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Enlightenment

By: History.com Editors

Updated: February 21, 2020 | Original: December 16, 2009

European politics, philosophy, science and communications were radically reoriented during the course of the “long 18th century” (1685-1815) as part of a movement referred to by its participants as the Age of Reason, or simply the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers in Britain, in France and throughout Europe questioned traditional authority and embraced the notion that humanity could be improved through rational change. 

The Enlightenment produced numerous books, essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars and revolutions. The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment ideals and respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of its decline. The Enlightenment ultimately gave way to 19th-century Romanticism.

The Early Enlightenment: 1685-1730

The Enlightenment’s important 17th-century precursors included the Englishmen Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes, the Frenchman René Descartes and the key natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution, including Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Its roots are usually traced to 1680s England, where in the span of three years Isaac Newton published his “Principia Mathematica” (1686) and John Locke his “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1689)—two works that provided the scientific, mathematical and philosophical toolkit for the Enlightenment’s major advances.

Did you know? In his essay 'What Is Enlightenment?' (1784), the German philosopher Immanuel Kant summed up the era's motto in the following terms: 'Dare to know! Have courage to use your own reason!'

Locke argued that human nature was mutable and that knowledge was gained through accumulated experience rather than by accessing some sort of outside truth. Newton’s calculus and optical theories provided the powerful Enlightenment metaphors for precisely measured change and illumination.

There was no single, unified Enlightenment. Instead, it is possible to speak of the French Enlightenment, the Scottish Enlightenment and the English, German, Swiss or American Enlightenment. Individual Enlightenment thinkers often had very different approaches. Locke differed from David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau from Voltaire , Thomas Jefferson from Frederick the Great . Their differences and disagreements, though, emerged out of the common Enlightenment themes of rational questioning and belief in progress through dialogue.

The High Enlightenment: 1730-1780

Centered on the dialogues and publications of the French “philosophes” (Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Buffon and Denis Diderot), the High Enlightenment might best be summed up by one historian’s summary of Voltaire’s “Philosophical Dictionary”: “a chaos of clear ideas.” Foremost among these was the notion that everything in the universe could be rationally demystified and cataloged. The signature publication of the period was Diderot’s “Encyclopédie” (1751-77), which brought together leading authors to produce an ambitious compilation of human knowledge.

It was an age of enlightened despots like Frederick the Great, who unified, rationalized and modernized Prussia in between brutal multi-year wars with Austria, and of enlightened would-be revolutionaries like Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson, whose “Declaration of Independence” (1776) framed the American Revolution in terms taken from of Locke’s essays.

It was also a time of religious (and anti-religious) innovation, as Christians sought to reposition their faith along rational lines and deists and materialists argued that the universe seemed to determine its own course without God’s intervention. Locke, along with French philosopher Pierre Bayle, began to champion the idea of the separation of Church and State. Secret societies—like the Freemasons, the Bavarian Illuminati and the Rosicrucians—flourished, offering European men (and a few women) new modes of fellowship, esoteric ritual and mutual assistance. Coffeehouses, newspapers and literary salons emerged as new venues for ideas to circulate.

The Late Enlightenment and Beyond: 1780-1815

The French Revolution of 1789 was the culmination of the High Enlightenment vision of throwing out the old authorities to remake society along rational lines, but it devolved into bloody terror that showed the limits of its own ideas and led, a decade later, to the rise of Napoleon . Still, its goal of egalitarianism attracted the admiration of the early feminist Mary Wollstonecraft (mother of “Frankenstein” author Mary Shelley) and inspired both the Haitian war of independence and the radical racial inclusivism of Paraguay’s first post-independence government.

Enlightened rationality gave way to the wildness of Romanticism, but 19th-century Liberalism and Classicism—not to mention 20th-century Modernism —all owe a heavy debt to the thinkers of the Enlightenment.

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World History Project AP®

Course: world history project ap®   >   unit 5.

• READ: Sovereignty
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: The Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment
• WATCH: The Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment

READ: The Enlightenment

• READ: Edmund Burke – Graphic Biography
• READ: Economic and Material Causes of Revolt

First read: preview and skimming for gist

Second read: key ideas and understanding content.

• How did the Dutch and British influence Enlightenment thought?
• What opinion did Enlightenment thinkers have about slavery?
• What views did Enlightenment thinkers have about progress? How did that affect their views of different societies?
• How did Enlightenment thought impact economic systems?
• How did the Enlightenment help or hurt working-class people?

Third read: evaluating and corroborating

• To what extent does this article, and your understanding of Enlightenment thinking, explain the causes and effects of the various revolutions in the period from 1750 to 1900?
• So, was the Enlightenment revolutionary? What does the author think? What do you think?

The Enlightenment

What was so enlightening about the enlightenment, the enlightenment and historical "progress", so was the enlightenment really that revolutionary.

• A pamphleteer was someone who made their ideas and opinions public by distributing small booklets called pamphlets. Basically a seventeenth century blogger.

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The Enlightenment Mini-lesson

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The Enlightenment was a period of time, starting around 1715, when people developed new ideas about human existence, including people's basic rights and the purpose of government. When our Founding Fathers created a government for the new United States, they embraced many Enlightenment ideas.

iCivics en español! Student and class materials for this lesson are available in Spanish.

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18 Key Thinkers of the Enlightenment

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At the most visible end of the Enlightenment were a group of thinkers who consciously sought human advancement through logic, reason, and criticism. Biographical sketches of these key figures are below in alphabetical order of their surnames.

Alembert, Jean Le Rond d’ 1717 – 1783

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The illegitimate son of hostess Mme de Tencin, Alembert was named after the church on whose steps he was abandoned. His supposed father paid for an education and Alembert became famous both as a mathematician and as co-editor of the Encyclopédie , for which he authored over a thousand articles. Criticism of this—he was accused of being too anti-religious—saw him resign and devote his time to other works, including literature. He turned down employment from both Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia .

Beccaria, Cesare 1738 - 1794

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The Italian author of On Crimes and Punishments , published in 1764, Beccaria argued for punishment to be secular, rather than based on religious judgments of sin, and for legal reforms including the end of capital punishment and judicial torture. His works proved to be hugely influential among European thinkers, not just those of the Enlightenment.

Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc 1707 – 1788

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The son of a highly ranked legal family, Buffon changed from legal education to science and contributed to the Enlightenment with works on natural history, in which he rejected the biblical chronology of the past in ​favor of the Earth being older and flirted with the idea that species could change. His Histoire Naturelle aimed to classify the whole natural world, including humans.

Condorcet, Jean-Antoine-Nicolas Caritat 1743 – 1794

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One of the leading thinkers of the late Enlightenment, Condorcet focused largely on science and mathematics, producing important works on probability and writing for the Encyclopédie . He worked in the French government and became a deputy of the Convention in 1792, where he promoted education and freedom for enslaved people, but died during the Terror . Work on his belief in human progress was published posthumously.

Diderot, Denis 1713 – 1784

Louis-Michel van Loo/Flickr/ CC0 1.0

Originally the son of artisans, Diderot first entered the church before leaving and working as a law clerk. He achieved fame in the Enlightenment era chiefly for editing arguably the key text, his Encyclopédie , which took up over 20 years of his life. However, he wrote widely on science, philosophy, and the arts, as well as plays and fiction, but left many of his works unpublished, partly a result of being imprisoned for his early writings. Consequently, Diderot only gained his reputation as one of the titans of the Enlightenment after his death, when his work was published.

Gibbon, Edward 1737 – 1794

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Gibbon is the author of the most famous work of history in the English language, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . It has been described as a work of “humane skepticism,” and marked Gibbon out as the greatest of the Enlightenment historians. He was also a member of the British parliament.

Herder, Johann Gottfried von 1744 – 1803

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Herder studied at Königsburg under Kant and also met Diderot and d’Alembert in Paris. Ordained in 1767, Herder met Goethe , who obtained for him the position of a court preacher. Herder wrote on German literature, arguing for its independence, and his literary criticism became a heavy influence on later Romantic thinkers.

Holbach, Paul-Henri Thiry 1723 – 1789

A successful financier, Holbach’s salon became a meeting place for Enlightenment figures like Diderot, d’Alembert, and Rousseau. He wrote for the Encyclopédie , while his personal writings attacked organized religion, finding their most famous expression in the co-written Systéme de la Nature , which brought him into conflict with Voltaire.

Hume, David 1711 – 1776

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Building his career after a nervous breakdown, Hume gained attention for his History of England and established a name for himself among Enlightenment thinkers while working at the British embassy in Paris. His ​best-known work is the full three volumes of the Treatise of Human Nature but, despite being friends with people like Diderot, the work was largely ignored by his contemporaries and only gained a posthumous reputation.

Kant, Immanuel 1724 – 1804

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A Prussian who studied at the University of Königsburg, Kant became a professor of mathematics and philosophy and later rector there. The Critique of Pure Reason , arguably his most famous work, is just one of several key Enlightenment texts which also include his era-defining essay What is Enlightenment?

Locke, John 1632 – 1704

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A key thinker of the early Enlightenment, the English Locke was educated at Oxford but read wider than his course, gaining a degree in medicine before pursuing a varied career. His Essay Concerning Human Understanding of 1690 challenged Descartes’ views and influenced later thinkers, and he helped pioneer views on toleration and produced views on government which would underpin later thinkers. Locke was forced to flee England for Holland in 1683 because of his links to plots against the king, before returning after William and Mary took the throne.

Montesquieu, Charles-Louis Secondat 1689 – 1755

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Born into a prominent legal family, Montesquieu was a lawyer and president of the Bordeaux Parlement. He first came to the attention of the Parisian literary world with his satire Persian Letters , which tackled French institutions and the “Orient,” but is best known for Esprit des Lois , or The Spirit of the Laws . Published in 1748, this was an examination of different forms of government which became one of the most widely disseminated works of the Enlightenment, especially after the church added it to their banned list in 1751.

Newton, Isaac 1642 – 1727

Although involved in alchemy and theology, it is Newton’s scientific and mathematical achievements for which he is chiefly recognized. The methodology and ideas he outlined in key works like the Principia helped forge a new model for “natural philosophy” which the thinkers of the Enlightenment tried to apply to humanity and society.

Quesnay, François 1694 – 1774

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A surgeon who eventually ended up working for the French king, Quesnay contributed articles for the ​ Encyclopédie and hosted meetings at his chambers among Diderot and others. His economic works were influential, developing a theory called Physiocracy, which held that land was the source of wealth, a situation requiring a strong monarchy to secure a free market.

Raynal, Guillaume-Thomas 1713 - 1796

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Originally a priest and personal tutor, Raynal emerged onto the intellectual scene when he published Anecdotes Littéaires in 1750. He came into contact with Diderot and wrote his most famous work, Histoire des deux Indes ( History of the East and West Indies ), a history of the colonialism of European nations. It has been called a “mouthpiece” of Enlightenment ideas and thought, although the most groundbreaking passages were written by Diderot. It proved so popular across Europe that Raynal left Paris to avoid the publicity, later being temporarily exiled from France.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 1712 – 1778

Born in Geneva, Rousseau spent the early years of his adult life traveling in poverty, before educating himself and traveling to Paris. Increasingly turning from music to writing, Rousseau formed an association with Diderot and wrote for the ​​ Encyclopédie , before winning a prestigious award which pushed him firmly onto the Enlightenment scene. However, he fell out with Diderot and Voltaire and turned away from them in later works. On one occasion Rousseau managed to alienate the major religions, forcing him to flee France. His Du Contrat Social became a major influence during the French Revolution, and he has been called a major influence on Romanticism.

Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques 1727 – 1781

By Credited as "Drawn by Panilli, engraved by Marsilly"/Wikimedia Commons/ CC0 1.0

Turgot was something of a rarity among leading figures in the Enlightenment, for he held high office in​ the French government. After beginning his career in the Paris Parlement, he became Intendant of Limoges, Navy Minister, and Finance Minister. He contributed articles to the Encyclopédie , chiefly on economics, and wrote further works on the subject, but found his position in government weakened by a commitment to free trade in wheat which led to high prices and riots.

Voltaire, François-Marie Arouet 1694 – 1778

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Voltaire is one of, if not the, most dominant Enlightenment figures, and his death is sometimes cited as the end of the period. The son of a lawyer and educated by Jesuits, Voltaire wrote widely and frequently on many subjects for a long time period, also maintaining correspondence. He was imprisoned early in his career for his satires and spend time exiled in England before a brief period as court historiographer to the French king. After this, he continued to travel, finally settling on the Swiss border. He is perhaps best known today for his satire Candide .

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SS.7.CG.1.4

8 Lesson Plans

1 Original Student Tutorial

1 Teaching Idea

• Original Student Tutorials Social Studies - Civics - Grades 6-8 1

Clarifications

Clarification 1: Students will identify and describe the Enlightenment ideas of separation of powers, natural law and social contract.

Clarification 2: Students will examine how Enlightenment ideas influenced the Founders’ beliefs about individual liberties and government.

Clarification 3: Students will evaluate the influence of Montesquieu’s and Locke’s ideas on the Founding Fathers.

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In this lesson, students will complete an interactive chart during a PowerPoint used to identify and highlight the impact of significant Enlightenment thinkers (Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau) on modern U.S. government. Students will then complete a one-pager activity to demonstrate their understanding. 

Type: Lesson Plan

In this lesson plan, students will trace the influence of Enlightenment ideas, specifically those of Montesquieu and John Locke, on the Founders while completing guided notes that accompany a teacher-presented slideshow. Students will then show what they know by completing and submitting a short written response to a provided prompt.

In this lesson plan, students will trace the principles underlying America’s founding ideas on laws and government while completing guided notes that accompany a teacher-presented slideshow. Students will then show what they know by completing and submitting a short written response to a provided prompt.

In this lesson plan, students will learn about the governing principles that can be traced through America’s founding documents. Students will work independently or with a shoulder partner to demonstrate an understanding of the founding principles by completing a vocabulary Card Sort activity and a Primary Source Matching activity. There are six multiple choice questions on the Primary Source Matching activity to assess student understanding.

Students will be engaged in a review game as they take notes about how the U.S. Constitution limits the powers of government through separation of powers, checks and balances, individual rights, rule of law and due process of law. Students will fill in a graphic organizer to assist them in keeping their notetaking organized.

In this lesson plan, students will identify the impact the Magna Carta, Mayflower Compact, English Bill of Rights and Thomas Paine’s Common Sense had on colonists’ views of government.

In this lesson plan, students will identify important Enlightenment thinkers that influenced how the Founders created the final plan for the United States government.

In this lesson plan, students will review and match the colonists' grievances as they expressed them in the Declaration of Independence.  Students will match the original wording of these grievances with simplified versions and then link each grievance to the natural rights of life, liberty, or the pursuit of happiness. 

Original Student Tutorial

Learn how Enlightenment ideas like separation of powers, natural law, and the social contract influenced the Founders and their design of the United States government in this interactive tutorial.

Type: Original Student Tutorial

Teaching Idea

This Grade 7 Civics Family Guide provides some ideas and activities to support civics education when at home, out and about, and in the community. The activities provided align to the civics learning benchmarks within Standard 1 at this grade level.

Type: Teaching Idea

Original Student Tutorials Social Studies - Civics - Grades 6-8

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Enlightenment Thinkers Quote Match Activity Critical Thinking & Common Core

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Description.

This activity makes great connections to ideas that the US has adopted from key Enlightenment thinkers. The activity comes with one page notes, a fill in worksheet, excerpts from the consitution and declaration of independence and an answer key. It's a great way to have students process and make connections to the historical importance of this era.

It covers important key figures of the Enlightenment including Baron de Montesquieu, Beccaria, John Locke, Voltaire and Hobbes. It can be used on its own for students to research or it transitions perfectly with the PowerPoint and graphic organizer posted. PowerPoint posted under Enlightenment Thinkers PowerPoint .

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Enlightenment, Revolution, and Nationalism

Sq 3. what points of view did enlightenment thinkers have about government.

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The Enlightenment: SQ 3. What points of view did Enlightenment Thinkers have about government?

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