scholarly articles research

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Streamlined collaboration can boost crispr gene therapies for rare diseases.

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Unchanged power dynamics still block progress for under-represented groups in academia

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UK election: three research priorities for the next government

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Neuroscientists must not be afraid to study religion

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What is a Scholarly Article: What is a scholarly article

Determineif a source is scholarly, determine if a source is scholarly, what is a scholarly source.

Scholarly sources (also referred to as academic, peer-reviewed, or refereed sources) are written by experts in a particular field and serve to keep others interested in that field up to date on the most recent research, findings, and news. These resources will provide the most substantial information for your research and papers.

What is peer-review?

When a source has been peer-reviewed, it has undergone the review and scrutiny of a review board of colleagues in the author’s field. They evaluate this source as part of the body of research for a particular discipline and make recommendations regarding its publication in a journal, revisions prior to publication, or, in some cases, reject its publication.

Why use scholarly sources?

Scholarly sources’ authority and credibility improve the quality of your own paper or research project.

How can I tell if a source is scholarly?

The following characteristics can help you differentiate scholarly sources from those that are not. Be sure to look at the criteria in each category when making your determination, rather than basing your decision on only one piece of information.

• Are author names provided?
• Are the authors’ credentials provided?
• Are the credentials relevant to the information provided?
• Who is the publisher of the information?
• Is the publisher an academic institution, scholarly, or professional organization?
• Is their purpose for publishing this information evident?
• Who is the intended audience of this source?
• Is the language geared toward those with knowledge of a specific discipline rather than the general public?
• Why is the information being provided?
• Are sources cited?
• Are there charts, graphs, tables, and bibliographies included?
• Are research claims documented?
• Are conclusions based on evidence provided?
• How long is the source?

Currency/Timeliness

• Is the date of publication evident?

Additional Tips for Specific Scholarly Source Types

Each resource type below will also have unique criteria that can be applied to it to determine if it is scholarly.

• Books published by a University Press are likely to be scholarly.
• Professional organizations and the U.S. Government Printing Office can also be indicators that a book is scholarly.
• Book reviews can provide clues as to if a source is scholarly and highlight the intended audience. See our  Find Reviews  guide to locate reviews on titles of interest.
• Are the author’s professional affiliations provided?
• Who is the publisher?
• How frequently is the periodical published?
• How many and what kinds of advertisements are present? For example, is the advertising clearly geared towards readers in a specific discipline or occupation?
• For more information about different periodical types, see our  Selecting Sources  guide.
• What is the domain of the page (for example: .gov, .edu, etc.)?
• Who is publishing or sponsoring the page?
• Is contact information for the author/publisher provided?
• How recently was the page updated?
• Is the information biased? Scholarly materials published online should not have any evidence of bias.

Is My Source Scholarly? (Accessible View)

Step 1: Source

The article is most likely scholarly if:

• You found the article in a library database or Google Scholar
• The journal the article appears in is peer-reviewed

Move to Step 2: Authors

Step 2: Authors

The source is most likely scholarly if:

• The authors’ credentials are provided
• The authors are affiliated with a university or other research institute

Move to Step 3: Content

Step 3: Content

• The source is longer than 10 pages
• Has a works cited or bibliography
• It does not attempt to persuade or bias the reader
• It attempts to persuade or bias the reader, but treats the topic objectively, the information is well-supported, and it includes a works cited or bibliography

If the article meets the criteria in Steps 1-3 it is most likely scholarly.

Common Characteristics of a Scholarly Article

Common characteristics of scholarly (research) articles.

Articles in scholarly journals may also be called research journals, peer reviewed journals, or refereed journals. These types of articles share many common features, including:

• articles always provide the name of the author or multiple authors
• author(s) always have academic credentials (e.g. biologist, chemist, anthropologist, lawyer)
• articles often have a sober, serious look
• articles may contain many graphs and charts; few glossy pages or color pictures
• author(s) write in the language of the discipline (e.g. biology, chemistry, anthropology, law, etc.)
• authors write for other scholars, and emerging scholars
• authors always cite their sources in footnotes, bibliographies, notes, etc.
• often (but not always) associated with universities or professional organizations

Types of Scholarly Articles

Peer Review in 3 Minutes

North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries (3:15)

• What do peer reviewers do?  How are they similar to or different from editors?
• Who are the primary customers of scholarly journals?
• Do databases only include peer-reviewed articles?  How do you know?

Is my source scholarly

Is My Source Scholarly?: INFOGRAPHIC

This infographic is part of the Illinois Library's Determine if a source is scholarly.

"Is my source scholarly" by Illinois Library  https://www.library.illinois.edu/ugl/howdoi/scholarly/

Anatomy of a Scholarly Article: Interactive Tutorial

Typical Sections of a Peer-Reviewed Research Article

Typical sections of peer-reviewed research articles.

Research articles in many disciplines are organized into standard sections. Although these sections may vary by discipline, common sections include:

• Introduction
• Materials and Methods

It's not hard to spot these sections; just look for bold headings in the article, as shown in these illustrations:

• Last Updated: Oct 22, 2020 11:31 AM
• URL: https://libguides.mccd.edu/WhatisaScholarlyArticle

• Hirsh Health Sciences
• Webster Veterinary

Guide to Scholarly Articles

Getting started, what makes an article scholarly, why does this matter.

• Scholarly vs. Popular vs. Trade Articles
• Types of Scholarly Articles
• Anatomy of Scholarly Articles
• Tips for Reading Scholarly Articles

Scholarship is a conversation.

That conversation is often found in the form of published materials such as books, essays, and articles. Here, we will focus on scholarly articles because scholarly articles often contain the most current scholarly conversation.

After reading through this guide on scholarly articles you will be able to identify and describe different types of scholarly articles. This will allow you to navigate the scholarly conversation more effectively which in turn will make your research more productive.

The distinguishing feature of a scholarly article is not that it is without errors; rather, a scholarly article is distinguished by a few characteristics which reduce the likelihood of errors. For our purposes, those characteristics are expert authors , peer-review , and citations .

• Expert Authors  - Authority is constructed and contextual. In other words it is built through academic credentialing and lived experience. Scholarly articles are written by experts in their respective fields rather than generalists. Expertise often comes in the form of academic credentials. For example, an article about the spread of various diseases should be written by someone with credentials and experience in immunology or public health.
• Peer-review  - Peer-review is the process whereby scholarly articles are vetted and improved. In this process an author submits an article to a journal for publication. However, before publication, an editor of the journal will send the article to other experts in the field to solicit their informed and professional opinions of it. These reviewers (sometimes called referees) will give the editor feedback regarding the quality of the article. Based on this process, articles may be published as is, published after specific changes are made, or not published at all.
• Citations  - One of the key differences between scholarly articles and other kinds of articles is that the former contain citations and bibliographies. These citations allow the reader to follow up on the author's sources to verify or dispute the author's claim.

There is a well-known axiom that says "Garbage in, garbage out." In the context of research this means that the quality of your research output is dependent on the information sources that go into you own research. Generally speaking, the information found in scholarly articles is more reliable than information found elsewhere. It is important to identify scholarly articles and prioritize them in your own research.

• Next: Scholarly vs. Popular vs. Trade Articles >>
• Last Updated: Aug 23, 2023 8:53 AM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.tufts.edu/scholarly-articles

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• Research Guides
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A Scholar's Guide to Google

• Google Scholar
• Google Books

Using Google Scholar

Google Scholar is a special version of Google specially designed for searching scholarly literature. It covers peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, preprints, abstracts and technical reports from all broad areas of research.

A Harvard ID and PIN are required for Google Scholar in order to access the full text of books, journal articles, etc. provided by licensed resources to which Harvard subscribes. Indviduals outside of Harvard may access Google Scholar directly at http://scholar.google.com/ , but they will not have access to the full text of articles provided by Harvard Library E-Resources .

Browsing Search Results

The following screenshots illustrate some of the features that accompany individual records in Google Scholar's results lists.

Find It@Harvard – Locates an electronic version of the work (when available) through Harvard's subscription library resources. If no electronic full text is available, a link to the appropriate HOLLIS Catalog record is provided for alternative formats.

Group of – Finds other articles included in this group of scholarly works, possibly preliminary, which you may be able to access. Examples include preprints, abstracts, conference papers or other adaptations.

Cited By – Identifies other papers that have cited articles in the group.

Related Articles - The list of related articles is ranked primarily by how similar these articles are to the original result, but also takes into account the relevance of each paper. Finding sets of related papers and books is often a great way for novices to get acquainted with a topic.

Cached - The "Cached" link is the snapshot that Google took of the page when they crawled the web. The page may have changed since that time and the cached page may reference images which are no longer available.

Web Search – Searches for information on the Web about this work using the Google search engine.

BL Direct – Purchase the full text of the article through the British Library. Once transferred into BL Direct, users can also link to the full collection of The British Library document supply content. Prices for the service are expressed in British pounds. Abstracts for some documents are provided.

The Advanced Search feature in Google Scholar allows researchers to limit their query to particular authors, publications, dates, and subject areas.  

Page Last Reviewed: February 25, 2008

• << Previous: Google Books
• Last Updated: Jun 8, 2017 1:21 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/googleguide

Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

Evaluating Information Sources

• Evaluate Your Sources
• Publication Types and Bias

Structure of Scientific Papers

Reading a scholarly article, additional reading tips, for more information.

• Reading Scholarly Articles
• Impact Factors and Citation Counts
• Predatory Publishing

Research papers generally follow a specific format. Here are the different parts of the scholarly article.

Abstract (Summary)

The abstract, generally written by the author(s) of the article, provides a concise summary of the whole article. Usually it highlights the focus, study results and conclusion(s) of the article. 

Introduction (Why)

In this section, the authors introduce their topic, explain the purpose of the study, and present why it is important, unique or how it adds to existing knowledge in their field. Look for the author's hypothesis or thesis here. 

Introduction - Literature Review (Who else)

Many scholarly articles include a summary of previous research or discussions published on this topic, called a "Literature Review".  This section outlines what others have found and what questions still remain.

Methodology  / Materials and Methods (How) 

Find the details of how the study was performed in this section. There should be enough specifics so that you could repeat the study if you wanted. 

Results   (What happened)

This section includes the findings from the study. Look for the data and statistical results in the form of tables, charts, and graphs. Some papers include an analysis here.

Discussion  / Analysis  (What it means)

This section should tell you what the authors felt was significant about their results. The authors analyze their data and describe what they believe it means.

Conclusion (What was learned)

Here the authors offer their final thoughts and conclusions and may include: how the study addressed their hypothesis, how it contributes to the field, the strengths and weaknesses of the study, and recommendations for future research. Some papers combine the discussion and conclusion.

A scholarly paper can be difficult to read. Instead of reading straight through, try focusing on the different sections and asking specific questions at each point.

What is your research question? 

When you select an article to read for a project or class, focus on your topic. Look for information in the article that is relevant to your research question. 

Read the abstract first  as it covers basics of the article. Questions to consider: 

• What is this article about? What is the working hypothesis or thesis?
• Is this related to my question or area of research?

Second: Read the introduction and discussion/conclusion.  These sections offer the main argument and hypothesis of the article. Questions to consider for the introduction: 

• What do we already know about this topic and what is left to discover?
• What have other people done in regards to this topic?
• How is this research unique?
• Will this tell me anything new related to my research question?

Questions for the discussion and conclusion: 

• What does the study mean and why is it important?
• What are the weaknesses in their argument?
• Is the conclusion valid?

Next: Read about the Methods/Methodology.  If what you've read addresses your research question, this should be your next section. Questions to consider:

• How did the author do the research? Is it a qualitative or quantitative project?
• What data are the study based on?
• Could I repeat their work? Is all the information present in order to repeat it?

Finally: Read the Results and Analysis.  Now read the details of this research. What did the researchers learn? If graphs and statistics are confusing, focus on the explanations around them. Questions to consider: 

• What did the author find and how did they find it?
• Are the results presented in a factual and unbiased way?
• Does their analysis agree with the data presented?
• Is all the data present?
• What conclusions do you formulate from this data? (And does it match with the Author's conclusions?)

Review the References (anytime): These give credit to other scientists and researchers and show you the basis the authors used to develop their research.  The list of references, or works cited, should include all of the materials the authors used in the article. The references list can be a good way to identify additional sources of information on the topic. Questions to ask:

• What other articles should I read?
• What other authors are respected in this field?
• What other research should I explore?

When you read these scholarly articles, remember that you will be writing based on what you read.

While you are Reading:

• Keep in mind your research question
• Focus on the information in the article relevant to your question (feel free to skim over other parts)
• Question everything you read - not everything is 100% true or performed effectively
• Think critically about what you read and seek to build your own arguments
• Read out of order! This isn't a mystery novel or movie, you want to start with the spoiler
• Use any keywords printed by the journals as further clues about the article
• Look up words you don't know

How to Take Notes on the Article

Try different ways, but use the one that fits you best. Below are some suggestions:

• Print the article and highlight, circle and otherwise mark while you read (for a PDF, you can use the highlight text  feature in Adobe Reader)
• Take notes on the sections, for example in the margins (Adobe Reader offers pop-up  sticky notes )
• Highlight only very important quotes or terms - or highlight potential quotes in a different color
• Summarize the main or key points

Reflect on what you have read - draw your own conclusions . As you read jot down questions that come to mind. These may be answered later on in the article or you may have found something that the authors did not consider. Here are a few questions that might be helpful:

• Have I taken time to understand all the terminology?
• Am I spending too much time on the less important parts of this article?
• Do I have any reason to question the credibility of this research?
• What specific problem does the research address and why is it important?
• How do these results relate to my research interests or to other works which I have read?
• Anatomy of a Scholarly Article (Interactive tutorial) Andreas Orphanides, North Carolina State University Libraries, 2009
• How to Read an Article in a Scholarly Journal (Research Guide) Cayuga Community College Library, 2016
• How To Read a Scholarly Journal Article (YouTube Video) Tim Lockman, Kishwaukee College Library, 2012.
• How To Read a Scientific Paper (Interactive tutorial) Michael Fosmire, Purdue University Libraries, 2013. PDF
• How to Read a Scientific Paper (Online article) Science Buddies, 2012
• How to Read a Scientific Research Paper (Article) Durbin Jr., C. G. Respiratory Care, 2009
• The Illusion of Certainty and the Certainty of Illusion: A Caution when Reading Scientific Articles (Article) T. A. Lang, International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 2011,
• Infographic: How to Read Scientific Papers Natalia Rodriguez, Elsevier, 2015
• Library Research Methods: Read & Evaluate Culinary Institute of America Library, 2016
• << Previous: Publication Types and Bias
• Next: Impact Factors and Citation Counts >>
• Last Updated: Mar 8, 2024 1:17 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/evaluate

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Evaluating Sources: Evaluating Scholarly Sources

• Skills & Strategies
• Evaluating News Sources
• Evaluating Scholarly Sources

Frequently Asked Questions

Printable Handouts

• Consider the Source (handout) A printable handout from SU Libraries with questions to consider about sources for research projects

Three Stages of Evaluating Sources for Research Projects

• 1. During the Search Process
• 2. During an Initial Reading
• 3. During and After an In-Depth Reading

Identifying basic information about how sources are created and what makes them authoritative can help you select the ones best suited to your research project.

Signs of Authority

• Consider the journal that published the article. What does the journal title tell you about the article’s subject and intended audience?
• What can you tell about the author ’s or research team’s areas of expertise? Are their degrees and institutions listed? Feel free to Google their names to learn more about them.
• Note when the article was published, and consider whether the publication date is appropriate for your research project. Do you need to find the most current information, or could older sources provide valuable insight?

Signs of Relevance

• Based on the article title and abstract , what aspect(s) of your topic does the article cover? In other words, think about how you would use information from this source.
• Consider your next steps. What parts of your topic you still need to learn more about?

Reading Scholarly Articles

Because they are written by and for experts, scholarly articles are often challenging to read. Recognizing their common features  and looking for the  relationships among sources can help you to understand them and to decide whether they will be good sources for your project.

After you have explored some search results using the previous activity, choose one article and use the following questions to guide your initial reading.

Organization and Argument

• If the article has an abstract , read it carefully and think about how it relates to your topic. What is the article’s thesis or main idea ?
• Read the introduction or introductory paragraph(s). If your article doesn't have an abstract, look for the thesis or main idea here. What does this section tell you about why the study was conducted? 
• Turn to the article's conclusion  or final paragraphs to look for a discussion of the study's results and significance. How does knowing about this study help you with your own project?
• Skim the body of the article, paying attention to any  headings and figures.  If the article is divided into sections, what do the section headings tell you about the content of the article?
• In the social and physical sciences, most articles will discuss the research methods (or design). Did the researchers collect and analyze their data in a way that seems logical and ethical?

Identifying Scholarly Conversations

• If your article has section headings, look for the literature review to learn how this study is related to previous studies on the topic. Is it testing, confirming, correcting, adding to, or clarifying previous knowledge—or some combination of those? (If your article doesn't have a literature review section, look for this information in the first few pages.)
• Scan the list of references or works cited at the end of your article to look for additional potential sources . What are some important keywords that show up repeatedly among the titles in the list of references?
• Name one interesting source that is quoted or cited in the article. What does your article say about this source, or why is it being cited?

Evaluating Usefulness

• Based on your initial reading of this article, how do you think you might be able to use information from this source in your project?
• Consider your next steps. What additional information or viewpoints do you need to find?

If this article doesn't seem useful after your initial reading, move on to a different one. If you aren't finding any useful sources, you may need to adjust your topic in response to what you're learning about the existing research.

In order to discuss a source in detail, you will need to read and understand the paper more thoroughly than you did for the previous activities. Read slowly, look up unfamiliar words, and take notes that summarize your understanding of each section as you go. 

Summarizing Sources

After reading the articles, write a brief summary. Show that you understand the problem or question the research was meant to address, the approach used to gather the information needed, and the conclusions.

• What are the main and sub-questions the study raises, and what answers does it provide?
• Why is the topic worth studying?
• How does the article fit within your research process? Does it confirm, challenge, or complicate your own ideas?

Critically Evaluating Sources

After you’ve established what the article is about, use the questions below to guide your critical evaluation of the article. Remember that critical isn’t a synonym for negative in this activity. You should consider the overall credibility—both strengths and shortcomings—of the study and its results.

Methods/Design

• Does the research method match the purpose of the study? For example, if you wanted to study student behavior in the classroom, observing the class would provide more direct evidence than interviewing teachers.
• What biases or limitations does the author acknowledge? Note any explanations of conflicts of interest and limitations due to time, funding, availability of subjects, etc.
• Are there any obvious flaws in the plan for the study? These could include lack of controls, extraneous variables, poorly defined terms, etc.
• Does the article offer a model that you would want to follow in a study of your own? Does it provide you with enough information to duplicate the research if you wanted to?

Findings and Analysis

• How does the presentation of information – in graphs, statistics, tables, or narrative passages – affect your understanding?
• Is the author's interpretation logical? Has the author made unwarranted assumptions or neglected to address valid counterarguments?
• How is evidence from external sources used to support the author’s claims? Is it convincing? Why or why not?
• Is the organization of the article clear? Were there any problems with grammar, sentence structure, or word usage?

Discussion and Conclusions

• Does the information presented fully support the main point/thesis/argument of the article? Are there gaps left unaddressed?
• Do the results seem as significant as the introduction suggested they would be? Does the work advance the field of study or help solve a contemporary problem?
• What is the reader expected to do with this information? Can further research be derived from it?
• If you remain skeptical of a seemingly well-researched and well-written article, consider why. Are you aware of other valid evidence, viewpoints, or values not considered by the author?
• << Previous: Evaluating News Sources
• Last Updated: Jun 28, 2024 5:03 PM
• URL: https://libguides.su.edu/evaluating

• Open access
• Published: 26 June 2024

Physical activity levels and sedentary behaviour according to sex, age, BMI, academic year, and country among medical students in Latin America

• Diego Herreros-Irarrázabal 1 ,
• María Fernanda González-López 1   na1 ,
• Rocío Nuche-Salgado 2 ,
• Josivaldo de Souza-Lima 3 , 4   na1 &
• Sandra Mahecha-Matsudo 1 , 5  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1699 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

218 Accesses

Metrics details

Physical inactivity represents a global challenge in public health, being the second most significant factor contributing to mortality. In Latin America, the prevalence of physical inactivity and sedentary behaviour is notable, affecting medical students as well, who play a crucial role as behavioural role models for the population. This study addresses the prevalence of physical activity and sedentary behaviour among medical students in Latin America during the year 2023. A total of 864 participants from 12 institutions across eight countries were surveyed using the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire. Significant variations in physical activity and sedentary behaviour were observed according to sex, age, body mass index, academic year, and country. Notably, Costa Rica exhibited the highest levels of moderate physical activity in leisure time (90 min/day). Strength training was more common among men (60 min/day) and in Argentina (60 min/day). Sedentary behaviour was higher in women (420 min/day) and during the first academic year (485 min/day). Uruguay stood out with high levels of sedentary behaviour (600 min/day). Correlations indicated positive moderate associations between academic year and moderate leisure-time PA (r:0,128, p:0,007). In conclusion, there are associations between the level of physical activity and sedentary behaviour with the variables studied in this research, with the main findings being that the female sex has more time spent in sedentary behaviour (minutes/day) and less time spent in strength training (minutes/day). Additionally, there are higher levels of sedentary behaviour in the early years of medical study compared to the later years of the program.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The prevalence of physical inactivity (PI) stands at 31% globally, representing a current public health issue and the second most significant cause of mortality from all causes, resulting in over 5.3 million deaths [ 1 ]. PI affects various systems, being a risk factor associated with more than 35 chronic diseases [ 2 ], thereby imposing a burden and significant expenses on both public and private healthcare services [ 3 ]. Latin America is no exception in this regard. Multiple studies have demonstrated the high levels of PI present in this region. Regrettably, according to studies, Latin America ranks among the regions of the world with the highest levels of PI. In countries such as Bolivia, Chile, and Colombia, the levels of physical activity are particularly low, with prevalences of 13.9%, 13.6%, and 15.4%, respectively. Additionally, sedentary behavior is an alarming issue, with 51.8% of adolescents in Colombia reporting spending more than three hours per day sitting outside school hours [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ].

Regrettably, according to studies, Latin America ranks among the regions of the world with the highest levels of PI [ 9 ]. Concerning sedentary behaviour (SB), the literature indicates that the average sitting time exceeds 7 h per day in some Latin American countries [ 5 ]. When evaluating the population of young adults (aged 21–30 years), they spend more time sitting during the day compared to those over 61 years of age [ 10 ]. Considering medical students, a Colombian study highlighted that the academic program with the least amount of SB was medicine when compared with seven other undergraduate courses, highlighting a weekly physical activity level of 1413 METs-min [ 11 ].

The World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines on physical activity (PA) and SB, published in 2020, stipulate that adults should accumulate at least 150 to 300 min of moderate-intensity aerobic PA, or 75 to 150 min of vigorous-intensity aerobic PA, or an equivalent combination of moderate and vigorous-intensity activities throughout the week, to attain health benefits. Furthermore, it recommends engaging in moderate-intensity muscle-strengthening activities involving major muscle groups on two or more days a week [ 12 ]. Adhering to these recommendations helps individuals achieve better levels of cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, which have been associated with a reduction in all-cause mortality [ 13 ].

In a study conducted across several medical schools in the United States, it was observed that medical students did not meet the World Health Organization's (WHO) physical activity (PA) recommendations. Medical students engaged in significantly less moderate to vigorous physical activity (165 min per week) and spent more time in sedentary behaviour (10 h per day) compared to physical education students, who engaged in 420 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity per week and spent 7 h per day in sedentary behaviour [ 14 ]. A similar situation occurred in Brazil, where a study evaluated 186 students with an average age of 21.23 years, comparing the 2000–2001 cohort with that of 2011, and observed a significant decrease of 24.7% in compliance with the WHO's PA recommendations. SB times were 8.92 and 8.72 h/day for each group, with no significant differences between groups on weekdays [ 15 ]. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that medical students engage in less PA than the general population [ 16 ]. Another study assessed the levels of physical activity among medical students in Colombia finding that 38.5% met the PA recommendations [ 17 ]. On the contrary, in other countries such as Argentina it was found that 79.8% of students comply with the recommendations [ 18 ]. And similar to Chile, where 77% reported a sedentary lifestyle [ 19 ] and Peru, where 25.3% of the individuals surveyed reported a low level of physical activity [ 20 ], additional research has been conducted on this topic, supporting the mentioned assertions. Moreover, it is important to highlight that scientific evidence shows that the advice given by doctors regarding healthy lifestyle habits is of higher quality and more credible to patients when the doctor practices healthy lifestyle habits themselves [ 21 , 22 ]. Similarly, medical students fulfil a role akin to that of doctors.

Although this topic has been explored by various authors, to date, there has not been a study that encompasses multiple Latin American countries within the same period, providing a broader context regarding PA and SB. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare and associate the level of PA and SB according to sex, age, body mass index (BMI), current academic year, and country of medical students in Latin America during the year 2023.

The convenience sample was obtained following an invitation to professional contacts, student associations and/or management teams at university institutions that volunteered to participate in the study. Comprehensive information about the project and its implications was delivered via email, and the invitation was sent to 21 universities from different Latin American countries and was accepted by 12 universities from 8 Latin American countries: Universidad de Mendoza (Argentina), Universidad Mayor (Chile), Universidad San Sebastián (Chile), Universidad Diego Portales (Chile), Universidad de La Frontera (Chile), Universidad de la Sabana (Colombia), Universidad Latina de Costa Rica (Costa Rica), Universidad Central de Ecuador (Ecuador), Universidad Americana (Nicaragua), Universidad Internacional (Nicaragua), Universidad Privada Antenor Orrego (Peru), Universidad de la República de Uruguay (Uruguay). The number of medical students at these universities is approximately 19,056. To determine the necessary sample size, a sample size calculation was conducted, considering a sample universe of 19,056, with a confidence level of 95%, precision of 3% and expected proportion of 5%, the calculated sample size is 201 individuals, considering 20% expected loss, the final value is 251 individuals. Inclusion criteria were being a student from the universities, regularly enrolled, attending from the first to seventh year (notably, only Chile and Peru offer a seventh year of study in the program), and being over 18 years of age. Responses from those who did not complete and/or accept the informed consent were excluded (37 responses (4,1% of the total responses)), resulting in the final study sample of 864 reponses (comprising the 95,9% of the total of reponses). The research was conducted between August 29 and October 8, 2023. The institutional scientific ethical committee of Universidad Mayor (Folio No. 0379) approved the study, in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki [ 23 ].

To determine the level of PA, the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) version 2.0, in Spanish, proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and previously utilised in some Latin American countries [ 24 ], was employed. The GPAQ has been validated in the general population [ 25 ] and among university students, demonstrating high reliability [ 26 ]. This questionnaire includes 16 questions that address a typical week, focusing on the intensity (moderate and vigorous), frequency (number of days per week), and duration (minutes per day) of PA across three domains: leisure time, transport, and work. Specifically, for the work domain, considering that the participants are medical students, the GPAQ instructions advise respondents to consider time spent at work, whether in a paid position or not, or time dedicated to studying. Additionally, the questionnaire asks about the usual amount of time spent sitting or lying down on a typical day (hours: minutes per day), not counting the hours spent sleeping. Also, two questions were added to assess the frequency and duration of muscle-strengthening activities (1. During the last 7 days muscle strengthening, not including today. How many days did you carry out muscle strengthening activities?; 2. ¿How much time do you usually spend on one of those days doing physical activities for muscle strengthening?). The application of this instrument was conducted by sending a link to a Google Forms® questionnaire, with informed consent and survey to the established contacts at each university, who were responsible for distributing it to all medical students at their institution. The questionnaire included questions on sex (male/female), age (years), weight (kg), height (cm), country, years in the programme (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th). Body mass index (BMI Kg/m 2 ) was calculated based on self-reported data and classified according to WHO classification: underweight < 18.5, normal weight 18.5—24.9, overweight 25—29.9, and obesity ≥ 30. Regarding SB, a duration of > 8 h/day was considered high [ 27 ].

In our study, the descriptive analysis of qualitative variables was presented using frequencies and percentages (%), complemented by the determination of percentiles. To ensure the consistency and quality of the collected data, the GPAQ data truncation protocol was applied. For instance, in cases where a participant reported 20 h of activity per day, this value was adjusted to 16 h/day to minimise potential errors and biases.

Quantitative variables, on the other hand, were expressed through the median and standard deviation. To assess the normal distribution of these variables, the Shapiro–Wilk test was implemented. For the comparison between variables, Student's t-test was used for parametric data and the Kruskal-Walli’s test for non-parametric data. To identify statistically significant differences between groups, the Dwass-Steel-Critchlow-Fligner test was utilized. For the correlations, the Pearson correlation coefficient was used because the data were non-parametric. A significance level of p  < 0.05 was established for all statistical tests. All analyses were conducted using Jamovi software (version 4.3.1, 2022), thus ensuring rigorous and up-to-date data processing.

This study is based on data collected from a survey completed by 864 medical students from 12 academic institutions located in 8 Latin American countries. Table 1 displays statistical differences between men and women in health characteristics and demographic distribution of medical students in Latin America. Significantly, the Body Mass Index (BMI) averages 23.0 for women compared to 24.6 for men ( p  = 0.004), indicating that men tend to have a higher BMI. Furthermore, women predominate in all academic years, from the first to the seventh, with highly significant differences ( p  < 0.001) in each yearly comparison.

Table 2 outlines the day minutes of PA and daily minutes SB according to sex, year of study, and country. It highlights a significant difference in moderate leisure-time PA between Chile and Costa Rica ( p  = 0.013), Colombia and Costa Rica ( p  = 0.012), and between Costa Rica and Uruguay ( p  = 0.031), with Costa Rica reporting higher levels of moderate leisure-time PA. Regarding moderate and vigorous work-related PA, a significant difference was only noted between Chile and Costa Rica ( p  = 0.003 for both). In terms of strength training, a significant difference was observed according to sex ( p  < 0.001), being higher in males, and between countries only between Argentina and Uruguay ( p  = 0.005), with Argentina showing higher levels. As for SB, the difference was significant between sexes ( p  < 0.01), being higher in females. Regarding the year of study, a significant difference in SB was observed between the first and sixth years of medical school, with SB being higher in the first year ( p  = 0.013). A similar trend was noted between the first and seventh years ( p  = 0.044). Lastly, in SB assessed between countries, there were differences between Argentina and Ecuador ( p  = 0.010), Argentina and Uruguay ( p  = 0.013), Chile and Ecuador ( p  < 0.001), Chile and Uruguay ( p  = 0.043), Colombia and Ecuador ( p  = 0.006), Ecuador and Peru ( p  = 0.031), Ecuador and Uruguay ( p  < 0.001), Nicaragua and Uruguay ( p  = 0.015), with Uruguay showing the highest values and Ecuador and Nicaragua the lowest.

Regarding the correlations outlined in Table  3 , it is noteworthy that weak positive correlations exist between strength training and sex ( R  = 0.072, p  = 0.037), SB and sex ( R  = 0.139, p  < 0.001), age and SB ( R  = -0.073, p  = 0.037), academic year and active transport ( R  = 0.106, p  = 0.011), and country with moderate PA at work ( R  = 0.147, p  = 0.019). Additionally, a moderate positive correlation was observed between academic year and moderate leisure-time PA ( R  = 0.128, p  = 0.007). Conversely, we noted a weak negative correlation for moderate and vigorous PA at work with BMI ( R  = -0.13, p  = 0.039), and between countries with strength training ( R  = -0.082, p  = 0.017). Lastly, a moderate negative correlation was evident for sex with moderate leisure-time PA ( R  = -0.124, p  = 0.009), and between academic year and SB ( R  = -0.141, p  < 0.001).

The Fig. 1 presents a series of scatter plots displaying the trends in sedentary behaviour and various forms of physical activity among medical students across seven academic years. Each graph corresponds to a specific academic year, from the first to the seventh, illustrating median values for six categories of activity: 1) Sedentary Behaviour, 2) Active Transportation, 3) Moderate Leisure-Time Physical Activity, 4) Moderate Work Physical Activity, 5) Vigorous Work Physical Activity, and 6) Strength Training. These activities are measured in minutes per day.

The primary aim of this study was to compare and associate the levels of PA and SB with sex, age, BMI, current academic year, and country of medical students in Latin America during the year 2023.

64.4% of the participants in this study were women, a trend reflected in the analysis of survey responses by course and country, where a female prevalence was observed in all categories. When comparing these data with previous research, a significant difference was found, as these studies highlighted the male sex as predominant at the time of response [ 18 , 20 ]. Although there are studies where a larger number of participants were female [ 17 , 28 ], these had a smaller population than the present study, and none exhibited as marked a difference as this investigation. This discrepancy could be attributed to a higher number of women in the medical schools where the survey was conducted or to a higher response rate among them. According to data from the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), women comprised 56.6% of applicants, 55.4% of matriculants, and 54.6% of total enrolment in U.S. medical schools for the 2023–2024 academic year, marking the fifth consecutive year that women have constituted the majority in these categories. Additionally, the American Medical Association (AMA) reported that in 2019, for the first time, women made up more than half of all medical school students, reaching 50.5% of total enrolment [ 29 ]. On the other hand, there was a significant difference in BMI averages by sex, being higher in men (24.6 ± 3.76). This finding is supported by the study of Janampa-Apaza, which showed that 50.2% of the male population was overweight or obese versus 19.9% of the female population [ 20 ]. It should be noted that BMI does not differentiate excess weight according to composition, leading to potential misinterpretations of its results. For example, an individual with a higher percentage of muscle mass might have a BMI value classifying them as overweight or obese without exhibiting the characteristics of this category. This is a variable to consider in this study, as men reported spending more time on strength exercises than women.

In terms of the outcomes within the PA domains, the resultant values were significantly lower than those documented in Argentina in 2014, employing the same questionnaire [ 19 ]. Upon evaluating the level of PA across various domains, our research indicated notable differences among countries, with Costa Rica emerging as the country with the highest weekly minutes of moderate leisure-time PA (90 min/week), moderate work-related PA (120 min/week), and vigorous work-related PA (90 min/week). This finding is particularly striking as it surpasses what has been reported in the literature concerning the general population of Costa Rica [ 28 , 30 ].

Regarding SB, a notable difference was observed between sex, with women reporting higher levels than men (420 and 360 min per day, respectively), which corroborates the findings of Janapa-Apaza et al. [ 20 ], who studied a similar population at a university in Peru and noted that 50.9% of female participants spent more than 8 h per day seated. This contrasts with reports in the general Latin American population, where men reported more minutes seated (479.1 vs 442.7 min per day) [ 5 ]. In terms of academic year, there was a significant difference in SB between the first and sixth year of medical school, with higher values in the first year (485 vs 360 min per day), and a similar trend between the first and seventh year (485 vs 330 min per day) in Chile and Peru. Regarding this point, other studies have shown contradictory results, with similar findings in studies differentiating between clinical and preclinical courses [ 18 ], and differing results in another Chilean study [ 20 ]. The findings of our study suggest that the reduced SB observed in the later years, particularly in the sixth (360 min/day) and seventh year (330 min/day), can be attributed to the increased PA necessitated by clinical internships. Conversely, the early years of the program, characterized by a higher volume of theoretical classes, exhibit increased SB time (485 min/day) in comparison to the clinical courses. As mentioned in the materials and methods section, only Chile and Peru include a seventh year of study in the program, yet the previously described trend also applies to the sixth year. This should be considered when extrapolating the results.

When analysing SB by country, existing evidence aligns with our findings, showing a high level of SB across all Latin American countries [ 5 , 28 , 30 ]. In our study, the average SB among the countries surveyed was 360 min per day, with Ecuador and Nicaragua reporting the lowest levels of SB (300 min per day), while Uruguay reported the highest (600 min per day). It would be of interest for future research to explore the context of each of these countries in terms of public policies related to PA and the reduction of SB, to analyse these results in greater detail and generate new, high-quality information that could be used for interventions.

In our research, a weak positive correlation was described between SB and sex, indicating that women tend to exhibit slightly higher SB than men, as previously discussed in this publication. Additionally, a moderate positive correlation was observed between the academic year of the participant and the level of moderate leisure-time PA, suggesting that as students’ progress in their education, they tend to engage in more moderate PA during their leisure time. Another significant finding was the moderate negative correlation between sex and moderate leisure-time PA, interpreted as female participants being less likely to engage in moderate leisure-time PA compared to their male counterparts. Finally, there was a moderate negative correlation between academic year and SB, interpreted as individuals tending to decrease their SB as they advance in their studies. To our knowledge, this type of analysis is not described in the existing literature on the subject, though similar trends have been observed in previous studies [ 5 , 20 ].

Among the strengths of this research, it is noteworthy that this is the first study to measure the level of PA and SB among medical students from eight Latin American countries, enabling the generation of more comprehensive results and, thereby, conclusions that more closely reflect the local reality. This is related to the total number of participating individuals since, in previous research, there has not been a study with a participant count like or greater than this one. Another aspect to consider is that out of the 864 individuals who participated, 95.9% completed the survey accurately, which allowed for minimal loss of information. Lastly, it is important to highlight the inclusion of an evaluation of muscle-strengthening exercise practices, which is pertinent information since muscular fitness has been recognized as a mortality risk factor, hence its inclusion in the WHO recommendations since 2020 [ 11 ].

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, although it includes multiple Latin American countries, generalizing the results across the entire region may be limited due to unexplored variations in academic and cultural contexts. Additionally, the reliance on the GPAQ questionnaire to measure physical activity and sedentary behavior might not capture all dimensions of these behaviors, as it is based on self-reporting, which is subject to recall and social desirability biases. Lastly, the inclusion of a seventh academic year only in Peru and Chile necessitates caution when comparing academic data across all countries, as these specific program structures could influence the patterns of physical activity and sedentary behavior.

We can conclude that there are various associations between the level of PA and SB with variables such as sex, age, BMI, academic year, and the country of medical students in Latin America. Women spent more time in SB and less in strength exercises. There were higher levels of SB in first-year students compared to those in the last years.

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Abbreviations

Physical Inactivity

Sedentary Behaviour

World Health Organization

Physical Activity

Global Physical Activity Questionnaire

Body Mass Index

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the following individuals who made substantial contributions to the completion of the research: Héctor Campos, Karim Castillo, Francisco Cutroni, Paulina Díaz, Kevin Díaz, Natalia Gigoux, Florencia Gómez, Andrés González, Thomas Hayes, Josefina Izurieta, Henry León, Roger Mattis, Anette Ortega, Claudio Osses, Sofía Paz, Gastón Peña, Katy Ríos and Belén Rodríguez.

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Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Participants were considered consented once they read the document and signed to the survey. Participants’ confidentiality for the pooled data was maintained using numeric identification codes rather than names.

This research received no external funding.

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María Fernanda González-López and Josivaldo de Souza-Lima contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de Salud, Especialidad Medicina del Deporte y La Actividad Física, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, 8580745, Chile

Diego Herreros-Irarrázabal, María Fernanda González-López & Sandra Mahecha-Matsudo

Centro de Salud Deportiva, Clínica Santa María, Santiago, 7550000, Chile

Rocío Nuche-Salgado

Facultad de Educación y Ciencias Sociales, Instituto del Deporte y Bienestar, Universidad Andres Bello, Las Condes, Santiago, 7550000, Chile

Josivaldo de Souza-Lima

Facultad de Educación, Universidad de Granada, Granada, 18011, Spain

Centro de Investigación en Medicina Deporte, Ejercicio y Salud-Clínica MEDS, Santiago, 7550000, Chile

Sandra Mahecha-Matsudo

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Contributions

Author´s contributions: Conceptualization. D.H.-I.. S.M.M. Formal analysis. D.H.-I.. M.G.-L.. J.S.-L. Investigation. D.H.-I.. M.G.-L. Writing — Review and editing: D.H.-I.. M.G.-L.. J.S.-L.. R.N.-S.. S.M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Diego Herreros-Irarrázabal .

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This study was conducted according to the guidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki and all procedures involving human subjects/patients and each site-specific protocol was also approved by the ethical review boards of the participating institutions. Approval was obtained from the institutional scientific ethics committee of the University Mayor (Reference No. 0379). Informed consent was obtained from all the study participants.

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Herreros-Irarrázabal, D., González-López, M.F., Nuche-Salgado, R. et al. Physical activity levels and sedentary behaviour according to sex, age, BMI, academic year, and country among medical students in Latin America. BMC Public Health 24 , 1699 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19133-1

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

Vulvar Crohn’s disease: a retrospective chart review at a single academic institution

• Research Letter
• Published: 28 June 2024
• Volume 316 , article number  439 , ( 2024 )

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Boxhoorn L, Stoof TJ, de Meij T et al (2017) Clinical experience and diagnostic algorithm of vulval Crohn’s disease. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol Jul 29(7):838–843. https://doi.org/10.1097/MEG.0000000000000879

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Department of Dermatology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, 4618 Country Club Road, Winston-Salem, NC, 27104, USA

Mallory L. Zaino, Jessica N. Pixley, Steven R. Feldman & Rita O. Pichardo

Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA

Steven R. Feldman

Department of Social Sciences & Health Policy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA

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M.Z. designed the study. M.Z. and J.P conducted data extraction and analysis, consolidated findings into figures and tables, and drafted the manuscript. S.F. and R.P. supervised the project and revised the manuscript prior to submission.

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Correspondence to Jessica N. Pixley .

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This study received approval from the Wake Forest Institutional Review Board (IRB00090048). Informed consent was obtained from all study participants.

Competing interests

Feldman has received research, speaking and/or consulting support from AbbVie, Accordant, Almirall, Alvotech, Amgen, Arcutis, Arena, Argenx, Biocon, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Dermavant, Eli Lilly and Company, Eurofins, Forte, Galderma, Helsinn, Janssen, Leo Pharma, Micreos, Mylan, Novartis, Ono, Ortho Dermatology, Pfizer, Regeneron, Samsung, Sanofi, Sun Pharma, UCB, Verrica, Voluntis, and vTv Therapeutics. He is founder and part owner of Causa Research and holds stock in Sensal Health. Pichardo worked at the advisory board for Novartis. Zaino and Pixley have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

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Zaino, M.L., Pixley, J.N., Feldman, S.R. et al. Vulvar Crohn’s disease: a retrospective chart review at a single academic institution. Arch Dermatol Res 316 , 439 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-024-03172-0

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Received : 26 September 2023

Revised : 01 June 2024

Accepted : 05 June 2024

Published : 28 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-024-03172-0

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