sample qualitative research for senior high school

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• Published: 02 December 2020

Enhancing senior high school student engagement and academic performance using an inclusive and scalable inquiry-based program

• Locke Davenport Huyer   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1526-7122 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Neal I. Callaghan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8214-3395 1 , 3   na1 ,
• Sara Dicks 4 ,
• Edward Scherer 4 ,
• Andrey I. Shukalyuk 1 ,
• Margaret Jou 4 &
• Dawn M. Kilkenny   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3899-9767 1 , 5  

npj Science of Learning volume  5 , Article number:  17 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The multi-disciplinary nature of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) careers often renders difficulty for high school students navigating from classroom knowledge to post-secondary pursuits. Discrepancies between the knowledge-based high school learning approach and the experiential approach of future studies leaves some students disillusioned by STEM. We present Discovery , a term-long inquiry-focused learning model delivered by STEM graduate students in collaboration with high school teachers, in the context of biomedical engineering. Entire classes of high school STEM students representing diverse cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds engaged in iterative, problem-based learning designed to emphasize critical thinking concomitantly within the secondary school and university environments. Assessment of grades and survey data suggested positive impact of this learning model on students’ STEM interests and engagement, notably in under-performing cohorts, as well as repeating cohorts that engage in the program on more than one occasion. Discovery presents a scalable platform that stimulates persistence in STEM learning, providing valuable learning opportunities and capturing cohorts of students that might otherwise be under-engaged in STEM.

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Introduction.

High school students with diverse STEM interests often struggle to understand the STEM experience outside the classroom 1 . The multi-disciplinary nature of many career fields can foster a challenge for students in their decision to enroll in appropriate high school courses while maintaining persistence in study, particularly when these courses are not mandatory 2 . Furthermore, this challenge is amplified by the known discrepancy between the knowledge-based learning approach common in high schools and the experiential, mastery-based approaches afforded by the subsequent undergraduate model 3 . In the latter, focused classes, interdisciplinary concepts, and laboratory experiences allow for the application of accumulated knowledge, practice in problem solving, and development of both general and technical skills 4 . Such immersive cooperative learning environments are difficult to establish in the secondary school setting and high school teachers often struggle to implement within their classroom 5 . As such, high school students may become disillusioned before graduation and never experience an enriched learning environment, despite their inherent interests in STEM 6 .

It cannot be argued that early introduction to varied math and science disciplines throughout high school is vital if students are to pursue STEM fields, especially within engineering 7 . However, the majority of literature focused on student interest and retention in STEM highlights outcomes in US high school learning environments, where the sciences are often subject-specific from the onset of enrollment 8 . In contrast, students in the Ontario (Canada) high school system are required to complete Level 1 and 2 core courses in science and math during Grades 9 and 10; these courses are offered as ‘applied’ or ‘academic’ versions and present broad topics of content 9 . It is not until Levels 3 and 4 (generally Grades 11 and 12, respectively) that STEM classes become subject-specific (i.e., Biology, Chemistry, and/or Physics) and are offered as “university”, “college”, or “mixed” versions, designed to best prepare students for their desired post-secondary pursuits 9 . Given that Levels 3 and 4 science courses are not mandatory for graduation, enrollment identifies an innate student interest in continued learning. Furthermore, engagement in these post-secondary preparatory courses is also dependent upon achieving successful grades in preceding courses, but as curriculum becomes more subject-specific, students often yield lower degrees of success in achieving course credit 2 . Therefore, it is imperative that learning supports are best focused on ensuring that those students with an innate interest are able to achieve success in learning.

When given opportunity and focused support, high school students are capable of successfully completing rigorous programs at STEM-focused schools 10 . Specialized STEM schools have existed in the US for over 100 years; generally, students are admitted after their sophomore year of high school experience (equivalent to Grade 10) based on standardized test scores, essays, portfolios, references, and/or interviews 11 . Common elements to this learning framework include a diverse array of advanced STEM courses, paired with opportunities to engage in and disseminate cutting-edge research 12 . Therein, said research experience is inherently based in the processes of critical thinking, problem solving, and collaboration. This learning framework supports translation of core curricular concepts to practice and is fundamental in allowing students to develop better understanding and appreciation of STEM career fields.

Despite the described positive attributes, many students do not have the ability or resources to engage within STEM-focused schools, particularly given that they are not prevalent across Canada, and other countries across the world. Consequently, many public institutions support the idea that post-secondary led engineering education programs are effective ways to expose high school students to engineering education and relevant career options, and also increase engineering awareness 13 . Although singular class field trips are used extensively to accomplish such programs, these may not allow immersive experiences for application of knowledge and practice of skills that are proven to impact long-term learning and influence career choices 14 , 15 . Longer-term immersive research experiences, such as after-school programs or summer camps, have shown successful at recruiting students into STEM degree programs and careers, where longevity of experience helps foster self-determination and interest-led, inquiry-based projects 4 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 .

Such activities convey the elements that are suggested to make a post-secondary led high school education programs successful: hands-on experience, self-motivated learning, real-life application, immediate feedback, and problem-based projects 20 , 21 . In combination with immersion in university teaching facilities, learning is authentic and relevant, similar to the STEM school-focused framework, and consequently representative of an experience found in actual STEM practice 22 . These outcomes may further be a consequence of student engagement and attitude: Brown et al. studied the relationships between STEM curriculum and student attitudes, and found the latter played a more important role in intention to persist in STEM when compared to self-efficacy 23 . This is interesting given that student self-efficacy has been identified to influence ‘motivation, persistence, and determination’ in overcoming challenges in a career pathway 24 . Taken together, this suggests that creation and delivery of modern, exciting curriculum that supports positive student attitudes is fundamental to engage and retain students in STEM programs.

Supported by the outcomes of identified effective learning strategies, University of Toronto (U of T) graduate trainees created a novel high school education program Discovery , to develop a comfortable yet stimulating environment of inquiry-focused iterative learning for senior high school students (Grades 11 & 12; Levels 3 & 4) at non-specialized schools. Built in strong collaboration with science teachers from George Harvey Collegiate Institute (Toronto District School Board), Discovery stimulates application of STEM concepts within a unique term-long applied curriculum delivered iteratively within both U of T undergraduate teaching facilities and collaborating high school classrooms 25 . Based on the volume of medically-themed news and entertainment that is communicated to the population at large, the rapidly-growing and diverse field of biomedical engineering (BME) were considered an ideal program context 26 . In its definition, BME necessitates cross-disciplinary STEM knowledge focused on the betterment of human health, wherein Discovery facilitates broadening student perspective through engaging inquiry-based projects. Importantly, Discovery allows all students within a class cohort to work together with their classroom teacher, stimulating continued development of a relevant learning community that is deemed essential for meaningful context and important for transforming student perspectives and understandings 27 , 28 . Multiple studies support the concept that relevant learning communities improve student attitudes towards learning, significantly increasing student motivation in STEM courses, and consequently improving the overall learning experience 29 . Learning communities, such as that provided by Discovery , also promote the formation of self-supporting groups, greater active involvement in class, and higher persistence rates for participating students 30 .

The objective of Discovery , through structure and dissemination, is to engage senior high school science students in challenging, inquiry-based practical BME activities as a mechanism to stimulate comprehension of STEM curriculum application to real-world concepts. Consequent focus is placed on critical thinking skill development through an atmosphere of perseverance in ambiguity, something not common in a secondary school knowledge-focused delivery but highly relevant in post-secondary STEM education strategies. Herein, we describe the observed impact of the differential project-based learning environment of Discovery on student performance and engagement. We identify the value of an inquiry-focused learning model that is tangible for students who struggle in a knowledge-focused delivery structure, where engagement in conceptual critical thinking in the relevant subject area stimulates student interest, attitudes, and resulting academic performance. Assessment of study outcomes suggests that when provided with a differential learning opportunity, student performance and interest in STEM increased. Consequently, Discovery provides an effective teaching and learning framework within a non-specialized school that motivates students, provides opportunity for critical thinking and problem-solving practice, and better prepares them for persistence in future STEM programs.

Program delivery

The outcomes of the current study result from execution of Discovery over five independent academic terms as a collaboration between Institute of Biomedical Engineering (graduate students, faculty, and support staff) and George Harvey Collegiate Institute (science teachers and administration) stakeholders. Each term, the program allowed senior secondary STEM students (Grades 11 and 12) opportunity to engage in a novel project-based learning environment. The program structure uses the problem-based engineering capstone framework as a tool of inquiry-focused learning objectives, motivated by a central BME global research topic, with research questions that are inter-related but specific to the curriculum of each STEM course subject (Fig. 1 ). Over each 12-week term, students worked in teams (3–4 students) within their class cohorts to execute projects with the guidance of U of T trainees ( Discovery instructors) and their own high school teacher(s). Student experimental work was conducted in U of T teaching facilities relevant to the research study of interest (i.e., Biology and Chemistry-based projects executed within Undergraduate Teaching Laboratories; Physics projects executed within Undergraduate Design Studios). Students were introduced to relevant techniques and safety procedures in advance of iterative experimentation. Importantly, this experience served as a course term project for students, who were assessed at several points throughout the program for performance in an inquiry-focused environment as well as within the regular classroom (Fig. 1 ). To instill the atmosphere of STEM, student teams delivered their outcomes in research poster format at a final symposium, sharing their results and recommendations with other post-secondary students, faculty, and community in an open environment.

The general program concept (blue background; top left ) highlights a global research topic examined through student dissemination of subject-specific research questions, yielding multifaceted student outcomes (orange background; top right ). Each program term (term workflow, yellow background; bottom panel ), students work on program deliverables in class (blue), iterate experimental outcomes within university facilities (orange), and are assessed accordingly at numerous deliverables in an inquiry-focused learning model.

Over the course of five terms there were 268 instances of tracked student participation, representing 170 individual students. Specifically, 94 students participated during only one term of programming, 57 students participated in two terms, 16 students participated in three terms, and 3 students participated in four terms. Multiple instances of participation represent students that enrol in more than one STEM class during their senior years of high school, or who participated in Grade 11 and subsequently Grade 12. Students were surveyed before and after each term to assess program effects on STEM interest and engagement. All grade-based assessments were performed by high school teachers for their respective STEM class cohorts using consistent grading rubrics and assignment structure. Here, we discuss the outcomes of student involvement in this experiential curriculum model.

Student performance and engagement

Student grades were assigned, collected, and anonymized by teachers for each Discovery deliverable (background essay, client meeting, proposal, progress report, poster, and final presentation). Teachers anonymized collective Discovery grades, the component deliverable grades thereof, final course grades, attendance in class and during programming, as well as incomplete classroom assignments, for comparative study purposes. Students performed significantly higher in their cumulative Discovery grade than in their cumulative classroom grade (final course grade less the Discovery contribution; p  < 0.0001). Nevertheless, there was a highly significant correlation ( p  < 0.0001) observed between the grade representing combined Discovery deliverables and the final course grade (Fig. 2a ). Further examination of the full dataset revealed two student cohorts of interest: the “Exceeds Expectations” (EE) subset (defined as those students who achieved ≥1 SD [18.0%] grade differential in Discovery over their final course grade; N  = 99 instances), and the “Multiple Term” (MT) subset (defined as those students who participated in Discovery more than once; 76 individual students that collectively accounted for 174 single terms of assessment out of the 268 total student-terms delivered) (Fig. 2b, c ). These subsets were not unrelated; 46 individual students who had multiple experiences (60.5% of total MTs) exhibited at least one occasion in achieving a ≥18.0% grade differential. As students participated in group work, there was concern that lower-performing students might negatively influence the Discovery grade of higher-performing students (or vice versa). However, students were observed to self-organize into groups where all individuals received similar final overall course grades (Fig. 2d ), thereby alleviating these concerns.

a Linear regression of student grades reveals a significant correlation ( p  = 0.0009) between Discovery performance and final course grade less the Discovery contribution to grade, as assessed by teachers. The dashed red line and intervals represent the theoretical 1:1 correlation between Discovery and course grades and standard deviation of the Discovery -course grade differential, respectively. b , c Identification of subgroups of interest, Exceeds Expectations (EE; N  = 99, orange ) who were ≥+1 SD in Discovery -course grade differential and Multi-Term (MT; N  = 174, teal ), of which N  = 65 students were present in both subgroups. d Students tended to self-assemble in working groups according to their final course performance; data presented as mean ± SEM. e For MT students participating at least 3 terms in Discovery , there was no significant correlation between course grade and time, while ( f ) there was a significant correlation between Discovery grade and cumulative terms in the program. Histograms of total absences per student in ( g ) Discovery and ( h ) class (binned by 4 days to be equivalent in time to a single Discovery absence).

The benefits experienced by MT students seemed progressive; MT students that participated in 3 or 4 terms ( N  = 16 and 3, respectively ) showed no significant increase by linear regression in their course grade over time ( p  = 0.15, Fig. 2e ), but did show a significant increase in their Discovery grades ( p  = 0.0011, Fig. 2f ). Finally, students demonstrated excellent Discovery attendance; at least 91% of participants attended all Discovery sessions in a given term (Fig. 2g ). In contrast, class attendance rates reveal a much wider distribution where 60.8% (163 out of 268 students) missed more than 4 classes (equivalent in learning time to one Discovery session) and 14.6% (39 out of 268 students) missed 16 or more classes (equivalent in learning time to an entire program of Discovery ) in a term (Fig. 2h ).

Discovery EE students (Fig. 3 ), roughly by definition, obtained lower course grades ( p  < 0.0001, Fig. 3a ) and higher final Discovery grades ( p  = 0.0004, Fig. 3b ) than non-EE students. This cohort of students exhibited program grades higher than classmates (Fig. 3c–h ); these differences were significant in every category with the exception of essays, where they outperformed to a significantly lesser degree ( p  = 0.097; Fig. 3c ). There was no statistically significant difference in EE vs. non-EE student classroom attendance ( p  = 0.85; Fig. 3i, j ). There were only four single day absences in Discovery within the EE subset; however, this difference was not statistically significant ( p  = 0.074).

The “Exceeds Expectations” (EE) subset of students (defined as those who received a combined Discovery grade ≥1 SD (18.0%) higher than their final course grade) performed ( a ) lower on their final course grade and ( b ) higher in the Discovery program as a whole when compared to their classmates. d – h EE students received significantly higher grades on each Discovery deliverable than their classmates, except for their ( c ) introductory essays and ( h ) final presentations. The EE subset also tended ( i ) to have a higher relative rate of attendance during Discovery sessions but no difference in ( j ) classroom attendance. N  = 99 EE students and 169 non-EE students (268 total). Grade data expressed as mean ± SEM.

Discovery MT students (Fig. 4 ), although not receiving significantly higher grades in class than students participating in the program only one time ( p  = 0.29, Fig. 4a ), were observed to obtain higher final Discovery grades than single-term students ( p  = 0.0067, Fig. 4b ). Although trends were less pronounced for individual MT student deliverables (Fig. 4c–h ), this student group performed significantly better on the progress report ( p  = 0.0021; Fig. 4f ). Trends of higher performance were observed for initial proposals and final presentations ( p  = 0.081 and 0.056, respectively; Fig. 4e, h ); all other deliverables were not significantly different between MT and non-MT students (Fig. 4c, d, g ). Attendance in Discovery ( p  = 0.22) was also not significantly different between MT and non-MT students, although MT students did miss significantly less class time ( p  = 0.010) (Fig. 4i, j ). Longitudinal assessment of individual deliverables for MT students that participated in three or more Discovery terms (Fig. 5 ) further highlights trend in improvement (Fig. 2f ). Greater performance over terms of participation was observed for essay ( p  = 0.0295, Fig. 5a ), client meeting ( p  = 0.0003, Fig. 5b ), proposal ( p  = 0.0004, Fig. 5c ), progress report ( p  = 0.16, Fig. 5d ), poster ( p  = 0.0005, Fig. 5e ), and presentation ( p  = 0.0295, Fig. 5f ) deliverable grades; these trends were all significant with the exception of the progress report ( p  = 0.16, Fig. 5d ) owing to strong performance in this deliverable in all terms.

The “multi-term” (MT) subset of students (defined as having attended more than one term of Discovery ) demonstrated favorable performance in Discovery , ( a ) showing no difference in course grade compared to single-term students, but ( b outperforming them in final Discovery grade. Independent of the number of times participating in Discovery , MT students did not score significantly differently on their ( c ) essay, ( d ) client meeting, or ( g ) poster. They tended to outperform their single-term classmates on the ( e ) proposal and ( h ) final presentation and scored significantly higher on their ( f ) progress report. MT students showed no statistical difference in ( i ) Discovery attendance but did show ( j ) higher rates of classroom attendance than single-term students. N  = 174 MT instances of student participation (76 individual students) and 94 single-term students. Grade data expressed as mean ± SEM.

Longitudinal assessment of a subset of MT student participants that participated in three ( N  = 16) or four ( N  = 3) terms presents a significant trend of improvement in their ( a ) essay, ( b ) client meeting, ( c ) proposal, ( e ) poster, and ( f ) presentation grade. d Progress report grades present a trend in improvement but demonstrate strong performance in all terms, limiting potential for student improvement. Grade data are presented as individual student performance; each student is represented by one color; data is fitted with a linear trendline (black).

Finally, the expansion of Discovery to a second school of lower LOI (i.e., nominally higher aggregate SES) allowed for the assessment of program impact in a new population over 2 terms of programming. A significant ( p  = 0.040) divergence in Discovery vs. course grade distribution from the theoretical 1:1 relationship was found in the new cohort (S 1 Appendix , Fig. S 1 ), in keeping with the pattern established in this study.

Teacher perceptions

Qualitative observation in the classroom by high school teachers emphasized the value students independently placed on program participation and deliverables. Throughout the term, students often prioritized Discovery group assignments over other tasks for their STEM courses, regardless of academic weight and/or due date. Comparing within this student population, teachers spoke of difficulties with late and incomplete assignments in the regular curriculum but found very few such instances with respect to Discovery -associated deliverables. Further, teachers speculated on the good behavior and focus of students in Discovery programming in contrast to attentiveness and behavior issues in their school classrooms. Multiple anecdotal examples were shared of renewed perception of student potential; students that exhibited poor academic performance in the classroom often engaged with high performance in this inquiry-focused atmosphere. Students appeared to take a sense of ownership, excitement, and pride in the setting of group projects oriented around scientific inquiry, discovery, and dissemination.

Student perceptions

Students were asked to consider and rank the academic difficulty (scale of 1–5, with 1 = not challenging and 5 = highly challenging) of the work they conducted within the Discovery learning model. Considering individual Discovery terms, at least 91% of students felt the curriculum to be sufficiently challenging with a 3/5 or higher ranking (Term 1: 87.5%, Term 2: 93.4%, Term 3: 85%, Term 4: 93.3%, Term 5: 100%), and a minimum of 58% of students indicating a 4/5 or higher ranking (Term 1: 58.3%, Term 2: 70.5%, Term 3: 67.5%, Term 4: 69.1%, Term 5: 86.4%) (Fig. 6a ).

a Histogram of relative frequency of perceived Discovery programming academic difficulty ranked from not challenging (1) to highly challenging (5) for each session demonstrated the consistently perceived high degree of difficulty for Discovery programming (total responses: 223). b Program participation increased student comfort (94.6%) with navigating lab work in a university or college setting (total responses: 220). c Considering participation in Discovery programming, students indicated their increased (72.4%) or decreased (10.1%) likelihood to pursue future experiences in STEM as a measure of program impact (total responses: 217). d Large majority of participating students (84.9%) indicated their interest for future participation in Discovery (total responses: 212). Students were given the opportunity to opt out of individual survey questions, partially completed surveys were included in totals.

The majority of students (94.6%) indicated they felt more comfortable with the idea of performing future work in a university STEM laboratory environment given exposure to university teaching facilities throughout the program (Fig. 6b ). Students were also queried whether they were (i) more likely, (ii) less likely, or (iii) not impacted by their experience in the pursuit of STEM in the future. The majority of participants (>82%) perceived impact on STEM interests, with 72.4% indicating they were more likely to pursue these interests in the future (Fig. 6c ). When surveyed at the end of term, 84.9% of students indicated they would participate in the program again (Fig. 6d ).

We have described an inquiry-based framework for implementing experiential STEM education in a BME setting. Using this model, we engaged 268 instances of student participation (170 individual students who participated 1–4 times) over five terms in project-based learning wherein students worked in peer-based teams under the mentorship of U of T trainees to design and execute the scientific method in answering a relevant research question. Collaboration between high school teachers and Discovery instructors allowed for high school student exposure to cutting-edge BME research topics, participation in facilitated inquiry, and acquisition of knowledge through scientific discovery. All assessments were conducted by high school teachers and constituted a fraction (10–15%) of the overall course grade, instilling academic value for participating students. As such, students exhibited excitement to learn as well as commitment to their studies in the program.

Through our observations and analysis, we suggest there is value in differential learning environments for students that struggle in a knowledge acquisition-focused classroom setting. In general, we observed a high level of academic performance in Discovery programming (Fig. 2a ), which was highlighted exceptionally in EE students who exhibited greater academic performance in Discovery deliverables compared to normal coursework (>18% grade improvement in relevant deliverables). We initially considered whether this was the result of strong students influencing weaker students; however, group organization within each course suggests this is not the case (Fig. 2d ). With the exception of one class in one term (24 participants assigned by their teacher), students were allowed to self-organize into working groups and they chose to work with other students of relatively similar academic performance (as indicated by course grade), a trend observed in other studies 31 , 32 . Remarkably, EE students not only excelled during Discovery when compared to their own performance in class, but this cohort also achieved significantly higher average grades in each of the deliverables throughout the program when compared to the remaining Discovery cohort (Fig. 3 ). This data demonstrates the value of an inquiry-based learning environment compared to knowledge-focused delivery in the classroom in allowing students to excel. We expect that part of this engagement was resultant of student excitement with a novel learning opportunity. It is however a well-supported concept that students who struggle in traditional settings tend to demonstrate improved interest and motivation in STEM when given opportunity to interact in a hands-on fashion, which supports our outcomes 4 , 33 . Furthermore, these outcomes clearly represent variable student learning styles, where some students benefit from a greater exchange of information, knowledge and skills in a cooperative learning environment 34 . The performance of the EE group may not be by itself surprising, as the identification of the subset by definition required high performers in Discovery who did not have exceptionally high course grades; in addition, the final Discovery grade is dependent on the component assignment grades. However, the discrepancies between EE and non-EE groups attendance suggests that students were engaged by Discovery in a way that they were not by regular classroom curriculum.

In addition to quantified engagement in Discovery observed in academic performance, we believe remarkable attendance rates are indicative of the value students place in the differential learning structure. Given the differences in number of Discovery days and implications of missing one day of regular class compared to this immersive program, we acknowledge it is challenging to directly compare attendance data and therefore approximate this comparison with consideration of learning time equivalence. When combined with other subjective data including student focus, requests to work on Discovery during class time, and lack of discipline/behavior issues, the attendance data importantly suggests that students were especially engaged by the Discovery model. Further, we believe the increased commute time to the university campus (students are responsible for independent transit to campus, a much longer endeavour than the normal school commute), early program start time, and students’ lack of familiarity with the location are non-trivial considerations when determining the propensity of students to participate enthusiastically in Discovery . We feel this suggests the students place value on this team-focused learning and find it to be more applicable and meaningful to their interests.

Given post-secondary admission requirements for STEM programs, it would be prudent to think that students participating in multiple STEM classes across terms are the ones with the most inherent interest in post-secondary STEM programs. The MT subset, representing students who participated in Discovery for more than one term, averaged significantly higher final Discovery grades. The increase in the final Discovery grade was observed to result from a general confluence of improved performance over multiple deliverables and a continuous effort to improve in a STEM curriculum. This was reflected in longitudinal tracking of Discovery performance, where we observed a significant trend of improved performance. Interestingly, the high number of MT students who were included in the EE group suggests that students who had a keen interest in science enrolled in more than one course and in general responded well to the inquiry-based teaching method of Discovery , where scientific method was put into action. It stands to reason that students interested in science will continue to take STEM courses and will respond favorably to opportunities to put classroom theory to practical application.

The true value of an inquiry-based program such as Discovery may not be based in inspiring students to perform at a higher standard in STEM within the high school setting, as skills in critical thinking do not necessarily translate to knowledge-based assessment. Notably, students found the programming equally challenging throughout each of the sequential sessions, perhaps somewhat surprising considering the increasing number of repeat attendees in successive sessions (Fig. 6a ). Regardless of sub-discipline, there was an emphasis of perceived value demonstrated through student surveys where we observed indicated interest in STEM and comfort with laboratory work environments, and desire to engage in future iterations given the opportunity. Although non-quantitative, we perceive this as an indicator of significant student engagement, even though some participants did not yield academic success in the program and found it highly challenging given its ambiguity.

Although we observed that students become more certain of their direction in STEM, further longitudinal study is warranted to make claim of this outcome. Additionally, at this point in our assessment we cannot effectively assess the practical outcomes of participation, understanding that the immediate effects observed are subject to a number of factors associated with performance in the high school learning environment. Future studies that track graduates from this program will be prudent, in conjunction with an ever-growing dataset of assessment as well as surveys designed to better elucidate underlying perceptions and attitudes, to continue to understand the expected benefits of this inquiry-focused and partnered approach. Altogether, a multifaceted assessment of our early outcomes suggests significant value of an immersive and iterative interaction with STEM as part of the high school experience. A well-defined divergence from knowledge-based learning, focused on engagement in critical thinking development framed in the cutting-edge of STEM, may be an important step to broadening student perspectives.

In this study, we describe the short-term effects of an inquiry-based STEM educational experience on a cohort of secondary students attending a non-specialized school, and suggest that the framework can be widely applied across virtually all subjects where inquiry-driven and mentored projects can be undertaken. Although we have demonstrated replication in a second cohort of nominally higher SES (S 1 Appendix , Supplementary Fig. 1 ), a larger collection period with more students will be necessary to conclusively determine impact independent of both SES and specific cohort effects. Teachers may also find this framework difficult to implement depending on resources and/or institutional investment and support, particularly if post-secondary collaboration is inaccessible. Offerings to a specific subject (e.g., physics) where experiments yielding empirical data are logistically or financially simpler to perform may be valid routes of adoption as opposed to the current study where all subject cohorts were included.

As we consider Discovery in a bigger picture context, expansion and implementation of this model is translatable. Execution of the scientific method is an important aspect of citizen science, as the concepts of critical thing become ever-more important in a landscape of changing technological landscapes. Giving students critical thinking and problem-solving skills in their primary and secondary education provides value in the context of any career path. Further, we feel that this model is scalable across disciplines, STEM or otherwise, as a means of building the tools of inquiry. We have observed here the value of differential inclusive student engagement and critical thinking through an inquiry-focused model for a subset of students, but further to this an engagement, interest, and excitement across the body of student participants. As we educate the leaders of tomorrow, we suggest that use of an inquiry-focused model such as Discovery could facilitate growth of a data-driven critical thinking framework.

In conclusion, we have presented a model of inquiry-based STEM education for secondary students that emphasizes inclusion, quantitative analysis, and critical thinking. Student grades suggest significant performance benefits, and engagement data suggests positive student attitude despite the perceived challenges of the program. We also note a particular performance benefit to students who repeatedly engage in the program. This framework may carry benefits in a wide variety of settings and disciplines for enhancing student engagement and performance, particularly in non-specialized school environments.

Study design and implementation

Participants in Discovery include all students enrolled in university-stream Grade 11 or 12 biology, chemistry, or physics at the participating school over five consecutive terms (cohort summary shown in Table 1 ). Although student participation in educational content was mandatory, student grades and survey responses (administered by high school teachers) were collected from only those students with parent or guardian consent. Teachers replaced each student name with a unique coded identifier to preserve anonymity but enable individual student tracking over multiple terms. All data collected were analyzed without any exclusions save for missing survey responses; no power analysis was performed prior to data collection.

Ethics statement

This study was approved by the University of Toronto Health Sciences Research Ethics Board (Protocol # 34825) and the Toronto District School Board External Research Review Committee (Protocol # 2017-2018-20). Written informed consent was collected from parents or guardians of participating students prior to the acquisition of student data (both post-hoc academic data and survey administration). Data were anonymized by high school teachers for maintenance of academic confidentiality of individual students prior to release to U of T researchers.

Educational program overview

Students enrolled in university-preparatory STEM classes at the participating school completed a term-long project under the guidance of graduate student instructors and undergraduate student mentors as a mandatory component of their respective course. Project curriculum developed collaboratively between graduate students and participating high school teachers was delivered within U of T Faculty of Applied Science & Engineering (FASE) teaching facilities. Participation allows high school students to garner a better understanding as to how undergraduate learning and career workflows in STEM vary from traditional high school classroom learning, meanwhile reinforcing the benefits of problem solving, perseverance, teamwork, and creative thinking competencies. Given that Discovery was a mandatory component of course curriculum, students participated as class cohorts and addressed questions specific to their course subject knowledge base but related to the defined global health research topic (Fig. 1 ). Assessment of program deliverables was collectively assigned to represent 10–15% of the final course grade for each subject at the discretion of the respective STEM teacher.

The Discovery program framework was developed, prior to initiation of student assessment, in collaboration with one high school selected from the local public school board over a 1.5 year period of time. This partner school consistently scores highly (top decile) in the school board’s Learning Opportunities Index (LOI). The LOI ranks each school based on measures of external challenges affecting its student population therefore schools with the greatest level of external challenge receive a higher ranking 35 . A high LOI ranking is inversely correlated with socioeconomic status (SES); therefore, participating students are identified as having a significant number of external challenges that may affect their academic success. The mandatory nature of program participation was established to reach highly capable students who may be reluctant to engage on their own initiative, as a means of enhancing the inclusivity and impact of the program. The selected school partner is located within a reasonable geographical radius of our campus (i.e., ~40 min transit time from school to campus). This is relevant as participating students are required to independently commute to campus for Discovery hands-on experiences.

Each program term of Discovery corresponds with a five-month high school term. Lead university trainee instructors (3–6 each term) engaged with high school teachers 1–2 months in advance of high school student engagement to discern a relevant overarching global healthcare theme. Each theme was selected with consideration of (a) topics that university faculty identify as cutting-edge biomedical research, (b) expertise that Discovery instructors provide, and (c) capacity to showcase the diversity of BME. Each theme was sub-divided into STEM subject-specific research questions aligning with provincial Ministry of Education curriculum concepts for university-preparatory Biology, Chemistry, and Physics 9 that students worked to address, both on-campus and in-class, during a term-long project. The Discovery framework therefore provides students a problem-based learning experience reflective of an engineering capstone design project, including a motivating scientific problem (i.e., global topic), subject-specific research question, and systematic determination of a professional recommendation addressing the needs of the presented problem.

Discovery instructors were volunteers recruited primarily from graduate and undergraduate BME programs in the FASE. Instructors were organized into subject-specific instructional teams based on laboratory skills, teaching experience, and research expertise. The lead instructors of each subject (the identified 1–2 trainees that built curriculum with high school teachers) were responsible to organize the remaining team members as mentors for specific student groups over the course of the program term (~1:8 mentor to student ratio).

All Discovery instructors were familiarized with program expectations and trained in relevant workspace safety, in addition to engagement at a teaching workshop delivered by the Faculty Advisor (a Teaching Stream faculty member) at the onset of term. This workshop was designed to provide practical information on teaching and was co-developed with high school teachers based on their extensive training and experience in fundamental teaching methods. In addition, group mentors received hands-on training and guidance from lead instructors regarding the specific activities outlined for their respective subject programming (an exemplary term of student programming is available in S 2 Appendix) .

Discovery instructors were responsible for introducing relevant STEM skills and mentoring high school students for the duration of their projects, with support and mentorship from the Faculty Mentor. Each instructor worked exclusively throughout the term with the student groups to which they had been assigned, ensuring consistent mentorship across all disciplinary components of the project. In addition to further supporting university trainees in on-campus mentorship, high school teachers were responsible for academic assessment of all student program deliverables (Fig. 1 ; the standardized grade distribution available in S 3 Appendix ). Importantly, trainees never engaged in deliverable assessment; for continuity of overall course assessment, this remained the responsibility of the relevant teacher for each student cohort.

Throughout each term, students engaged within the university facilities four times. The first three sessions included hands-on lab sessions while the fourth visit included a culminating symposium for students to present their scientific findings (Fig. 1 ). On average, there were 4–5 groups of students per subject (3–4 students per group; ~20 students/class). Discovery instructors worked exclusively with 1–2 groups each term in the capacity of mentor to monitor and guide student progress in all project deliverables.

After introducing the selected global research topic in class, teachers led students in completion of background research essays. Students subsequently engaged in a subject-relevant skill-building protocol during their first visit to university teaching laboratory facilities, allowing opportunity to understand analysis techniques and equipment relevant for their assessment projects. At completion of this session, student groups were presented with a subject-specific research question as well as the relevant laboratory inventory available for use during their projects. Armed with this information, student groups continued to work in their classroom setting to develop group-specific experimental plans. Teachers and Discovery instructors provided written and oral feedback, respectively , allowing students an opportunity to revise their plans in class prior to on-campus experimental execution.

Once at the relevant laboratory environment, student groups executed their protocols in an effort to collect experimental data. Data analysis was performed in the classroom and students learned by trial & error to optimize their protocols before returning to the university lab for a second opportunity of data collection. All methods and data were re-analyzed in class in order for students to create a scientific poster for the purpose of study/experience dissemination. During a final visit to campus, all groups presented their findings at a research symposium, allowing students to verbally defend their process, analyses, interpretations, and design recommendations to a diverse audience including peers, STEM teachers, undergraduate and graduate university students, postdoctoral fellows and U of T faculty.

Data collection

Teachers evaluated their students on the following associated deliverables: (i) global theme background research essay; (ii) experimental plan; (iii) progress report; (iv) final poster content and presentation; and (v) attendance. For research purposes, these grades were examined individually and also as a collective Discovery program grade for each student. For students consenting to participation in the research study, all Discovery grades were anonymized by the classroom teacher before being shared with study authors. Each student was assigned a code by the teacher for direct comparison of deliverable outcomes and survey responses. All instances of “Final course grade” represent the prorated course grade without the Discovery component, to prevent confounding of quantitative analyses.

Survey instruments were used to gain insight into student attitudes and perceptions of STEM and post-secondary study, as well as Discovery program experience and impact (S 4 Appendix ). High school teachers administered surveys in the classroom only to students supported by parental permission. Pre-program surveys were completed at minimum 1 week prior to program initiation each term and exit surveys were completed at maximum 2 weeks post- Discovery term completion. Surveys results were validated using a principal component analysis (S 1 Appendix , Supplementary Fig. 2 ).

Identification and comparison of population subsets

From initial analysis, we identified two student subpopulations of particular interest: students who performed ≥1 SD [18.0%] or greater in the collective Discovery components of the course compared to their final course grade (“EE”), and students who participated in Discovery more than once (“MT”). These groups were compared individually against the rest of the respective Discovery population (“non-EE” and “non-MT”, respectively ). Additionally, MT students who participated in three or four (the maximum observed) terms of Discovery were assessed for longitudinal changes to performance in their course and Discovery grades. Comparisons were made for all Discovery deliverables (introductory essay, client meeting, proposal, progress report, poster, and presentation), final Discovery grade, final course grade, Discovery attendance, and overall attendance.

Statistical analysis

Student course grades were analyzed in all instances without the Discovery contribution (calculated from all deliverable component grades and ranging from 10 to 15% of final course grade depending on class and year) to prevent correlation. Aggregate course grades and Discovery grades were first compared by paired t-test, matching each student’s course grade to their Discovery grade for the term. Student performance in Discovery ( N  = 268 instances of student participation, comprising 170 individual students that participated 1–4 times) was initially assessed in a linear regression of Discovery grade vs. final course grade. Trends in course and Discovery performance over time for students participating 3 or 4 terms ( N  = 16 and 3 individuals, respectively ) were also assessed by linear regression. For subpopulation analysis (EE and MT, N  = 99 instances from 81 individuals and 174 instances from 76 individuals, respectively ), each dataset was tested for normality using the D’Agostino and Pearson omnibus normality test. All subgroup comparisons vs. the remaining population were performed by Mann–Whitney U -test. Data are plotted as individual points with mean ± SEM overlaid (grades), or in histogram bins of 1 and 4 days, respectively , for Discovery and class attendance. Significance was set at α ≤ 0.05.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author DMK. These data are not publicly available due to privacy concerns of personal data according to the ethical research agreements supporting this study.

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Acknowledgements

This study has been possible due to the support of many University of Toronto trainee volunteers, including Genevieve Conant, Sherif Ramadan, Daniel Smieja, Rami Saab, Andrew Effat, Serena Mandla, Cindy Bui, Janice Wong, Dawn Bannerman, Allison Clement, Shouka Parvin Nejad, Nicolas Ivanov, Jose Cardenas, Huntley Chang, Romario Regeenes, Dr. Henrik Persson, Ali Mojdeh, Nhien Tran-Nguyen, Ileana Co, and Jonathan Rubianto. We further acknowledge the staff and administration of George Harvey Collegiate Institute and the Institute of Biomedical Engineering (IBME), as well as Benjamin Rocheleau and Madeleine Rocheleau for contributions to data collation. Discovery has grown with continued support of Dean Christopher Yip (Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering, U of T), and the financial support of the IBME and the National Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) PromoScience program (PROSC 515876-2017; IBME “Igniting Youth Curiosity in STEM” initiative co-directed by DMK and Dr. Penney Gilbert). LDH and NIC were supported by Vanier Canada graduate scholarships from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and NSERC, respectively . DMK holds a Dean’s Emerging Innovation in Teaching Professorship in the Faculty of Engineering & Applied Science, U of T.

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These authors contributed equally: Locke Davenport Huyer, Neal I. Callaghan.

Authors and Affiliations

Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Locke Davenport Huyer, Neal I. Callaghan, Andrey I. Shukalyuk & Dawn M. Kilkenny

Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Locke Davenport Huyer

Translational Biology and Engineering Program, Ted Rogers Centre for Heart Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Neal I. Callaghan

George Harvey Collegiate Institute, Toronto District School Board, Toronto, ON, Canada

Sara Dicks, Edward Scherer & Margaret Jou

Institute for Studies in Transdisciplinary Engineering Education & Practice, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Dawn M. Kilkenny

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Contributions

LDH, NIC and DMK conceived the program structure, designed the study, and interpreted the data. LDH and NIC ideated programming, coordinated execution, and performed all data analysis. SD, ES, and MJ designed and assessed student deliverables, collected data, and anonymized data for assessment. SD assisted in data interpretation. AIS assisted in programming ideation and design. All authors provided feedback and approved the manuscript that was written by LDH, NIC and DMK.

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Correspondence to Dawn M. Kilkenny .

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Davenport Huyer, L., Callaghan, N.I., Dicks, S. et al. Enhancing senior high school student engagement and academic performance using an inclusive and scalable inquiry-based program. npj Sci. Learn. 5 , 17 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-020-00076-2

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-020-00076-2

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• Discuss the need and importance of health outreach programs.
• Discuss in detail how the upcoming generation of youngsters can do its bit and contribute to afforestation.
• Discuss the 2020 budget allocation of the United States. 
• Discuss some of the historic ‘rags to riches’ stories.
• What according to you is the role of nurses in the healthcare industry?
• Will AI actually replace humans and eat up their jobs? Discuss your view and also explain the sector that will benefit the most from AI replacing humans. 
• Is digital media taking over print media? Explain with case studies. 
• Why is there an increasing number of senior citizens in the elderly homes? 
• Are health insurances really beneficial? 
• How important are soft skills? What role do they play in recruitment? 
• Has the keto diet been effective in weight loss? Explain the merits and demerits. 
• Is swimming a good physical activity to curb obesity? 
• Is work from home as effective as work from office? Explain your take. 

Tips to write excellent qualitative research papers

Now that you have scrolled through this section, we trust that you have picked up a topic for yourself from our list of 100 brilliant qualitative research titles for high school students. Deciding on a topic is the very first step. The next step is to figure out ways how you can ensure that your qualitative research paper can help you grab top scores. 

Once you have decided on the title, you are halfway there. However, deciding on a topic signals the next step, which is the process of writing your qualitative paper. This poses a real challenge! 

To help you with it, here are a few tips that will help you accumulate data irrespective of the topic you have chosen. Follow these four simple steps and you will be able to do justice to the topic you have chosen!

• Create an outline based on the topic. Jot down the sub-topics you would like to include. 
• Refer to as many sources as you can – documentaries, books, news articles, case studies, interviews, etc. Make a note of the facts and phrases you would like to include in your research paper. 
• Write the body. Start adding qualitative data. 
• Re-read and revise your paper. Make it comprehensible. Check for plagiarism, and proofread your research paper. Try your best and leave no scope for mistakes. 

Wrapping it up!

To wrap up, writing a qualitative research paper is almost the same as writing other research papers such as argumentative research papers , English research papers , Biology research papers , and more. Writing a paper on qualitative research titles promotes analytical and critical thinking skills among students. Moreover,  it also helps improve data interpretation and writing ability, which are essential for students going ahead.

Having a 10+ years of experience in teaching little budding learners, I am now working as a soft skills and IELTS trainers. Having spent my share of time with high schoolers, I understand their fears about the future. At the same time, my experience has helped me foster plenty of strategies that can make their 4 years of high school blissful. Furthermore, I have worked intensely on helping these young adults bloom into successful adults by training them for their dream colleges. Through my blogs, I intend to help parents, educators and students in making these years joyful and prosperous.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Senior high school students' knowledge and attitudes toward information on their health in the kumasi metropolis.

• 1 Social Sciences Department, St. Monica's College of Education, Mampong, Ghana
• 2 Mampong Technical College of Education, Mampong, Ghana

The study examines senior high school students' understanding and attitudes toward information on their health in the Kumasi Metropolis. Multiple sampling techniques (convenient and simple random sampling techniques) were used in the study. A questionnaire was used to collect data from 391 respondents for the study. Frequencies and percentages were used to analyze the sociodemographic data. Again, the study used Pearson's correlation coefficient to show the degree of relationship between the level of knowledge of health information and attitudes toward seeking and sharing health information. The study found students' knowledge of the causes and symptoms of malaria, cholera, and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) to be appreciably high as a result of readings from textbooks and health professionals. Again, the study found that the students preferred sharing their health information with friends than their parents and schools' authorities. The study further found that the major sources of students' health information included health professionals and textbooks. Lastly, even though some of the students claimed internet sources to their health information, it was not a major source to the student body at large. The study recommends strong health systems on the campuses of senior high schools as they have become communities on their own as a result of the emergence of the free senior high school program. The monitored positive peer-counseling group should also be encouraged by the schools' management and by extension the counseling units for the students to share views on themselves, particularly on health issues where they deem fit.

Introduction

Information about health is very important if society wants its citizens to stay healthy. Information on health is data collected regarding a person's medical history that include signs and symptoms of disease, diagnoses, medical procedures, and outcomes ( 1 , 2 ). To ensure improved information on people's health, a health information system is introduced (Chen et al., 2018) ( 3 ). The goal of health information systems is to improve treatment for patients by having the most current patient's data available to every healthcare practitioner who treats this client ( 3 , 4 ). However, health information system is available only at healthcare facilities and accessed and used by health professionals for treatment.

It is, however, imperative to note that a patient's information on health can be viewed in two ways; either gathered individually or through a gathered data set of the population ( 5 , 6 ). Apart from information on health gotten directly from physicians, nurses, pharmacists, and other health practitioners, it can be gotten from the internet, textbooks, and newsletters as well ( 7 , 8 ). However, not all the sources of information on health are credible. For instance, Hampton ( 8 ) indicated that people facing medical decisions often look beyond their physicians to social media, websites, videos, and mobile applications which do not proffer the needed remedy. It is further explained that these people who most often seek information on health from the internet have not experienced any positive change in their lives ( 8 – 10 ). This was confirmed by Keselman et al. ( 11 ) that most information on health on the internet is poor and not credible leading to more harm than good.

On the other hand, seeking information on health among the populace has brought some changes in the lives of people toward medical use and lifestyle due to increased understanding of health issues ( 12 – 14 ). McNicol ( 15 ) and Dutta-Bergman ( 16 ) explained that the current increase in consumer freedom to act in health care accompanied by the use of social media, websites, and mobile applications for information on health gathering has led to increasing interest of understanding the consumer health information. Osei-Assibey et al. ( 17 ) further noted that this act has led to increased adherence to medical prescriptions.

That notwithstanding, the youth have been deemed to be more vulnerable to information on health sourced from the social media and websites ( 18 , 19 ). Valle et al. further explained that senior high school students enter a critical transition and begin to become independent and responsible for their own health during high school years. Moreover, high school students are thought to be a vulnerable population in that they are exposed to all kinds of health risks ( 20 , 21 ). Common health risk among senior high school students (especially those in the boarding houses) includes skin rashes due to congestion in dormitory, malaria, and cholera due to unsanitary environment, and sexually transmitted diseases due to indiscriminate sex ( 22 ).

In view of this, more health education programs are organized from time to time by government agencies and non-governmental organizations for the students. The programs most often center on current diseases and infirmities and diseases that are more prevalent ( 13 , 17 , 23 – 25 ). However, despite these attempts, communicable diseases are prevalent in the senior high schools in the Kumasi Metropolis. This has raised concerns about students' understanding and attitudes toward seeking information on their health.

Again, despite the various attempts to increase knowledge on health among the students, understanding and attitudes among students toward some health issues are not positive. Ezeala-Adilkaibe et al. ( 26 ) revealed in South East Nigeria that the majority of students have poor knowledge, attitude, and practice of epilepsy. Brass et al. ( 27 ) added that students' knowledge about HIV or AIDS is inadequate and their attitudes were stigmatized. Meanwhile, Thanavanh et al. ( 2 ) noted that students with medium- and high-level knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding HIV or AIDS are likely to display a positive attitude toward people living with HIV.

In view of the importance of information on health among students, there have been several attempts to help senior high school students get more oriented with the information on their health. Thus, this study examines senior high school students' understanding and attitudes toward information on their health in the Kumasi Metropolis.

Materials and Methods

Research design.

This study was a cross-sectional study where primary data were collected from students in selected senior high schools in the Kumasi Metropolis. Based on the formulated research questions that the researchers wanted to answer and the nature of the study, the quantitative research design was most appropriate, hence its adoption in this study. The quantitative design helped the researcher to estimate the relationships between the variables understudy. Thus, in this study, the quantitative research design helped the researcher to determine the relationship among the level of knowledge and seeking and sharing health information among the students.

Study Population and Sampling Procedure

Students in senior high schools in the Kumasi Metropolis were the target population. The metropolis has a number of senior high schools, both near and far from the researchers. This study employed convenience sampling to sample the schools and students ( 28 ). The schools were selected based on proximity and the willingness of the schools' administration and individual students to participate. Based on these two criteria, five schools were sampled from the study area. The study considered proximity to be how the schools were closer to each other and to the researchers as well. The researchers choose 5 out of 21 senior high schools in the metropolis based on the assumption of similar characteristics of the students. The age range of senior high school students was between 15 and 18 years. This connotes homogenous adolescent characteristics for these students understudy; hence, the study's generalization is justified. The study admits that the heterogeneous socioeconomic background of students might have caused different perspectives about the problem understudy. However, since the students were all in the same schools facing virtually the same problems, such differences were not significant to be noticed.

Again, premised on the principle of anonymity and ethical consideration, the names of the schools have been withheld and classified them as Schools A, B, C, D, and E. It is imperative to note that Schools A and B were strictly boys' schools, C and D were strictly girls' schools whereas E was a mixed school (both boys and girls). These schools were chosen because they are considered as the elite schools with most of the best educational facilities for academic work in the study area. Again, as stated earlier, the researchers assumed that since the students were in their teens, their perspectives about their health information would not differ much. Based on the aforementioned assumptions, the schools were chosen for the study. The respective population of the sampled schools are shown in Table 1 .

Table 1 . Student population of sampled schools.

Aside the study sampling of the schools, the study sampled the students through convenience sampling. The criteria used here were “easy access to students” ( 29 ). This study realized four places where students could be found easily. First, in classrooms during the lesson; second, at dining hall during dining time; third, at the canteen during break time, and fourth, at school entrance both in the morning and after school. Among these four places, canteen during break time and at the entrance of dining hall after dining periods were most convenient due to time and activities of the students. The assumption for choosing these places was that at least, a student would be found at one of the venues at the time of data collection. The researchers first sought the consent of participants and assured them of strict confidentiality. The researchers then read and explained the questions to the participants before answers were required. Because the researchers had a fair knowledge about the exact number of sample size they were seeking to sample, they did not continue the data collection after accurately getting the exact number (391).

Sample Size Determination

The study employed Yamane ( 30 ) sample size determination formula in Equation (1) to compute the overall size for the study.

where: N signifies the population under study = 16523

e signifies the margin of error = 0.5

n signifies the sample size = 391

From the formula in Equation (1);

Therefore, the overall sample size for this study was 391. This study further used a proportionate stratified population sampling technique to determine the sample size for each school as shown in Table 2 .

Table 2 . Sample size for each student population of sampled schools.

Data Collection Instrument

Among the data collection instruments (questionnaire and interview guide), this study relied on the questionnaire to collect all primary data from the students. This study used a structured questionnaire because it helped the researcher to collect standardized data, and second to collect data at a cheaper administration cost ( 31 , 32 ). The questionnaire design has four sections. Section I focused on demographic data; Section II focused on the level of knowledge of health information; Section III focused on attitudes toward seeking health information; and Section IV on the attitudes toward sharing health information. All the questions contained in the questionnaire, except those under Section I (demographic data), were in the form of a five-point Likert scale.

Data Collection Procedures

This study collected all primary data between December 9, and December 13, 2020. The study sought permission from the headmasters or headmistresses of the selected senior high schools through an introductory letter obtained from St. Monica's College of Education. The researchers administered questionnaires in the selected schools by themselves. A strategy was devised to ensure a high response rate. This was achieved by encouraging all respondents to fill in the questionnaire in the presence of the researchers. This did not only ensure a high response rate but also offered the opportunity to clarify all misunderstandings surrounding some of the research questions.

The participation in the study was not compulsory but students willingly participated and gave out accurate data ( 33 , 34 ). The study informed the purpose of the study to all respondents and assured them strict confidentiality and anonymity. Before the actual data collection, this study ensured that the instrument used is valid and reliable. The researchers showed the research instruments to their colleagues who helped to restructure the questionnaire to be more consistent with the research objectives. For reliability, the researchers pre-tested the questionnaire at SIMMS Senior High School in the Kwabre East Municipality on 25 students. This was performed to ensure that errors in the questionnaire were corrected before actual administration.

Data Analysis

The data collected were analyzed with the use of descriptive and inferential statistics. The data were cleaned and entered into Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) version 21.0. For the descriptive analysis, frequencies and percentages were used to analyze the data. For the inferential analysis, this study used Pearson's correlation coefficient to show the degree of relationship among the level of knowledge of health information and attitudes toward seeking and sharing information on health. In furtherance, data were presented as numbers and percentages for categorical variables.

Ethical Approval

The study was approved by the Committee on Human Research, Publication, and Ethics of the School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology/Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital with reference number CHRPE/AP/317/20. Again, all participants gave verbal consent for their participation in the study.

Results and Discussion

This section presents and discusses data collected from 391 students in Kumasi Metropolis concerning health information through questionnaire administration. The presentations and discussions of data were in accordance with the arrangement of research questions. The sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents were first presented and discussed to form the basis of discussions in this study.

Sociodemographic Characteristics of Respondents

This section talks about the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents. These characteristics included sex, class, and program of study of students understudy. The sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents (students) are shown in Table 3 .

Table 3 . Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents ( N = 391).

From Table 3 , out of 391 respondents, 213 (54.5%) were boys whereas 178 (45.5) were girls. Even though gender parity at the senior high schools has been attained in Ghana, male students dominated in the study as against their female counterparts. This may be attributed to the willingness of the male students to take part in the study at the time of data collection. The class distribution of the respondents is shown in Table 3 as 165 (42.2%) for Form 2 and the remaining 226 (57.8%) for Form 3. The number of the Form three (3) students increased because, at the time of the data collection, all the Form 3 students were in school. However, only the gold track Form one and two students were present. This explained why the number of students from Form two was relatively lower compared with the Form three students. The students from form one were not considered since they were new to the schools; hence, any information from them may be insignificant since it would not be a true reflection of information on their health and usage behavior of the students on campus.

In relation to program of study in senior high schools in Kumasi Metropolis, Table 3 shows that 90 (23.0%) of the respondents offered home economics, 75 (19.2%) offered business, 100 (25.6%) offered general arts, 80 (20.5%) offered visual arts, and 46 (11.7%) offered science. The study shows that majority of the students offered general arts and home economics. This may be because general arts and home economic courses are now the mostly considered courses in the admission into nurses training colleges and colleges of education in Ghana. As a result, most students who want to pursue nursing end up pursuing general arts and home economics. Moreover, most of the students have the notion that general arts and home economics are easy to pass and this influences most of the students to offer both.

Level of Knowledge on the Sign and Symptoms of Common Diseases

The study sought the respondents' knowledge on the symptoms and causes of some common diseases (malaria, cholera, and STIs) among the students. The responses were collected from the questionnaire and summarized in Table 4 .

Table 4 . Level of knowledge on the sign and symptoms of common diseases.

From Table 4 , out of 391 respondents, 76 (19.4%) noted a low level of knowledge, 125 (32.0%) expressed a high level of knowledge, and 190 (48.6%) indicated a very high level of knowledge on the cause of malaria among students in the Kumasi Metropolis. The study shows that most of the students in Kumasi Metropolis have a high level of knowledge on the causes of malaria. This is because malaria is one of the common diseases that affect most of the students in the study schools. In addition, Table 4 further shows that 74 (18.9%) of the respondents expressed a low level of knowledge, 140 (35.8%) noted a high level of knowledge, and 177 (45.3%) indicated a very high level of knowledge on the symptoms of malaria. Thus, the study revealed that the majority of the respondents had a high level of knowledge on the symptoms of malaria. The respondents gave some of the symptoms of malaria to include feeling hot and shivery, headaches, vomiting, muscle pains, diarrhea, and generally feeling unwell. They however added that some of the symptoms are often mild and can sometimes be difficult to identify as malaria.

Again, Table 4 shows that 90 (23.0%), 135 (34.5%), and 166 (42.5%) expressed low, high, and very high levels of knowledge on the cause of cholera, respectively. The study shows that majority of students in Kumasi Metropolis have a high level of knowledge on the causes of cholera. This may be as a result of the fact that most of the students asserted, that they had suffered from the disease since they came to the school. The results in Table 4 reveal that 85 (21.7%) expressed a low level of knowledge, 145 (37.1%) showed a high level of knowledge, and 161 (41.2%) indicated a very high level of knowledge on the symptoms of cholera among students in senior high schools in Kumasi Metropolis. The results show that majority of the students have more information and knowledge about the symptom of cholera.

Moreover, from Table 4 , out of 391 respondents, 78 (19.9%) noted a low level of knowledge, 165 (42.2%) indicated a high level of knowledge, and 148 (37.9%) expressed a very high level of knowledge about the causes of sexually transmitted infections (gonorrhea and syphilis). The study revealed that students in senior high schools in the Kumasi Metropolis have a high level of knowledge on the causes of STIs (gonorrhea and syphilis). Table 4 shows that 88 (22.5%) noted a low level of knowledge, 158 (40.4%) indicated a high level of knowledge, and 145 (37.1%) expressed a very high level of knowledge on the symptoms of STIs in the Kumasi Metropolis. The study revealed that most of the students in Kumasi Metropolis know the symptom of STIs. They however could not give more important symptoms of STIs.

Attitudes Toward Seeking Health Information

The section further sought to determine the attitudes of students toward seeking information on their health in the Kumasi Metropolis. The study asked the respondents to indicate how often they use any of the following sources to seek information on their health. The responses were collected from the questionnaire and summarized in Table 5 .

Table 5 . Attitudes toward seeking health information ( N = 391).

Results from Table 5 show that 90 (23.0%) noted rarely, 145 (37.1%) not often, 75 (19.2%) often, 43 (11.0%) very often, and 38 (9.7%) expressed extremely often that they seek information on their health using the internet. This shows that most of the students in Kumasi Metropolis do not use the internet to seek information on their health. Again, from Table 5 , the results show that 34 (8.7%), 54 (13.8%), 48 (12.3%), 130 (33.2%), and 125 (32.0%) noted rarely, not often, often, very often, and extremely often, respectively, that they seek information on their health from health professionals. This clearly shows that the majority (77.5%) of the respondents often seek information on their health from the health professionals.

Moreover, results in Table 5 show that 39 (10.0%) indicated rarely, 42 (10.7%) not often, 20 (5.1%) often, 120 (30.7%) very often, and 170 (43.5%) extremely often seek information on their health from their friends. This suggests that the majority (79.3%) of the respondents asserted that they seek information on their health from their friends. In addition, from Table 5 , 37 (9.5%), 32 (8.1%), 30 (7.7%), 168 (43.0%), and 124 (31.7) of the respondents noted rarely, not often, often, very often, and extremely often, respectively, that they seek information on their health from textbooks. The study reveals that most of the students in Kumasi Metropolis seek information on their health from their textbooks.

Last but not least, Table 5 shows that 165 (42.2%) noted rarely, 80 (20.4%) not often, 50 (12.8%) often, 55 (14.1%) very often, and 41 (10.5%) extremely often that they seek information on their health from newsletters. This suggests that the students in Kumasi Metropolis do not seek health information from newsletters.

Association Between Information Sources and Level of Health Knowledge

This study used the chi-square test to test for a statistical association between each source of information on their health and the level of knowledge on the same. The results have been illustrated in Table 6 .

Table 6 . Association between level of knowledge and sources of information on health.

From Table 6 , the study found a significant association between the level of knowledge of the causes of malaria and seeking health information from the internet (chi-square value = 15.456, p = 0.014), health professional (chi-square value = 20.354, p < 0.001), friends (chi-square value = 18.867; p < 0.001), and textbooks (chi-square value = 19.578, p < 0.001). That is, as the students seek information on their health from the internet, health professionals, friends, and textbooks, their level of knowledge on the causes of malaria is increased.

Further, Table 6 shows that there is significant association between the level of knowledge on the symptoms of malaria and seeking information on their health from the internet (chi-square value = 13.322, p = 0.012), health professionals (chi-square value = 19.689, p < 0.001), and textbooks (chi-square value = 18.795, p < 0.001) at 5% significant level. This shows that students' level of knowledge on the symptoms of malaria increases when they seek information on their health from the internet, health professional, and textbooks.

The analysis in Table 6 shows that there is significant association between the level of knowledge on the causes of cholera and seeking information on their health from the internet (chi-square value = 14.482, p = 0.022), health professional (chi-square value = 21.856; p < 0.001), and textbooks (chi-square value =14.533, p = 0.022). This shows that students' level of knowledge on the causes of cholera increases when they seek information on their health from the internet, health professional, and textbooks. Similarly, the level of knowledge on symptoms of cholera was significantly associated with seeking information on health from the internet, health professionals, and textbooks. Again, from Table 6 , there is a significant association between the level of knowledge of the causes of STIs and seeking information on their health from the internet (chi-square value = 22.259, p < 0.001), health professional (chi-square value = 23.523, p < 0.001), and textbooks (chi-square value = 18.120, p < 0.001). That is, the more the students seek information on their health from the internet, health professional, and textbooks, the higher their level of knowledge on the causes of STIs. Similarly, the level of knowledge on symptoms of STIs is significantly associated with seeking information on health from the internet, health professionals, textbooks, and newsletters.

Attitudes Toward Sharing Health Information

Again, this section sought to know the attitudes of students toward sharing information on their health. The researchers asked the respondents to indicate the extent of their agreement or disagreement with each of the following statements. The responses were collected from the questionnaire and summarized in Table 7 . This study further used the chi-square to test the significance of association between attitudes toward sharing information on their health and the characteristics of the respondents.

Table 7 . Attitudes toward sharing health information by students.

From Table 7 , out of 42 respondents who noted strongly disagree that they share information on their health with friends, 18 (42.9%) were boys and 24 (57.1%) were girls. From Table 7 , out of 38 respondents disagreed that they share information on their health with friends and of out this number, 22 (57.9%) were boys and 16 (42.1) were girls. Furthermore, out of 391 respondents, 25 of the respondents who expressed neutral that they share information on their health with friends 10 (40.0%) and 15 (60.0%) were boys and girls, respectively. Among the 184 of the respondents who agreed that they share information on their health with friends, 58 (31.5) were boys and 126 (68.5%) were girls. In addition, out of 102 respondents who noted strongly agree, 37 (36.3%) were – boys and 65 (63.7%) were girls. The study further reveals that there is a strong association between the sex of student and sharing information on their health with friends (chi-square value = 17.285, p < 0.001). Thus, the study ascertained that female students strongly share their information on health with friends than their male counterparts.

Table 7 further revealed that out of 42 respondents strongly disagreed that they share information on their health with friends, 16 (38.1%) were in Form two and 26 (61.9%) were in Form three. Out of 38 respondents who noted disagree, 18 (42.4%) were in Form two and 20 (52.6) were in Form three. From Table 7 , out of 25 respondents who expressed neutral, 14 (56.0%) were in Form two and 11 (40.0%) were in Form three, and out of 184 respondents who indicated agree, 65 (35.3%) were in Form two and 119 (64.7%) were in Form three. In Table 7 , out of 102 respondents who strongly agreed that they share information on their health with friends, 52 (51.0%) were in Form two and 50 (49.0%) were in Form three. The study also reveals that there is a significant association between the class of the student and sharing information on their health with friends (chi-square value = 19.258; p < 0.001). Thus, the study gives an indication that Form three students strongly share their information on health with friends than Form two students.

In furtherance, Table 7 shows that out of 105 respondents who strongly disagreed that they share information on their health with parents, 60 (57.1%) were boys and 45 (42.9%) were girls. From Table 7 , out of 58 respondents who noted disagree, 32 (55.2%) were boys and 26 (44.8) were girls; and out of 55 of the respondents who expressed neutral, 18 (32.7%) were boys whereas 37 (67.3%) were girls. As shown in Table 7 , out of 125 respondents who agreed, 50 (31.5%) were boys and 75 (68.5%) were girls. Again, out of 48 respondents who strongly agreed, 28 (58.3%) were boys and 20 (41.7%) were girls. The study reveals that there is a significant association between the sex of student and sharing information on their health with parents (chi-square value = 13.285, p = 0.004). Thus, the study gives an indication that female students share information on their health with their parents more than their male counterparts.

The results in Table 7 show that out of 105 respondents who strongly disagreed, 30 (28.6%) were in Form two and 75 (71.4%) were in Form three, and out of 58 respondents who noted disagree, 24 (41.4%) were in Form two and 34 (58.6%) were in Form three. From Table 7 , out of 55 respondents who expressed neutral, 14 (25.5%) were in Form two and 41 (75.5%) were in Form three; out of 125 respondents who agreed, 68 (54.4%) were in Form two and 57 (45.6%) were in Form three. Table 7 shows that out of 48 respondents who noted strongly agree that they share information on their health with parents, 29 (60.4%) were in Form two and 19 (39.6%) were in Form three. The study found no significant association between the class of the student and sharing information on their health with parents (chi-square value = 9.527, p = 0.069).

Furthermore, Table 7 shows that out of 44 respondents who strongly disagreed that they share their information on health with the health professionals, 26 (59.1%) were boys and 18 (40.9%) were girls. Again, out of 49 respondents who noted disagree, 22 (44.9%) were boys and 27 (51.1%) were girls, and out of 38 respondents who expressed neutral, 16 (42.1%) were boys and 22 (57.9%) were girls. In addition, out of 145 respondents who indicated agree, 70 (48.3%) were boys and 75 (51.7%) were girls; out of 115 respondents who noted strongly agree, 82 (71.3%) were boys and 33 (28.7%) were girls who expressed that they share their information on health with health professionals. The study reveals that there is a strong significant association between the sex of student and sharing information on their health with health professionals (chi-square value = 17.987, p = 0.015). The implication of this is that female students share their information on health with the health professionals more than their male counterparts.

The results in Table 7 further show that out of 44 respondents who strongly disagreed, 16 (36.4%) were in Form two and 28 (63.6%) were in Form three; out of 49 of the respondents who noted disagree, 20 (40.8%) were in Form two and 29 (59.1%) were in Form three; out of 38 of the respondents who expressed neutral, 14 (36.8%) were in Form two and 24 (63.2%) were in Form three; out of 145 of the respondents who indicated agree, 60 (41.4%) were in Form two and 85 (58.6%) were in Form three; and out of 115 respondents who noted strongly agree, 55 (47.8%) were in Form two and 60 (52.2%) were in Form three, who noted that they share information on their health with health professionals. The study reveals that there is a significant association between the class of the student and sharing information on their health with health professionals (chi-square = 19.527, p < 0.001). The senior students were found to share their health problems with the health professionals.

From Table 7 , out of 32 respondents who strongly disagreed that they share information on their health with school authorities, 18 (56.3%) were boys and 14 (43.8%) were girls; out of 52 of the respondents who noted disagree, 32 (61.5%) were boys and 20 (38.5) were girls; out of 42 of the respondents who expressed neutral, 24 (57.1%) were boys and 18 (42.9%) were girls. Again, from 155 of the respondents who indicated agree, 85 (54.8%) were boys and 70 (45.2%) were girls, and out of 110 respondents who noted strongly agree, 54 (49.1%) were boys and 56 (50.9%) were girls. The study did not find any significant association between the sex of students and sharing information on their health with school authorities (chi-square value = 16.231, p = 0.023).

Table 7 further revealed that out of 32 respondents who strongly disagreed for sharing information on their health with school authorities, 17 (53.1%) were in Form two and 15 (46.9%) were in Form three; from 52 of the respondents who noted disagree, 17 (32.7%) were in Form two and 35 (67.3%) were in Form three; out of 42 of the respondents who expressed neutral, 19 (44.5%) were in Form two and 23 (54.8%) were in Form three; from 155 of the respondents who indicated agree, 69 (44.5%) were in Form two and 86 (64.7%) were in Form three and out of 110 respondents who noted strongly agree, 43 (39.1%) were in Form two and 67 (60.9%) were in Form three. The study also reveals that there is a significant association between the class of students and sharing information on their health with school authorities (chi-square value = 18.258, p < 0.001). Thus, the study gives an indication that Form three students strongly share information on their health with school authorities than Form two students.

The study examines senior high school students' understanding and attitudes toward information on their health on campus in the Kumasi Metropolis. The study found that the students had fair knowledge about the causes and symptoms of malaria. This is not surprising as malaria is a staple disease in the tropical regions where the study area (Kumasi Metropolis) falls. In fact, according to the Ghana Health Service ( 13 ), malaria is the number one outpatient disease in Ghana which is likely to underpin the students' familiarity with the disease. Again, the students expressed enormous knowledge on the causes and symptoms of cholera. The students asserted that they experience an occasional outbreak of cholera on campus, particularly when they eat contaminated foods on campus. It is worthy to mention that the students' familiarity with the causes and symptoms of cholera may be as a result of the perennial outbreak of the cholera disease in the study areas. Some of the respondents attributed the outbreak of cholera to contaminated sources, foods and drinks sold by market vendors, heaped human waste, and undercooked food from the dining.

Again, the students showed fair knowledge about the causes and symptoms of the sexually transmitted diseases (gonorrhea and syphilis). The students' awareness about these diseases could be attributed to the fact that some aspects of these STIs are treated as part of their curriculum content at the junior high and senior school levels. Subjects such as integrated science and social studies contain some contents that bother on these diseases. Again, several adverts are run on radio and television concerning these diseases giving the students fair knowledge and understanding about the causes and symptoms of STIs (gonorrhea and syphilis). This is an indication that students in the metropolis have in-depth knowledge on the causes of STIs and this supports the study conducted by KHademian et al. ( 12 ), Waldman et al. ( 14 ), and Thanavanh et al. ( 2 ), which reveals that students have a high level of knowledge about the causes of STIs, particularly HIV or AIDS.

Moreover, the study found that most of the students in the Kumasi Metropolis do not use the internet to seek information on their health. This may be attributed to the reason that most of the schools do not have access to the internet in their respective schools and this impedes their accessibility to internet facilities to seek information on their health while on campus. Again, the students are not permitted to use phones in the school which further hinders their accessibility to the internet. However, the students who asserted that they seek information on their health from the internet claimed that they had high knowledge of their health. This contravenes the study of Hampton ( 8 ) that the people who most often seek information from the internet have not experienced any positive change in their lives.

On the other hand, the students were found to seek information on their health from health professionals in their schools. This is due to the fact that the selected schools are urban schools and have access to health facilities (sick bays) being operated by the health professionals on their campuses. This makes most of the students go to them to seek information concerning their health issues. This confirms a study by Chen et al. (2018) and Jordan et al. ( 3 ) that there is the need for health professionals to help and guide efforts by educating children and adults about their health information (issues) through more comprehensive tests. It is those health professionals who can detect one's health problems through a series of medical tests. The study further found that the students sought information on their health from their friends. The students expressed that they were comfortable in sharing information on their health with their friends because they believe their friends could keep the information to themselves without divulging it to a third party. Also, the students claimed that they incur costs when they consult the health professionals so they rather attend to their friends they perceive to be knowledgeable for help. However, they noted that the information they seek from their friends is sometimes not authentic.

In addition, the study found that the majority of the students do not seek information on their health from newsletters. This is because most of the students do not have access to newsletters on health while on campus. Even the library which was supposed to be a repository of these materials did not have them and the students barely sought information on their health for this source. However, the study found that the students sought information on their health from their textbooks. The students claimed that the information they seek are part of the things they learn in school. Such information includes the signs and symptoms of some common diseases such as malaria, STIs, and cholera. They further noted that they get some of the ways to treat certain diseases in their textbooks. Finally, the study found a strong association between the students' level of knowledge on the causes and symptoms of malaria, cholera, and STIs and the seeking information on their health from the internet, health professionals, and textbooks.

With respect to sharing information on their health by the students, the study found that most of the students in Kumasi Metropolis share their information with friends. The students claimed that their friends are always around them any time they are in need of help especially in schools and make them feel comfortable by sharing their information on health with them. They further asserted that they have confidence and trust in their friends that they will not share their information with a third party. The study further found a strong association between the sex of students and the sharing health information with friends. Female students were found more to be sharing information on their health with their friends than their male counterparts.

That notwithstanding, the study found that the students were hesitant in sharing information on their health with their parents. This may be attributed to the fact that most of the students are boarders in their respective schools, and as a result, they spend less time with their parents. It may also as a result of the bully nature of many Ghanaian parents. Because of the intimidating nature of some parents, the motherly or fatherly relationship between child and parents is marred, which culminates into students finding it difficult to share information on their health with their parents. This makes them keep information on their health to themselves as Sbaffi and Zhao ( 20 ) and Paterson (2010) noted that young people have a strong desire to be in control of their own record than sharing with intimidating parents.

However, the study reveals that the students in the Kumasi Metropolis share information on their health with the health professional in the school. The students asserted that they believe the health professionals keep the information confidential. This gives them some comfort and confidence to share information on their health with them. Again, it may also be attributed to the fact that the students believe in them to have the expertise to solve their health problems and therefore are willing to share information on their health with these professionals. This corroborates the study of Tran et al. ( 23 ), Ghana Health Service ( 13 ), and Teixeira et al. ( 35 ) that sharing information on their health with health professionals is hinged on their knowledge and their ability to keep the information confidential. Again, the sex of students was found to have a strong association with the sharing information on their health with health professionals. Female students were found to share information on their health with the health professionals more than their male counterparts. This may be precipitated by the Ghanaian culture where female students are mostly found to access health care whenever they fall sick as compared to their male counterparts who will keep their health problems to themselves.

Conclusion and Policy Implications

The study examined senior high school students' understanding and attitude toward health information access in schools. The findings of the study have brought to the fore pertinent health issues that have been neglected in the educational sector for many decades, particularly in many developing countries such as Ghana. The study found students' knowledge of the causes and symptoms of malaria, cholera, and STIs to be appreciably high as a result of readings from textbooks and health professionals. Again, the study found that the students preferred sharing their health information with friends than their parents, particularly the female students. Again, the study found that the students felt uncomfortable sharing their health information with the schools' authorities for fear of stigmatization. Finally, the study further posits a strong association between the students' level of knowledge on the causes and symptoms of malaria, cholera, and STIs and the seeking health information from the internet, health professionals, and textbooks.

Following from the findings, the study recommends that the counseling units in the senior high schools should have a health professional in their team who would provide clinical counseling services to the students. Monitored positive peer-counseling group (this is where students are electronically and/or manually put into micro-groups of three in addition to a counseling expert for them to share their personal problems they feel to share hinged on the principle of trust and confidentiality) should also be encouraged by the schools' management and by extension the counseling units for the students to share views on themselves, particularly on health issues where they deem fit. In this case, the counseling expert would be able to moderate the conversations of the students and give expert advice appropriately. The study further proposes that schools' management should institute a telemedicine program in the schools to well-inform the students on health matters to prevent abuse of health information. Finally, the study recommends a strong health system on the campuses of senior high schools as they have become communities on their own as a result of the emergence of the free senior high school program.

Limitations of the Study

Despite the innovative contributions of this study to the literature and policy of health information among students, certain limitations that might affect the generalizability and accuracy of findings were inevitable, particularly during the design and data collection phases of the study. Therefore, it is incumbent to note that the findings of this study should be interpreted in light of such limitations. For instance, given time and financial constraints, only five schools were selected for the study out of convenience. As a result, the extent to which the findings could be generalizable to other students elsewhere in Ghana may be limited. In furtherance, whereas longitudinal analysis may be desirable, this study employed a cross-sectional design as opposed to a longitudinal study. This may limit the determination of any causal and temporal relationships among the various outcomes and explanatory study variables. The findings should, therefore, be taken as associations rather than being causal. More so, in Ghana, age and certain health problems are often not openly reported owing to the associated stigma.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Committee on Human Research, Publication and Ethics of the School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology/Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin. Written informed consent was obtained from the minor(s)' legal guardian/next of kin for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: senior high school, Kumasi Metropolis, malaria, cholera, information on health

Citation: Boateng S, Baah A, Boakye-Ansah D and Aboagye B (2022) Senior High School Students' Knowledge and Attitudes Toward Information on Their Health in the Kumasi Metropolis. Front. Public Health 9:752195. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.752195

Received: 03 August 2021; Accepted: 06 December 2021; Published: 13 January 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Boateng, Baah, Boakye-Ansah and Aboagye. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Simon Boateng, boateng.simon@yahoo.com

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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