to case studies in different fields in the current state of the art.

Diagnosing . The previous cycle addressed the tools needed to determine the initial coil assembly line status. In this cycle, the tools to be applied focused on improving quality, acceptable parts rate and productivity KPIs by using 5S and the Pareto diagram to reduce the non-added value tasks and the current quality rejection rate.

Action Planning . In order to reduce the non-added value tasks, the 5S audits were planned and implemented on the line.

Action Taking . With the aim of improving the current quality rejection rate, a Pareto diagram was performed. The diagram makes it simple to identify the most common mistakes.

Evaluation . This stage established actions to prevent and avoid the occurrence of the most common failures identified in the Pareto diagram. These actions were included in the continuous improvement action plan.

Specify learning . This cycle focused on establishing the effectiveness provided by the prioritisation of the defects of a production line, requiring the investment of time in cataloguing defects in order to invest more resources in the most critical areas, avoiding the waste of resources by prioritizing other less important areas. This evidence demonstrated at a practical level is applicable to all types of fields, not only to the automotive industry.

Diagnosing . In this cycle, the steps focused on continuous improvement of KPIs related to process quality. In this way, this cycle was characterised by the implantation of layered audits and the use of a RFMEA.

Action Planning . In order to improve the KPIs related to process quality, the layer audits were planned and implemented on the line.

Action Taking . With the aim of detecting failure modes not considered in a first stage with the PFMEA, a RFMEA was performed on the line. This tool is supported by complementary tools like 8D, Failure Tree Analysis (FTA), 5Whys and the Ishikawa diagram. Like the PFMEA, the RFMEA is also a line sequence organisation marked with the flow diagram and the PCP of the coil assembly line.

Evaluation . The RFMEA was reviewed and, for the critical risk not previously considered, actions were established with managers and dates in order to reduce or completely avoid the risks. These actions were included in the continuous improvement action plan.

Specify learning . The RFMEA is a good example of a quality tool but also of a continuous improvement tool, because it is the re-evaluation of an already established process that achieved improvements, with which to protect the quality of the product and adjust productive times. Therefore, it is a significant contribution to the company, being a tool not previously used in the other projects. In the same way, for the state of the art of this tool, a possible development path could be generated only for its application in projects of all types and fields, since it has proven to be a tool of great value.

Diagnosing . Firstly, it is worth noting that, between Cycle 3 and Cycle 4, the actions included in the continuous improvement action plan to improve all the KPIs were implanted and closed. Therefore, in Cycle 4, quality risk in the coil assembly line was reduced or eliminated and the operation times were reduced, enabling line balancing to improve the cycle time.

Action Planning . In order to apply line balancing, it is important to first take the new operation times, which are the result of having applied the improvements of previous cycles. After that, it is simple to use algorithms to balance the operation times.

Action Taking . New times taken in the coil assembly line. Line balancing was performed with the new times. After line balancing, the final operation times were taken and the final VSM performed.

Evaluation . This stage considers the evolution of the KPIs after the application of improvements and also analyses the new results of the 5S and layered audits.

Specify learning . In this cycle, the effectiveness of a good structuring of actions was demonstrated. At the beginning of this article, it was highlighted that production and quality times entail a competitive advantage in the sector and can be the key to a company’s success, and in many fields, such as the automotive industry, this is of vital importance. Hence, the development, monitoring and achievement of all the proposed improvements are a clear contribution of this work both for the company to learn, and to enhance the current state of the art in terms of practical application.

To summarise, Table  3 below shows the objectives achieved in each of the 4 cycles, the KPIs improved and the tools used for this.

Stage 6. Action Evaluation

Following the action implementation stage, it is necessary to perform a general assessment of the whole process implemented. The AR methodology was deployed thanks to the support and resources of the plant management. The minor difficulties found during the CI initiative implementation were as follows:

When the initiative was proposed, the initial dedication time was limited due to the great workload of all the factory projects. However, step by step, all the cycles were performed and the AR team were able to capture the results.

When the AR project started, several variables, such as production times, made it difficult to collect field data. However, with proper organisation, representative data could be collected without interfering with production, a necessary factors, due to the high demand of customer orders.

The improvements implemented required the adaptation of the operators, since the structure and order of some of the operations were modified. However, with training and the established manufacturing guidelines, this change could be resolved.

Stage 7. Learning

The CI initiative first generated practical and theoretical contributions within the organisation’s own system, since the methodology used generated a way of working that can be extrapolated to the preparation and optimisation of other production lines in the factory. Additionally, an important contribution has been made to the state of the art, in terms of demonstrating the applicability of this type of improvement projects in the industry of first-level suppliers to the automotive industry.

The application of the AR methodology allowed the AR team to achieve significant improvements in the CI initiative in relation to the key metrics defined. In each of the four improvement cycles carried out during the implementation of the methodology, variables were applied in each cycle, and the design of the operations was modified as shown in Table  4 .

A ‘To be’ or future VSM of the coil assembly was defined in order to organise the production times with the improved operations as shown in Fig.  4 , with the throughput time being reduced from 23 to 15 minutes.

’To be’ or future VSM

The key metrics were measured and analysed in order to examine their evolution. Table  5 summarises the progression of each variable as well as its cumulative value in order to see the total impact of each one at the end of the improvement project. The explanation of the improvement in each key metric throughout the improvement cycles is presented below.

Reduction of TpT

The total time in which a product is fully assembled on the coil assembly line was partially reduced in the first cycle (7.52%), thanks to the development of an initial VSM and with a quick preliminary re-organisation of the existing operations. Finally, in the fourth cycle, after applying all the improvements related to line balancing, a cumulative total time reduction of 34.78% was achieved, going from initially having a throughput time of 23 minutes to one of 15 minutes after the implementation of the improvements. This balancing was also possible due to the achievement of an improvement action plan focused on both the ergonomics of each process and the reduction of times of certain operations with actions that generates no added value to the product.

Increased Total Production Per Day

Total production benefited practically throughout the implementation of the improvement cycles. Although it is true that during the first cycle there was no improvement, in Cycle 2 there was an improvement of 3.07% mainly due to the implementation of 5S audits, with which, in a few days, all the elements of the production line were much better organised, and operators wasted no time in searching for them when they were in the wrong locations. In the third cycle, total production increased by 10.96%, since by reducing the rejection in parallel, the downtime of operations was reduced in terms of the identification and extraction of defective parts from the line. Finally in the fourth cycle, the improvement of production times with the application of line balancing once all the previous improvements were implemented made it possible to increase the productivity of the line and increase the number of total parts manufactured per day by 22.13%, reaching a cumulative improvement of this key metric of 35.53% compared to the starting situation, which represents an increase in production from 456 to 618 parts per day.

Reduction of Rejections Per Day

In the case of rejections, this key metric began to improve in the second cycle (14.71%), due to the elaboration of a Pareto diagram and the quick action error sources detected in TOP5. However, the improvement was even greater in the third cycle (41.18%), as strong quality improvement measures were implemented, from the implementation of layered audits to the development of a RFMEA. These fed into an action plan with managers and dates that led to the elimination of several failure modes not taken into account during the start situation of the project in the PFMEA. Part of these actions required changing the order of some operations, being implemented in the fourth cycle with the line balancing strategy. Thus, in the last cycle, an improvement of 55%, was achieved yielding a total cumulative improvement in this variable during the implementation of the AR methodology of 73.53%, with average daily rejection being reduced from 68 to 18 parts.

Increased Good Parts Produced Per Day

The number of good parts produced per day started to grow in the second cycle for the same reason as the fall in the key metric of rejections. All this was due to the improvements implemented in terms of process quality. An improvement of 5.13% was achieved in the second cycle, of 19.49% in the third cycle, and of 28.76% in the fourth cycle, achieving a cumulative total improvement with respect to the initial situation of 53.85% (from 390 to 600 good parts produced per day).

Increased OEE

The OEE clearly improved throughout the implementation cycles, since both the LM measures to eliminate activities that added no value, and the SS improvements in quality improvement, enhanced the total efficiency of the production line. A total cumulative improvement of 92.86% was achieved, going from just 42% of initial OEE to 81%.

Reduction in Number of Operators

Regarding the number of operators, despite the improvements produced throughout the first cycles implemented, it was in the last cycle through the application of line balancing that the number of operators required on the line was reduced. The number fell from 13 to 9, thus achieving an improvement of 30.77%.

Reduction in Customer Returns

Receiving a customer claim is critical in the automotive industry. In 2019, there was an average number of claims per month of 1.33. At the end of the AR implementation, the average was 1.08, accounting for an improvement of 18.80%.

Reduction of Rejection Costs

Taking into account an average cost for each claim, with the tools focused to reducing errors in the line, a total improvement of 18.80% was achieved, with the average cost of claims going from 465.5 €/month to 378.0 €/month.

Increased Productivity

In terms of productivity, understanding this key metric as the goods manufactured per hour of work, the production line started with a productivity level of 16.25 parts produced per hour of work. After the development of the second cycle, with the improvements achieved in terms of time saved (5S) and reduction in rejects (Pareto analysis), productivity increased by 5.13%. Subsequently, with the actions on the line resulting from the RFMEA analysis during the third cycle, it was possible to increase productivity by 19.49%. Finally, in the fourth cycle, with the balancing of the production line, productivity increased another 28.76%. Thus, a cumulative improvement of 53.85% was achieved, giving rise to a final rate of 25 pieces produced per hour worked.

The main findings of the study can be summarised as follows. First, in developing this study, we achieved the proposed aims. We presented a framework of analysis to apply continuous improvement tools under the AR methodology in a first-tier automotive supplier factory: MAHLE case. The model was implemented in the production line of a power filter device, a key component of electric vehicles. The AR methodology at a practical level was proposed in four improvement and learning cycles of diagnosis, action planning, action taking, evaluation and learning. The learning achieved in each cycle was used to make the decisions with which to act in the following cycles. All the planning previously studied, together with the support of the management staff and other personnel from the production line, led to all the key performance metrics defined evidencing a significant improvement.

Second, the results obtained show that the inefficiencies identified in the production line were reduced, resulting in higher levels of productivity and lower rejection rates. The productivity of the line was increased after the third cycle, both by increasing the number of total good parts (53.85%) and reducing the number of rejections per day (-73.53%). By balancing the line operating times, the throughput time was also reduced (-34.78%), as was the number of operators needed on the line (-30.77%). In addition, the OEE of the production line increased by 92.86% and customer perception was improved, evidenced by customer returns falling by 18.80%.

Third, as a result of this project, the MAHLE organisation, which not only sought the individual improvement of the pilot line where the AR methodology was applied, but also the creation of a work philosophy in the company itself, developed a learning process that can be applied to all the production lines in the factory and in their other manufacturing plants, where these process improvements will be required.

Theoretical Contribution

We can highlight three main contributions of the study. First, with regard to how the main findings of this study contribute to the existing literature in Production & Operations Management, we can affirm that this work adds the development of continuous improvement activities under the AR approach, which contributes to greater efficiency of improvements and a better understanding of the processes underlying them. This links, on the one hand, to the current interest in applying such a complex methodology and contributing to the state of the art by seeking improvements in a real production process (citealtkerr2019customising) and, on the other hand, to the instructive generation of cooperative or participatory work that involves applying the tools used within this methodology to obtain improved solutions. Second, this study expands the existing literature by proposing a methodological framework that combines AR with other continuous improvement initiatives, particularly Lean Six Sigma (L6S), and by applying it to the operational improvement of a production process in an actual company, using a case study based on a latest generation product, such as an electric vehicle component. Third, new lessons can be obtained from this study. The knowledge generated for both academia and the industry contributes to improving the understanding of the application to continuous improvement initiatives in other sectors. The proposed methodology enables a response to research needs in business management, such as interdisciplinary research, practical research, research related to the real world, and the use of new methods (citealtcarr2007philosophy,macdonald2012understanding,eden2018theory). In addition, the methodology is useful in studies focused on the analysis of cause-effect relationships, as well as in the implementation of changes (it promotes the success of a specific intervention). Thus, it is often used in organisations with the aim of improving strategies, practices and processes (citealtcollatto2018action,tiwari2019action). Fourth, the main findings are in line with previous studies, such as the work by Garía-Navarro et al. ( 2019 ), enhancing the operational efficiency of public institutions; the work by Garrido-Vega et al. ( 2016 ), applying AR to solving problems in the final painting of aerostructures by a local supplier with limited experience in the use of continuous improvement projects; or several works applied to other areas like municipalities (citealtkregel2018introducing), education (citealtliu2020action), healthcare (citealtprasad2018action), or aeronautical applications(citealtbrookes2007analyzing).

Managerial Implications

Managerial implications can be deduced from the experience of deploying the CI initiative and the reported results. The AR team noted significant interaction and an effective response between the researchers and the management staff, the different team leaders and the operators that work on the assembly line. This collaboration was indispensable and favoured the understanding of the problems of this production line at the beginning of the project. In addition, the factory took a highly positive attitude to the application of this methodology on the coil assembly line of the PFD project as a pilot line, from which to learn and be able to create a method for improvement applicable to other projects in the factory.

From the knowledge generated with this study, we can propose the following managerial implications:

Operators have to be active participants throughout the CI initiative implementation. In this sense, in every CI initiative, the employees have to be part of the improvement project, and their roles and responsibilities should be previously specified, which will be a key factor in the success of the AR project (citealtGarciaspsUnanue2014,paes2016).

Operators have to be aware of the benefits they could generate through the developed initiatives. Thus, it will be possible to eliminate their usual initial reluctance to change the way they work, which might involve using CI tools such as 5S or layered audits, and their support will be key in the implementation of each improvement.

Clear planning through the different learning cycles of the AR initiative is required. Thus, it will be possible to demonstrate the potential benefits and the acceptance of the improvement plans proposed by the AR team will be greater. We recommend a diagnosis of the current status at the beginning of each cycle, and the establishment of improvement actions, which will generate important learning. In this way, the mistakes will not be replicated in the following cycle.

Finally, we also recommend that the improvements proposed in each cycle of the AR methodology feed into a global action plan to be shared with the management staff. When positively conceived, the management staff will understand the importance of applying a methodology of this type. Moreover, it is important to emphasise that the lessons learned and the methodological applications can be extrapolated to other areas of the company, with subsequent benefits.

Limitation and Directions for Future Studies

As possible limitations of the work, it can be highlighted that the use of many other improvement tools, such as other Lean and Six Sigma tools, would also have had great potential. However, this does not mean that better results would have been obtained with other tools, but rather a comparative analysis of other development pathways could have been conducted. In any event, this comparative analysis was not the objective of this work, but may be interesting for future developments.

Future works could extend the use of the methodology applied in this work to other manufacturing processes of MAHLE products, and to the manufacturing processes of other firs-tier suppliers of the automotive industry. The rapid dynamism of this sector, especially after the emergence of the electric car, makes it necessary to apply these methodologies to improve operational efficiency in manufacturing.

Data Availability

Data sharing are not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Acknowledgements

This work was partially supported by the Spanish “Ministry of the Economy and Competitiveness” and the European Union (FEDER funds), ECO2016-75781-P project, and MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 with Grant PID2020-117398GB-I00. The authors would also like to thank the managerial staff of MAHLE and members of the AR team for their help with the successful implementation of this Action Research initiative.

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Tébar-Rubio, J.V., Ramírez, F.J. & Ruiz-Ortega, M.J. Conducting Action Research to Improve Operational Efficiency in Manufacturing: The Case of a First-Tier Automotive Supplier. Syst Pract Action Res 36 , 427–459 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-022-09616-w

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How to write a good research proposal (in 9 steps)

A good research proposal is one of the keys to academic success. For bachelor’s and master’s students, the quality of a research proposal often determines whether the master’s program= can be completed or not. For PhD students, a research proposal is often the first step to securing a university position. This step-by-step manual guides you through the main stages of proposal writing.

Disclosure: This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a small commission if you make a purchase using the links below at no additional cost to you . I only recommend products or services that I truly believe can benefit my audience. As always, my opinions are my own.

1. Find a topic for your research proposal

2. develop your research idea, 3. conduct a literature review for your research proposal, 4. define a research gap and research question, 5. establish a theoretical framework for your research proposal, 6. specify an empirical focus for your research proposal, 7. emphasise the scientific and societal relevance of your research proposal, 8. develop a methodology in your research proposal, 9. illustrate your research timeline in your research proposal.

Finding a topic for your research is a crucial first step. This decision should not be treated lightly.

Writing a master’s thesis takes a minimum of several weeks. In the case of PhD dissertations, it takes years. That is a long time! You don’t want to be stuck with a topic that you don’t care about.

How to find a research topic? Start broadly: Which courses did you enjoy? What issues discussed during seminars or lectures did you like? What inspired you during your education? And which readings did you appreciate?

Take a blank piece of paper. Write down everything that comes to your mind. It will help you to reflect on your interests.

Then, think more strategically. Maybe you have a rough idea of where you would like to work after graduation. Maybe a specific sector. Or even a particular company. If so, you could strategically alight your thesis topic with an issue that matters to your dream employer. Or even ask for a thesis internship.

Once you pinpoint your general topic of interest, you need to develop your idea.

Your idea should be simultaneously original, make a scientific contribution, prepare you for the (academic) job market, and be academically sound.

Freaking out yet?! Take a deep breath.

First, keep in mind that your idea should be very focused. Master and PhD students are often too ambitious. Your time is limited. So you need to be pragmatic. It is better to make a valuable contribution to a very specific question than to aim high and fail to meet your objectives.

Second, writing a research proposal is not a linear process. Start slowly by reading literature about your topic of interest. You have an interest. You read. You rethink your idea. You look for a theoretical framework. You go back to your idea and refine it. It is a process.

Remember that a good research proposal is not written in a day.

And third, don’t forget: a good proposal aims to establish a convincing framework that will guide your future research. Not to provide all the answers already. You need to show that you have a feasible idea.

If you are looking to elevate your writing and editing skills, I highly recommend enrolling in the course “ Good with Words: Writing and Editing Specialization “, which is a 4 course series offered by the University of Michigan. This comprehensive program is conveniently available as an online course on Coursera, allowing you to learn at your own pace. Plus, upon successful completion, you’ll have the opportunity to earn a valuable certificate to showcase your newfound expertise!

Academic publications (journal articles and books) are the foundation of any research. Thus, academic literature is a good place to start. Especially when you still feel kind of lost regarding a focused research topic.

Type keywords reflecting your interests, or your preliminary research idea, into an academic search engine. It can be your university’s library, Google Scholar , Web of Science , or Scopus . etcetera.

Look at what has been published in the last 5 years, not before. You don’t want to be outdated.

Download interesting-sounding articles and read them. Repeat but be cautious: You will never be able to read EVERYTHING. So set yourself a limit, in hours, days or number of articles (20 articles, for instance).

Now, write down your findings. What is known about your topic of interest? What do scholars focus on? Start early by writing down your findings and impressions.

Once you read academic publications on your topic of interest, ask yourself questions such as:

• Is there one specific aspect of your topic of interest that is neglected in the existing literature?
• What do scholars write about the existing gaps on the topic? What are their suggestions for future research?
• Is there anything that YOU believe warrants more attention?
• Do scholars maybe analyze a phenomenon only in a specific type of setting?

Asking yourself these questions helps you to formulate your research question. In your research question, be as specific as possible.

And keep in mind that you need to research something that already exists. You cannot research how something develops 20 years into the future.

A theoretical framework is different from a literature review. You need to establish a framework of theories as a lens to look at your research topic, and answer your research question.

A theory is a general principle to explain certain phenomena. No need to reinvent the wheel here.

It is not only accepted but often encouraged to make use of existing theories. Or maybe you can combine two different theories to establish your framework.

It also helps to go back to the literature. Which theories did the authors of your favourite publications use?

There are only very few master’s and PhD theses that are entirely theoretical. Most theses, similar to most academic journal publications, have an empirical section.

You need to think about your empirical focus. Where can you find answers to your research question in real life? This could be, for instance, an experiment, a case study, or repeated observations of certain interactions.

Maybe your empirical investigation will have geographic boundaries (like focusing on one city, or one country). Or maybe it focuses on one group of people (such as the elderly, CEOs, doctors, you name it).

It is also possible to start the whole research proposal idea with empirical observation. Maybe you’ve come across something in your environment that you would like to investigate further.

Pinpoint what fascinates you about your observation. Write down keywords reflecting your interest. And then conduct a literature review to understand how others have approached this topic academically.

Both master’s and PhD students are expected to make a scientific contribution. A concrete gap or shortcoming in the existing literature on your topic is the easiest way to justify the scientific relevance of your proposed research.

Societal relevance is increasingly important in academia, too.

Do the grandparent test: Explain what you want to do to your grandparents (or any other person for that matter). Explain why it matters. Do your grandparents understand what you say? If so, well done. If not, try again.

Always remember. There is no need for fancy jargon. The best proposals are the ones that use clear, straightforward language.

The methodology is a system of methods that you will use to implement your research. A methodology explains how you plan to answer your research question.

A methodology involves for example methods of data collection. For example, interviews and questionnaires to gather ‘raw’ data.

Methods of data analysis are used to make sense of this data. This can be done, for instance, by coding, discourse analysis, mapping or statistical analysis.

Don’t underestimate the value of a good timeline. Inevitably throughout your thesis process, you will feel lost at some point. A good timeline will bring you back on track.

Make sure to include a timeline in your research proposal. If possible, not only describe your timeline but add a visual illustration, for instance in the form of a Gantt chart.

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Factbox-What's in the New Israel Ceasefire Proposal Biden Announced?

Factbox-What's in the New Israel Ceasefire Proposal Biden Announced?

U.S. President Joe Biden delivers remarks on the Middle East in the State Dining room at the White House in Washington, U.S., May 31, 2024. REUTERS/Evelyn Hockstein

By Kanishka Singh

WASHINGTON (Reuters) - U.S. President Joe Biden on Friday laid out a three-phase ceasefire proposal from Israel to Palestinian Islamist group Hamas to end the war in Gaza that has killed tens of thousands and caused a humanitarian crisis.

The offer calls for a ceasefire, the release of Israeli hostages and Palestinian prisoners, and the reconstruction of Gaza.

A senior U.S. official said the four-and-a-half page plan had been sent to Hamas for review on Thursday, and that it was "almost identical" to a proposal the militant group had already accepted. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's office said on Friday that it backed the plan.

War in Israel and Gaza

Here are the three phases as described by Biden in a speech and by U.S. officials at a briefing held later.

PHASE ONE: CEASEFIRE, LIMITED HOSTAGE RELEASE AND ISRAELI WITHDRAWAL

Biden said the first phase of Israel's offer would last for six weeks and would include a "full and complete" ceasefire, the withdrawal of Israeli forces from "all populated areas" of Gaza and the "release of a number of hostages including women, the elderly, the wounded in exchange for release of hundreds of Palestinian prisoners."

Biden added that in this phase, Palestinian civilians will return to their homes and neighborhoods in all areas of Gaza, while humanitarian assistance will increase to 600 trucks carrying aid into Gaza every day.

"With a ceasefire, that aid could be safely and effectively distributed to all who need it. Hundreds of thousands of temporary shelters, including housing units could be delivered by the international community," Biden added, saying the first phase could begin immediately after a deal is reached.

The first phase will also include talks between Israel and Hamas to get to the next stage of the proposal.

PHASE TWO: RELEASE OF ALL HOSTAGES, FULL ISRAELI WITHDRAWAL

Biden called the second phase "a permanent end to hostilities." However, he added that the negotiations to arrive at the second phase could take longer than six weeks as there were going to be differences between the two sides.

"Israel will want to make sure its interests are protected but the proposal says if the negotiations take longer than six weeks from phase one, the ceasefire will still continue for as long as negotiations continue," Biden said, which would mark a new development from previous proposals.

He added that the U.S., Qatar and Egypt will ensure that talks continue during this period until "all agreements are reached" to start the second phase.

The second phase would see a release of all remaining hostages who are alive, including male soldiers, while Israeli forces will withdraw from Gaza, according to Biden. He added: "And as long as Hamas lives up to its commitments, a temporary ceasefire will become - in the words of the Israeli proposal - the cessation of hostilities permanently."

PHASE THREE: RECONSTRUCTION, BODIES RETURNED

In the third phase, Biden said "a major reconstruction plan for Gaza would commence and any final remains of hostages who have been killed would be returned to their families."

Biden said Israel had "devastated Hamas forces over the past eight months," adding: "At this point, Hamas no longer is capable of carrying out another Oct. 7."

In the deal to rebuild Gaza, Arab nations and the international community will also participate in a "manner that does not allow Hamas to rearm," Biden said. He added Washington will work with its partners to rebuild homes, schools and hospitals in Gaza, where the war has displaced nearly the entire 2.3 million population and caused widespread hunger.

(Reporting by Kanishka Singh in Washington; Editing by Heather Timmons and Deepa Babington)

Copyright 2024 Thomson Reuters .

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• NEWS EXPLAINER
• 29 May 2024

Who owns your voice? Scarlett Johansson OpenAI complaint raises questions

• Nicola Jones

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Scarlett Johansson has said she believes the OpenAI chatbot voice was intended to imitate her. Credit: Samir Hussein/WireImage via Getty

A kerfuffle erupted last week after actor Scarlett Johansson complained that one of OpenAI’s chatbot voices sounded a lot like her. It isn’t hers — the company created it using recordings from someone else. Nevertheless, the firm has suspended the voice out of respect for Johansson’s concerns. But the media flurry has cracked open a broader discussion about peoples’ rights to their own personas. In the age of generative artificial intelligence (genAI), are existing laws sufficient to protect the use of a person’s appearance and voice?

The answer isn’t always clear, says Carys Craig, an intellectual-property scholar at York University in Toronto, Canada, who will be speaking on this topic next month during a Canadian Bar Association webcast .

Several members of the US Congress have, in the past year, called for a federal law to enshrine such protections at the national level. And some legal scholars say that action is needed to improve privacy rights in the United States. But they also caution that hastily written laws might infringe on freedom of speech or create other problems. “It’s complicated,” says Meredith Rose, a legal analyst at the non-profit consumer-advocacy group Public Knowledge in Washington DC. “There’s a lot that can go wrong.”

“Rushing to regulate this might be a mistake,” Craig says.

GenAI can be used to easily clone voices or faces to create deepfakes, in which a person’s likeness is imitated digitally. People have made deepfakes for fun and to promote education or research. However, they’ve also been used to sow disinformation, attempt to sway elections, create non-consensual sexual imagery or scam people out of money.

Many countries have laws that prevent these kinds of harmful and nefarious activities, regardless of whether they involve AI, Craig says. But when it comes to specifically protecting a persona, existing laws might or might not be sufficient.

Copyright does not apply, says Craig, because it was designed to protect specific works. “From an intellectual-property perspective, the answer to whether we have rights over our voice, for example, is no,” she says. Most discussions about copyright and AI focus instead on whether and how copyrighted material can be used to train the technology, and whether new material that it produces can be copyrighted.

Aside from copyright laws, some regions, including some US states, have ‘publicity rights’ that allow an individual to control the commercial use of their image, to protect celebrities against financial loss. For example, in 1988, long before AI entered the scene, singer and actor Bette Midler won a ‘voice appropriation’ case against the Ford Motor Company, which had used a sound-alike singer to cover one of her songs in a commercial. And in 1992, game-show host Vanna White won a case against the US division of Samsung when it put a robot dressed as her in a commercial.

“We have a case about a person who won against a literal robot already,” says Rose. With AI entering the arena, she says, cases will become “increasingly bananas”.

How to stop AI deepfakes from sinking society — and science

Much remains to be tested in court. The rapper Drake, for example, last month released a song featuring AI-generated voice clips of the late rapper Tupac Shakur. Drake removed the song from streaming services after receiving a cease-and-desist letter from Shakur’s estate. But it’s unclear, says Craig, whether the song’s AI component was unlawful. In Tennessee, a law passed this year, called the Ensuring Likeness Voice and Image Security (ELVIS) Act, seeks to protect voice actors at all levels of fame from “the unfair exploitation of their voices”, including the use of AI clones.

In the United States, actors have some contractual protection against AI — the agreement that in December ended the Hollywood strike of the Screen Actors Guild-American Federation of Television and Radio Artists included provisions to stop filmmakers from using a digital replica of an actor without explicit consent from the individual in each case.

Meanwhile, individual tech companies have their own policies to help prevent genAI misuse. For example, OpenAI, based in San Francisco, California, has not released to the general public the voice-cloning software that was used to make its chatbot voices, acknowledging that “generating speech that resembles people’s voices has serious risks”. Usage policies for partners testing the technology “prohibit the impersonation of another individual or organization without consent or legal right”.

Others are pursuing technological approaches to stemming misuse: last month, the US Federal Trade Commission announced the winners of its challenge to “protect consumers from the misuse of artificial intelligence-enabled voice cloning for fraud and other harms”. These include ways to watermark real audio at the time of recording and tools for detecting genAI-produced audio.

Broad scope

More worrying than loss of income for actors, say Rose and Craig, is the use of AI to clone people’s likenesses for uses including non-consensual pornography. “We have very spare, inadequate laws about non-consensual imagery in the first place, let alone with AI,” says Rose. The fact that deepfake porn is now easy to generate, including with minors’ likenesses, should be serious cause for alarm, she adds. Some legal scholars, including Danielle Citron at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, are advocating for legal reforms that would recognize ‘intimate privacy’ as a US civil right — comparable to the right to vote or the right to a fair trial.

Current publicity-rights laws aren’t well suited to covering non-famous people, Rose says. “Right to publicity is built around recognizable, distinctive people in commercial applications,” she says. “That makes sense for Scarlett Johansson, but not for a 16-year-old girl being used in non-consensual imagery.”

However, proposals to extend publicity rights to private individuals in the United States might have unintended consequences, says Rose. She has written to the US Congress expressing concern that some of the proposed legislation could allow misuse by powerful companies. A smartphone app for creating novelty photos, for example, could insert a provision into its terms of service that “grants the app an unrestricted, irrevocable license to make use of the user’s likeness”.

There’s also a doppelganger problem, says Rose: an image or voice of a person randomly generated by AI is bound to look and sound like at least one real person, who might then seek compensation.

Laws designed to protect people can run the risk of going too far and threatening free speech. “When you have rights that are too expansive, you limit free expression,” Craig says. “The limits on what we allow copyright owners to control are there for a reason; to allow people to be inspired and create new things and contribute to the cultural conversation,” she says. Parody and other works that build on and transform an original often fall into the sphere of lawful fair use, as they should, she says. “An overly tight version [of these laws] would annihilate parody,” says Rose.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01578-4

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