essay questions on phonetics

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phonetics , the study of speech sounds and their physiological production and acoustic qualities. It deals with the configurations of the vocal tract used to produce speech sounds (articulatory phonetics), the acoustic properties of speech sounds (acoustic phonetics), and the manner of combining sounds so as to make syllables , words, and sentences (linguistic phonetics).

Articulatory phonetics

The traditional method of describing speech sounds is in terms of the movements of the vocal organs that produce them. The main structures that are important in the production of speech are the lungs and the respiratory system , together with the vocal organs shown in Figure 1 . The airstream from the lungs passes between the vocal cords , which are two small muscular folds located in the larynx at the top of the windpipe. The space between the vocal cords is known as the glottis . If the vocal cords are apart, as they are normally when breathing out, the air from the lungs will have a relatively free passage into the pharynx (see Figure 1 ) and the mouth. But if the vocal cords are adjusted so that there is a narrow passage between them, the airstream will cause them to be sucked together. As soon as they are together there will be no flow of air, and the pressure below them will be built up until they are blown apart again. The flow of air between them will then cause them to be sucked together again, and the vibratory cycle will continue. Sounds produced when the vocal cords are vibrating are said to be voiced , as opposed to those in which the vocal cords are apart, which are said to be voiceless.

The air passages above the vocal cords are known collectively as the vocal tract. For phonetic purposes they may be divided into the oral tract within the mouth and the pharynx, and the nasal tract within the nose. Many speech sounds are characterized by movements of the lower articulators— i.e., the tongue or the lower lip—toward the upper articulators within the oral tract. The upper surface includes several important structures from the point of view of speech production, such as the upper lip and the upper teeth; Figure 1 illustrates most of the terms that are commonly used. The alveolar ridge is a small protuberance just behind the upper front teeth that can easily be felt with the tongue. The major part of the roof of the mouth is formed by the hard palate in the front, and the soft palate or velum at the back. The soft palate is a muscular flap that can be raised so as to shut off the nasal tract and prevent air from going out through the nose. When it is raised so that the soft palate is pressed against the back wall of the pharynx there is said to be a velic closure. At the lower end of the soft palate is a small hanging appendage known as the uvula.

As may be seen from Figure 1 , there are also specific names for different parts of the tongue . The tip and blade are the most mobile parts. Behind the blade is the so-called front of the tongue; it is actually the forward part of the body of the tongue and lies underneath the hard palate when the tongue is at rest. The remainder of the body of the tongue may be divided into the centre, which is partly beneath the hard palate and partly beneath the soft palate; the back, which is beneath the soft palate; and the root, which is opposite the back wall of the pharynx.

The major division in speech sounds is that between vowels and consonants . Phoneticians have found it difficult to give a precise definition of the articulatory distinction between these two classes of sounds. Most authorities would agree that a vowel is a sound that is produced without any major constrictions in the vocal tract, so that there is a relatively free passage for the air. It is also syllabic. This description is unsatisfactory in that no adequate definition of the notion syllabic has yet been formulated.

In the formation of consonants, the airstream through the vocal tract is obstructed in some way. Consonants can be classified according to the place and manner of this obstruction. Some of the possible places of articulation are indicated by the arrows going from one of the lower articulators to one of the upper articulators in Figure 1 . The principal terms that are required in the description of English articulation , and the structures of the vocal tract that they involve are: bilabial, the two lips; dental, tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth; alveolar, tongue tip or blade and the teeth ridge; retroflex, tongue tip and the back part of the teeth ridge; palato-alveolar, tongue blade and the back part of the teeth ridge; palatal, front of tongue and hard palate; and velar, back of tongue and soft palate. The additional places of articulation shown in Figure 1 are required in the description of other languages. Note that the terms for the various places of articulation denote both the portion of the lower articulators ( i.e., lower lip and tongue) and the portion of the upper articulatory structures that are involved. Thus velar denotes a sound in which the back of the tongue and the soft palate are involved, and retroflex implies a sound involving the tip of the tongue and the back part of the alveolar ridge. If it is necessary to distinguish between sounds made with the tip of the tongue and those made with the blade, the terms apical (tip) and laminal (blade) may be used.

There are six basic manners of articulation that can be used at these places of articulation: stop , fricative, approximant, trill, tap, and lateral .

English Phonetic System & International Phonetic Alphabet

A branch of linguistics that studies all human sounds is called phonetics. It analyses the production (articulation), transmission (sound), and perception (hearing) of sounds. The phonetic system of a language represents the way people use sounds in their speech. A language’s phonology classifies these sounds into vowels and consonants, long and short sounds, and many other language-specific parameters.

You can find detailed information on each of these aspects in this article by custom-writing.org experts, including how the English phonetic system relates to the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet), phonetics definition, types of vowels, and more.

📢 Phonetic System of English

🔤 international phonetic alphabet.

• 📊 Vowel Chart
• 📈 Consonant Chart
• ❗ Primary and Secondary Stress

The English phonetic system comprises the four components: speech sounds , syllabic word structure , stress , and intonation . To make it simple, it describes the way we produce and perceive the sounds of speech. Most ESL textbooks explain these components using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) which is described below.

Phonics vs Phonetics

Sometimes the meaning of phonics is limited to a simplified definition of phonetics. But it is incorrect. Phonetics is the academic study of the sounds of a language. Hence, this science is a branch of linguistics. Phonics is a method of teaching to read when each letter is pronounced as in the alphabet.

Phonetics vs Phonology

The phonetics and phonology difference can be explained by their approaches and methods as a science. The former is a descriptive discipline that analyzes separate sounds we use in a language. The latter is more theoretical and explores the patterns of sounds, their system, and combination.

IPA in English Phonetics

The International Phonetic Alphabet is a system of symbols representing each sound used in the English language. English language learning widely uses IPA. Linguists transcribe words in this alphabet for their research. Dictionaries use IPA to present the correct pronunciation of words. However, not some of the above use their own alphabets for various reasons. In most cases, they provide a reference table. Many of the best American English dictionaries transcribe words in a phonetic respelling system, which could be more comfortable for an unprepared reader.

IPA was developed in the XIX century but is presently used for the modern language. If you know how to pronounce each of the symbols, you will be able to use the transcription in a dictionary.

What Is an IPA Chart & How to Use It?

The IPA chart is a unique classification of sounds according to different aspects. There are 107 phonetic symbols and 52 diacritics in this phonemic transcription chart. Each of them represents its place in the mouth or throat. So everyone can reproduce the sound quickly.

The sounds in phonetics also vary by the manner of pronouncing them. What’s important here is how lips, tongue, and teeth work to produce one or another sound. The way you use breath is also essential.

The first thing to know about IPA is that there are two broad categories:

• Vowels – these speech sounds in English are produced with air moving freely in different directions.
• Consonants – these phonetic sounds are produced by air too, but are stopped by various parts of the mouth like tongue or teeth.

Below you’ll find consonant and vowel IPA charts. Note that you can check the phonetic symbols with audio, so you can always have an example before your eyes. Continue reading to know all the secrets of learning the transcription alphabet!

📊 IPA Vowel Chart with Audio

There aren’t so many vowel letters in the English language, but their phonetic spelling can be challenging to master.

Types of Vowels in Phonetics

Usually, vowels in phonetics have the following classification:

• Short vowels
• Long vowels
• Diphthongs – fusion of two sounds (e.g. ‘point,’ ‘though,’ ‘cloud’)

You can listen to any of them with the help of our IPA vowel chart below.

Sheep or Ship? Short and Long IPA Vowels

Sometimes it’s challenging to distinguish long phonetic vowel sounds from short ones. A foreigner may think they sound the same, but the difference is noticeable for a native speaker. For that purpose, IPA and other alphabets use phonetic signs, such as the symbol /:/.

Still, it’s troublesome for many ESL speakers to understand that the same phonetic letters can sound differently. And it’s okay because a lot of languages don’t have such difficult letter pronunciation.

The difference between those phonetic sounds is easy to notice while pronouncing them. Long /i:/ takes more time than short /i/ to produce, and you have to tense your tongue more. At the same time, short /i/ is pronounced without any tension.

📈 IPA Consonant Chart with Audio

IPA phonetics regarding consonants is harder to remember. There are many types of phonetic consonants according to the manner of pronouncing them.

Types of Consonants in Phonetics

Usually, consonant sounds of the English alphabet are divided into the following categories:

• Fricative sounds – produced when the tongue rubs teeth or the roof of the mouth.
• Plosive sounds – produced by stopping airflow with an explosive sound.
• Nasal sounds – made through the nose.
• Glottal sounds – pronounced in the throat.
• Approximant sounds – similar to phonetic vowels.
• Affricate sounds – a fusion of plosive and fricative sounds.

Our interactive chart will help you with pronunciation if you have any difficulties.

How to Pronounce /R/?

If you’re an ESL speaker, you may wonder whether you should pronounce or omit the phonetic sound /r/. Well, it depends on the variant of English you use.

In the American variant of English , /r/ is always pronounced. In the British variant of English, you pronounce /r/ phonetic sound only if it comes before a vowel. In other cases, omit it. For example, in ‘print,’ you pronounce /r/ because a vowel sound follows, while in ‘park,’ you omit /r/.

Also, make sure to use linking /r/. It appears when /r/ letter pronunciation at the end of the word is omitted, but a vowel sound follows next in a word combination. For example, in the word ‘bear’ the phonetic sound /r/ isn’t pronounced. But if there is the word combination ‘bear eats’, then the sound /r/ appears in British English spelling.

❗ Primary and Secondary Stress in IPA

Most languages have stress in their pronunciation. The English phonetic system has an element like this, too.

In IPA transcription, you mark it with a symbol /ˈ/. But what’s interesting is that English phonetic spelling can have two stresses at once . Primary stress is a regular phonetic symbol used in words with three syllables. Secondary stress appears when there are more than two syllables in a word. It emphasizes the syllable that is weaker than the primary stressed one but stronger than the last syllable.

The IPA symbols list represents secondary stress as /ˌ/. For example, the IPA transcription of the word ‘alphabetical’ looks like /ˌælfəˈbetɪkl/. The first syllable here is secondarily stressed.

You may wonder if it is challenging to learn IPA pronunciation symbols. Well, it depends on how much time you spend on it. Almost every teacher would advise you to look up every new word in a dictionary. It can help you understand the English phonetic system in a short time.

However, students often ignore IPA transcription and trust their ears instead. It’s nice if you have excellent listening skills , but remember that you’re more likely to see words for the first in the text rather than hearing them somewhere else. Moreover, native speakers can use many different variants of the language! That’s why it’s useful to know how to read new words without the help of native speakers.

Now that you know how to avoid pronunciation mistakes, you may be interested in this article . It’ll teach you how to write correctly.

🔗 References

• Help – Phonetics – Cambridge Dictionary
• International Phonetic Alphabet | Britannica
• The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) | Cambridge
• Phonetics: The Sounds of Language | Harvard
• Sounds of English – Aston University
• Phonetics Overview – Cambridge University Press
• BBC Learning English – Pronunciation
• Sounds of Speech
• IPA symbols for English consonants
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Phonetic is the study of sound of a language

The deferences betwean phonetics and phonology is not clear for me, could please explain it with examples?

Phonetic is the academic study of the sound of a language (r)as in,rat

Think of phonetics as an overarching discipline, like physics. It deals with transmission, production, reception, and other attributes of all human speech. Phonology, on the other hand, is a subcategory of phonetics, like particle physics, if we go with the same example. In this case, phonology deals with the way sounds are organized within a particular language. Phonetics is more about the “how” (acoustics, articulation) and phonology is all about the “why” (why this or that sound is used in a particular language). Hope this helps.

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About Phonetics

Updated 27 January 2023

Subject Language ,  Physics

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Topic English Language ,  Language Diversity ,  Sound

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Chapter 1 – Phonetics and phonology: understanding the sounds of speech

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The aim of this chapter is to expose the students to the English sound system in order to improve their spoken English. The chapterintroduces the learners to phonetics and phonology. It presents organs of speech briefly and focuses on the segmental features -English vowel and consonant sounds; their articulation, symbols and classifications. Though the expression of language can either be spoken or written, the spoken form is primary therefore, it forms the basis for the written form. This is evident in the fact that some languages, in spite of their functionality in their respective speech communities, have not developed orthography for their written form. Phonetics and Phonology are the branches of linguistics that study the sound production and sound combinations. Phonetics and Phonology are two different but related concepts. Though there are profound differences between them, there are also some areas of overlapping. Therefore, it is sometimes very difficult for many students to differentiate between the two concepts.

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English is the most widely spoken language on the planet today. Because of its prominence as a world language, English has been extensively researched and taught: it has been the subject of numerous linguistic descriptions, and it is taught in thousands of classrooms and language institutes around the world. Phonology is one of the disciplines that make up linguistics, which is described as the scientific study of language structure. Contrast phonology with other branches of linguistics to have a better understanding of the subject topic.Speaking is defined as the constriction and opening of the vocal tract, which is the passage through which air passes during speech. This is evident in examples such as banana ([bə'nænə] or [bə'nanə]), in which the vocal tract is closed three times (first by the lips, then twice by the tongue), with each closure being followed by a vocal tract opening. Syllables are formed by combining successive openings, hence the word banana has three syllables. The nucleus of the syllable is considered to be the open component of the cycle.Consonants are any sounds in which the flow of air out of the mouth is obstructed to the point of causing a disturbance in the airflow.Vowels, on the other hand, are any sound in which the air flows freely from the lips.

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Phonetics and Phonology-Basic Definitions Phonology and Phonetics are part of Linguistics. Linguistics is that area of research that analyses Human language and Human communication, from any perspective. In our case, the perspective is specific to sounds. So when we refer to a specific subarea of Linguistics in relation with the study of human sounds, we are really speaking of either Phonetics or Phonology. These terms are used when we describe a research activity related to the study of sounds, but they are not same. So, in the following paragraphs, we will concentrate on the definition of each term separately. Phonetics: Phonetics deals with what takes place once the sounds are actually produced, that is, Phonetics refers to the activity of the vocal tract, the acoustic features of sounds and perception of speech. These three stages also establish three different branches in Phonetics. 1. Articulatory Phonetics: deals with the articulation of sounds. Within articulatory phonetics researchers usually study the different parts and activities of vocal tract and the sounds that can be produced there: vowels and consonants. 2. Acoustics phonetics: deals with physical aspects of sounds, how sounds really are, since, in essence, sounds exist only because there occur disturbances of air particles. 3. Auditory Phonetics: is a branch of phonetics which studies how sounds are perceived, the psychological and neurological implications of such an activity. Phonology: Phonology is description of the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in language. There is a set of sounds which is attributed to every language, whereas the patterns of sounds means the combination of these sounds and other features, for example: syllable, stress, pitch and intonation. Because each language presents its unique set of sounds, these sounds are said to be distinctive sounds. To be distinctive means, by altering a single sound, whole meaning of word can be changed. So the first task of phonology is to determine which sounds can convey a difference in meaning. Problems faced in English Pronunciation: 1. Lack of correspondence between orthography (spellings) and pronunciation. E.g. sit/child, dinner/diner. 2. Interference of mother tongue: Foreigner speakers pronounce the sounds of English as they perceive them in their native language. 3. Lack of recognition of sounds like food, been, tomb, lamb, poem etc. 4. Improper use of length, intonation, stress and pitch. 5. Difficulty in fluent speech due to lack of understanding of sounds production. 6. Listening English language in unreal context leads to misconceptions of spoken language. Factors that can cause pronunciation problems: 1. Lack of confidence 2. Lack of vocabulary 3. The teachers did not focus on the pronunciation 4. Influenced by the surrounding Ways to Overcome: 1. Continuous Practice 2. Listening English language in required (BBC) accent. 3. Watch the English movies containing British accent, and watching BBC news. 4. Assign the teaching and learning process to the native speaker. 5. Understanding how the sound system of English functions. 6. Using audio materials which teach vocabulary and differences between two similar looking sounds. 7. Phonetics and Phonology classes. 8. Qualified phonology teachers. Phoneme: Any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another, for example p, b, d, and t in the English words pad, pat, bad, and bat. Vowels: As indicated earlier, vowel sounds are typically voiced. They are produced with a relatively unconstricted (open) vocal tract. Air flows freely through the vocal tract during their production. Also, the lips may be rounded or unrounded in vowel production.

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Barnard Short Answer Questions

In addition to the personal essay which you will submit through the Common Application or QuestBridge, Barnard asks first-year applicants to respond to institution-specific short answer questions. We recommend spending time to thoughtfully consider these questions and your responses. Your answers to these questions, in conjunction with the rest of your application, will help the Admissions Committee understand how you may contribute to our community both academically and personally.

Below are the  2024  questions for first-year students.

• Required:  Barnard College is an extraordinary community of women committed to fostering curiosity and the exploration of new experiences and ideas. By utilizing the resources of our campus, our Foundations curriculum, and New York City, our students expand their world and discover their own capabilities. How do you envision these intersecting components of Barnard shaping your academic and personal journey? (200 words max)
• Required: Barnard College students engage in the bold questions that define their generation. Choose one question that you have about the world around you, and explain why it matters to you. (150 words max)
• Required: In college, you will encounter others with diverse viewpoints and experiences. Describe an instance where you engaged with someone who held a different opinion and explain how it shaped your perspective on the issue. (150 words max)

*Please note that the questions may change from year to year.

Published August 01, 2024

Announcing the 2024-2025 Common Application for NYU

Billy Sichel

Assistant Vice President of Undergraduate Admissions

It’s August 1st and that means the application at NYU has officially opened. This year, we’ve made some pretty big changes to NYU’s Common Application to simplify the process for our applicants, and to help us learn a little more about you!

When you start NYU’s member questions on the Common App, you’ll see 6 sections that you’ll need to complete. We give you a little bit of a head start by checking off the “Writing” section. This section is optional – but also new and exciting! More on that later.

The General Information Section

In the “General” section, you’ll be asked a few questions about how you want us to handle your application – Early Decision I, Early Decision II, or Regular Decision? – and which campus you want to apply to. As you (hopefully!) already know, NYU has three degree-granting campuses: in New York, Abu Dhabi, and Shanghai. Our Common App will let you apply to any combination of our campuses.

Once you make your campus selections, an additional set of questions will show up that are specific to your campus(es) of interest. Nothing too tricky here! You’ll be able to tell us about your academic area of interest for each campus, and a few other quick-and-easy questions about program eligibility, housing preferences, etc. so that we’re ready for you if you are ultimately admitted.

The Academics Section

Once you have those sections squared away, you’ll move on to the Academics section. This section will walk you through the information we’ll need you to submit outside of the Common App itself. Nothing to do here, except confirm that you’re clear on the next steps and additional requirements.

The Optional Supplemental Question

Now, the moment you’ve been waiting for: The optional, pre-checked-off Writing section. Last year, we made the decision to update our supplemental question. However, what we heard from our applicants was that people really wanted to tell us more! But the thing is…we already know why NYU is a great place to spend your 4 years, so we thought: if you want to tell us more about your passion for NYU, let’s make the question about you .

The new writing question says:

“In a world where disconnection seems to often prevail, we are looking for students who embody the qualities of bridge builders—students who can connect people, groups, and ideas to span divides, foster understanding, and promote collaboration within a dynamic, interconnected, and vibrant global academic community. We are eager to understand how your experiences have prepared you to build the bridges of the future. Please consider one or more of the following questions  in your  essay :

What personal experiences or challenges have shaped you as a bridge builder?

How have you been a bridge builder in your school, community, or personal life?

What specific actions have you taken to build bridges between diverse groups, ideas, or cultures?

How do you envision being a bridge builder during your time at our university and beyond?”

So, if it feels right for you to tell us a little more about yourself in the application, we want to know where you will turn to for inspiration, and what experiences have shaped you and resonate with you. Four years at NYU will propel you into a future you might not even be able to imagine yet, but take a minute (if you want – it really is optional!) to tell us about the ideas that have gotten you to this point, and those that might shape you into the person you’re about to become.

These are just a few of the changes we have made this year, so make sure to carefully read each question carefully before you answer them. If you ever have any questions for us about our questions, we are always here to help . We wish you the best of luck this application season, and can’t wait to learn more about you!

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Dispatches From a Kamala Harris Field Office

One group of voters may pose the biggest challenge to democrats’ momentum..

Hosted by Michael Barbaro

Featuring Reid J. Epstein

Reported by Jessica Cheung and Stella Tan

Produced by Jessica Cheung Stella Tan and Rob Szypko

Edited by Lynsea Garrison and Rachel Quester

With Ben Calhoun

Original music by Pat McCusker Marion Lozano Dan Powell Diane Wong Corey Schreppel and Rowan Niemisto

Engineered by Alyssa Moxley

Listen and follow The Daily Apple Podcasts | Spotify | Amazon Music | YouTube

Vice President Kamala Harris’s ascent to the top of the Democratic ticket has transformed the U.S. presidential race. But the real test awaits: Will the party be able to translate that energy into a winning coalition of voters in November?

Reid J. Epstein, who covers politics for The Times, discusses a group of skeptical voters in swing states who may pose the biggest challenge to the vice president. Our audio producers — Jessica Cheung and Stella Tan — traveled to Wisconsin to speak to some of them.

On today’s episode

Reid J. Epstein , a reporter covering politics for The New York Times.

Jessica Cheung , a senior producer on “The Daily” for The New York Times.

Stella Tan , a producer on “The Daily” for The New York Times.

Background reading

How Ms. Harris’s running mate, Tim Walz, transformed from a little-known governor of a blue state to one of his party’s most prominent and powerful messengers.

Democrats are buzzing but sustaining the impetus is the next challenge.

There are a lot of ways to listen to The Daily. Here’s how.

We aim to make transcripts available the next workday after an episode’s publication. You can find them at the top of the page.

Fact-checked by Susan Lee .

The Daily is made by Rachel Quester, Lynsea Garrison, Clare Toeniskoetter, Paige Cowett, Michael Simon Johnson, Brad Fisher, Chris Wood, Jessica Cheung, Stella Tan, Alexandra Leigh Young, Lisa Chow, Eric Krupke, Marc Georges, Luke Vander Ploeg, M.J. Davis Lin, Dan Powell, Sydney Harper, Michael Benoist, Liz O. Baylen, Asthaa Chaturvedi, Rachelle Bonja, Diana Nguyen, Marion Lozano, Corey Schreppel, Rob Szypko, Elisheba Ittoop, Mooj Zadie, Patricia Willens, Rowan Niemisto, Jody Becker, Rikki Novetsky, Nina Feldman, Will Reid, Carlos Prieto, Ben Calhoun, Susan Lee, Lexie Diao, Mary Wilson, Alex Stern, Sophia Lanman, Shannon Lin, Diane Wong, Devon Taylor, Alyssa Moxley, Olivia Natt, Daniel Ramirez and Brendan Klinkenberg.

Our theme music is by Jim Brunberg and Ben Landsverk of Wonderly. Special thanks to Sam Dolnick, Paula Szuchman, Lisa Tobin, Larissa Anderson, Julia Simon, Sofia Milan, Mahima Chablani, Elizabeth Davis-Moorer, Jeffrey Miranda, Maddy Masiello, Isabella Anderson, Nina Lassam and Nick Pitman.

Reid J. Epstein covers campaigns and elections from Washington. Before joining The Times in 2019, he worked at The Wall Street Journal, Politico, Newsday and The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. More about Reid J. Epstein

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