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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

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Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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Writing a Case Study

What is a case study?

A Case study is: 

• An in-depth research design that primarily uses a qualitative methodology but sometimes​​ includes quantitative methodology.
• Used to examine an identifiable problem confirmed through research.
• Used to investigate an individual, group of people, organization, or event.
• Used to mostly answer "how" and "why" questions.

What are the different types of case studies?

Note: These are the primary case studies. As you continue to research and learn

about case studies you will begin to find a robust list of different types. 

Who are your case study participants?

What is triangulation ? 

Validity and credibility are an essential part of the case study. Therefore, the researcher should include triangulation to ensure trustworthiness while accurately reflecting what the researcher seeks to investigate.

How to write a Case Study?

When developing a case study, there are different ways you could present the information, but remember to include the five parts for your case study.

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Resources for research

Case studies in educational research

31 Mar 2011

Dr Lorna Hamilton

To cite this reference: Hamilton, L. (2011) Case studies in educational research, British Educational Research Association on-line resource. Available on-line at [INSERT WEB PAGE ADDRESS HERE] Last accessed [insert date here]

Case study is often seen as a means of gathering together data and giving coherence and limit to what is being sought. But how can we define case study effectively and ensure that it is thoughtfully and rigorously constructed?  This resource shares some key definitions of case study and identifies important choices and decisions around the creation of studies. It is for those with little or no experience of case study in education research and provides an introduction to some of the key aspects of this approach: from the all important question of what exactly is case study, to the key decisions around case study work and possible approaches to dealing with the data collected. At the end of the resource, key references and resources are identified which provide the reader with further guidance.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies of 2021

Two cases about Hertz claimed top spots in 2021's Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies

Two cases on the uses of debt and equity at Hertz claimed top spots in the CRDT’s (Case Research and Development Team) 2021 top 40 review of cases.

Hertz (A) took the top spot. The case details the financial structure of the rental car company through the end of 2019. Hertz (B), which ranked third in CRDT’s list, describes the company’s struggles during the early part of the COVID pandemic and its eventual need to enter Chapter 11 bankruptcy. 

The success of the Hertz cases was unprecedented for the top 40 list. Usually, cases take a number of years to gain popularity, but the Hertz cases claimed top spots in their first year of release. Hertz (A) also became the first ‘cooked’ case to top the annual review, as all of the other winners had been web-based ‘raw’ cases.

Besides introducing students to the complicated financing required to maintain an enormous fleet of cars, the Hertz cases also expanded the diversity of case protagonists. Kathyrn Marinello was the CEO of Hertz during this period and the CFO, Jamere Jackson is black.

Sandwiched between the two Hertz cases, Coffee 2016, a perennial best seller, finished second. “Glory, Glory, Man United!” a case about an English football team’s IPO made a surprise move to number four.  Cases on search fund boards, the future of malls,  Norway’s Sovereign Wealth fund, Prodigy Finance, the Mayo Clinic, and Cadbury rounded out the top ten.

Other year-end data for 2021 showed:

• Online “raw” case usage remained steady as compared to 2020 with over 35K users from 170 countries and all 50 U.S. states interacting with 196 cases.
• Fifty four percent of raw case users came from outside the U.S..
• The Yale School of Management (SOM) case study directory pages received over 160K page views from 177 countries with approximately a third originating in India followed by the U.S. and the Philippines.
• Twenty-six of the cases in the list are raw cases.
• A third of the cases feature a woman protagonist.
• Orders for Yale SOM case studies increased by almost 50% compared to 2020.
• The top 40 cases were supervised by 19 different Yale SOM faculty members, several supervising multiple cases.

CRDT compiled the Top 40 list by combining data from its case store, Google Analytics, and other measures of interest and adoption.

All of this year’s Top 40 cases are available for purchase from the Yale Management Media store .

And the Top 40 cases studies of 2021 are:

1.   Hertz Global Holdings (A): Uses of Debt and Equity

2.   Coffee 2016

3.   Hertz Global Holdings (B): Uses of Debt and Equity 2020

4.   Glory, Glory Man United!

5.   Search Fund Company Boards: How CEOs Can Build Boards to Help Them Thrive

6.   The Future of Malls: Was Decline Inevitable?

7.   Strategy for Norway's Pension Fund Global

8.   Prodigy Finance

9.   Design at Mayo

10. Cadbury

11. City Hospital Emergency Room

13. Volkswagen

14. Marina Bay Sands

15. Shake Shack IPO

16. Mastercard

17. Netflix

18. Ant Financial

19. AXA: Creating the New CR Metrics

20. IBM Corporate Service Corps

21. Business Leadership in South Africa's 1994 Reforms

22. Alternative Meat Industry

23. Children's Premier

24. Khalil Tawil and Umi (A)

25. Palm Oil 2016

26. Teach For All: Designing a Global Network

27. What's Next? Search Fund Entrepreneurs Reflect on Life After Exit

28. Searching for a Search Fund Structure: A Student Takes a Tour of Various Options

30. Project Sammaan

31. Commonfund ESG

32. Polaroid

33. Connecticut Green Bank 2018: After the Raid

34. FieldFresh Foods

35. The Alibaba Group

36. 360 State Street: Real Options

37. Herman Miller

38. AgBiome

39. Nathan Cummings Foundation

40. Toyota 2010

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• Open access
• Published: 05 June 2024

Classroom communications post pandemic: a case study

• Marwa Abdelmonem 1 &
• Sherin Karawia 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  728 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Environmental studies

This cross-sectional case study ( n  = 20) took place in Qatar over a 3-month period spanning from September until the end of November in 2021. It examined the impacts of a post-COVID classroom arrangement that incorporated preventive measures like social distancing and the use of face coverings. Using the case study methodology, we employed two qualitative research methods, namely non-participant observation and semi-structured interviews, to gather primary data. We also conducted an extensive literature review to identify the key themes for investigation in the field. The primary focus of our study was on proxemics (personal space and crowding), technology (Zoom), non-verbal communication, and ergonomics (lighting and acoustics). Our study uncovered new areas for future research, particularly in how proxemics change in socially distanced classrooms, affecting personal space and perceptions of crowding. Additionally, it highlighted themes in post-pandemic classroom design, emphasizing the impact of factors like seating arrangements and available amenities (e.g., pinup walls) on student engagement, especially in design-studio classrooms. The study also revealed unexpected challenges, such as issues with microphone usage due to users’ lack of familiarity with their operation. In summary, the research underscores the ongoing importance of adaptable learning methods and communication strategies, particularly in response to preventive measures like social distancing and face-covering, which have reshaped our concept of personal space and emphasized the crucial role of telecommunication in crisis resilience for communities and organizations.

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Introduction.

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), was declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) due to its rapid spread to multiple countries ( WHO Director-General’s Opening Remarks at the Media Briefing on COVID-19 - 11 March 2020 , 2020 ). It is important to note that COVID-19 is not an isolated event in history, as previous pandemics like the 1918 American Polio epidemic, the 1918 Spanish flu, the 1957 Asian flu, the 1981 AIDS pandemic, the 2009 H1N1 Swine flu, the 2014 West African Ebola, and the 2014 Zika Virus epidemic have occurred (Cennimo, 2020 ; Jarus, 2023 ). COVID-19 can have severe health consequences, particularly for the elderly and those with pre-existing health conditions (World Health Organization, n.d. ) .

Preventing the transmission of COVID-19 involves a combination of physical and medical interventions. The WHO recommends physical measures such as handwashing, social distancing, and wearing face coverings (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d. ). Medical interventions include vaccines, although their long-term effectiveness is still being studied (Frequently Asked Questions about COVID-19 Vaccination, 2023 ). Vaccines have proven effective in reducing hospitalization rates by 92–96% (Robson, 2021 ), but ongoing research is examining their long-term impacts.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to significant changes in the operations of various institutions, including educational establishments. Measures like remote work and restricted access to buildings were implemented, and as vaccines were developed, some restrictions were lifted. In Qatar, strict COVID-19 measures included travel bans and public place closures, and the use of the Ehteraz app for exposure alerts (Al Khal et al., 2020 ). Mandatory face masks, protective equipment distribution, and clear public communication highlighted preventive measures, linking access to public facilities with a healthy Ehteraz status during the lockdown (Al Khal et al., 2020 ). The gradual reopening and removal of restrictions occurred in four phases, commencing on May 21, 2021 (Government Communications Office, 2020 ). Our study coincided with the second phase, marked by the partial lifting of restrictions, enabling a return to campus within designated daily hours and specific building capacities that varied across different structures.

The transition back to in-person learning has brought challenges in ensuring safety in alignment with WHO guidelines, including social distancing measures within classrooms. Given the mixed sentiments surrounding the reopening, communication within the classroom under setups adhering to WHO guidelines was unforeseen and unfamiliar to everyone. With varied opinions on the reopening, communication within classrooms following WHO guidelines was unexpected. Hence, our research study aimed to explore classroom communication post-online learning during the pandemic, as there is limited existing research on the effects of preventive measures on this aspect.

Student engagement is related to academic performance, and a conducive learning environment plays a crucial role in fostering effective communication and learning (Shernoff et al., 2016 , as cited in Kelly, 2008; Kopec, 2012 ). Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effects of preventive measures like face-covering and social distancing on classroom communication in a post-pandemic, socially-distanced classroom setting. In essence, our study seeks to answer the research question: “What impact do preventive measures have on classroom communication within a post-pandemic classroom environment?” This study was conducted on two interconnected classrooms, which were intentionally furnished to comply with social distancing requirements and create a cohesive socially distanced learning environment, prompting further exploration of this phenomenon.

Literature review

To investigate how preventive measures might impact classroom communication dynamics, our study conducted a review of the literature to identify and extract certain themes from this body of work. These predetermined themes were integral to addressing the aforementioned research question. Out of more than 50 studies examined, only 29 were selected to form the basis of the literature review for this study. Additional sources were incorporated for specific definitions and concepts. The literature selection criteria included original works in environmental design pertaining to proxemics, exploration of blended learning and technology use, considerations in classroom design, and aspects of verbal and non-verbal communication in classrooms.

Personal space

Due to the physical nature of the social distancing measure, literature on personal space was reviewed to better understand the impact of the changing proxemics. The first scholar to introduce the concept of personal space was Edward Hall in 1959 (Beaulieu, 2004 , p. 794). Hall defined personal space as “an invisible three-dimensional zone surrounding a person, which allows that person to regulate his interactions with the outside world” (Beaulieu, 2004 , p. 294). Research shows that “the idea of personal space is actually an interpersonal phenomenon” (Kopec, 2012 ). In other words, it requires the existence of others in order to occur. This was the definition pertaining to the psychological nature of this entity. However, it is also defined based on its physical characteristics as the variable and subjective distance at which one person feels comfortable talking to another ( Dictionary.com | Meanings & Definitions of English Words , 2021 ).

According to Hall ( 1990 ), the hidden boundaries of personal space are not fixed and can vary from one culture to another, as culture plays an important role in defining personal space. Nevertheless, in a socially distanced classroom, personal space that was long referred to as an invisible bubble has become well-identified with its visible physical boundaries after the COVID-19 pandemic. Spacing mechanisms used in design, in general, and in a socially distanced classroom, in particular, serve to maintain one’s perception of their personal space (Kopec, 2012 ).

The importance of the concept of personal space lies in regulating communication and human interaction. Research shows that “the concept of personal space is viewed as variable and permeable in different settings” (Beaulieu, 2004 , p. 297). According to Hall ( 1990 ), interpersonal distance zones, which govern our interactions, can be categorized into four zones. The first category is the intimate, which ranges from 0 to 18”, typically reserved for individuals with close relationships, such as family members or individuals in deeply connected interpersonal bonds (Kopec, 2012 ). The second interpersonal zone is the personal which can range from 18” up to 4’ (Kopec, 2012 , p. 78). This zone is usually used in casual interactions between friends and acquaintances (Kopec, 2012 ). The third level is social , which is usually maintained in business relations between coworkers (Beaulieu, 2004 ) and ranges from 4’ to 12’ (Kopec, 2012 , p. 78). Lastly, the public zone which is usually used by people in public places where they find themselves surrounded by a number of strangers (Kopec, 2012 ). This zone varies from 12’ to 25’ (Kopec, 2012 . p. 78). In a recent study, Mehta ( 2020 ) investigated Hall’s proxemics in urban settings, focusing on changes in street and public space dynamics in residential areas during COVID-19. The research highlighted how residents in mid- to low-density areas repurpose spaces, fostering sociability despite social distancing measures.

In our study, we chose to explore the personal space perceived by participants in an attempt to analyze the various elements that define this concept within the new classroom setup. Our study was mostly exploratory and was not focused on a certain type of interpersonal distance.

Crowding concept

We also explored another concept in environmental psychology that is closely related to personal space, which is Crowding. In normal situations, the occupant load, which is “the number of people that a building code assumes will occupy a given building or a portion of a building”, is based on the building classification (Ballast, 2013 ). The number, placement, and capacity of exits are based on more than just occupant load. The type of occupancy and use, travel distance and remoteness or separation of exits are examples of other factors typically considered when designing a building.

As Kopec ( 2012 , p. 77) indicated, “spacing mechanisms used in design serve to help maintain an individual’s sense of personal space”. To put it differently, the use of physical boundaries such as partitions, furniture and layout allows the individual to identify their own personal space. Crowding, on the other hand, is defined as the “psychological tension produced in environments of high population density, especially when individuals feel that the amount of space available to them is insufficient for their needs” (American Psychological Association, n.d. ). In that sense, it can be argued that implementing social distancing in a classroom can potentially eliminate any sensation of crowding. However, our study examines this concept further, as the perception of crowding can be subjective in nature.

Some researchers such as Evans and Wener ( 2007 ) analyzed the concept of personal space and crowding in trains. According to their review of the literature, incursions into personal space by unfamiliar individuals lead to greater stress compared to those committed by individuals with positive interpersonal relationships. Evans and Wener ( 2007 ) suggested that crowding occurs when the regulation of social interaction fails, leading to a higher level of social interaction than desired. Worchel and Teddie ( 1976 ) also asserted that a feeling of overcrowding is associated with violations of personal space. Crowding can have negative impacts on mental health, causing decreased performance on complex tasks, stress aftermaths, and increased physiological stress (American Psychological Association, n.d. ). The lack of control over social interaction (i.e. privacy) and the decline of socially supportive relationships are considered to be two key mechanisms that contribute to crowding (American Psychological Association, n.d. ).

Upon reviewing the existing literature, specific inquiries emerge concerning the concept of crowding. Our principal emphasis lies in examining how the notion of crowding, closely intertwined with the concept of personal space, has evolved within a socially distanced classroom environment.

Communication

According to Wahyuni ( 2018 ), teachers are required to excel in specific nonverbal communication skills, which encompass body language, the utilization of eye contact, maintaining appropriate distance from students, and the use of touch. Wahyuni ( 2018 ), who further cited Darn (Darn, n.d. ), noted that nearly 75% of classroom management relies on nonverbal communication. In this research, our objective was to investigate the alterations in both verbal and nonverbal communication within the new setup. This change was prompted by the introduction of social distancing measures through the rearrangement of furniture and the adoption of Zoom as an auxiliary tool to facilitate communication between two interconnected classrooms.

Non-verbal communication

It is evident that nonverbal communication plays an important role in classroom interaction (Hall et al., 1977 ). French ( 1977 ) described the non-verbal experience as a multi-dimensional, multi-sensory experience. In his study, French ( 1977 ) emphasized the need for incorporating the non-verbal experience into curriculum development. “The non-verbal experience focused both on self and others”, which requires “an active engagement rather than a passive one” (French, 1977 , p. 176). French’s ( 1977 ) findings resonate well with Astin’s ( 1984 ) regarding the degree of student involvement. Astin ( 1984 ) defines student involvement as the extent of physical and psychological energy invested in the college experience, including academic absorption, extracurricular participation, and interaction with faculty. Education literature distinguishes between student engagement and involvement. Engagement , according to Campus Intelligence (Gay, 2019 ), entails dedicating time and effort to educationally purposeful activities, surpassing mere involvement. Engaged students actively pursue endeavors that contribute to their educational goals, going beyond classroom actions like note-taking and questioning. In their recent research, Walker and Koralesky ( 2021 ) employed the definition of student engagement found in various scholarly reviews, indicating that student engagement is a multi-dimensional construct with three interconnected dimensions: affective, behavioral, and cognitive engagement (Walker and Koralesky, 2021 ; as cited in Chapman, 2002; Fredricks et al., 2004 ; Mandernach, 2015 ; Trowler, 2010 ). Our comprehension of the distinction between these two terms aided us in pinpointing the themes of observation. This is because engagement, in this context, is not the behavior we are focusing on; instead, we are interested in examining classroom dynamics and communication.

Hall et al. ( 1977 ) indicated that non-verbal communication involves a sender and a recipient. Hall et al. ( 1977 ) highlighted that there are some variables that make this sending-receiving type of interaction more effective. Among those variables that Hall et al. ( 1977 ) listed is the “climate”, which refers to how friendly the teacher is in interacting with students. Students are encouraged to actively participate in class discussions if they receive these cues about friendliness and positivity through the sender’s facial expressions and voice tone (Hall et al., 1977 ). This coincides with Zeki’s ( 2009 ) findings that the teacher’s non-verbal communication creates a comfortable and relaxing climate, which consequently enables the students to effectively and confidently engage in class discussions.

In the literature, we discovered another element that affects the student’s engagement in class, which is the locus of control (Astin, 1984 ; Richmond and McCroskey, 2012 , p. 13). According to Astin ( 1984 ), “students’ degree of involvement in learning tasks can be influenced by whether they believe that their behavior is controlled by internal or by external factors.” This is related to belief systems, which are often rooted in one’s locus of control (Kopec, 2012 ). Those who have “a strong external locus of control believe that they are controlled by external forces” (Kopec, 2012 , p. 98). On the other hand, people who have an “internal locus of control believe that their actions, choices, and pursuits control their destiny” (Kopec, 2012 , p. 98). This can be an indicative measure of the student’s level of motivation (Zeki, 2009 ). A number of studies (Zeki, 2009 ; Kopec, 2012 ; Hall, 1959 ) stated that the components of non-verbal communication include, but are not limited to; facial expressions (i.e. mimics), eye contact, angulation, and gestures (i.e. body language). The amount of information one receives from their surroundings comes from all senses but mainly from the eyes and ears (Zeki, 2009 ). This highlights the importance of visual and auditory environmental cues in a classroom.

Verbal communication

Additionally, we sought to comprehend the influence of the new environment on verbal communication. Consequently, we delved into the literature pertaining to physical ergonomics, such as classroom layout, acoustics, and lighting within the field of environmental design.

Classroom layout

Through an examination of early literature centered on the physical ergonomics of classroom configurations, we came across a notable study conducted by Sommer ( 1977 ) that underscored the significance of classroom layout as a means of non-verbal communication. Sommer emphasized that a classroom should not be viewed as a single homogeneous space but rather as a collection of interconnected micro-environments. Elements such as windows, lighting, heating vents, blackboards, and display equipment were identified as factors influencing interactions within the classroom. Additionally, the arrangement of classroom furniture was found to impact body angulation, which in turn affects nonverbal communication (Kopec, 2012 ).

In the realm of classroom design, the establishment of structures known as “affordances” gives rise to opportunities for engagement or limitations in that regard (Metzger and Langley, 2020 ). Affordances pertain to both the perceived and tangible characteristics of objects or surroundings, influencing how they can be employed (Metzger and Langley, 2020 , as cited in Gibson, 1979). In other words, these affordances represent resources within an environment for those who perceive and interact with them. In the context of our study, affordances are represented by movable chairs, movable tables, Zoom technology, and microphones. These affordances are meant to enhance communication while also imposing limitations on social proximity.

Verbal communication in a classroom involves the teacher conveying speech to students through a combination of direct and reflected sound (Berg et al., 1996 ). Effective acoustics are achieved when the reflected sound enhances the quality of the direct sound (Berg et al., 1996 ). Sound within the classroom space exhibits three behaviors: reflection off obstacles, diffraction around obstacles, and transmission into obstacles or new media (Timeline: Sound Wave, n.d. ). Reflected sound can lead to two issues: echoes or reverberation (Timeline: Sound Wave, n.d. ). An echo occurs when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear more than 0.1 s after the original sound wave was heard (Timeline: Sound Wave, n.d. ). On the other hand, reverberation is the prolongation of sound as it repeatedly bounces off hard surfaces (Ballast, 2013 ). Reverberation is generally preferred in classroom acoustics as it enhances speech intelligibility in the interior environment (Ballast, 2013 ). To achieve good acoustics in a classroom, a well-designed space includes an appropriate combination of absorbent, reflective, and diffusive materials (Berg et al., 1996 ).

Classroom acoustics can be affected by sound transmission through barriers, such as HVAC systems and external noise from corridors or streets (Ballast, 2013 ). Research efforts have been directed towards exploring issues such as listening problems among special students, student disengagement, the teacher’s voice, and teacher fatigue (Berg et al., 1996 ). This information is relevant to our study as it pertains to the investigation of a socially distanced classroom setup. We also aimed to investigate acoustics because of its significant impact on both verbal and nonverbal communication, especially when considering the use of face coverings.

Daytime light exposure, particularly from sunlight, full-spectrum LEDs, and digital screens, is significant for learning as it affects both vision and a non-visual system tied to sleep-wake cycles and cognitive performance. Blue light has the most powerful impact on alertness and reduced sleepiness compared to other wavelengths, influencing hormonal secretion in the non-visual system (Uncapher, 2016 ).

In their case study, Tureková et al. ( 2018 ) aimed to show how the school environment significantly affects students’ academic performance. They found that factors like accurate lighting influence visual comfort and fatigue during visual tasks. Assessing the daylight factor in a university classroom revealed insufficient values, prompting the design of a potential software-based alternative to improve visual comfort. They also highlighted that natural light’s impact goes beyond academics, influencing physiological, psychological, and behavioral aspects of both students and workers (Tureková et al., 2018 ).

Al-Sallal ( 2010 ) studied daylighting in UAE classrooms, analyzing visual performance and quality. His research involved data collection from architectural drawings, compliance documents, site visits, and photography. Crucial design issues affecting visual quality, such as space size, depth-to-height ratio, window orientation, lighting direction, and desk position, were investigated through simulation. The study revealed design issues impacting daylighting and visual quality, including depth, glazing area, orientation, and daylighting direction. Visual discomfort was found due to contrasting luminance, high window brightness, and uneven daylight distribution. Mitigation strategies discussed focused on solar shading, glare protection, and daylight redirection, considering UAE climate design requirements. This study holds great relevance to our research because Qatar and the UAE share a similar climate. Our objective was to investigate whether there are any unexpected issues related to lighting in the new setup.

Joia and Lorenzo ( 2021 ) investigated the effectiveness of using Zoom, a popular choice for virtual communication during the pandemic (Joia and Lorenzo, 2021 ). The study’s findings emphasize the importance of a teacher’s digital proficiency on the platform and the availability of metacognitive support within the digital environment as key factors in achieving successful pedagogical objectives. Additionally, the research highlights that disciplines involving hard skills are more prone to not meeting their educational goals when transitioning to technology-mediated environments compared to soft skill disciplines undergoing a similar transition (Joia and Lorenzo, 2021 ).

Another study highlighted the benefits of video communication platforms, including expanding educational reach and enabling multimedia-based pedagogy (Earon, n.d. ). Online learning via Zoom showed satisfactory student levels in a study conducted in Pakistan (Minhas et al., 2021 ), but some students reported dissatisfaction due to technical issues (Kim, 2020 ). While online learning cannot replace face-to-face instruction (Ramadani and Xhaferi, 2020 ; Alawamleh et al., 2020 ), instructors’ digital competence and metacognitive support on Zoom can enhance the online experience (Joia and Lorenzo, 2021 ). The potential of using Zoom in a socially distanced classroom requires further exploration, given the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact and new social distancing measures. In our study, we aim to explore the use of Zoom as a supplementary communication medium in socially distanced classrooms.

To bridge the research gap on socially distanced classrooms that are specific to the context of Qatar, we embraced the philosophy of Epistemic Contextualism, asserting that knowledge attribution varies based on context (Rysiew, 2021 ). Following Morgan et al.’s ( 2016 ) recommendation, we adopted the case study methodology, drawing inspiration from the Case Study Observational Research (CSOR) approach. This approach entails conducting observations before interviews to delve deeper into aspects within the contextual framework. Our choice of a case study methodology aligns with qualitative research principles, suitable for exploring new fields or theorizing important issues (Jamshed, 2014 ). Consequently, we employed two data collection methods: observations followed by semi-structured interviews. Semi-structured interviews, rooted in the belief in socially constructed reality, offer flexibility for cross-verification within and between interviews (Azungah, 2018 ). The main objective was to investigate the impact of socially distanced classrooms on student engagement and classroom communication. This cross-sectional study was conducted within a three-month timeframe. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis (Lawless and Chen, 2018 ) for both the observation and interviews. The study was conducted in a unique setting. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the classroom was designed as a studio for a single group, separated into two interconnected classrooms, illustrated in Fig. 1 as Classroom A and Classroom B. Additionally, two vestibules were designated as break areas for students. Classroom A had a dual function, serving as both a studio space and a location where students assembled their tables in the center for lectures. However, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, social distancing measures were implemented, mandating that each student remain in their assigned seat even during lectures. In other words, students were assigned to design-studio classrooms A and B. The instructor’s workstation, which contained all the necessary equipment, was located in classroom A. As a result, Classroom A was equipped with a TV screen for presentations, while Classroom B was equipped with a projector. Both the screen and the projector were connected to the audio/speakers’ area that was located next to the instructor’s workstation in Classroom A (see Fig. 2 ).

This figure demonstrates Pre- and Post-COVID layouts showcasing a floor plan of the two design-studio classrooms (A and B) interconnected by two vestibules, forming a unified socially distanced classroom. It also illustrates the locations of screens and instructor’s workstation in both classrooms.

A floor plan depicting the layout of design-studio classrooms A and B , along with four perspectives from both classrooms viewed from various camera angles (angles A , B , C , and D ).

Non-participant observations

Observational documentation spanned three months, from September to November, commencing at the start of the semester before obtaining Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval for interviews, as no direct participant contact was required. Field notes encompassed written observations, hand sketches, and circulation maps, providing visual representations of classroom communications. The observer, the second researcher, attended the bi-weekly class sessions for approximately 60 min, ensuring comprehensive consideration of any potential confounding variables. The observation method was guided by findings from the literature review, shaping the framework for the study.

The observations involved observing students without actively participating, providing an overview of the setting and narrowing focus to specific elements of interest (Non-participant Observation, n.d. ). Students were closely monitored in their natural environments, with observations aligned with several themes derived from the literature review mentioned earlier. Field notes were recorded, specifically focusing on non-verbal communication aspects like angulation, body language, and gestures. Additionally, the observer examined any unanticipated data that had not been emphasized in the literature review. The aim of this method was to examine our predetermined themes extracted from the literature review and explore the emerging themes resulting from the new setup. Data were collected through field notes, sketches, and movement mapping over a period of three months.

Access to the classrooms was granted by both the Interim Chair of the Department and the Research Department. The first author served as the instructor for a lecture-based course during the research period, while the second author conducted the non-participant observations and subsequent semi-structured interviews. To maintain confidentiality, only data that had been de-identified and coded were provided to the first author for the purpose of data analysis.

It’s important to mention that we initially piloted a participant-observation method at the start of the semester, involving observations from both researchers. However, this proved impractical as the first researcher was also the course instructor, heavily engaged in fulfilling teaching obligations. Consequently, we opted for a non-participant observation approach, allowing one researcher to fully immerse in observing and documenting the identified variables from the literature review. Generally, “observational data can be integrated as auxiliary or confirmatory research” (Jamshed, 2014 , p. 88). Essentially, the use of observational data is intended to confirm the applicability of the predetermined themes identified in our literature review and to identify any unforeseen themes.

Semi-structured interviews

The second method utilized involved the conducting of face-to-face semi-structured interviews with college students who were pursuing a major in interior design. This was carried out following the approval granted by a national Institutional Review Board. Data was collected from a group of students ( n  = 20) aged between 18 and 20 years old. Ultimately, a total of 17 interviews were conducted, with three participants choosing to withdraw due to scheduling conflicts that arose during the final weeks of the semester. The inclusion and exclusion criteria can be found below in Table 1 .

Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim, with each session lasting approximately 30 min (Jamshed, 2014 ). The interview questions, derived from the literature review and observations, were intentionally designed as semi-structured to provide participants with the opportunity to elaborate on their responses. The inquiries primarily consisted of open-ended questions, aiming to delve into participants’ authentic feelings and attitudes regarding the new setup. However, close-ended questions were also incorporated to ensure clarity and consistency in responses.

The interviewing process employed a funnel approach, focusing on building trust and rapport and presenting questions in an unbiased manner to minimize biases from both the interviewer and interviewee (Azungah, 2018 ).

Data analysis

We adopted the inductive/deductive hybrid thematic analysis approach. According to Proudfoot ( 2022 ), thematic analysis that combines elements of both inductive and deductive approaches presents promising prospects for researchers. We initiated the coding process with a deductive approach, employing pre-established themes crafted before engaging with the collected data. These themes were formulated based on the literature review findings, detailed in Tables 2 and 3 . As we analyzed the interview data, we identified new themes that emerged from the study. Consequently, we adopted an inductive coding approach to highlight these additional insights.

Observations

During a 3-month period, the various movements of communication behaviors were captured with sketches. Video or audio recordings were not viable options due to cultural considerations. The outcomes of the non-participant observations align with the previously identified findings from literature review as shown below in Table 2 .

Based on our field observations, the instructor’s position within the room has a significant impact on student engagement. When the instructor is physically present in the room, it positively influences student-instructor interaction. Some students actively participate in class discussions and take notes only when the instructor is within their line of sight. However, there are other students who seem eager to participate regardless of the instructor’s location. While this observation might seem apparent, it proved valuable as it allowed us to connect it to the concept of locus of control. We were particularly interested in exploring whether student engagement stemmed from an internal or external source. Although this observation didn’t offer in-depth information, it provided an insight into how some students might possess an internal locus of control, motivating them to participate actively in class discussions regardless of classroom conditions or arrangements.

Additionally, our observations highlight that establishing eye contact plays a significant role in enhancing verbal communication and increasing student engagement. It is quite normal to see students eagerly joining classroom discussions by raising their hands, especially when they are in a position where the instructor can easily see them. In instances where students cannot recall technical terms for architectural concepts (e.g., forms, shapes, etc.), they resort to using hand gestures to convey their ideas. However, this might pose a challenge for those participating in the class discussion through Zoom from the adjacent room (classroom A or B), as they may not be able to see or interpret these hand gestures effectively. Body language encompasses a broad spectrum of non-verbal cues involving different parts of the body. Emphasizing the significance of hands in particular, they play a pivotal role in enhancing the effectiveness of verbal communication. Our observations also reveal that students commonly adjust their body position, specifically their angulation, to enhance their ability to actively engage in classroom discussions. This adjustment often involves orienting themselves towards key focal points within the classroom, which typically include the instructor’s position or the screen/display, particularly in lecture-style classes. This angulation adjustment may have potential musculoskeletal consequences, which is an aspect we aimed to explore further during the interviews.

This setup is relatively novel and has yet to receive attention in the existing literature. Our field observations underscore the significance of technology utilization in a socially distanced classroom setting. It notably reduces the time spent on communication between two separate rooms. Without the aid of microphones and speakers, instructors are required to repeat discussions for both rooms, effectively duplicating their verbal communication efforts. This duplication of effort can lead to fatigue, occasionally diminishing the instructor’s overall productivity in a socially distanced classroom. Conversely, the positioning of the microphone held significant importance for student engagement. Students seated in closer proximity to the microphone or those with unobstructed access to it demonstrated higher levels of participation in class activities and discussions as illustrated in the mapping diagram (Fig. 3 ).

A mapping diagram that layers the instructor’s movement and students’ movement in the classrooms. In this diagram, the instructor’s movement frequency is highlighted with purple hexagons, while student movements are depicted with green hexagons.The dark microphone symbol denotes the primary location of the microphone, while the gray microphone symbol indicates changes in its position based on student movement.

Personal space and crowding

We also aimed to investigate the concept of crowding concerning personal space within the socially distanced setup. Most responses indicated that this feeling was barely experienced within the new arrangement. It appears that some students confused the psychological meaning of crowding with the physical aspects of overcrowding, and a follow-up question might have been helpful to clarify the investigation’s focus. Nonetheless, we suggest that the absence of the feeling of crowding could be attributed to individual personality traits, particularly whether one is a screener or non-screener (Kopec, 2012 ). Screeners are skilled at filtering out irrelevant stimuli and are less easily distracted or upset (“The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine,” 2006 ), while non-screeners have difficulty shifting attention and tend to experience higher levels of anxiety and empathy ( Nonscreener , n.d. ). Participant 4 exhibited a generally calm demeanor and a resilience to the influence of environmental factors. This disposition may shed light on the coping strategy that was observed, which includes either texting or stepping outside the classroom as a response to feeling overwhelmed. This coping strategy was also highlighted by participant 17.

Participant 17: “I actually try to take a break and try to go to the toilet or get a coffee, just a five-minute break, try to look to my phone to distract myself” .

Regarding the concept of personal space, the majority of participants perceived it positively in the socially distanced classroom. They appreciated the spaciousness of the setup and the generous size of their workspace, aligning with existing literature findings related to the concept of personal space as indicated below in Table 3 .

Furniture arrangement was generally perceived positively by 11 out of 20 participants, who appreciated the spacious personal space it provided in studio classes. However, some participants found the layout inconvenient, especially during lecture classes. The availability of a personal pin-up wall was appreciated by some students, but those sitting in the middle of the classroom, such as participant 13, felt disadvantaged due to the lack of this feature. Socially distanced classrooms were better tolerated in studio classes than in lecture classes, with students enjoying the increased personal space regardless of their location in the classroom.

Participant 13: “It is good, but at the same time I feel I don’t like it. I need a corner to sit in, in my area I sit in the middle, so I don’t have a pin up wall. Like in the Junior studio, I feel it is better because they have more corners, their tables are arranged in a U-shape, so most of them have corners and the area in the middle is empty. Having our tables in the middle, ok it is good for me to concentrate during the lecture classes, but in the studio classes it is uncomfortable” .

One drawback of this layout was the limited number of electrical outlets, which could become crowded when students needed to charge their laptops simultaneously. Another concern raised was the L-shaped table setup, which provided more space but required students to frequently turn their bodies and necks to view the screen during lectures, leading to potential musculoskeletal problems as emphasized by participant 14.

Participant 14: “The L-shape table setup is nice, because it gives us more space. However, the layout is not good, because we are not facing the screen, so we have to turn our bodies and neck in order to see the screen, which is very tiring. To open the laptop, take notes, following the lectures on the big screen with a layout that is not comfortable makes me lose focus” .

Instructors moving between the two rooms during class meetings to ensure equal engagement posed a distraction for some participants. They described maintaining two classrooms simultaneously as overwhelming for the instructor. Furthermore, some students found communication with instructors more convenient through Zoom compared to the socially distanced setup.

Nonverbal communication

Body language significantly influences a student’s attentiveness, as highlighted by 16 participants who emphasized that they are more focused when the instructor is physically present in the same classroom. Participant 14 expressed that seeing the instructor’s body language and personality creates a more engaging experience compared to feeling like they are listening to a machine, which helps them concentrate better. The term “focus” was used by those 16 participants to describe their level of engagement in class. Regardless of whether the interactions are one-way or two-way conversations, most students indicated that body language plays a vital role in keeping them attentive during class. However, it is essential to note that in-class participation does not always imply complete engagement with the class content. Rather, it is a term we used to assess the effectiveness of communication within this setting.

Participant 14: “Because focusing makes me understand the class materials, for example, if he or she (referring to the instructor) is here, I will be able to focus and understand, however, if they are in the other room, I try to listen to them but I cannot focus much “ .

Participant 13 emphasized the significance of body language, especially eye contact, in enhancing vocal communication. She mentioned that being able to see the instructor in front of her helps her understand the class materials better compared to when the instructor is in another room, and she struggles to maintain focus. This aligns with the observation that students tend to be more engaged when the instructor is within their line of sight.

Non-verbal communication or body language encompasses various aspects such as eye contact, gestures, voice, facial expressions, touch, space, and body movement/posture (Segal et al., 2023 ). Among these elements, the eyes and ears are the most utilized in any form of vocal communication, whether in one-way or two-way conversations. Hall’s ( 1966 ) findings indicate that the unaided ear’s effective coverage is limited, making visual cues crucial for effective communication.

Participant 14 mentioned relying more on visual cues than auditory ones, suggesting that visual learners may find it challenging to adapt to socially distanced classroom environments, especially when they cannot consistently see the speaker. This lack of human connection, as described by Participant 16, can hinder effective communication between the speaker and the audience.

Participant 10 emphasized the significance of visual access provided by Zoom in a socially distanced classroom. She expressed that when the instructor makes eye contact with the camera, it creates a sense of direct connection and engagement. To her, establishing eye contact is essential for comprehending lessons and establishing a connection with the instructor. She also noted that recalling the instructor’s body language while reviewing PowerPoint slides after class enhances information retention compared to audio-only classes, where relying on notes is necessary.

Additionally, Participant 10 highlighted the importance of eye contact, even in virtual settings, through the Zoom camera. When the instructor looks directly at the camera, it gives the remote audience the impression of maintained eye contact. This effort allows visually inaccessible students to stay involved and potentially engaged with the class content. Furthermore, the participant mentioned that body language helps in mentally noting information for better retention.

Participant 10: “somehow it does work, especially if the instructor is making eye contact with the camera or something. It makes me feel she is directed towards the students and she is looking at us. And for me eye contact is very important in communication, especially when it comes to understanding a lesson. Also, it is like having a relationship with the instructor, it is not just audio, but it is visual as well. Sometimes, when I go over the PowerPoint slides again after class to study, I sort of remember the instructor’s body language and it is like remembering the information that was said during the class. I feel I retain the information better, however, if it was only audio, I feel I will need to go back to my notes to remember and to refresh my memories.”

Participant 1 mentioned the advantage of immediate interaction in studio or graphics classes, where movement and questions are encouraged. However, there was confusion between audience etiquette and lack of participation, as remaining silent during a lecture is expected to avoid distractions. Questions were facilitated through raised hands, achieved by sharing screens via Zoom to connect both rooms. The perception of student engagement may have been skewed because of the room’s dual function (serving as both a studio and a lecture room), potentially causing some misinterpretation.

Three participants mentioned that the socially distanced setup facilitated effective communication with their classmates within the same classroom more than with those in other classrooms. Participant 6 expressed developing stronger relationships and feeling comfortable talking to nearby classmates, whereas communication with students in the other room was less frequent. This sentiment was shared by other participants, highlighting that student-to-student communication was confined within microenvironments, typically within a 1-m radius.

The type of course, whether studio-based or lecture-based, played a significant role in defining student-to-student communication. Studio classes held in those classrooms allowed for more walking around and talking, leading to increased interactions among students. On the other hand, lecture courses tended to limit communication to those sitting nearby or using microphones for questions.

Participant 10 acknowledged the ease of communication within their class but found it challenging to interact with students in the other room. However, efforts were made to maintain personal connections and engage in group discussions, even with students in the adjacent room. Similar experiences were shared by other participants, who expressed greater communication with those sitting closer to them, particularly in lecture classes.

Student location

The quality of a student’s learning experience is correlated with their location in the classroom, as indicated by several responses. Participants mentioned that being closer to the instructor’s position resulted in a better learning experience, allowing for comfortable, conversational distance and improved concentration.

Apart from proximity to the instructor, students also considered other factors when choosing their seats, such as adequate daylighting. Some preferred corner spots for privacy, storage space, and access to pinup walls, while middle spots were perceived as lacking privacy due to the absence of vertical partitions. However, certain desk locations led to musculoskeletal issues for students as they tried to adjust their positions to see the screen or instructor clearly. Participants 5 and 17 pointed out that poor ergonomics could result in disengagement from class activities.

Participant 17: “As a social distance I have no issues. But after the midterms I changed my location because I got neck issues. My table was facing the wall, so I had to twist my whole body to follow the lecture on the screen and that was very tiring”. She added, “…. and after the midterms, I did not like my grades, they were average but I did not like them. So, I felt I had to change, I had to be more comfortable, so I can focus more. Then I found another available place” .

Participant 6 indicated that the instructors’ movement between classrooms was influenced by the layout, with the primary workstation attracting them to stay longer in that room. This affected student engagement and communication with the instructor during class.

Participant 6 said, “Now that I think about it, I mainly talk with people sitting closer to me. However, my location is near the junior partition, which is annoying because I can hear everything through a little crack in the partition—their lectures, jokes, fights, everything.” The external noise from adjacent rooms with similar setups poses additional distractions, especially for students sitting on the wall-side. Despite having absorptive materials (fabric) on the pinup walls, the doors in between the classrooms require further treatment to address noise issues, considering the use of microphones and speakers as part of the socially distanced setup. Acoustics are significantly impacted by the flooring in the classroom, and footsteps and flooring noises can also contribute to distractions.

Circulation

Some participants described the circulation as tight, with Participant 1 stating, “I think the circulation is a bit tight, but overall it is good.” This perception may be attributed to the limited pathways intentionally designed to restrict each student’s space and minimize potential areas of congregation. On the other hand, other participants found the circulation to be convenient for their work and overall smooth. Participant 5 expressed appreciation for the circulation, particularly the provision of two desks for each student, which was beneficial for their work and required ample space. They also found the circulation easy to navigate, with no challenges in moving around the classroom.

Upon analyzing the layout and comparing the seating positions of Participant 1 and Participant 5, we observed that both locations were unobstructed and conveniently accessible from the classroom entrance. Both participants were equidistant from the instructor’s position and the TV screen. However, it is worth mentioning that while Participant 5 was seated near a window, Participant 1 occupied a seat in the middle of classroom A. Despite this difference, they were still relatively close to each other. This variation in seating may have influenced their perceptions of the room’s overall circulation, with the window-side location potentially contributing to a greater sense of spaciousness.

Participant 1 expressed a preference for dimmer environments during lecture courses, stating, “Sometimes when I see it is dark there, I wish I was in the other room. My side has too much light.” This suggests that there is a variation in lighting preferences among students in a classroom setting. The proximity to windows is considered a privilege by some students, providing them with a view and the ability to control daylight, as described by Participant 1. Participant 14, on the other hand, mentioned being situated far from the window and lacking direct sunlight. Additionally, she found the artificial lighting in her class to be either excessively bright or too dim. As someone who enjoys natural light, she expressed a desire for more sunlight in her space. The quality of light, whether natural or artificial, significantly impacts students’ perceptions of the environment. For instance, Participant 14 attributed feelings of lethargy and tiredness during afternoon classes to the absence of sunlight. She believed that more windows would increase her energy and alertness. Participant 5 indicated that having her desk somehow close to the window and receiving sunlight in the morning helps awaken her, suggesting a positive association between productivity and good daylighting. However, Participant 12 pointed out that sitting near windows could be overwhelming in hot weather, expressing a preference for blinds to regulate natural light and maintain a comfortable temperature. Surprisingly, glare was not as problematic as initially thought, as students found ways to adjust their seating to avoid it, utilizing the spacious workspaces provided. In fact, several participants, including Participant 1, stated they had no glare issues due to the L-shaped tables, which allowed them to adjust their laptops accordingly.

While many participants appreciated the adequate amount of daylight in their classroom, they felt that the artificial lighting was inadequate and, to some extent, contributed to feelings of drowsiness. For instance, Participant 16 mentioned that the artificial light in her class (referring to classroom B) was low and dull. Furthermore, Participant 6, who occupies a seat in classroom B, found screen light during presentations or lectures to be bothersome for her eyes despite not receiving direct sunlight due to her window being closed. The room’s darkness and strong light from the screen caused discomfort and eye irritation for her.

The placement of microphones and their limited number discouraged several students from actively participating in class discussions during lecture-based courses. Participant 14 expressed frustration, describing walking to the fixed microphone location as a “nightmare.” A significant issue, pointed out by 12 participants, is the challenging distance between their desks and the microphone, which hinders their ability to engage in class discussions effectively. Participants used terms like “time-consuming” and “waste of time” to describe the inconvenience of walking to the microphone, which can impact the overall communication in the class.

Some students prefer to participate in discussions while remaining seated, especially if the microphone’s location is prominently visible in the room. Shyness was identified as a reason for some students’ hesitance to use the fixed microphone. It is speculated that shyness may stem from cultural factors or personality traits, but further investigation is required to understand the underlying reasons behind this sentiment.

Another theme that emerged from the interviews is that students intentionally refrain from participating due to spatial and technical challenges. For example, participant 4 explained that she holds back from answering questions because she believes others in the second room will reach the microphone faster or the instructor will notice them first. As a result, she remains silent and stays in her place. Participant 10 echoed a similar sentiment, stating that sometimes it takes the instructor time to realize that they want to ask or answer a question, leading to a reluctance to disturb the class or interrupt the instructor. The time required to walk to the microphone makes them hesitant, as by the time they reach there, the instructor might have moved on to the next topic. This situation can be embarrassing for students, as they do not want to interrupt the lecture inadvertently.

Participant 6 shared a similar experience, stating that she refrained from participating altogether during lecture classes due to the effort and stress involved. The process of walking to the microphone, ensuring it works, and repeating herself to those in the other room feels overwhelming. Participant 12 also acknowledged this challenge, indicating that she often weighs whether her question or comment is worth the time and potential disruption to the class.

Participant 3 expressed that she avoids participation due to the lengthy process involved in a socially distanced classroom. She feels that someone else will answer, so she does not need to speak up. Similarly, Participant 4 chooses not to participate in certain situations, believing that others will answer before her.

We propose that this pattern of hesitating to participate may be linked to a concept known as “learned helplessness.” This phenomenon occurs when individuals are repeatedly exposed to uncontrollable stressors, leading them to develop a belief that they lack control over their environment. Thus, this diminished sense of control can reduce their motivation to take action or attempt to change the situation ( APA Dictionary of Psychology , n.d.)

Microphone manners

One emerging sub-theme from the study is the intimidation some users, especially students, experience when using microphones. Instructors are also not effectively trained in microphone usage. Participants reported instances where they could not hear the instructor clearly due to audio volume fluctuations. This was attributed to instructors holding the microphone too far away or pointing it at their chin instead of their mouth, causing acoustic issues for students in the other classroom. Consequently, students tended to zone out when unable to hear clearly, impacting their engagement in class discussions.

Participant 5 mentioned that although instructors were generally audible, there were instances of sound cut-offs or distractions when the microphone was too close to the professor’s mouth, picking up unwanted sounds like breathing. Participant 7 also noted that some students had soft voices even when using the microphone, affecting clarity.

Zoom was deliberately chosen to visually connect people in both rooms for this study, as the transition from full online learning for two years made it a suitable platform. However, interview results revealed two main perspectives on using Zoom in a socially distanced classroom. Some participants found Zoom distracting, perceiving it as a reminder of online classes, while others appreciated its usefulness, especially visual learners who could easily view lecture slides through the sharing feature.

Distraction emerged as a recurring concern among several participants, particularly related to visual and auditory stimuli. These distractions encompassed factors such as noise originating from neighboring classrooms, the movements of the instructor, and technical issues. Notably, some students, like Participant 14, disclosed that they had Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and experienced heightened sensitivity to various forms of movement, which made both virtual and in-person classes equally challenging in terms of maintaining focus. Conversely, some participants held a positive perspective regarding Zoom’s role in enhancing communication between the two interconnected classrooms. For example, participant 10 expressed gratitude for the opportunity to observe the lecturer’s body language, which contributed to a sense of human interaction, even within a semi-virtual learning environment.

Technical issues occasionally led to student disengagement, but Zoom proved helpful for those in the no-instructor classroom. Students utilized Zoom’s sharing feature to follow lecture slides and virtually raise their hands for participation. However, overall, students preferred face-to-face interaction over Zoom communication, finding the latter tiring and distracting. Observations during the study supported this preference for face-to-face interaction.

Locus of control

Four participants indicated that they had little control over their classroom location and settled for what was available. However, some, like Participant 5, displayed an internal locus of control, stating she could teach herself and adapt to any situation. Participant 5 emphasized that the physical presence of the instructor was not crucial for her learning, indicating a strong internal strength and adaptability.

Conversely, Participant 17 exhibited a blend of external and internal locus of control. Initially, her seat choice was influenced by the location of her friends, reflecting an external factor. However, she later opted to change her seat with the goal of “improving her grades,” indicating a degree of internal control in her decision-making process.

Participant 17: “At the beginning I was just walking with my friends, and they sat so I sat. So, we sat and we were chatting, then I realized oh ok this is my place. But then I felt I cannot continue, and after the midterms, I did not like my grades, they were average but I did not like them. So, I felt I had to change, I had to be more comfortable, so I can focus more. Then I found another available place” .

Participant 15, on the other hand, favored keeping her laptop active during lectures, utilizing Zoom’s sharing feature to manage slides and search for answers when necessary. In doing so, she demonstrated an external locus of control, relying on available resources such as Zoom to address technical and acoustic challenges.

To our knowledge, this study is the first exploration of post-pandemic classroom design and its effects on classroom communication and student engagement under preventive measures such as face covering and social distancing. To investigate the research question in this case study, a thorough examination of both old and recent literature was methodically undertaken. This approach serves as both a limitation and a strength. The absence of pertinent studies prior to the research in 2021 posed a significant challenge. Nevertheless, delving into well-established older literature proved instrumental in overcoming this hurdle and establishing the groundwork for this exploratory research.

With the implementation of social distancing and the redefined proxemics, our study aimed to investigate the variations in the concept of personal space in this context. Hall’s work provided the foundation for our research in this specific area. While reviewing several studies referencing proxemics theory, none closely resembled ours. Thus, we utilized the original work as a starting point for exploration. This approach mirrors Mehta’s study ( 2020 ), which explored the impact of COVID-19 measures in urban settings, noting the transformation of spaces in response to social distancing. Mehta’s findings on sociable spaces resonated with our results regarding furniture arrangement and classroom layout. Our findings on the redefined proxemics in the new setup reveal that the post-pandemic classroom was widely praised for its redefined personal space. A majority of 11 out of 17 participants expressed positive sentiments about the spaciousness and convenience of the newly defined personal space (Table 3 ). Crowding, a psychological concept associated with personal space, was seldom experienced in the new setup. Some participants mentioned that crowding was only felt when there was limited access to charging outlets for their laptops. Additionally, individuals who experienced any form of stress in class identified checking their phones or taking short breaks as coping strategies.

Our findings also show that the furniture arrangement of the post-pandemic classroom is key in facilitating class communication. While being in close proximity to the instructor in the front or middle of the classroom is deemed conducive to student engagement, as it enables close and direct communication that helps students stay on task (Berg et al., 1996 ; as cited by Gullup, 1986), our study reveals that these middle seats do not cater to the spatial requirements of design students in studio classes, mainly due to the absence of pin-up walls. The findings indicate insufficient attention to the needs of students situated in the middle, exposing them to more visibility and diminished privacy compared to their counterparts along the perimeter. This situation is akin to the airplane aisle and window seats’ dilemma. While middle-seat students benefit from being close to the lecturer as a source of information, wall-side students enjoy privacy, access to a pin-up wall, and window advantages. A socio-petal (Mehta, 2020 ) furniture arrangement is recommended as it can provide equal opportunities and amenities for art and design students while facilitating communication in a socially distanced classroom.

The results of interviews and observations highlight the substantial influence of the instructor’s positioning in the classroom on communication with students, encompassing both verbal and non-verbal aspects. The students are more inclined to engage in class discussion if the instructor’s location in the classroom, as well as their body language are visually accessible. This highlights Kopec’s insights about the benefits of a rectangular classroom layout and how it supports the instructor’s capacity to establish eye contact with students since they fall within “the instructor’s primary visual field” (Kopec, 2012 , p. 224). Moreover, our research shows that 80% of the interview responses highlight the positive impact of body language on students’ attentiveness and engagement. This finding is consistent with the established literature, specifically Zeki’s ( 2009 ), emphasizing the significance of body language in non-verbal communication within the classroom. Put differently, the arrangement of the classroom is pivotal for both verbal and non-verbal communication, both in a general classroom setting and specifically in the post-pandemic classroom. Our study contributes to the existing knowledge by examining the utilization of Zoom to enhance body language, including eye contact, in a scenario involving the coordination of two or more classrooms simultaneously, necessitated by insufficient space in the facility. Fifteen percent of our sample expressed positive perceptions of using Zoom as an alternative to face-to-face communication to address spatial challenges in this context (Table 3 ). Based on these findings, we propose that new hidden dimensions arise, shaping communication and interactions within socially distanced classrooms. The noted expansion of personal, social, and public spheres, with the public sphere arguably encompassing the use of Zoom, prompts further exploration in these settings. The distances between students and instructors have the potential to redefine proxemics in post-pandemic classroom arrangements.

Our investigation explored lighting aspects, revealing that they had the least impact on the socially distanced classroom setup. Students’ main concerns revolved around having more control over lighting levels in their designated spaces. Responses showed diverse preferences for lighting conditions, with some favoring dim lighting and others opting for brighter classrooms. The L-shaped workspace effectively addressed glare issues, allowing students to adjust their positions for control if the problem arose. In a prior UAE study (Al-Sallal, 2010 ), it was observed that simulation runs revealed three key issues causing visual discomfort: sharp contrasts in luminance between the task surface (e.g., whiteboard) and nearby surfaces, excessive brightness from windows and uneven distribution of daylight in the space. In his study, the student’s sitting location was identified as a crucial factor influencing visual quality. The most problematic location was reported to be “the rear, opposite side of the windows” (Al-Sallal, 2010 , p. 208) in terms of acceptable luminance. While our study primarily addressed lighting preferences and emerging behaviors impacting post-pandemic classroom communications, certain findings resonate with Al-Sallal’s ( 2010 ), especially those related to student location. Six out of 17 students favored daylighting and found glare issues insignificant, attributing this to their ability to adjust positions within the spacious workspace. Additionally, four out of 17 participants expressed a preference for more control and the ability to adjust lighting levels according to their individual needs to enhance attention and focus (Table 3 ). Some participants positively associated proximity to windows with productivity, as highlighted in the lighting results subsection. To prioritize confidentiality, our study analyzed responses without linking them to specific student locations, resulting in a lack of specificity in our results. This limitation is acknowledged, but the decision was made to safeguard confidentiality, especially since one researcher served as the course instructor, creating a potential challenge in handling information related to student locations. This aspect is worth exploring in future research to understand the correlation between lighting and student location in post-pandemic classrooms.

In addition, we investigated acoustics in this distinctive setup utilizing technology to facilitate the operation of two classrooms simultaneously, aiming to improve verbal communication. Our research focused on exploring the consequences of preventive measures on classroom communication in a post-pandemic setting. Considering earlier research in the field, notably Berg et al.’s ( 1996 ) review article, which synthesized results from diverse studies, emphasizing the influence of noisy classrooms on students’ effective listening, impacting task engagement, discipline, and cooperation. They highlighted that teachers adjust their vocal approach, exhibiting variations in strength (Berg et al., 1996 ; as cited in Gallup, 1986; Ray, 1990). While some effectively project their voices, individuals with weaker voices may encounter stress when elevating their vocal levels (Berg et al., 1996 ; as cited in Berg, 1993). These findings proved valuable as we sought to comprehend the challenges faced by instructors in both general and specific settings. Our findings show that the adoption of microphones eliminated the need for vocal exertion by instructors. One of the acoustic concerns pointed out by some participants was noise. In this setup, noise primarily originated from adjacent classrooms and internal sources, such as speakers’ echoing sound and unwanted noise resulting from improper microphone use (e.g., instructor breathing). Seven out of 17 interviewees expressed more concern about noise related to technical issues, while three out of 17 interviewees identified external noise as more distracting (Table 3 ). For instance, participant 6 mentioned that her location is mainly distracting due to external noise from the neighboring classroom. These findings emphasize emerging challenges in temporary arrangements for socially distanced classrooms, suggesting areas for further exploration, such as the impact of using speakers in acoustically unprepared lecture spaces during emergencies.

This research uncovered novel findings not present in existing literature. One such discovery is the concept of microphone etiquette, an aspect not previously addressed in the specific context of our study. This introduces a new avenue for exploration by researchers and designers. The intentional inclusion of microphones in this setting aimed to improve verbal communication between two interconnected classrooms. Further investigation into blended learning or hybrid approaches utilizing microphones could be valuable, potentially mitigating challenges during local or global outbreaks.

An aspect warranting future exploration in research is students’ perceptions of microphone usage. Approximately 70.6% of participants indicated that microphone location affected their level of engagement in class. Three out of 17 participants explicitly reported abstaining from engagement due to recurrent technical issues, leading to delayed verbal communication. Students refrained from participating due to shyness, as they had to walk to the microphone location and their apprehension that technical problems might arise (Table 3 ). Arguably, this behavior can be attributed to learned helplessness, which is defined as “occurring when an individual continuously faces a negative, uncontrollable situation and stops trying to change their circumstances, even when they have the ability to do so” (Psychology Today, n.d. ). This finding resonates with Polat’s study ( 2022 , p. 95), which suggests that the students’ “individual uncertainties” can lead to learned helplessness, diminishing motivation and resulting in decreased academic performance and passive behaviors. However, given the sample’s size and homogeneity, it remains challenging to definitively associate learned helplessness with the socially-distanced setup or other variables in this case study. Additional data is needed to establish this as a dependent variable specific to this context. The locus of control was also identified within the responses, as outlined in the results section. A more comprehensive understanding of the data regarding locus of control could have been achieved with a larger sample and the incorporation of additional qualitative methods, such as surveys. The four responses collected in this aspect may be influenced by unanticipated variables specific to this context beyond the locus of control.

It is essential to recognize that the findings derived from this case study are highly contextual. If a similar setup is implemented in a different context or country, the results, especially concerning student attitudes toward microphone usage and privacy concerns, may vary. The transferability of our findings may be constrained both geographically and across disciplines. Since the study exclusively targeted interior design students, its relevance to other fields in the hard sciences may be restricted due to the unique nature of their work. It is noteworthy that cultural aspects were not explicitly addressed within the scope of this research.

It is worth mentioning that the non-participant observation method proved valuable in aligning predetermined themes from the literature review with the research question. Given this unprecedented environmental context, we opted for deductive coding to stay within the scope of this research study on classroom communication post-pandemic. However, the semi-structured interviews revealed unexpected themes, providing opportunities for further research, as mentioned earlier. Hence, we utilized a hybrid approach, incorporating both deductive and inductive coding, to identify patterns in the interview responses. This method facilitated the emergence of new themes, including the consideration of microphone etiquette.

In addressing potential biases arising from observations, we took measures to clearly delineate the role of each researcher (Glesne, 2011 ) to ensure transparency and maintain participant data confidentiality. Throughout the study, we consistently practiced reflexivity ( Reflexivity , n.d. ), allowing us to continually scrutinize our own biases and perspectives during data collection and analysis. The decision to employ a single observer was influenced by regulations limiting classroom capacity and other restrictions related to external visitors. Additionally, we incorporated the Devil’s Advocate approach (Trochim, 2020 ) during data analysis, actively challenging our interpretations of the findings.

This research holds relevance for administrators as they strategize for campus emergencies. Future studies could delve into the optimization of furniture arrangement, considering aspects like privacy and body language, particularly in emergency scenarios necessitating preventive measures like face covering and social distancing. The insights gleaned from our findings might aid administrators in effectively organizing designated spaces for concurrent use or incorporating hybrid modes to ensure instructional continuity during emergencies. A deeper understanding of enhancing hybrid learning environments post-pandemic could contribute to user satisfaction and reduce reliance on lockdown measures.

Conclusions

The pandemic has instilled in us the importance of carefully designing successful learning experiences and programs for our students. It forced us to reevaluate our priorities and life choices, leading to significant changes in communication due to preventive measures like face coverings and social distancing. In times of hardship and uncertainty, telecommunication has become indispensable for businesses, governments, and communities to sustain themselves. As a result, interior environments should be adaptable to accommodate such emergencies.

Our study investigated communication dynamics within a classroom environment adapted to mitigate the spread of the coronavirus while ensuring instructional continuity. We conclude that the impact of preventive measures on classroom communication in a post-pandemic setting is multifaceted and context-dependent. While we have delved into specific aspects we believe are linked to communication, there may be more to consider. Among these aspects, we have explored proxemics, which have evolved beyond its cultural definition to incorporate new physical dimensions to accommodate social distancing. Our findings indicated that psychological concepts like crowding in this socially distanced setting require reassessment. The increased spaciousness in classrooms resulting from the setup with social distancing has reduced crowding. Interestingly, the use of cell phones during class, not resulting in disciplinary action, has served as a positive distraction for students experiencing crowding or stress.

Furthermore, post-COVID spacing mechanisms, including occupant load and furniture arrangement with social distancing in mind, have reshaped our perception of personal space. People became less concerned with non-verbal cues that differ across cultures and define their personal space. Instead, the COVID-preventative measures have introduced new hidden dimensions to our understanding of personal space. These new hidden dimensions encompass factors such as proximity to microphones, the instructor’s desk, the pinup walls, and/or windows, all of which regulate communication within a socially distanced classroom. For instance, adopting a socio-petal layout in the classroom could significantly enhance these new hidden dimensions, thereby facilitating communication in a socially distanced setting. Our findings indicate that crowding, often associated with personal space and spatial density, is less prevalent in the post-COVID setup, as each student benefits from a more spacious personal area dictated by COVID protocols. This reduction in crowding contributes to improved performance as individuals regain control over their social interactions.

In times of emergency, like the pandemic, technology becomes essential to facilitate both verbal and non-verbal communication. This exploratory case study highlights the significance of technology in socially distanced setups in design-studio classrooms, particularly in addressing the communication challenges identified. However, further research is needed to investigate the potential for tailored technology usage and its effectiveness within these distinctive educational environments.

Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are accessible upon request from the corresponding author (MA). The data cannot be publicly released as they may contain information that could compromise the privacy or consent of research participants.

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Acknowledgements

We thank all the students who participated in this study for sharing their time and valuable insights. We also appreciate the support and funding provided by Virginia Commonwealth School of the Arts in Qatar for this research.

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Marwa Abdelmonem & Sherin Karawia

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Conceptualization, MA, methodology, MA; formal analysis, MA; investigation, MA, SK; data curation, MA, SK; writing—original draft preparation, MA, SK; writing—review and editing, MA, SK; visualization, SK; supervision, MA.

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This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Qatar Biomedical Research Institute (QBRI) Institutional Review Board at Hamad Bin Khalifa University (Date: 23 November 2021/No. QBRI-IRB-2022-40).

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Abdelmonem, M., Karawia, S. Classroom communications post pandemic: a case study. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 728 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03171-6

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Leadership development in virtual communities of practice: The case of school principals from the GCC Region

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• Norma Ghamrawi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5754-9657 1 ,
• Tarek Shal   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0824-6449 2 &
• Najah A. R. Ghamrawi   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0000-7588-4996 3  

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This study explores the potential of virtual communities of practice (vCoPs) in fostering leadership growth that aligns with the diverse needs and challenges faced by school principals. The study employs a qualitative research design, and conducts semi-structured interviews with 16 school principals from K-12 schools belonging to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region. Findings suggest that vCoPs offer a rich environment for school principals to engage in collaborative learning, knowledge sharing, and professional networking, all of which contribute to their differentiated leadership development. Findings suggest that vCoPs offer flexible personalized learning paths that can support instructional, digital, and distributed leadership development of school principals. This advancement is made possible by creating a supportive and secure environment that is fortified by resilience, group cohesion, and robust feedback mechanisms. Additionally, vCoPs contribute to leadership development by fostering collective efficacy, cultivating shared beliefs in driving positive change, and disseminating these principles throughout the educational leadership community via social influence.

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1 Introduction

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, the role of school leadership has become preeminent, as the challenges facing educational institutions continue to mount (Ghamrawi, 2010 , 2011 , 2013a , b , c , d ; Leroy et al., 2022 ; Tan et al., 2024 ). School leaders find themselves at the forefront of a complex and dynamic environment, where the demands and expectations placed upon them have reached unprecedented heights (Ghamrawi & Tamim, 2022 ; Chatzipanagiotou & Katsarou, 2023 ; Tamadoni et al., 2024 ). The efficacy of school leadership, therefore, hinges upon the continuous development and refinement of the skills, knowledge, and strategies needed to navigate these turbulent waters (Ghamrawi & Abu-Tineh, 2023 , Ghamrawi et al., 2023a , b , c , d ; 2024a , b , c , d , e ; Lumban Gaol, 2023 ).

Professional development programs have long been a cornerstone of enhancing leadership skills (Ghamrawi, 2023 ; 2024 ; Barth et al., 2024 ; Shal et al., 2019 ). However, the critical question that arises is whether these programs truly cater to the unique and multifaceted needs of school leaders. After all, no one comprehends the intricacies of their roles better than the school principals themselves (Shal et al., 2018a ; Piala et al., 2024 ). The notion that a one-size-fits-all approach can adequately address the distinct challenges faced by these educational stewards has proven to be inadequate (Shal et al., 2018b ).

The literature indicates that communities of practice (CoPs) provide valuable settings for the development of school leadership (Bickmore et al., 2021 ). A CoP consists of individuals who come together in person, sharing a common interest or passion, to engage in mutual learning and support each other’s professional growth (Admiraal et al., 2021 ). When such collaborations occur online through digital platforms, they are referred to as virtual communities of practice (vCoPs) (Ghamrawi, 2022 ; Shal et al., 2024a , b , c ). These communities are typically formed around a specific topic, field, or domain, and members engage in ongoing discussions, share resources, and work collectively to solve problems or address challenges related to their common interest (Harvey et al., 2013 ).

The participation of school leaders in such communities is on the rise, signaling a shift towards more personalized and context-specific professional development opportunities (Ribble & Park, 2019 ). While they are not new, vCops gained immense popularity, especially during the challenging period of the COVID-19 pandemic, as they emerged as the only means for individuals to connect with others (Ghamrawi, 2022 ).

The existing literature includes few studies addressing school leaders and CoPs. These studies investigated CoPs as means for collaborative problem-solving for school leaders (Bickmore et al., 2021 ), tools for encouraging parental involvement in children’s education (Torre & Murphy, 2016 ), and the school principals’ leadership styles impact on teacher involvement in communities of practice (Somprach et al., 2017 ).

While the existing body of literature has explored the relationship between CoPs and school leadership, albeit with room for further research; a significant research gaps persist. Firstly, most studies have centered around CoPs, with limited attention to the intersection of vCoPs with school leadership. Secondly, there is a noticeable absence of research examining customized professional development opportunities for school leaders facilitated through vCoPs. This study aimed to bridge this gap by examining how vCoPs can serve as effective tools for the growth and development of school leaders. It was guided by the following research questions:

How do school principals perceive the value of virtual communities of practice (vCoPs) in their professional development and leadership growth?

What are the key elements of vCoPs that contribute to the development of school leaders within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region?

2 Literature review

2.1 school leaders’ professional development.

Researchers, educational practitioners, and policymakers underscore efficacious school leadership as a crucial factor for schools to meet future demands and fulfill their mission of providing all students with the opportunity to cultivate and attain their educational objectives and personal growth (Leithwood et al., 2017 ). In fact, research in the field of school leadership underscores the influential role played by school principals’ leadership practices in shaping both school improvement (Lambrecht et al., 2022 ; Thien et al., 2023 ) and students’ academic achievements (Fullan, 2015 ; Leithwood et al., 2020 ).

However, the challenges faced by school leaders are on the rise, with a significant increase in both the number and complexity of these challenges over time, highlighting the growing need for revisions in educational policies and the thoughtful development and implementation of leadership training programs (Tintoré et al., 2022 ). Principal preparation programs should undergo a comprehensive reevaluation that probes into the intricate web of contextual factors (Brauckmann et al., 2023 ). By taking a closer look at these contextual influences, principal preparation programs can better align themselves with the specific needs and challenges faced by schools and communities, ultimately fostering more effective educational leadership (Grissom et al., 2019 ).

In the same vein, Sutcher et al. ( 2017 ) conducted a comprehensive literature review, with a specific focus on identifying the essential components of leadership development linked to tangible improvements in school outcomes. These enhancements encompassed heightened retention rates among both principals and educators, along with tangible advancements in student learning results. Their analysis underscored the critical importance of grounding program curricula in the contextual needs and challenges faced by school leaders, emphasizing the necessity for a tailored and contextually responsive approach.

Likewise, Levin et al. ( 2020 ) suggest that effective principal development must be characterized by the provision of ‘authentic, contextually embedded professional learning experiences, individualized support from mentors or coaches, and networking structures such as professional learning communities (PLCs)’ (Levin et al., 2020 , p.2). Unfortunately, the professional development programs provided to school principals often conform to the traditional ‘ sit and get’ workshop model (Ikemoto et al., 2014 ). In this approach, information is imparted to them, with a noticeable absence of substantial guidance on how this knowledge can be effectively harnessed to drive context-specific school improvement initiatives.

Moreover, the professional development experiences that principals commonly partake in often deviate from established principles of effective adult learning (Allen et al., 2022 ). Notably, they tend to fall short in providing meaningful and authentic on-the-job learning opportunities and the necessary support, which research has shown to be highly effective (Donley et al., 2021 ). Moreover, the potential benefits of principal networks and professional learning communities, which serve as more prevalent professional development strategies, are sometimes overlooked (Gore &Rosser, 2022 ). These networks and communities provide principals with opportunities to establish collegial relationships, learn from peers, and collaboratively address shared challenges in the realm of practice.

2.2 School leadership development in CoPs

Most of the literature on CoPs focuses on teacher professional growth and teacher leadership nourishment rather than principals’ leadership development. The majority of existing studies predominantly focus on the actions that principals can take to sustain meaningful professional communities among teachers and how principals can effectively influence and support teacher collaboration (Buttram & Farley-Ripple, 2016 ). This literature emphasizes CoPs as means for fostering a culture centered on knowledge exchange, collaboration, and reflective teaching practices (Liu et al., 2022 ). These communities offer teachers a nurturing network that encourages them to seek guidance, share best practices, and engage in continuous professional growth (Zhang et al., 2023 ). Through collaborative learning initiatives, structured feedback mechanisms, and avenues for assuming leadership roles, CoPs promote teacher leadership (Turner et al., 2018 ).

Research on the development of school leadership through Communities of Practice (CoPs) is notably limited in scope. The researchers identified only three studies that specifically addressed this topic. In a case study conducted by Bickmore et al. ( 2021 ) in the USA, an investigation was carried out into a pilot professional development endeavor where school leaders regularly convened within a CoP. The primary objective was to collectively refine their comprehension of identified practical challenges and subsequently formulate and implement strategies for school improvement. The study’s outcomes revealed conspicuously positive perceptions of and active engagement within this CoP. It functioned as a conduit for genuine feedback, facilitated reflective practices, and served as an invaluable platform for the exchange of innovative ideas. Significantly, participants reported enhancements in their leadership behaviors, directly linked to the planning and execution of school improvement initiatives. This underscores the constructive impact of collaborative professional development on the leadership competencies and practices of school leaders.

On the other hand, Lambert and Bouchamma ( 2021 ) conducted a study that explored a vCoP as an approach to professional development for school principals in Canada. Their study involved a group of ten school principals who engaged in a vCoP for a duration of one year. During the early stage of this virtual CoP, members exhibited enthusiasm as they acquainted themselves, showing interest in the proposed activities. After a year of virtual sessions, seven out of the ten participants chose to continue, emphasizing the significant professional growth they experienced during the initial year and their anticipation for further development in the following year. They concluded that the vCoP facilitated collaborative sharing aimed at enhancing the professional competencies essential for effective role fulfillment, accommodating the individual pace of each participant.

In a third study Shal et al. ( 2018a ) introduced a novel mobile application named ‘SkooLead’ with the specific goal of exploring the potential of Web 2.0 technologies in the context of school leaders’ professional development. SkooLead was designed to address the various barriers that school principals often encountered when attempting to harness Web 2.0 tools for personalized learning. As such, it was designed to empower school principals offering them personalized learning opportunities based on their needs and interests. It offered a wealth of resources such as leadership tips, research findings, and discussion boards, all accessible at the user’s convenience. Moreover, it allowed principals to engage at their own pace and connect with colleagues for knowledge-sharing. The results of the case study revealed promising findings regarding the potential of such tools, when used in ideal conditions, to facilitate differentiated leadership development among school principals, highlighting the significance of technology in advancing educational leadership practices.

2.3 The dark side of online communities

While previous studies have highlighted the positive aspects of CoPs, recent literature on online communities has brought attention to their darker side. Ferreira et al. ( 2023 ) delve into the ethical dilemmas and challenges prevalent within these virtual environments, encompassing issues such as cyberbullying, online aggression, solicitation of harmful behaviors, safety concerns, software piracy, credibility of information, and cultural differences impacting safety.

In alignment with these concerns, Tseng et al. ( 2022 ) emphasize the critical importance of information credibility and perceived privacy risks in social networks, highlighting their significant influence on user consumption patterns. This underscores the need for meticulous attention to be paid when developing online communities to mitigate such risks. Similarly, Xu et al. ( 2016 ) shed light on another potential drawback for online communities, namely online aggression, further emphasizing the importance of fostering safe digital spaces.

In addition, Posey et al. ( 2010 ) elucidate how cultural differences can impact safety within online communities, stressing the necessity for cross-cultural sensitivity in digital environments. Additionally, Yu ( 2014 ) explore the pervasive issue of software piracy within these communities, revealing the challenges associated with enforcing intellectual property rights. Lastly, Ouakouak and Ouedraogo ( 2019 ) delve into the intricacies of commitment and trust within online communities, suggesting that sustaining member engagement and loyalty hinges on triggering curiosity and continuous development within these digital spaces.

While the literature discussed has provided valuable insights into the dark side of online communities, it is important to note that none of these studies specifically addressed online communities tailored for school leaders. Again, this highlights a gap in the literature on online communities for school leadership professional development. This study addressed a significant gap in the existing literature by shedding light on the relatively unexplored terrain of vCoPs and their role in the leadership development of school leaders. It did so within the context of the GCC region, where, to the knowledge of the researchers, no prior studies have ventured into this subject, thus contributing unique insights to the field.

3 Methodology

3.1 research design.

The research design for this study followed a phenomenological approach. Phenomenology is a qualitative research method that seeks to explore and understand the lived experiences and perspectives of individuals regarding a specific phenomenon or phenomena (Vagle, 2018 ). In this study, the researchers aimed to gain deep insights into the experiences of school principals participating in the vCoP and how this virtual community impacted their leadership development. The phenomenological approach allowed for an in-depth exploration of the unique experiences, perceptions, and meanings attributed by the participants to their involvement in the vCoP, providing valuable qualitative data for analysis and interpretation. Data collection methods included semi-structured interviews, enabling participants to express their experiences and perspectives in their own words, contributing to a deep understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.

3.2 Participants

A virtual community of practice (vCoP) was established during the COVID-19 pandemic under the auspices of UNESCO by one of the researchers. Its primary aim was to provide free-of-charge support to educators from all Arab States, enabling them to collaborate and assist their students’ learning during the pandemic.

The vCoP, initially established to assist schools during the pandemic, has surpassed its original purpose. The vCoP serves as an online platform aimed at facilitating collaboration and knowledge exchange among educators. Initially established in response to the challenges posed by the pandemic, the vCoP has expanded its reach beyond its original scope. Through virtual forums, webinars, and collaborative projects, educators from diverse backgrounds engage in discussions, share resources, and contribute to professional development initiatives. Its inclusive nature welcomes educators worldwide, fostering a supportive environment for learning and growth. Beyond its initial purpose, the vCoP continues to play a valuable role in connecting educators and promoting innovation in educational practices, as described by its website.

While it was originally conceived to support educational institutions during the crisis, it has evolved into a global community, transcending regional boundaries. Particularly noteworthy is its appeal to Arabic-speaking educators worldwide. Importantly, the vCoP continues to thrive and attract both existing members and new participants, even beyond the pandemic. Its ongoing existence and ability to engage educators from diverse backgrounds highlight its enduring relevance and impact within the educational landscape up to the present day. Data for this study was collected from school principals from the GCC area during the academic year 2022–2023.

Governance of the vCoP is vested in an elected board consisting of educators who use the platform, and they provided the researchers with enrollment data. Notably, the platform had 174 school principals as registered members, with 39 hailing from the GCC region. Among these 39 principals, only 19 had maintained their enrollment for over two years since the vCoP’s inception, allowing them to experience the benefits of the vCoP both during and after the pandemic.

Through the vCoP board, the researchers invited all 19 principals to participate in semi-structured interviews to explore the vCoP’s role in developing their leadership skills. Sixteen school principals expressed interest in the study; however, 15 principals formed the study sample, as one of them was involved in piloting the interview schedule. The characteristics of participants are presented in Table  1 . For ethical considerations, and to preserve the anonymity of participants, they were assigned numbers based on the order in which interviews were conducted with them.

3.3 Research Instrument

For the purpose of this study, a semi-structured interview schedule was carefully developed (Table  2 ). The interview schedule underwent a process of iterative refinement and revision to optimize its effectiveness and relevance to the research study. To ensure its quality, it underwent peer review by two expert colleagues not affiliated with this study. Additionally, we conducted a pilot interview with a school principal from the vCoP who shared characteristics with our sample. Each interview lasted approximately 35 min.

4 Data analysis

We conducted theme-based analysis, employing a comprehensive approach that encompassed open coding, axial coding, and selective coding as advocated by Williams and Moser ( 2019 ). To ensure the robustness of our codes and themes, we implemented a peer debriefing approach. In this method, two researchers independently coded the data, followed by cross-referencing and harmonization, in accordance with the methodology recommended by Scharp and Sanders ( 2019 ).

Throughout the analysis, the interview transcripts were systematically segmented into smaller units, and each unit received an appropriate code during the open coding phase. These codes were consistently compared and contrasted to discern both commonalities and distinctions among them. Subsequently, we progressed to axial coding, wherein the codes were organized into categories, fostering the establishment of connections and relationships between these categories. Finally, in the selective coding stage, we elevated the central coding to a more abstract level, affording us the opportunity to refine the narrative of the study, in line with Flick ( 2009 ) recommendations. Findings are presented in Table  3 .

4.1 Enhanced leadership capacity

The findings underscore the significant role of the vCoP in augmenting leadership capacity among school leaders. Through active participation in vCoPs, educational leaders engaged in a dynamic process of knowledge exchange and shared expertise. This collaborative learning environment contributed to an increased leadership capacity by providing leaders with opportunities to acquire diverse insights and perspectives. As one interviewee (P1) put it, “Participating in the vCoP has broadened my perspective on leadership. It is like having a global think tank at my fingertips. I have learned so much from my peers in these virtual community’.

In more details, school leaders contented that they experienced a substantial enhancement of their leadership capacity, particularly in the domains of instructional leadership, distributed leadership, and digital leadership, through their active participation in the vCoP.

4.1.1 Instructional leadership

In terms of instructional leadership, the vCoP emerges as a powerful platform for school leaders to shape teaching and learning practices collaboratively. Leaders who participate in vCoPs tend to exhibit a deeper commitment to instructional leadership by leveraging the collective wisdom of the community. Moreover, the vCoP was viewed as means for facilitating dialogue among school leaders, enabling them to offer constructive feedback to peers and support each other’s professional growth. As (P7) shared, “In vCoPs, we discuss innovative teaching methods and share resources that have a direct impact on learning in the classrooms. It was a game-changer for me as an instructional leader, during Covid-19 where I learned what online learning was only through it. I continue to learn now hints and tips that I share with my teachers during our meetings or post-classroom observations’.

Moreover, vCoPs serve as a conduit for sharing best practices related to pedagogy, curriculum development, and student engagement, translating into improved teaching practices and ultimately benefiting student achievement. As (P1) stated: ‘Our participation in the vCoP has reshaped our roles as instructional leaders providing us with a wellspring of innovative ideas and practical strategies at our fingertips to drive positive change’.

4.1.2 Digital leadership

Furthermore findings underscore the transformative potential of digital leadership within vCoPs. School leaders’ tend to embrace digital leadership going beyond technological competence; and getting involved in the strategic use of digital tools to drive innovation and improvement in their schools. As one participant (P12) noted, ‘These communities have helped me refine my digital leadership skills. Digital leadership in vCoPs is more than about using technology, it is a mindset fostering a culture of digital innovation and data-driven decision-making’.

4.1.3 Distributed leadership

Additionally, the concept of distributed leadership within vCoPs was highlighted through the collaborative nature of leadership development. The findings emphasize that vCoPs inherently foster a distributed leadership model. As school leader who actively engage with peers in vCoPs, as well as other teachers, tends to understand the power of shared ownership and transfer this into their school settings. As (P15) attested, “vCoPs promote a sense of shared leadership. I have had the opportunity to contribute my ideas and collaborate with other school leaders and interact with teachers from diverse backgrounds, which has been empowering. I have learned the power of this inclusive approach to school leadership, and transferred it to my school’.

4.2 Collective efficacy

Another emergent theme from this study is collective efficacy. This theme underscores how active engagement within these online communities not only nurtures shared beliefs about the capacity for change but also cultivates a contagious optimism that permeates the participants’ professional identities. As participant (P9) expressed, “In the vCoP I witnessed a mind shift and a stronger belief that I can tackle school challenges with confidence. I think each principal that you will be interviewing will say the same, because this mind shift was contagious’.

4.2.1 Shared beliefs

First, school leaders thought that their participation in the vCoP consistently nurtured shared beliefs amongst themselves regarding their collective ability to drive change within their educational settings. Through dynamic discussions and knowledge exchange, a shared conviction emerged that they possessed the collective potential to bring about meaningful transformation. Participant P3 captured this, stating, “In our vCoP, we have cultivated shared beliefs about our collective capacity to ignite change in education’. This shared belief system became a driving force, inspiring participants to embark on ambitious endeavors and explore innovative solutions in their educational roles.

4.2.2 Social Influence

This shared belief appeared to transcend individual perspectives, thanks to the power of social influence, forming a cohesive front of change agents who firmly believe in their capacity to bring about positive transformations. In fact, school principals attested that they were positively affected by the contagious optimism within the community, which solidified their belief in their roles as agents of change for their school communities. As (P15) described, ‘Our involvement in the vCoP created a ripple effect of contagious optimism. It bolstered our confidence and equipped us with strategies to inspire change within our schools’.

4.3 Differentiated leadership development

A significant finding stemming from school leaders’ engagement in the vCoP is the concept of differentiated leadership development. Through active participation in these online communities, school leaders experienced a tailored and personalized approach to their own leadership growth. This differentiated development emerged as a key theme, highlighting the ability of vCoPs to cater to the diverse needs and challenges faced by educational leaders. Participants in vCoPs reported that the knowledge exchange, peer support, and collaborative problem-solving inherent in these communities allowed them to target their professional growth areas effectively. As a result, they could address specific leadership challenges and adapt their leadership styles to better meet the evolving needs of their school communities.

4.3.1 Personalized learning paths

In fact, school leaders emphasized vCoP’s role in offering personalized learning ecosystems. Participants within these communities have the autonomy to choose the knowledge, resources, and interactions that align with their specific learning objectives. This freedom empowers them to design their learning paths, focusing on areas that resonate with their professional growth and challenges. As participant P5 stated, ‘In vCoPs, I found a space where my professional growth was not one-size-fits-all. It was like having a personalized leadership development plan tailored to my needs and challenges’. This personalized approach allowed school leaders to target their growth areas effectively, addressing specific leadership challenges.

4.3.2 Flexibility

Flexibility emerged as another facet of differentiated leadership development within vCoPs. School principals described how the adaptable nature of these online communities empowered them to develop their leadership skills in a manner that accommodated their hectic schedules and ever-evolving professional needs. With the asynchronous nature of vCoP interactions and the abundance of available resources, principals had the freedom to curate their own learning experiences. P4 stated that, ‘The best thing about these platforms is that they are recorded, so if I could not attend for an unexpected reason, I can always watch the recording’.

Notably, participants in this study, such as Participant P2, emphasized this adaptability by highlighting how vCoPs provided them with the liberty to explore leadership aspects that were most pertinent to their specific school contexts. In P2’s words, “vCoPs offered me the freedom to delve into leadership facets that directly applied to my school’s unique situation. It’s a personalized approach that acknowledges the distinctiveness of our contexts.”

Similarly, Participant P14 stated, “It’s not solely about developing leadership; it’s about nurturing the right leadership tailored to the needs of our individual schools.” Furthermore, it is important to note that principals believed they could enroll in professional development events of their choice, aligning with their specific needs, and could do so with minimal cost implications, regardless of their geographical location. P6 noted, ‘With this online community, I travel the world to grow professionally, without paying for flights and accommodation’.

4.4 Supportive safe space

Findings suggest that vCoPs nurtured a supportive safe space that fostered resilience, facilitated robust feedback mechanisms, and supported a heightened sense of group cohesion. vCoPs were described as virtual sanctuaries where school leaders could openly share their experiences, challenges, and vulnerabilities without the fear of judgment, establishing an environment that encourages growth and adaptation.

4.4.1 Resilience

To start with resilience, participants suggested that the sense of belonging and the support they received from peers acted as a cushion against the pressures and uncertainties inherent in educational leadership. Participants frequently noted that the empathetic and understanding community within the vCoP provided them with the strength to bounce back from emotional setbacks with renewed determination. Participant P6 expressed, ‘Our vCoP is like a resilience recharge station. Knowing that others have faced similar obstacles and emerged stronger has given me the resilience to persevere in the face of adversity’.

4.4.2 Feedback mechanisms

Another pivotal element of the supportive safe space within vCoPs is the facilitation of robust feedback mechanisms. Participants highlighted how vCoPs offered a structured platform for seeking and providing feedback on leadership strategies, initiatives, and practices. The culture of open and constructive feedback within vCoPs encouraged participants to reflect on their actions and make informed adjustments. Participant P10 shared, ‘Our vCoP has cultivated a culture of constructive feedback, where we candidly discuss our successes and failures. This feedback loop not only fortifies our decision-making but also expedites our growth as school leaders’.

4.4.3 Group cohesion

Moreover, the strong sense of group cohesion fostered within the vCoP has played a pivotal role in creating the supportive safe space. Participants spoke of the profound camaraderie and solidarity that permeated these virtual communities. The connections forged within the vCoP extended beyond professional discussions, as participants developed deep and lasting relationships with their peers. This group cohesion offered emotional support and validation, further enhancing the sense of safety and belonging. Participant P11 emphasized, “In our vCoP, we’re not just colleagues; we’re some how family after more than two years of collaboration’.

4.5 Key drawbacks

Every aspect has its advantages and disadvantages, and vCoPs are no different. While the findings of this study highlight the positive and bright side of vCoPs, it’s essential to acknowledge that challenges also accompany their implementation. One significant challenge lies in maintaining consistent engagement among members, as educators often contend with time constraints and competing priorities. Additionally, there is a risk of information silos forming within the vCoP, whereby members primarily interact with those who share similar perspectives or experiences.

4.5.1 Challenges in maintaining engagement

Participant perspectives shed light on the hurdles vCoPs face in sustaining member involvement. One participant P8 remarked, ‘While the vCoP offers flexibility and personalized learning paths, keeping members consistently engaged remains a challenge’. This viewpoint is echoed by another participant P4 who stated, “Despite the benefits, I find it difficult to prioritize participation in the vCoP amidst my busy schedule’.

Time constraints and competing priorities emerged as recurring themes among participants, with P6 noting, “Balancing my professional responsibilities with active participation in the vCoP can be daunting’. Additionally, some participants highlighted the importance of perceived relevance, with P7 expressing, “For some, the vCoP may not always feel directly relevant to their immediate needs, leading to fluctuations in participation levels.

4.5.2 Potential for information silos

The potential for information silos within the vCoP emerged as a concern among participants. One participant, P4 stated, ‘While the vCoP aims to foster a supportive environment, there’s a risk of members gravitating towards like-minded individuals, creating information silos’. Likewise, P8 elaborated, stating, “Interacting mainly with those who share similar views or experiences can restrict our exposure to diverse perspectives’.

5 Discussion

This study explored the potential of virtual communities of practice (vCoPs) in facilitating leadership development tailored to the specific needs of school principals. Utilizing a qualitative research approach, the investigation engaged in semi-structured interviews with 16 school principals from K-12 educational institutions within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region.

The findings of this study underscore the impact of vCoPs on enhancing the leadership capacity of school leaders. Active participation in vCoPs facilitated a dynamic process of knowledge exchange and shared expertise, leading to increased leadership capacity. These results align with existing literature highlighting the positive influence of collaborative learning environments on leadership development in the case of CoPs (Turner et al., 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2023 ). This study adds to the literature, suggesting that vCoPs and CoPs are alike in terms of fostering collaboration and knowledge exchange among educational leaders.

The collaborative nature of vCoPs empowers school leaders to engage in collective problem-solving, share innovative practices, and leverage the collective wisdom of the community to enhance their instructional, distributed, and digital leadership skills. The transformative potential of vCoPs in shaping instructional leadership is particularly noteworthy, as it provides a powerful platform for school leaders to collaboratively shape teaching and learning practices, fostering a deeper commitment to this critical aspect of educational leadership. These findings align with Ghamrawi ( 2022 ) who suggested that vCoPs leverage digital leadership skills of its users. Additionally, it aligns with Myers and Washburn ( 2022 ) who suggested that vCoPs provide instructional support for teachers. This study, however, goes beyond that suggesting that it leverages instructional literacy of school leaders. As for distributed leadership, the literature suggests that it is an essential element for the development of CoPs and vCoPs by school principals in K-12 settings (Buttram & Farley-Ripple, 2016 ; Liu et al., 2022 ; Turner et al., 2018 ). However, this study suggests that school principals who are involved actively on vCoPs are more likely to endorse distributed leadership in their leadership approaches in their contexts.

Moreover, collective efficacy emerged as a key finding in this study, demonstrating how active participation in vCoPs nurtures shared beliefs about the capacity for change and cultivates contagious optimism among school leaders. These findings resonate with the literature highlighting the importance of collective efficacy of teachers in driving positive change in educational settings (Da’as et al., 2022 ). This study suggests that vCoPs support school leaders endorse shared beliefs transcending individual perspectives, resulting in a unified front of change agents who firmly believe in their capacity to bring about meaningful transformations. The social influence within vCoPs contributes to this process, solidifying participants’ belief in their roles as change agents. This contagious optimism, catalyzed by social influence and yielding collective efficacy, is an addition to the literature of school leadership and vCoPs, highlighting the crucial role of virtual communities in shaping a collective sense of empowerment among educational leaders.

Furthermore, differentiated leadership development within vCoPs emerged as another key finding, emphasizing the value of tailored and personalized approaches to leadership growth. VCoPs were noted to serve as venues for personalized learning ecosystems, allowing school leaders to curate their learning paths based on their specific needs and challenges. The flexibility inherent in vCoPs supports this individualized approach, accommodating the diverse responsibilities and time constraints faced by school leaders. This flexibility enables school leaders to access resources and engage in discussions at their convenience, eliminating the constraints of rigid schedules. These findings resonate with the collective findings of Lambert and Bouchamma ( 2021 ) and Bickmore et al. ( 2021 ), highlighting the potential of vCoPs in differentiating leadership development for school principals through their adaptive and responsive features that cater for the distinctive contexts and aspirations of school leaders.

Additionally, the supportive safe space created within vCoPs has been highlighted as a significant finding, fostering resilience, facilitating robust feedback mechanisms, and promoting group cohesion among school leaders. The literature emphasizes the importance of safe and supportive environments for leadership development (Acosta et al., 2019 ; Lai et al., 2020 ; Yin et al., 2020 ). However, this study suggests that vCoPs can potentially provide school leaders with this safe space where they can openly share their experiences, challenges, and vulnerabilities without fear of judgments. The sense of group cohesion fosters emotional support and validation, enhancing the sense of belonging and camaraderie among participants. It seems that the feedback-rich culture within vCoPs supports ongoing reflection and refinement of leadership practices, contributing to continuous improvement.

Finally, one drawback of the vCoP identified in the study aligns with findings in the literature, particularly regarding maintaining engagement. In fact, Thang et al. ( 2011 ) highlighted this specific challenge for teacher vCoPs and recommended designing the vCoP to facilitate authentic engagement to address this challenge. The other challenge identified in this study, the potential development of information silos, represents a unique finding and has not been reported previously, to the knowledge of the researchers.

6 Conclusion

Our exploration of Virtual Communities of Practice (vCoPs) and their influence on educational leadership within the GCC region has unveiled a series of interconnected themes that together shed light on the transformative capacity of these digital communities. We found that vCoPs play a pivotal role in enhancing leadership capacity among school principals through collaborative problem-solving and the exchange of innovative practices. However, challenges such as maintaining engagement and potential information silos must be addressed cautiously. Despite these challenges, vCoPs have demonstrated adaptability, catering to diverse needs and empowering personalized growth paths for leaders. Moreover, vCoPs foster collective efficacy and provide a supportive environment for open sharing and reflection.

7 Limitations and recommendations

Inevitably, there were inherent limitations that necessitated acknowledgment within this study. Firstly, the relatively small number of participants involved in this case study, coupled with the specific social context it examined, restrict the extent to which the findings can be generalized. Findings are closely tied to the GCC context, presenting not only a limitation, but also a strength. This is because research addressing school leadership is extremely limited. The findings offer valuable insights into how GCC principals perceive and interpret their professional growth in vCoPs.

While the findings of this study may not be readily generalizable due to the relatively small sample size, educational authorities and policymakers should take into consideration the potential of vCoPs in the realm of school leadership development. The design of these leadership development programs should harness the benefits of technology-enabled learning, providing school leaders with opportunities to foster growth and development within a broader culture of collaboration. Furthermore, it underscores the importance of creating supportive learning environments equipped with clear feedback mechanisms and peer support systems, which in turn nurture resilience and group cohesion.

In light of the study’s findings and the acknowledged limitations, future research endeavors should explore the application of vCoPs in diverse educational contexts beyond the GCC region. This comparative analysis across different cultural and geographical settings could offer deeper insights into the transferability and adaptation of vCoPs in school leadership development. These avenues of research will further enrich our knowledge of the transformative potential of vCoPs in educational leadership.

Data availability

Data associated with this study are not made available for confidentiality reasons.

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Ghamrawi, N., Shal, T. & Ghamrawi, N.A.R. Leadership development in virtual communities of practice: The case of school principals from the GCC Region. Educ Inf Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12784-y

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