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9.1: Introduction to Vitamins

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• Page ID 6814

• The University of Hawaiʻi
• University of Hawai’i at Mānoa

Learning Objectives

• Describe the functions and sources of antioxidant micronutrients, phytochemicals, and antioxidant minerals
• Describe the functions of vitamins in catabolic pathways, anabolic pathways, and blog

Malia paha he iki ‘unu, pa‘a ka pōhaku nui ‘a‘ole e ka‘a

Perhaps it is the small stone that can keep the big rock from rolling down

Vitamins are obtained from the different types of foods that we consume. If a diet is lacking a certain type of nutrient, a vitamin deficiency may occur. The traditional diet in Pohnpei (an island in the Federal States of Micronesia) consisted of a diet rich in local tropical produce such as bananas, papaya, mango, pineapple, coconut as well as seafood. However, due to a shift in dietary patterns from fresh foods to processed and refined foods the island is suffering from a magnitude of health concerns. A study conducted by the Department of Health of the Federated States of Micronesia on children aged two to four years old in Pohnpei showed that the prevalence for vitamin A deficiency among children aged 2-5 was 53 percent[1].

To combat this issue the Island Food Community of Pohnpei has been instrumental in promoting the citizens of Pohnpei to increase local karat banana consumption. The karat banana is rich in beta-carotene (a source of vitamin A) and increasing consumption among the locals will decrease the prevalence of vitamin A deficiencies in Pohnpei. For further information on this issue visit the Island Food Community of Pohnpei’s website at http://www.islandfood.org/ and watch the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGVxnefqbTQ .

Vitamins are organic compounds that are traditionally assigned to two groups fat-soluble(hydrophobic) or water-soluble (hydrophilic). This classification determines where they act in the body. Water-soluble vitamins act in the cytosol of cells or in extracellular fluids such as blood; fat-soluble vitamins are largely responsible for protecting cell membranes from free radical damage. The body can synthesize some vitamins, but others must be obtained from the diet.

One major difference between fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins is the way they are absorbed in the body. Vitamins are absorbed primarily in the small intestine and their bioavailability is dependent on the food composition of the diet. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with dietary fat. Therefore, if a meal is very low in fat, the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins will be impaired. Once fat-soluble vitamins have been absorbed in the small intestine, they are packaged and incorporated into chylomicrons along with other fatty acids and transported in the lymphatic system to the liver. Water-soluble vitamins on the other hand are absorbed in the small intestine but are transported to the liver through blood vessels. (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)).

• Yamamura CM, Sullivan KM. Risk factors for vitamin A deficiency among preschool aged children in Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. J Trop Pediatr. 2004; 50(1),16-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14984164 . Accessed October 15, 2017.

Contributors and Attributions

University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program : Allison Calabrese, Cheryl Gibby, Billy Meinke, Marie Kainoa Fialkowski Revilla, and Alan Titchenal

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins and Minerals explores the importance of consuming nutrients to help strengthen the body. Students will be able to identify a variety of specific nutrients and describe how they help the body function properly. The worksheets at the end will help solidify what they learned throughout the lesson and reinforce their grasp of the material.

You can refer to the “Options for Lesson” section to add more activities or tasks to the lesson or adjust the ones that are already there. One idea is to have students create menus of food items that include the necessary nutrients people need.

Description

Additional information, what our vitamins and minerals lesson plan includes.

Lesson Objectives and Overview: Vitamins and Minerals explores the importance of consuming certain nutrients. Students will discover various kinds of vitamins that we ingest and how they help the body function properly. They will also be able to explain to others why eating healthy is important. This lesson is for students in 4th grade, 5th grade, and 6th grade.

Classroom Procedure

Every lesson plan provides you with a classroom procedure page that outlines a step-by-step guide to follow. You do not have to follow the guide exactly. The guide helps you organize the lesson and details when to hand out worksheets. It also lists information in the yellow box that you might find useful. You will find the lesson objectives, state standards, and number of class sessions the lesson should take to complete in this area. In addition, it describes the supplies you will need as well as what and how you need to prepare beforehand. The only supplies you need for this lesson are food labels for the activity portion.

Options for Lesson

The “Options for Lesson” section of the classroom procedure page has a lot of suggestions of additional ideas and activities to incorporate. For the activity, you could allow students to work alone or in groups rather than in pairs. You could also have students supply the food labels by bringing them from home. Another idea is to assign one vitamin or mineral to each student to research and later present to the class. Students could create a poster that encourages healthy eating and getting the right amount of vitamins and minerals each day. Another activity is for students to create menus of food items for a day or week that include the necessary vitamins and minerals people need. One more option is to have students research other living things and discover the types of vitamins or minerals those organisms need.

Teacher Notes

The paragraph on this page provides a little extra information on what you can expect from the lesson. It emphasizes the importance of helping students understand why eating right is good for them. You could also teach this lesson at the same time as or before a lesson photosynthesis. Use the lines to write out your thoughts as you prepare.

VITAMINS AND MINERALS LESSON PLAN CONTENT PAGES

Introduction.

The Vitamins and Minerals lesson plan contains five pages of content. To start off, it reminds students that their body consists of cells, tissues, organs, bones, and many other parts. Every part needs to function properly to keep their body strong and healthy. And the two substances every human body needs to accomplish this task are vitamins and minerals.

Many people think these two substances are the same, but they are not. They are simply both necessary to keep our bodies strong and healthy and functioning properly. Vitamins are organic substances, meaning that plants and animals produce or make them. Minerals are inorganic. They come from the soil and water and are absorbed by plants or eaten by animals.

Both vitamins and minerals come from the foods we eat each day, but some foods have more of these important nutrients than others. Therefore, we need to eat more of some foods and should eat less of other foods. Those less healthy foods may not include enough minerals or vitamins to keep our body healthy.

Students will recognize that all vitamins and minerals support and boost the body’s immune system, which protects it from foreign substances. They also support normal growth and development and help cells and organs do their jobs. Eating the right foods is important to receive the needed vitamins and minerals for your body.

In addition to the proper amount of vitamins and minerals (micronutrients), the body also needs the right balance of carbohydrates, protein, fats, and calories (macronutrients). Some vitamins turn the macronutrients in the body into the energy it needs. The macronutrients and the micronutrients work together to keep our bodies strong and healthy. All vitamins and minerals have specific functions and exist in a wide variety of food products.

Vitamins are divided into two categories—fat soluble or water soluble. Which category a vitamin falls into depends on whether it dissolves best in lipids (another term for fats) or water. The fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the body, but the water-soluble vitamins need to dissolve in water before the body absorbs them. In addition, the body can’t store water-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins can pass through the body and be lost during urination. For this reason, we need a fresh supply of water-soluble vitamins each day.

In all, there are about 13 essential vitamins that humans need. Four of these are fat soluble and nine are water soluble. There are different scientific names for vitamins, but we refer to most of them by using the letters of the alphabet and numbers instead. For instance, ascorbic acid is the scientific name for Vitamin C. The lesson provides a table that lists each of the 13 vitamins, why we need them, and where we can find them in our food.

Special medical groups have determined a set of guidelines that recommend specific amounts of vitamins people should consume based on their age and needs. For example, a person may need more vitamin D as a child than they do as an adult.

Next, students will learn more about minerals. There are two types: macrominerals and microminerals (trace minerals). Our bodies cannot break down or change minerals. Minerals can, however, form part of the structure of bones, teeth, nails, muscles, and red blood cells. There are several minerals the body needs, and a chart on the last content page provides information on several.

Calcium is one of the most common minerals. Our bodies need calcium to build and protect bones and teeth, support our muscles, and help with blood clots and nerves. Dairy products, green leafy vegetables, and trout are some foods that contain calcium in fairly high amounts.

Zinc is another important mineral. It helps with cell growth and healing wounds and supports the immune system. We can find zinc in foods like mushrooms, spinach, whole grains, and chicken. Salt is a mineral, too. It balances body fluids, but too much can impact the body’s blood pressure.

Other minerals include phosphorous, magnesium, copper, chromium, fluoride, iodine, selenium, manganese, sulfur, and molybdenum. As with vitamins, the amount a body needs may depend on many conditions, such as age, health, and other things.

VITAMINS AND MINERALS LESSON PLAN WORKSHEETS

The Vitamins and Minerals lesson plan includes three worksheets: an activity worksheet, a practice worksheet, and a homework assignment. Each one of these handouts will help students demonstrate their knowledge and will reinforce what they learned throughout the lesson. Use the guidelines on the classroom procedure page to determine when to give students each worksheet.

FOOD LABEL ACTIVITY WORKSHEET

Students will review the food labels for four different foods that you provide them. They must read the label carefully to find all the vitamins and minerals that food contains. They will fill out a chart for each food item, listing what it is, the calories per serving, and other information according to the chart’s prompts. Then they will answer whether or not the food is good for a person’s health and why.

FILL IN THE BLANK PRACTICE WORKSHEET

The practice worksheet splits into two section. The first section lists 15 statements. Students must fill in the blanks in each statement according to what they learned in the lesson. There is no word bank from which to pull the correct terms. You may or may not allow your students to use the content pages for reference to complete the assignment. On the second part, students will mark whether statements are true (T) or false (F). There are 10 statements to complete in this section.

VITAMINS AND MINERALS HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT

Like the practice worksheet, there are two sections on the homework assignment. The first section requires students to match definitions with the correct term. There are 10 definitions and terms to match in this section. Then, students will answer or respond to 10 questions or prompts about vitamins and minerals.

Worksheet Answer Keys

The lesson plan provides answer keys for both the practice and homework worksheets. All the correct answers are in red to make it easy to compare them to students’ responses. If you choose to administer the lesson pages to your students via PDF, you will need to save a new file that omits these pages. Otherwise, you can simply print out the applicable pages and keep these as reference for yourself when grading assignments.

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Great resource

This was just the right resource as an introduction to vitamins and minerals for my grade 5/6 health class. My only critique was that some of the kids felt the narrator's tone felt aimed at younger kids. However, we talked about how the content was right for their level.

Recommended!

It is well-structured and easy to follow. My student loved it! Thank you!

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Vitamins and the chemistry behind them

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From practical experiments to a directed activity related to text (DART), try these activities for 11–16 year olds to investigate the chemistry of vitamins

In this series of activities, students learn about a range of chemical ideas while investigating vitamins and vitamin supplements. Designed for 11–16 year olds, the resources give students the opportunity to conduct practical experiments, evaluate evidence for claims made about vitamins and engage with a variety of scientific and historical contexts. Stimulate your students to explore:

• The link between vitamin C and scurvy
• The structure and properties of vitamin C and how to test for it
• How vitamins were discovered
• Evidence for vitamin C preventing colds
• Whether vitamin supplements are effective

Each activity includes instructions for students, as well as editable worksheets and resources available for download.

1. Vitamin C and scurvy

In this directed activity related to text (DART), students read about the effects of scurvy, its historical prevalence among sailors and the discovery of a link between scurvy and vitamin C. The core of the activity is an extract from James Lind’s ’Of the Prevention of the Scurvy’, in which the Royal Navy surgeon describes an experiment conducted in 1747 to compare treatments for the disease.

After reading both texts, students answer a series of questions to check and consolidate their understanding, before considering how Lind could have improved his experiment and whether his conclusion was correct.

Download the resources

‘vitamin c and scurvy’ worksheet.

PDF | Editable Word document

2. Testing for vitamin C

Students conduct a practical experiment to compare the amounts of vitamin C in different fruit juices using a simple test with iodine solution. They then answer questions to reflect on what they have found out and compare their results with the labels on the fruit juice packaging.

The ‘Testing for vitamin C’ worksheet includes extension questions which relate the experiment to the DART, ’Vitamin C and scurvy’, as well as suggestions for further investigations to find out more about vitamin C.

An additional handout, ‘Did you know about vitamin C?’, provides further information about the chemical structure of vitamin C and how it used by the body.

‘Testing for vitamin C’ worksheet

‘did you know about vitamin c’ handout, plan a lesson around this activity.

Try this activity as part of a complete lesson plan for 14–16 year olds, measuring the amount of vitamin C in different fruit juices using a simple titration.

3. Catching a cold?

In this activity, students investigate the familiar claim that vitamin C helps to prevent or treat colds. They read about the work of Linus Pauling during the 1970s and evaluate the data he used to support this claim, identifying weaknesses in the original study and assessing how these might impact the conclusions we can draw from it.

An additional handout, ‘Did you know about Linus Pauling?’, provides background information about Pauling’s life and work.

‘Catching a cold?’ worksheet

‘did you know about linus pauling’ handout.

Discover a complete lesson plan for 14–16 year olds drawing on this activity to  examine the evidence behind vitamins and vitamin supplements .

4. A cold survey

Students carry out a survey to determine whether vitamin C might help prevent colds. After answering the survey for themselves, students collate responses from the rest of the class, as well as responses collected from family and friends if there is sufficient time. They then work through a series of questions to analyse their results, identifying any patterns and drawing conclusions based on the available evidence.

‘A cold survey’ worksheet

5. are vitamins a waste of money.

Students work in groups to consider a range of views on vitamins pills and supplements. They rank four statements according to how strongly they agree with them, and provide reasons for their rankings, before presenting their decisions to the rest of the class. Together, students agree an answer to the question, ‘Are vitamins a waste of money?’, giving evidence in support.

An additional handout, ‘Did you know about Casimir Funk?’, introduces students to the scientist credited with the discovery of vitamins.

‘The pill thrill: are vitamins a waste of money?’ worksheet

‘did you know about casimir funk’ handout.

Use this activity as part of a complete lesson plan for 14–16 year olds,  exploring whether vitamin pills work .

6. Key words

This handout provides information about terms relating to vitamins and the contexts used for these activities. Key words include ‘clinical trial’, ‘deficiency disease’, ‘double blind’, ‘placebo’, ‘RDI or RDA’ and ‘vitamins’.

‘Key words’ handout

Vitamin c and scurvy worksheet, testing for vitamin c worksheet, did you know about vitamin c handout, catching a cold worksheet, did you know about linus pauling handout, a cold survey worksheet, the pill thrill: are vitamins a waste of money worksheet, did you know about casimir funk handout, key words handout, additional information.

This activity was originally part of the Contemporary Chemistry website, compiled and published in 2004 with V. Kind’s Contemporary chemistry for schools and colleges .

The chemistry behind fireworks

Crystal chemistry

Hydrogen fuel cells: the future of transport?

Investigating catalysts and what sank the Kursk

Shampoo and the chemistry of hair care

Lipid chemistry and dietary fats

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Cleaning chemistry: soaps and detergents

Atoms and nanochemistry

• 11-14 years
• 14-16 years
• Practical experiments
• Applying scientific method
• Biological chemistry

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Water-Soluble Vitamins

University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program and Human Nutrition Program

All water-soluble vitamins play a different kind of role in energy metabolism ; they are required as functional parts of enzymes involved in energy release and storage. Vitamins and minerals that make up part of enzymes are referred to as coenzymes and cofactors , respectively. Coenzymes and cofactors are required by enzymes to catalyze a specific reaction. They assist in converting a substrate to an end-product. Coenzymes and cofactors are essential in catabolic pathways and play a role in many anabolic pathways too. In addition to being essential for metabolism, many vitamins and minerals are required for blood renewal and function. At insufficient levels in the diet these vitamins and minerals impair the health of blood and consequently the delivery of nutrients in and wastes out, amongst its many other functions. In this section we will focus on the vitamins that take part in metabolism and blood function and renewal.

Figure 9.7 Enzyme Active Site for Cofactors

Vitamin C , also commonly called ascorbic acid, is a water[-soluble micronutrient essential in the diet for humans, although most other mammals can readily synthesize it. Vitamin C’s ability to easily donate electrons makes it a highly effective antioxidant . It is effective in scavenging reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, and many other free radicals . It protects lipids both by disabling free radicals and by aiding in the regeneration of vitamin E .

In addition to its role as an antioxidant, vitamin C is a required part of several enzymes like signaling molecules in the brain, some hormones, and ]amino acids. Vitamin C is also essential for the synthesis and maintenance of collagen. Collagen is the most abundant protein in the body and used for different functions such as the structure for ligaments, tendons, and blood vessels and also scars that bind wounds together. Vitamin C acts as the glue that holds the collagen fibers together and without sufficient levels in the body, collagen strands are weak and abnormal. (Figure 9.8 “The Role of Vitamin C in Collagen Synthesis”)

Figure 9.8 The Role of Vitamin C in Collagen Synthesis

Vitamin C levels in the body are affected by the amount in the diet, which influences how much is absorbed and how much the kidney allows to be excreted, such that the higher the intake, the more vitamin C is excreted. Vitamin C is not stored in any significant amount in the body, but once it has reduced a free radical, it is very effectively regenerated and therefore it can exist in the body as a functioning antioxidant for many weeks.

The classic condition associated with vitamin C deficiency is scurvy . The signs and symptoms of scurvy include skin disorders, bleeding gums, painful joints, weakness, depression, and increased susceptibility to infections. Scurvy is prevented by having an adequate intake of fruits and vegetables rich in vitamin C.

Figure 9.9 Bleeding Gums Associated with Scurvy

Cardiovascular Disease

Vitamin C’s ability to prevent disease has been debated for many years. Overall, higher dietary intakes of vitamin C (via food intake, not supplements), are linked to decreased disease risk. A review of multiple studies published in the April 2009 issue of the Archives of Internal Medicine concludes there is moderate scientific evidence supporting the idea that higher dietary vitamin C intakes are correlated with reduced cardiovascular disease risk, but there is insufficient evidence to conclude that taking vitamin C supplements influences cardiovascular disease risk. [1] Vitamin C levels in the body have been shown to correlate well with fruit and vegetable intake, and higher plasma vitamin C levels are linked to reduced risk of some chronic diseases. In a study involving over twenty thousand participants, people with the highest levels of circulating vitamin C had a 42 percent decreased risk for having a stroke. [2]

There is some evidence that a higher vitamin C intake is linked to a reduced risk of cancers of the mouth, throat, esophagus, stomach, colon, and lung, but not all studies confirm this is true. As with the studies on cardiovascular disease, the reduced risk of cancer is the result of eating foods rich in vitamin C, such as fruits and vegetables, not from taking vitamin C supplements. In these studies, the specific protective effects of vitamin C cannot be separated from the many other beneficial chemicals in fruits and vegetables.

Vitamin C does have several roles in the immune system, and many people increase vitamin C intake either from diet or supplements when they have a cold. Many others take vitamin C supplements routinely to prevent colds. Contrary to this popular practice, however, there is no good evidence that vitamin C prevents a cold. A review of more than fifty years of studies published in 2004 in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews concluded that taking vitamin C routinely does not prevent colds in most people, but it does slightly reduce cold severity and duration. Moreover, taking megadoses (up to 4 grams per day) at the onset of a cold provides no benefits. [3]

Gout is a disease caused by elevated circulating levels of uric acid and is characterized by recurrent attacks of tender, hot, and painful joints. There is some evidence that a higher intake of vitamin C reduces the risk of gout.

Vitamin C Toxicity

High doses of vitamin C have been reported to cause numerous problems, but the only consistently shown side effects are gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea. To prevent these discomforts the IOM has set a UL for adults at 2,000 milligrams per day (greater than twenty times the RDA ).

At very high doses in combination with iron, vitamin C has sometimes been found to increase oxidative stress, reaffirming that getting your antioxidants from foods is better than getting them from supplements, as that helps regulate your intake levels. There is some evidence that taking vitamin C supplements at high doses increases the likelihood of developing kidney stones, however, this effect is most often observed in people that already have multiple risk factors for kidney stones.

Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C

The RDAs and ULs for different age groups for vitamin C are listed in Table 9.11 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C”. They are considered adequate to prevent scurvy. Vitamin C’s effectiveness as a free radical scavenger motivated the Institute of Medicine (IOM) to increase the RDA for smokers by 35 milligrams, as tobacco smoke is an environmental and behavioral contributor to free radicals in the body.

Table 9.11 Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C

Source: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin C. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-QuickFacts/ . Updated June 24, 2011. Accessed October 5, 2017.

Dietary Sources of Vitamin C

Citrus fruits are great sources of vitamin C and so are many vegetables. In fact, British sailors in the past were often referred to as “limeys” as they carried sacks of limes onto ships to prevent scurvy. Vitamin C is not found in significant amounts in animal-based foods.

Because vitamin C is water-soluble, it leaches away from foods considerably during cooking, freezing, thawing, and canning. Up to 50 percent of vitamin C can be boiled away. Therefore, to maximize vitamin C intake from foods, you should eat fruits and vegetables raw or lightly steamed. For the vitamin C content of various foods, see Table 9.12 “Vitamin C Content of Various Foods”.

Table 9.12 Vitamin C Content of Various Foods

Source:  Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin C. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-QuickFacts/ . Updated June 24, 2011. Accessed October 5, 2017.

Thiamin (B 1 )

Thiamin is especially important in glucose metabolism. It acts as a cofactor for enzymes that break down glucose for energy production ( Figure 9.7 “Enzyme Active Site for Cofactors” ). Thiamin plays a key role in nerve cells as the glucose that is catabolized by thiamin is needed for an energy source. Additionally, thiamin plays a role in the synthesis of neurotransmitters and is therefore required for RNA, DNA, and ATP synthesis.

The brain and heart are most affected by a deficiency in thiamin. Thiamin deficiency, also known as beriberi , can cause symptoms of fatigue, confusion, movement impairment, pain in the lower extremities, swelling, and heart failure. It is prevalent in societies whose main dietary staple is white rice. During the processing of white rice, the bran is removed, along with what were called in the early nineteenth century, “accessory factors,” that are vital for metabolism. Dutch physician Dr. Christiaan Eijkman cured chickens of beriberi by feeding them unpolished rice bran in 1897. By 1912, Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins determined from his experiments with animals that the “accessory factors,” eventually renamed vitamins, are needed in the diet to support growth, since animals fed a diet of pure carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and minerals failed to grow. [4] Eijkman and Hopkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology (or Medicine) in 1929 for their discoveries in the emerging science of nutrition.

Another common thiamin deficiency known as Wernicke- Korsakoff syndrome can cause similar symptoms as beriberi such as confusion, loss of coordination, vision changes, hallucinations, and may progress to coma and death. This condition is specific to alcoholics as diets high in alcohol can cause thiamin deficiency. Other individuals at risk include individuals who also consume diets typically low in micronutrients such as those with eating disorders, elderly, and individuals who have gone through gastric bypass surgery. [5]

Figure 9.10 The Role of Thiamin

Figure 9.11 Beriberi, Thiamin Deficiency

Dietary Reference Intakes

The RDAs and ULs for different age groups for thiamin are listed in Table 9.13 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin” . There is no UL for thiamin because there has not been any reports on toxicity when excess amounts are consumed from food or supplements.

Table 9.13 Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin

Health Professional Fact Sheet: Thiamin. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Thiamin-HealthProfessional/ . Updated February 11, 2016 . Accessed October 5, 2017.

Dietary Sources

Whole grains, meat and fish are great sources of thiamin. The United States as well as many other countries, fortify their refined breads and cereals.  For the thiamin content of various foods, see Table 9.14 “Thiamin Content of Various Foods”.

Table 9.14 Thiamin Content of Various Foods

Riboflavin (B2)

Riboflavin is an essential component of flavoproteins, which are coenzymes involved in many metabolic pathways of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism. Flavoproteins aid in the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain. Furthermore, the functions of other B- vitamin coenzymes, such as vitamin B 6 and folate , are dependent on the actions of flavoproteins. The “flavin” portion of riboflavin gives a bright yellow color to riboflavin, an attribute that helped lead to its discovery as a vitamin. When riboflavin is taken in excess amounts (supplement form) the excess will be excreted through your kidney s and show up in your urine. Although the color may alarm you, it is harmless.  There are no adverse effects of high doses of riboflavin from foods or supplements that have been reported.

Riboflavin deficiency, sometimes referred to as ariboflavinosis, is often accompanied by other dietary deficiencies (most notably protein) and can be common in people that suffer from alcoholism. This deficiency will usually also occur in conjunction with deficiencies of other B vitamins because the majority of B vitamins have similar food sources. Its signs and symptoms include dry, scaly skin, cracking of the lips and at the corners of the mouth, sore throat, itchy eyes, and light sensitivity.

The RDAs for different age groups for riboflavin are listed in Table 9.15 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Riboflavin” . There is no UL for riboflavin because no toxicity has been reported when an excess amount has been consumed through foods or supplements.

Table 9.15 Dietary Reference Intakes for Riboflavin

Fact Sheet for Health Professionals, Riboflavin. National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Riboflavin-HealthProfessional/ . Updated February 11, 2016. Accessed October 22, 2017.

Riboflavin can be found in a variety of different foods but it is important to remember that it can be destroyed by sunlight.  Milk is one of the best sources of riboflavin in the diet and was once delivered and packaged in glass bottles. This packaging has changed to cloudy plastic containers or cardboard to help block the light from destroying the riboflavin in milk.  For the riboflavin content of various foods, see Table 9.16 Riboflavin Content of Various Foods” .

Table 9.16 Riboflavin Content of Various Foods

Niacin (B3)

Niacin is a component of the coenzymes NADH and NADPH, which are involved in the catabolism and/or anabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. NADH is the predominant electron carrier and transfers electrons to the electron-transport chain to make ATP. NADPH is also required for the anabolic pathways of fatty-acid and cholesterol synthesis. In contrast to other vitamins, niacin can be synthesized by humans from the amino acid tryptophan in an anabolic process requiring enzymes dependent on riboflavin, vitamin B 6 , and iron. Niacin is made from tryptophan only after tryptophan has met all of its other needs in the body. The contribution of tryptophan-derived niacin to niacin needs in the body varies widely and a few scientific studies have demonstrated that diets high in tryptophan have very little effect on niacin deficiency. Niacin deficiency is commonly known as pellagra and the symptoms include fatigue, decreased appetite, and indigestion.  These symptoms are then commonly followed by the four D’s: diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia , and sometimes death.

Figure 9.12  Conversion of Tryptophan to Niacin

Figure 9.13 Niacin Deficiency, Pellagra

The RDAs and ULs for different age groups for Niacin are listed in Table 9.17 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Niacin “ .  Because Niacin needs can be met from tryptophan, The RDA is expressed in niacin equivalents (NEs). The conversions of NE , Niacin, and tryptophan are: 1 mg NE= 60 mg tryptophan= 1 mg niacin

Table 9.17 Dietary Reference Intakes for Niacin

Micronutrient Information Center: Niacin. Oregon State University, Linus Pauling Institute. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/niacin . Updated in July 2013. Accessed October 22, 2017.

Niacin can be found in a variety of different foods such as yeast, meat, poultry, red fish, and cereal. In plants, especially mature grains, niacin can be bound to sugar molecules which can significantly decrease the niacin bioavailability . For the niacin content of various foods, see Table 9.18 “Niacin Content of Various Foods” .

Table 9.18 Niacin Content of Various Foods

Pantothenic Acid (B5)

Figure 9.14 Pantothenic Acid ‘s Role in the Citric Acid Cycle

Pantothenic acid forms coenzyme A, which is the main carrier of carbon molecules in a cell. Acetyl-CoA is the carbon carrier of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids into the citric acid cycle ( Figure 9.14 “Pantothenic Acid’s Role in the Citric Acid Cycle”). Coenzyme A is also involved in the synthesis of lipids, cholesterol, and acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter). A Pantothenic Acid deficiency is exceptionally rare. Signs and symptoms include fatigue, irritability, numbness, muscle pain, and cramps. You may have seen pantothenic acid on many ingredients lists for skin and hair care products; however there is no good scientific evidence that pantothenic acid improves human skin or hair.

Because there is little information on the requirements for pantothenic acids, the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) has developed Adequate Intakes ( AI ) based on the observed dietary intakes in healthy population groups. The AI for different age groups for pantothenic acid are listed in Table 9.19 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Pantothenic Acid “ .

Table 9.19 Dietary Reference Intakes for Pantothenic Acid

Micronutrient Information Center: Pantothenic Acid. Oregon State University, Linus Pauling Institute. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins /patothenic-acid . Updated in July 2013. Accessed October 22, 2017.

Pantothenic Acid is widely distributed in all types of food, which is why a deficiency in this nutrient is rare. Pantothenic Acid gets its name from the greek word “pantothen” which means “from everywhere”. For the pantothenic acid content of various foods, see Table 9.20 Pantothenic Acid Content of Various Foods” .

Table 9.20 Pantothenic Acid Content of Various Foods

Biotin is required as a coenzyme in the citric acid cycle and in lipid metabolism. It is also required as an enzyme in the synthesis of glucose and some nonessential amino acids . A specific enzyme, biotinidase, is required to release biotin from protein so that it can be absorbed in the gut. There is some bacterial synthesis of biotin that occurs in the colon; however this is not a significant source of biotin. Biotin deficiency is rare, but can be caused by eating large amounts of egg whites over an extended period of time. This is because a protein in egg whites tightly binds to biotin making it unavailable for absorption. A rare genetic disease-causing malfunction of the biotinidase enzyme also results in biotin deficiency. Symptoms of biotin deficiency are similar to those of other B vitamins, but may also include hair loss when severe.

Because there is little information on the requirements for biotin, the FNB has developed Adequate Intakes (AI) based on the observed dietary intakes in healthy population groups. The AI for different age groups for biotin are listed in Table 9.21 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Biotin” .

Table 9.21 Dietary Reference Intakes for Biotin

Fact Sheet for Health Professionals: Biotin. National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Biotin-HealthProfessional/ . Updated October 3, 2017. Accessed November 10, 2017.

Biotin can be found in foods such as eggs, fish, meat, seeds, nuts and certain vegetables. For the pantothenic acid content of various foods, see Table 9.22 Biotin Content of Various Foods”.

Table 9.22 Biotin Content of Various Foods

Vitamin B 6 (Pyridoxine)

Vitamin B 6 is the coenzyme involved in a wide variety of functions in the body. One major function is the nitrogen transfer between amino acids which plays a role in amino-acid synthesis and catabolism. Also, it functions to release glucose from glycogen in the catabolic pathway of glycogenolysis and is required by enzymes for the synthesis of multiple neurotransmitters and hemoglobin (Figure 9.15 “The Function of Vitamin B 6 in Amino Acid Metabolism”).

Vitamin B 6 is also a required coenzyme for the synthesis of hemoglobin. A deficiency in vitamin B 6 can cause anemia, but it is of a different type than that caused by insufficient folate, cobalamin, or iron; although the symptoms are similar. The size of red blood cells is normal or somewhat smaller but the hemoglobin content is lower. This means each red blood cell has less capacity for carrying oxygen, resulting in muscle weakness, fatigue, and shortness of breath. Other deficiency symptoms of vitamin B 6 can cause dermatitis, mouth sores, and confusion.

Figure 9.15 The Function of Vitamin B6 in Amino Acid Metabolism

The vitamin B6 coenzyme is needed for a number of different reactions that are essential for amino acid synthesis, catabolism for energy, and the synthesis of glucose and neurotransmitters.

Figure 9.16 Vitamin B 6 Functional Coenzyme Role

Vitamin B6 coenzyme is essential for the conversion of amino acid methionine into cysteine. With low levels of Vitamin B6, homocysteine will build up in the blood. High levels of homocysteine increases the risk for heart disease.

Vitamin B 6 Toxicity

Currently, there are no adverse effects that have been associated with a high dietary intake of vitamin B6, but large supplemental doses can cause severe nerve impairment. To prevent this from occurring, the UL for adults is set at 100 mg/day.

The RDAs and ULs for different age groups for vitamin B 6 are listed in Table 9.23 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin B 6 “.

Table 9.23 Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin B 6

Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin B 6 . National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB6-HealthProfessional/ . Updates February 11, 2016. Accessed October 22, 2017.

Vitamin B 6  can be found in a variety of foods. The richest sources include fish, beef liver and other organ meats, potatoes, and other starchy vegetables and fruits. For the Vitamin B 6  content of various foods, see Table 9.24 Vitamin B 6 Content of Various Foods”.

Table 9.24 Vitamin B 6 Content of Various Foods

Folate is a required coenzyme for the synthesis of the amino acid methionine, and for making RNA and DNA. Therefore, rapidly dividing cells are most affected by folate deficiency. Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are continuously being synthesized in the bone marrow from dividing stem cells. When folate is deficient, cells cannot divide normally A consequence of folate deficiency is macrocytic or megaloblastic anemia. Macrocytic and megaloblastic mean “big cell,” and anemia refers to fewer red blood cells or red blood cells containing less hemoglobin. Macrocytic anemia is characterized by larger and fewer red blood cells. It is caused by red blood cells being unable to produce DNA and RNA fast enough—cells grow but do not divide, making them large in size. (Figure 9.17 “Folate and the Formation of Macrocytic Anemia”)

Figure 9.17 Folate and the Formation of Macrocytic Anemia

Folate is especially essential for the growth and specialization of cells of the central nervous system . Children whose mothers were folate-deficient during pregnancy have a higher risk of neural-tube birth defects. Folate deficiency is causally linked to the development of spina bifida, a neural-tube defect that occurs when the spine does not completely enclose the spinal cord. Spina bifida can lead to many physical and mental disabilities (Figure 9.18 “Spina Bifida in Infants” ). Observational studies show that the prevalence of neural-tube defects was decreased after the fortification of enriched cereal grain products with folate in 1996 in the United States (and 1998 in Canada) compared to before grain products were fortified with folate.

Additionally, results of clinical trials have demonstrated that neural-tube defects are significantly decreased in the offspring of mothers who began taking folate supplements one month prior to becoming pregnant and throughout the pregnancy. In response to the scientific evidence, the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) raised the RDA for folate to 600 micrograms per day for pregnant women. Some were concerned that higher folate intakes may cause colon cancer, however scientific studies refute this hypothesis.

Figure 9.18 Spina Bifida in Infants

The RDAs and ULs for different age groups for folate are listed in Table 9.25 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Folate “ . Folate is a compound that is found naturally in foods. Folic acid however is the chemical structure form that is used in dietary supplements as well as enriched foods such as grains. The FNB has developed dietary folate equivalents (DFE) to reflect the fact that folic acid is more bioavailable and easily absorbed than folate found in food. The conversions for the different forms are listed below.

1 mcg DFE = 1 mcg food folate

1mcg DFE = 0.6 mcg folic acid from fortified foods or dietary supplements consumed with foods

1 mcg DFE = 0.5 mcg folic acid from dietary supplements taken on an empty stomach

Table 9.25 Dietary Reference Intakes for Folate

Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Folate. National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Folate-HealthProfessional/ . Updated April 20, 2016. Accessed October 22, 2017.

Folate is found naturally in a wide variety of food especially in dark leafy vegetables, fruits, and animal products. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began requiring manufacturers to fortify enriched breads, cereals, flours, and cornmeal to increase the consumption of folate in the American diet. For the folate content of various foods, see Table 9.26 “Folate Content of Various Foods”.

Table 9.26 Folate Content of Various Foods

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Vitamin B 12 contains cobalt, making it the only vitamin that contains a metal ion. Vitamin B 12 is an essential part of coenzymes. It is necessary for fat and protein catabolism, for folate coenzyme function, and for hemoglobin synthesis. An enzyme requiring vitamin B 12 is needed by a folate-dependent enzyme to synthesize DNA. Thus, a deficiency in vitamin B 12 has similar consequences to health as folate deficiency. In children and adults vitamin B 12 deficiency causes macrocytic anemia, and in babies born to cobalamin-deficient mothers there is an increased risk for neural-tube defects. In order for the human body to absorb vitamin B 12 , the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine must be functioning properly. Cells in the stomach secrete a protein called intrinsic factor that is necessary for vitamin B 12 absorption, which occurs in the small intestine. Impairment of secretion of this protein either caused by an autoimmune disease or by chronic inflammation of the stomach (such as that occurring in some people with H.pylori infection), can lead to the disease pernicious anemia , a type of macrocytic anemia. Vitamin B 12 malabsorption is most common in the elderly, who may have impaired functioning of digestive organs, a normal consequence of aging. Pernicious anemia is treated by large oral doses of vitamin B 12 or by putting the vitamin under the tongue, where it is absorbed into the bloodstream without passing through the intestine. In patients that do not respond to oral or sublingual treatment vitamin B 12 is given by injection.

Vitamin B 12 Relationship with Folate and Vitamin B 6

Figure 9.19 B Vitamins Coenzyme Roles

Vitamin B 12 and folate play key roles in converting homocysteine to amino acid methionine.  As mentioned in Figure 9.19 “ Vitamin B6 Functional Coenzyme Role”, high levels of homocysteine in the blood increases the risk for heart disease. Low levels of vitamin B 12 , folate or vitamin B6 will increase homocysteine levels therefore increasing the risk of heart disease.

Figure 9.20 The Relationship Between Folate and Vitamin B 12

When there is a deficiency in vitamin B 12 , inactive folate (from food) is unable to be converted to active folate and used in the body for the synthesis of DNA. Folic Acid however (that comes from supplements or fortified foods) is available to be used as active folate in the body without vitamin B 12 .Therefore, if there is a deficiency in vitamin B 12 macrocytic anemia may occur. With the fortification of foods incorporated into people’s diets, the risk of an individual developing macrocytic anemia is decreased.

The RDAs and ULs for different age groups for  Vitamin B 12 are listed in Table 9.27 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin B 12 “ .

Table 9.27  Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin B 12

Dietary Fact Sheet: Vitamin B12 . National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB12-HealthProfessional/ . Updated February 11, 2016. Accessed October 28, 2017.

Vitamin B 12 is found naturally in animal products such as fish, meat, poultry, eggs, and milk products. Although vitamin B 12 is not generally present in plant foods, fortified breakfast cereals are also a good source of vitamin B 12 . For the vitamin B 12 content of various foods, see Table 9.28 “Vitamin B 12 Content of Various Foods”.

Table 9.28 Vitamin B 12 Content of Various Foods

Dietary Fact Sheet: Vitamin B 12 . National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB12-HealthProfessional/ . Updated February 11, 2016. Accessed October 28, 2017.

Choline is a water-soluble substance that is not classified as a vitamin because it can be synthesized by the body. However, the synthesis of choline is limited and therefore it is recognized as an essential nutrient.  Choline is need to perform functions such as the synthesis of neurotransmitter acetylcholine, the synthesis of phospholipids used to make cell membranes, lipid transport, and also homocysteine metabolism.  A deficiency in choline may lead to interfered brain development in the fetus during pregnancy, and in adults cause fatty liver and muscle damage.

There is insufficient data on choline so the FNB has developed AIs for all ages in order to prevent fatty liver disease. The AI and UL for different age groups for choline are listed in Table 9.29 “Dietary Reference Intakes for Choline” .

Table 9.29 Dietary Reference Intakes for Choline

Fact Sheet for Health Professionals: Choline. National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Choline-HealthProfessional/ . Updated January 25, 2017. Accessed October 28, 2017.

Choline can be found in a variety of different foods.  The main dietary sources of choline in the United States consist of primarily animal based products. For the Choline content of various foods, see Table 9.30 “Choline Content of Various Foods”.

Table 9.30 Choline Content of Various Foods

Summary of Water-Soluble Vitamins

Table 9.31 Water-Soluble vitamins

Do B-Vitamin Supplements Provide an Energy Boost?

Although some marketers claim taking a vitamin that contains one-thousand times the daily value of certain B vitamins boosts energy and performance, this is a myth that is not backed by science. The “feeling” of more energy from energy-boosting supplements stems from the high amount of added sugars, caffeine, and other herbal stimulants that accompany the high doses of B vitamins. As discussed, B vitamins are needed to support energy metabolism and growth, but taking in more than required does not supply you with more energy. A great analogy of this phenomenon is the gas in your car. Does it drive faster with a half-tank of gas or a full one? It does not matter; the car drives just as fast as long as it has gas. Similarly, depletion of B vitamins will cause problems in energy metabolism, but having more than is required to run metabolism does not speed it up. Buyers of B-vitamin supplements beware; B vitamins are not stored in the body and all excess will be flushed down the toilet along with the extra money spent.

B vitamins are naturally present in numerous foods, and many other foods are enriched with them. In the United States, B-vitamin deficiencies are rare; however in the nineteenth century some vitamin-B deficiencies plagued many people in North America. Niacin deficiency, also known as pellagra, was prominent in poorer Americans whose main dietary staple was refined cornmeal. Its symptoms were severe and included diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and even death. Some of the health consequences of pellagra are the result of niacin being in insufficient supply to support the body’s metabolic functions.

Learning Activities

Technology Note : The second edition of the Human Nutrition Open Educational Resource (OER) textbook features interactive learning activities.  These activities are available in the web-based textbook and not available in the downloadable versions (EPUB, Digital PDF, Print_PDF, or Open Document).

Learning activities may be used across various mobile devices, however, for the best user experience it is strongly recommended that users complete these activities using a desktop or laptop computer and in Google Chrome .

• Mente A, et al. (2009). A Systematic Review of the Evidence Supporting a Causal Link between Dietary Factors and Coronary Heart Disease. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169 (7), 659–69. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/169/7/659. Accessed October 5, 2017. ↵
• Myint PK, et al. (2008). Plasma Vitamin C Concentrations Predict Risk of Incident Stroke Over 10 Years in 20,649 Participants of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer, Norfolk Prospective Population Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 87 (1), 64–69. http://www.ajcn.org/content/87/1/64.long. Accessed September 22, 2017. ↵
• Douglas RM, et al. (2004). Vitamin C for Preventing and Treating the Common Cold. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 4 . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15495002?dopt=Abstract. Accessed October 5, 2017. ↵
• Frederick Gowland Hopkins and his Accessory Food Factors. Encyclopedia Brittanica Blog. http://www.britannica.com/blogs/2011/06/frederick-gowland-hopkins-accessory-food-factors/.Published June 20, 2011. Accessed October 1, 2011. ↵
• Fact Sheets for Health Professionals: Thiamin. National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements.   https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Thiamin-HealthProfessional/ . Updated Feburary 11, 2016. Accessed October 22, 2017. ↵

A substance that dissolves in water. This may include minerals, sugars, B vitamins and vitamin C.

The entire biochemical activities of an organism.

Chemical groups that bind to enzymes and assist in enzymatic catalysis.

Chemicals required for enzymes to perform their acts of catalysts.

The branch of metabolism that involves the breakdown of compounds in the body, including the reactions that release energy from foods.

The branch of metabolism that synthesizes body compounds and promotes tissue growth.

A water soluble vitamin that is needed for the maintenance of collagen.

Negatively charged particles found within the nuclei of atoms.

Compounds that inhibit the oxidation of other substances.

A highly reactive atom or molecule that causes oxidative damage.

A fat-soluble vitamin that functions as an antioxidant in the body.

A strong, fibrous protein that functions as an extracellular structural element in connective tissue.

A disease caused by a vitamin C deficiency characterized by bleeding gums, tooth loss, joint pain, bleeding into the skin and mucous membrane, and fatigue.

The level of nutrient intake that should be used as a goal when no RDA exists. This value is an approximation of the nutrient intake that sustains health.

(Tolerable Upper Intake Level) The maximum daily nutrient intake levels that are likely to pose health risks to almost all individuals in a given gender and life-stage group.

(Recommended Dietary Allowance) The levels of intake of essential nutrients that is based off of scientific knowledge, and it judged by the Food and Nutrition Board to be adequate to meet the known nutrient needs for all healthy people.

A chemical released from one end of a nerve cell that travels across the gap (synapse) between one cell and the next to either stimulate or inhibit its transmission of a nerve impulse. Neurotransmitters are the chemicals responsible for transmitting nerve signals between nerve cells.

The thiamin deficiency disorder characterized by muscle weakness, loss of appetite, nerve degeneration, and sometimes edema.

A molecule made from the fermentation of carbohydrates from plant products.

Essential nutrients that are needed by the body in small amounts. These include vitamins and minerals.

A B vitamin that is needed for energy metabolism.

Organic compounds that are needed in small amounts in the diet to support and regulate the chemical reactions and processes needed for growth, reproduction, and the maintenance of health.

A B vitamin that is needed for the synthesis of DNA and the metabolism of some amino acids.

A pair of organs that aid in filtering waste and water out of the blood while also maintaining chemical balance in our bodies.

A disease caused by niacin deficiency, characterized by inflammation of the skin, diarrhea, and eventually mental incapacity.

The deterioration of an individual’s mental state that results in impaired memory, thinking, and judgement.

(Niacin Equivalent) The units used to express the niacin content of a food. 60 mg of tryptophan = 1 mg niacin.

The amount of a dietary nutrient that is absorbed and utilized by the body.

One of the B vitamins needed for energy metabolism.

The metabolic pathway in which acetyl CoA units become metabolized to release energy.

(Adequate Intake) The level of nutrient intake that should be used as a goal when no RDA exists. This value is an approximation of the nutrient intake that sustains health.

An amino acid that can be synthesized by the human body in sufficient quantities to meet the body’s needs.

An iron-containing protein found in red blood cells that bind and transports oxygen throughout the body.

A B vitamin needed for protein metabolism.

A form of anemia (also known as megaloblastic anemia) that is characterized by large red blood cells that continue to grow because they do not lose their nucleus when they should.

The organ system that includes the brain and spinal cord responsible for sensing changes in the external environment and creating a reaction to them.

A form of folate that is easily digestible and used in dietary supplements and fortified foods.

The mucoprotein molecule secreted by the gastric mucosal cells and required for the absorption of vitamin B12  into the body.

A form of macrocytic anemia resulting from vitamin B12 deficiency due to a lack of intrinsic factor.

One of the B vitamins that is only found in animal products.

An essential nutrient, needed for the synthesis of the phospholipids, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, lipid transport and also homocysteine metabolism.

The accumulation of fat in the liver. An early sign of excess alcohol consumption.

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• Basic Nutrition

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This one-page handout highlights the key changes being made to the new Nutrition Facts Label.

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Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals pp 149–172 Cite as

Vitamins and Minerals: Types, Sources and their Functions

• Muhammad Akram 3 ,
• Naveed Munir 4 ,
• Muhammad Daniyal 5 ,
• Chukwuebuka Egbuna 6 , 7 ,
• Mihnea-Alexandru Găman 8 ,
• Peculiar Feenna Onyekere 9 &
• Ahmed Olatunde 10  
• First Online: 25 August 2020

2573 Accesses

20 Citations

The aim of this chapter is to summarize key literature findings regarding the role of micronutrients, mainly vitamins and minerals in health and disease. Various studies have investigated the effects of dietary patterns on the nutritional status and have concluded that unhealthy eating increases the risk of malnutrition. The prevalence of malnutrition is higher in low- and middle-income countries as compared to high-income countries. Current literatures highlight a direct association between dietary factors and disease occurrence and that a healthy diet helps in the prevention of a myriad of diseases.

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Akram, M. et al. (2020). Vitamins and Minerals: Types, Sources and their Functions. In: Egbuna, C., Dable Tupas, G. (eds) Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42319-3_9

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