punctuation in essay writing

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Brief Overview of Punctuation

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When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases. This handout should help to clarify when and how to use various marks of punctuation.

Use a comma to join two independent clauses and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).

Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.

Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include it. The examples below demonstrate this trend.

Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence, enclose it in or separate it by commas.

Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).

Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition)

Use a comma with quoted words.

Use a comma in a date.

Use a comma in a number.

Use a comma in a personal title.

Use a comma to separate a city name from the state.

Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the clauses with a period, with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon.

Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.

Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so).

Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas.

For more information on semicolons, please see the "90-Second Semicolon" vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel .

Use a colon to join two independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.

Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, an appositive, or other ideas directly related to the independent clause.

Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.

Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.

Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.

Parenthesis

Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence.

Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.

Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.

Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.

Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.

Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.

Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.

Underlining and italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe, you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships.

Italicize foreign words.

Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.

Italicize a word when referring to that word.

Academic writing

• Thinking about grammar
• Introduction

Punctuation in brief

Using commas, using the semi-colon, using the colon, using apostrophes.

• Writing in an academic style
• Descriptive, analytical and reflective writing
• Effective proof reading

Useful links for academic writing

• Study Advice Helping students to achieve study success with guides, video tutorials, seminars and one-to-one advice sessions.
• Improve your understanding of grammar and punctuation an excellent site with clear explanations and plenty of online exercises to test your understanding (University of Bristol).
• Academic Phrasebank Use this site for examples of linking phrases and ways to refer to sources.
• Learn English (British Council) High quality resources to help improve your English
• English for Uni (University of Adelaide) Engaging learning resources which aim to make difficult grammar and academic writing concepts easier to understand
• Grammar Resource Course on aspects of English grammar which are often a problem for students (University of Hull)
• English for Academic Purposes: Grammar Detailed explanation of how English grammar works with lots of exercises to put your knowledge into practice.

This guide includes advice on using some of the most common types of punctuation. If you would like more detailed advice, or if English is not your first language, there are links below to other websites which include more detailed advice and interactive exercises. If you are a University of Reading student and English is not your first language, the Academic English Programme (AEP) provides training courses in academic writing skills, speaking skills, and pronunciation practice.

• Academic English Programme (AEP) If you are studying in English as a second or additional language, the Academic English Programme offers courses, webinars and 1:1 consultations to help you improve your academic English while you study. The Academic English Programme (AEP) is free to all fee-paying international/EU students.
• Use a comma to create a pause , to separate ideas in that sentence.
• Use a semi-colon  to create a break , but recognises connection of ideas
• Use a colon  to connect two sentences  thematically
• Use a full stop  to create the end  of that sentence.
• Use an apostrophe  to indicate ownership or missing letters/numbers .

To separate words in a list:

He lost his house, his heritage, his hair, and his handkerchief.

To separate parts of a sentence :

Firstly, I would like to consider the merits of supplementing the diet with zinc extract. Secondly, vitamin C can be introduced to combat infection.

Here the comma separates the first word from the body of the sentence, to indicate that this idea is only the first.

To separate two parts of a linked idea:

After the French Revolution had taken place, many other European countries were concerned about civil unrest. Many scientists believe in evolution, although some are trying to disprove Darwin's Theory of Evolution.

To separate a final phrase, which is an afterthought:

Few people enjoy arduous and demanding exams, especially on Saturdays. I would like to run the London Marathon, if I were fit.

To link sentences that are closely related:

The night sky was the deepest sapphire; Claire realised that she had not observed its beauty until now.

A full stop between the two sentences would detract from Claire's observation, and a comma would not make enough of a break to allow the reader to make sense of the two ideas.

To link sentences that are in opposition to each other:

His research methods were fundamentally flawed; nonetheless, he collected the data.

In each of the examples above, the set of words after the semi-colon must be able to stand as a sentence on its own. However, there is a very common use of the semi-colon where this is not the case:

To separate items in a list:

Mrs Brown was assisted by other members of staff: Dr Benham from Animal Husbandry; Mr Gleeson from Botany; and Dr Chalk from Soil Science.

To introduce a list:

The results of the indoor team games were as follows: Wessex came first, Bridges and Wantage were joint second, and Sibly came last.

To link two sentences thematically:

Psychological studies into domestic violence are usually centred on an idea of the nuclear family: Henry Davis decided that he should undertake a more radical approach to research in this area.

Here the two sentences could exist separately, but by connecting them with a colon the reader is led from one idea to the next.

To draw out a conclusion:

Language acquisition is a difficult but immensely rewarding task: without it, there is little hope for global communication.

Here, what is said in the first sentence is contextualised by what is said in the second sentence.

• To show that letters are missing. This is known as  contraction.
• To indicate ownership. This is known as  possession.

Contractions

When letters are missing in a word, and the word becomes shorter, the apostrophe is used to show where the missing letters belonged.

For example:

• I am becomes I'm
• You will becomes you'll
• They would becomes they'd

Contractions are used in informal writing. Essays and reports should not contain informal writing.

Apostrophes are also used to show that something belongs to something else.

• The girl's hat - means that the hat is owned by the girl.
• The girl's hats - means that the girl owns more than one hat.
• The girls' hat - means that the girls all share ownership of one hat.
• The girls' hats - means that the girls own several hats (or one each).

As you can see, the apostrophe usually comes before the 's' if the subject is single ('the girl'), and after the 's' if it is plural ('the girls'). However it may be different if the word for a single subject ends with 's' like princess, Venus or Socrates. One useful way to deal with this is to see if the 's' is pronounced.

• Venus's arms or the princess's coronet

In both of these examples the 's' is pronounced, so there is an additional 's' with the apostrophe before.

• Socrates' wife

In this example the 's' is not pronounced, so there is no additional 's' and the apostrophe goes after the final 's' in Socrates.

Its/it's

The cat licked its paws.

There is no need for an apostrophe, because 'its' is a pronoun in its own right which stands in for 'the cat's' and indicates ownership.

It's an amazing idea.

A missing letter has been replaced by the apostrophe, so it really means 'it is':

Whose/who's

Whose shoes are they?

Here whose is a special kind of pronoun (like its) which indicates ownership already, so there is no apostrophe.

Who's coming to dinner?

A missing letter has been replaced by the apostrophe, so it really means, 'who is'.

The 1960s were a period of radical changes in morality.

In the '60s, public morality underwent radical changes.

1960s' morality was quite different to that which had gone before.

- In the first sentence, '1960s' is a plural referring to all the years between 1960 and 1969, so there is no apostrophe.

- In the second sentence there is a contraction with '19' missed off. The apostrophe replaces the missing numbers.

- In the third sentence, what is being referred to is the morality of the 1960s, so the apostrophe indicates possession.  

It is worth remembering that words may end with 's' because they are plurals, and not because they indicate ownership or contraction. Look at what the word is doing and apply an apostrophe only if appropriate.

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• Last Updated: Apr 30, 2024 10:24 AM
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Punctuation Marks: All You Ever Wanted to Know About Them!

There are three principles which can lead you to success in writing — style, meaning, and grammar. Clarity and precision are things that always impress those who read and evaluate your texts, and demonstrate your educational and personal qualities. Grammar and punctuation are vital not only for your academic success, but also when you text a date you want to impress, correspond for a job interview, chat with your colleagues, and so on.

There are 14 punctuation marks used in English grammar. You probably know most of them, but it does not hurt to repeat them. They are the period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen, parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis. If you use them correctly, your writing will be much easier and appealing to read.

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Of course, there are certain differences between punctuation in British and American English. They are not major, but they are still important. For example, in American English, such popular abbreviations like Mr., Ms., and Mrs. have periods. In British however, no periods are used. When writing the time, British English employs periods—where noon would be 12.00. In the same case, the American system uses colons (12:00). The names of the punctuation marks can also be different. Look at the table before we move on to find out how to use them. Let's go deeper with our coursework writing service .

Sentence Endings: The Period, Question Mark and Exclamation Point

Let's begin with sentence endings. Sentences are an integral part of any text or message. You can end a sentence with the period, question mark, or exclamation point. The period (.) is usually used to end simple declarative sentences. In most cases, they complete statements that do not carry any special emotional meaning and do not infer a question.

Examples: Mary and Tom got married in 2020. He loves playing baseball.

A question mark (?) usually indicates a direct question and is also placed at the end of a sentence.

Examples: When did Mary and Tom marry? Does he love playing baseball?

The exclamation point (!) is used to showcase an emotion or to add special emphasis.

Examples: Wow, Mary and Tom are getting married! He loves playing baseball so much!

Comma, Semicolon, and Colon

Inside a sentence, there are also plenty of punctuation marks to be used. The most common ones are the comma, semicolon, and colon. They all indicate a pause in the sentence, so they are often misused among each other. Here is how to know when to use each of the symbols:

The comma is used to separate logical parts of a sentence. It includes ideas or elements that are inside the structure of a sentence. A comma can also be used to separate repetitive parts of a sentence, such as numbers, dates, or objects that are similar to each other. A comma is also used after a greeting and the end of a letter, before and after mentioning someone's name.

Examples: To separate logical parts of a sentence: When he came home, the sun was shining. To separate repetitive parts: I love movies such as “Pretty Woman”, “When Harry met Sally”, and “You've got mail”. To indicate a salutation: Thanks for all your help, Mark.

The semicolon (;) is usually used when connecting independent clauses. How will you know when to use commas or semicolons? A semicolon connects extra independent parts of a sentence. If you put a period between them, the sentence will still work. This will not be the case with a comma, where clauses depend on each other.

Examples: Sylvia was happy; she knew that he would fall in love with her pretty soon. As you can see, these two sentences can be easily separated.

A colon (:) can be used in three cases.

• When you introduce a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series.

Example: It was up to her to take the following actions: graduate, find a job, and become a partner at her law firm.

• You can put a colon between independent clauses. It's like the case with a semicolon, but here the second part of the sentence explains the first.

Example: I didn't want to go to Brazil: I already had plans to go to Italy with my husband.

• The colon can also be used for emphasis when you want to single out one particular part of your sentence:

Example: She was sure of one thing: her friends.

Time, ratio, business correspondence and references — these are other cases where a colon can be used.

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Dash and Hyphen

The dash and hyphen are also quite common punctuation marks. Although they look similar, they are very different.

A dash is used to separate words into statements, and also to indicate range or connections.

Example: She said explicitly — Yes!

A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a single concept. This way we get a compound term.

Examples: She is a well-known doctor working part-time. I went on a Rome-Paris flight.

Brackets, Braces, and Parentheses

Symbols like brackets, braces, and parentheses are used to include words that are a further explanation of the following part of a sentence or are considered a group. Brackets ([ ]) are notations which are mostly used for technical explanations, or to clarify meaning. The important part about brackets is that if you remove the information in the brackets, the sentence will still make sense.

Example: He [John] was the first one to graduate in the family.

Braces ({ }) look similar but they are mostly used in Math and computer programming to show units.

Example: 2{1+[23-3]}=x.

Parentheses ( ( ) ) are curved notations which are used to showcase thoughts or qualifying remarks. An important point about parentheses is that they can be replaced by commas without changing the meaning—in most cases.

Example: Mary Stuart (whose maiden name was Lockhart) went to buy a bottle of milk.

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Apostrophe and Ellipsis

The final and less used three punctuation forms are the apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis. An apostrophe (') is mostly used when: there is an omission of a letter or letters from a word, in the possessive case, or for plurals of lowercase letters.

Examples: Omission of letters: I've wanted to do it for a long time. Possessive case: Kate's dog is a Golden retriever. Plural for lowercase letters: There are 3 p’s in the word “hippopotamus”.

‍ The ellipsis includes three periods (...) and is used in writing or printing to indicate an omission or pause in the thoughts of the writer. Ellipses are also useful for omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning of the overall sentence.

Examples: I do not know about that… She was counting — one, two, three…

Quotation Marks

Quotation marks (" ") are primarily used to quote the words of another person.

Example: “Everything happens for a reason,” she said.

There are several instances in which you can use quotation marks. You can use them with direct quotes to quote someone’s message, with titles of certain works, to show other meanings from what was said literally, and to write words as words.

Quotation marks are usually used for a direct quote. When you change the sentence into the indirect quote, the quotation marks become unnecessary.

Examples: Direct quote: “I like the snow,” said Alice. Indirect quote: Alice said that she liked the snow.

So the important rule to remember is: “Quotation marks are used only with direct quotes”. You can quote not only a person, but also a written source.

There are two forms of direct quotations: run-in and block quotations. What are they and what is their difference? Run-in quotations are usually shorter. Their format is the same as the surrounding text. Block quotes are longer quotes that are separated from the surrounding text. Block quotations can even appear as a separate paragraph (or a series of paragraphs). They can also have a different font, a change in the line spacing, or have a wider margin.

Examples: The Father said, "Prospects for growth are really good." In "American History," the writer supposes, From the revolutionary war... (3)

So, the main rules about quotation marks are that if you open them, you need to close them as well. Where the quote starts and where it ends should be clear. Sometimes, the text inside quotation marks is capitalized, in other cases, it's not. So if you’re quoting a complete sentence, you should start the quote with a capital letter. This is the case even if you start the sentence, not the quote itself.

Example: She used the following phrase: “My life is a miracle.”

But, if you’re quoting a phrase or part of a sentence, you don't have to start with a capital letter:

Example: She considered them “rich and successful, like Hollywood stars.”

There are also single quotation marks. They look like this – ‘good day’ – and can be used instead of parentheses for translations.

Examples: Her ‘good day’ was Bonjourno in reality. He considers the word “Stars” lucky for his company.

There are also differences in formatting quotations in America and British style. Please, see the main differences for yourself.

*Place other punctuation inside quotation marks when that punctuation is part of what is being quoted, such as a quoted question.

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So these are the main rules for using punctuation and quotation marks in the English language. We hope this material was useful to you. If you want to order an academic paper where you do not have to worry about all the punctuation and grammar rules, we invite you to use EssayPro. By getting a paper from a professional writer on any topic, you are sure to get a good grade. We make the process of writing a research paper fast.

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Punctuation

Punctuation fills our writing with silent intonation. We pause, stop, emphasize, or question using a comma, a period, an exclamation point or a question mark. Correct punctuation adds clarity and precision to writing; it allows the writer to stop, pause, or give emphasis to certain parts of the sentence.

This section of the tutorial covers the most general uses of punctuation marks. Special attention is given to the most common mistakes that occur when punctuation does not follow standard written English conventions. The guidelines and examples given here do not offer a comprehensive analysis of all punctuation uses, rather a quick overview of some of the most frequent punctuation mistakes students make in writing. The section also covers the use of apostrophes and capital letters; these do not directly refer to punctuation but more to mechanics and spelling. However, just as with punctuation marks, knowledge of their proper use is intrinsic to good writing.

Take the Quick Self-Test to identify the common punctuation mistakes you may encounter in your writing. Follow the links included in the answers to the quiz questions to learn more about how to correct or avoid each punctuation mistake. If you prefer, you may review the entire punctuation section.

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Punctuation Guide

Good punctuation is crucial for successful academic writing. Many students use little punctuation in their essays beyond commas and full stops. But to be restricted to just two forms of punctuation mark, when writing your essay, is like building a house using only a hammer and a saw: you can do it; but not very well.

By learning to use more, or all, of the available forms of punctuation you will be able to communicate and express your ideas, and arguments, more clearly.

Full stop ( . )

Full stops have three distinct uses:

1.  To mark the end of a sentence

• The cat is completely black.

2.  To indicate abbreviated words a full stop indicates an abbreviation, unless first and last letters of the word are shown.

• The teacher will be Mr John Smith (B. Sci.).

3.  To punctuate numbers and dates

• All assignments should be submitted by 6. 6. 04.

Colon ( : )

A colon can be used:

1.  To indicate that a list, quotation or summary is about to follow;

• Buy these things: a packet of peanuts, two loaves of bread and a kilogram of steak.
• Writing the assignment is not easy: to begin with you have to do a lot of research.

2.  To separate an initial sentence/clause from a second clause, list, phrase or quotation that supports the first in a particular way.

• The television set, as the icon of the information age, represents the realisation of a dream for humankind: that knowledge and experience can be transmitted and shared across the boundaries of time and space.

Semicolon ( ; )

A semicolon:

1.  Separates two complete sentences that are, however, closely linked.

• To err is human; to forgive, divine.
• Don't go near the lions; they could bite you.

The semicolon can be replaced by a full stop, but the direct link between the two parts is lost.

2.  Serves as a second level of punctuation in a series of words or phrases which already have commas making some internal divisions.

• Only one paper, the Canberra Times, managed a regular daily edition on a Sunday; even there, Saturday`s offered a better read.
• She came out of the house, which had a long drive, and saw the police officer at the end of the path; but instead of continuing towards him, she hid until he left.

Comma ( , )

Commas have a vital role to play in longer sentences, separating information into readable units.

1.  A single comma ensures correct reading of a sentence which starts with a longish introductory element.

• When Australia celebrated its sesquicentenary in 1938, there was a little of the confidence or enthusiasm of the centennial celebrations of 1888.

2.  Pairs of commas help in the middle of a sentence to set off any string of words which is either a parenthesis, or in contrast, to whatever went before.

• Yet in representing ourselves to ourselves, as film and television do, these media are constantly introducing and reinforcing the assumptions.

3.  A set of commas is a means of separating items in a list.

• The details required are name, date of birth, address and telephone number.

4.  Sometimes a comma is needed between the last two items to ensure clarity.

• The details required are name, date of birth, address, and telephone number. 

Question mark ( ? )

A question mark is used at the end of a sentence which is a question.

• Have the students completed the exam? 

Apostrophe ( ' )

There are two uses for the apostrophe:

1) Contractions - A contraction is a shortened version of a word. An apostrophe is used to show that something has been left out, and where it has been left out.

• don't (do not)
• It'll (It will)
• she'll (she will)

2) Possessives - An apostrophe is used to indicate ownership/possession with nouns. To show ownership by a single individual, insert the apostrophe between the noun and the 's'. To show ownership by more than one individual, use the apostrophe at the end of the word.

• the dog's tail (belonging to a single dog)
• the women's magazines
• boys' football boots (belonging to more than one boy)
• Einstein's theory of relativity
• Avagradro's number

Note: Be careful: It's is the contraction of it is. It's is not a possessive (a possessive denotes ownership). 

When used correctly, a hyphen links two or more words, that normally would not be placed together, in order that they work as one idea. These are called compound nouns.

• Stonier's post-industrial economy is a service economy.
• There are four types of information-related machines.

Dashes ( — )

Hyphens should not be confused with dashes. Dashes re like brackets; they enclose extra information. A colon and semicolon would work just as well in the example opposite. Dashes are rarely used in academic writing.

1.  Although often used in pairs, dashes can also be used singularly.

• To the three divisions of the economy—agriculture, manufacturing, and service industries—Jones has added a fourth.

2.  Although often used in pairs, dashes can also be used singularly.

• Have an orange—or would you prefer a banana?
• While the importance of sport to Pay TV is clear, the opposite perspective is less certain—the importance of Pay TV to sport.

Parentheses ( )

1.  Parentheses are brackets used to include extra or nonessential material in sentences. Parentheses should be used sparingly and always appear in pairs.

• It was unusual to see Paul awake so early (as he often studied late into the night) and Jane greeted him with amazement.

2.  In citation systems like Harvard, parentheses are used to include in-text references.

• Larsen and Greene (1989) studied the effects of pollution in three major cities.
• "Australia is a settler society" (Hudson & Bolton 1997, p. 9).

Exclamation mark ( ! )

An exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence and indicates surprise, anger, or alarm. Exclamation marks should be used very sparingly and are not often used in academic writing.

• The police stormed in and arrested her!
• How disgraceful! 

Ellipsis ( ... )

An ellipsis consists of three full stops. It indicates that material has been left out of a quotation. When quoting, it is sometimes necessary to leave out words or lines for reasons of relevance or length. Using an ellipsis makes any omissions known to your reader.

• "But to be restricted to just two forms of punctuation mark ... is like building a house using only a hammer and a saw: you can do it; but not very well."

  See next: Quick revision punctuation exercise

• Transition signals in writing
• Quotations and paraphrases
• Punctuation exercise
• Paraphrasing, summarising, quoting
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Many students do not take full advantage of punctuation. They never venture beyond the comma and the period—the two punctuation marks that nobody can do without. Some are afraid that if they use other forms of punctuation, they will do so incorrectly, so they never take the risk. Learning to punctuate effectively does involve learning the rules, and this handout summarizes the most important of them. But learning to punctuate is about much more than rules. Punctuation, when skillfully deployed, provides you with considerable control over meaning and tone. Try to experiment with all forms of punctuation in order to expand your expressive range as a writer. And observe closely how accomplished writers use punctuation to good effect. This handout limits itself to punctuation that occurs within sentences: commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, and parentheses.

Commas are the most frequently used form of punctuation and probably the hardest to master. Using commas well is a science and an art: though there are well-defined rules, there is plenty of room to manouevre as well. Both the science and the art of comma use have changed with time. Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century writers, for example, used commas unsparingly. But do not think that comma problems boil down to whether we use too many commas or too few. It is best to learn the rules—and to know which ones can be broken and when. You should break the rules for a purpose and consciously . Intuition is not always the best guide. In particular, the sometimes serviceable practice of choosing a comma whenever you would pause in speech can get you into trouble, especially if you write long sentences and lose your breath easily. Here are a few basic rules to guide you in your comma use:

Commas after many introductory phrases are optional. When the introductory phrase is short, you can often omit the comma; when the phrase is longer, a comma will help your reader recognize where the main clause begins:

In the early 1960s Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently tried to reduce the tremendous complexity of the zoo of particles then known at the time. (Steven Weinberg, Dreams of a Final Theory ) After much preliminary speculation and a few unsuccessful hypotheses, he achieved his central insight while reading an apparently unrelated work for recreation. (Stephen Jay Gould, Ever Since Darwin )

When the introductory phrase includes a participle (a verb form ending in – ing or – ed ), always add a comma:

Sitting in traffic, a plumber can’t plumb and a deliveryman can’t deliver. (Elizabeth Kolbert, “Don’t Drive, He Said”)

Make sure also to add a comma after an introductory clause (any grammatical unit that contains a subject and a verb):

As the train straightened after a long curving tunnel near Lhasa, a nomad emerged from his tent on a hillside. (Pankaj Mishra, “The Train to Tibet”)

When joining two independent clauses (clauses that could stand alone as sentences) with a coordinating conjunction ( and , or , nor , but , yet , for , so ), you normally place a comma before the conjunction:

Sweetness is a desire that starts on the tongue with the sense of taste, but it doesn’t end there. (Michael Pollan, The Botany of Desire )

This rule can occasionally be broken. The shorter the two independent clauses are, the more appropriate it is to break the rule. Examples are more likely to be found in fictional prose where the style is deliberately terse:

It was very hot and the express from Barcelona would come in forty minutes. (Ernest Hemingway, “Hills Like White Elephants”)

When joining mere phrases, you usually do not provide a comma:

There have been great civilizations in which the peculiar balance of mind required for science has only fitfully appeared and has produced the feeblest results. (Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the Modern World .)

In this example, the conjunction and joins two verb phrases.

This rule is frequently broken, particularly when the writer wants to convey surprise or to add an afterthought:

Each of our internal organs has a personality of its own, and a mythology too. (Sherwin Nuland, The Mysteries Within ) We cannot remain absolutely free, and must give up some of our liberty to preserve the rest. (Isaiah Berlin, “Two Concepts of Liberty”)

Just make sure that whenever you break the rule, you do so for a reason.

Place commas between each element of a list of three or more parallel words, phrases, or clauses. Writers often place a comma before the conjunction ( and or or ) preceding the last element in the list:

The history of interactions among disparate people is what shaped the modern world through conquest, epidemics, and genocide. (Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel )

Some writers, however, choose not to place a comma before the last element:

The material consequences in the East of the German occupation, the Soviet advance and the partisan struggles were thus of an altogether different order from the experience of war in the West. (Tony Judt, Postwar )

Though either method of punctuating is acceptable, try to choose one method and stick with it. A comma before the final element is less likely to produce unintended ambiguity.

Surround interrupting or parenthetical clauses or phrases with commas. Such clauses or phrases are not essential to the sentence. If you removed them, the central point of the sentence would remain:

Dr. Johnson’s Lives of the Poets , as Boswell tells us, was written at the urging of the London booksellers. (Leon Edel, Writing Lives ) Richard Lester, the director of Petulia , is a shrill scold in Mod clothes. (Pauline Kael, Going Steady )

Remember to add commas on both sides of an interrupting phrase or clause: don’t forget the second comma.

The interrupting element in the last example is an appositive . It restates the meaning of the noun phrase it follows. An appositive can, however, narrow down rather than simply restate the meaning of a noun or noun phrase. When an appositive restates meaning, surround it with commas; when it narrows down meaning, do not:

Hillary Clinton’s daughter, Chelsea, has been called the Greta Garbo of presidential children because she shuns the limelight. (CBS News Report) Charlotte Brontë’s sister Emily used weather to great effect in her novel Wuthering Heights. (Karen Odden, Introduction to Hard Times )

Hillary Clinton has only one daughter; Charlotte Brontë had more than one sister. Chelsea is therefore not essential to the sentence, while Emily is.

Another type of interrupting element, the relative clause, also deserves close attention. Relative clauses begin with words such as who , which , that , and sometimes where and when :

During the past thirty years the ideal of the unity of learning, which the Renaissance and Enlightenment bequeathed to us, has been largely abandoned. (E.O. Wilson, Consilience )

As with other interrupting sentence elements, the surrounding commas indicate that the information in the clause is not essential to the main point of the sentence. E.O. Wilson is suggesting that there is only one ideal of the unity of knowledge, and we happen to have inherited that ideal from the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. Take the relative clause away, and Wilson’s point remains the same: most intellectuals have abandoned this ideal.

Some relative clauses, however, are integral to the meaning of a sentence. In such cases, it is critical not to surround the clause by commas:

The names of the creative writers who have been more or less Freudian in tone or assumption would of course be legion. (Lionel Trilling, “Freud and Literature”)

In this sentence Trilling makes his assertion not about all creative writers but only about those who are Freudian in their outlook. Remove the clause, and you destroy the sentence’s meaning

One final, purely stylistic point: for relative clauses that do not take commas, the word which or who can be replaced by that :

Research that once required days in the stacks or periodical rooms of libraries can now be done in minutes. (Nicholas Carr, “Is Google Making Us Stupid.”)

The semicolon has two main uses. The first is to combine two closely related independent clauses into one sentence:

A scientific genius is not a person who does what no one else can do; he or she is someone who does what it takes many others to do. (Malcolm Gladwell, “In the Air”) Van Gogh painted almost exclusively from life; Gauguin favored imagination. (Peter Schjeldahl, “Different Strokes”)

In either case, the writer could just as well have used two separate sentences, but using the semicolon helps convey the close connection between two sequential ideas.

The other valid use of semicolons is to separate list elements that are long or complex. If, in particular, those list elements contain internal commas, semicolons will help show just where each element begins and ends:

The Idea of North offers little hard data about the history, geography, population, sociology, politics, or economy of the North; about the burgeoning interest in the North after the Second World War, especially after the creation of the federal Department of Northern Affairs and Natural Resources in 1953; about the aboriginal-land-claims issues being thrashed out in the late sixties. (Kevin Bazzana, Wondrous Strange: The Life and Art of Glenn Gould )

Colons offer a way of urging your reader forward. The words preceding the colon create an expectation; the words following the colon fulfill it:

The entomologists’ dream of the built-in insecticide was born when workers in the field of applied entomology realized they could take a hint from nature: they found that wheat growing in soil containing sodium selenate was immune to attack by aphids or spider mites. (Rachel Carson, Silent Spring ) Our age has produced a new literary breed: the self-hating essayist. (Cristina Nehring, “Our Essays, Ourselves”)

The part of the sentence following the colon can expand on an idea (that nature suggests how to take advantage of built-in insecticides) or answer an implied question (who exactly belongs to this new literary breed?). Note that a colon is generally preceded by a full independent clause. It can, however, be followed either by another independent clause, a phrase, or even a word. The phrase sometimes takes the form of a list:

Shakespeare’s archvillain had many Shakespearean forerunners: the melodramatic Richard II, the casuistical Pandulph, the sly and crafty Ulysses. (Harold C. Goddard, The Meaning of Shakespeare )

Dashes serve some of the same functions as commas and colons, but they assert themselves more forcefully. Like commas, dashes are used to set off interrupting clauses or phrases, but a pair of dashes will tend to call more attention to what lies in between:

Old Beijing—designed for pedestrians and imperial processions but not much in between—has turned out to be a bad framework on which to construct a modern city. (Paul Goldberger, “Forbidden Cities”)

Acting alone, a dash, like a colon, allows you to expand on or to complete an idea, and dashes used this way are often interchangeable with colons. But the dash tends to be a little more abrupt and is particularly good at suggesting irony or surprise:

Nobody ever recommended or even suggested that I be a novelist—in fact, some tried to stop me. (Haruki Murakami, “The Running Novelist”)

The dash has one other occasional use. Following a list, a dash allows you to tie things together with an explanatory independent clause:

The manner of giving, the thing which is given, the effect of the giving upon the individual—these are the factors which determine the progress of the Sufi. (Idries Shah, The Sufis )

If you don’t use dashes, adding them to your repertoire will considerably broaden your expressive range as a writer. But be careful: overusing them will blunt their overall impact.

Parentheses

Parentheses offer a third way of introducing interrupting material. A pair of commas supplies the standard, matter-of-fact way of doing so. If dashes provide a more forceful alternative to commas, parentheses offer a tentative and modest one:

Paul, like Jesus, encouraged celibacy not because he loathed the flesh (which in my opinion he did not) but out of his urgent concern for the practical work of proclaiming the gospel. (Elaine Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent )

A parenthetical aside often sounds like a footnote. It need not always be perfectly integrated into the sentence:

In one sense, the “epistemic” sense (“epistemic” here means having to do with knowledge), science is indeed objective. (John R. Searle, Consciousness and Language )

Parentheses can also enclose full sentences. The period goes inside the closing parenthesis:

Ondaatje was born in 1943, into a prominent Sri Lankan family. (He has written a memoir of his relatives, Running in the Family , published in 1982.) (Louis Menand, “The Aesthete”)

Punctuation — Definition, Types, Symbols, Usage, Examples, Quizzes, and Worksheets

Punctuation marks are a set of signs and different symbols used in written language to clarify what, when, and how things are being said. This guide covers everything you need to know about punctuation marks and how to use them correctly. Use our tips and helpful charts to learn what each punctuation mark looks like and more! You’ll be a punctuation pro in no time!

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What Are the Different Types of Punctuation Marks?

The different types of punctuation are vast, so we’ll cover them in this chart with deeper explanations to follow.

Used at the end of a sentence indicating a full stop.

This is a sentence.

Used to separate parts of a sentence, indicating a short pause.

John walked through the park, enjoying the beautiful scenery.

Introduces a list, quote or explanation.

There are two choices: yes or no.

Connects two independent clauses or separates items in a list when the items contain commas.

She loves me; she loves me not.

Used to denote a pause or break in thought or to introduce a list.

She was — quite frankly — amazed.

Connects compound words or separates syllables of a word at the end of a line.

Indicates possession or the omission of letters or numbers.

“It’s” or “Mary’s car.”

Question Mark

Used at the end of a sentence to indicate a question.

How are you?

Exclamation Point

Used to express exclamation.

What a beautiful day!

Quotation Marks

Surrounds a group of words to denote speech or a quotation.

“Hello, world!” she said.

Used to include explanatory words or phrases within a quote.

“He [the policeman] arrived.”

• Parentheses

Used to separate material that is not part of the main sentence.

She went to the store (the one on Main Street) to buy bread.

Used to group together expressions in mathematics or programming.

{2, 4, 6, 8}

Used to indicate an omission or pause.

And then…she left.

1. Period (.)

The period is one of the most common punctuation marks. Anyone knows the answer to “What is a period used for?” because it’s simply for ending declarative sentences. You can also use it to finish imperative sentences.

A period also indicates complete sentences. Using it to separate sentences helps make your writing clearer. Here are some examples:

• Please take care of the shoes I’m lending you.
• She’s going to the gym tomorrow.
• Monte Carlo is my comfort movie every time I feel lonely.

You’ll also find a period in abbreviations, as in “Mrs.” and “Mr.”

2. Question Mark (?)

In grammar, a question mark is a familiar punctuation used to end interrogative sentences. It’s known for being a one-job punctuation mark because it simply communicates questions. These sentences can be in the form of a direct question or an indirect question.

A direct question is an interrogative sentence that asks an “ordinary” question. For example:

• How does it feel to be living my dream?
• What are the parts of a plant cell?
• Why do I have to retake this subject?

An indirect question is a more polite way of making a request or asking for information. For example:

• Could you give me your mobile number for future transactions?
• Do you know where I can find Mr. Johnson?
• Would you mind grabbing a few vegetables before you go home?

3. Exclamation Point (!)

One of the most basic punctuation marks is the exclamation point . The punctuation symbol for this is a straight vertical line with a period at the bottom. Use it at the end of an exclamatory sentence to show strong emotion.

• Happy birthday, Emma!
• Ugh! I can’t stop myself from spending money on books.
• Wow! The sunset is breathtaking.

4. Comma (,)

One common cause of grammar mistakes in American English is the lack of commas . Use the comma to separate ideas and independent clauses. It’s usually found before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

You can also use the comma to set off nouns as direct addresses. You need to include this punctuation mark, whether the name is at the beginning or end of the sentence.

• Millie, you look stunning in your beaded dress.
• This house used to be orange and blue, but they changed it to lilac and yellow.
• The partner I have chosen is you, Jacob.

5. Colon (:)

A colon is used to introduce additional information. It can also connect clauses like an em dash and a comma. You’ll find this punctuation mark in any kind of writing. For example:

• Meg has three options after college: apply as an instructional designer, learning engineer, or curriculum specialist.
• Somehow, everyone forgot the important announcement: Jade and Ryan are getting married.

Colons also have other uses on a regular basis:

• I started working at 8:30 p.m.
• The correct rice-to-water ratio is 1:2.

6. Semicolon (;)

Like commas, parentheses, and em dashes, a semicolon’s function is separating elements within sentences. Use it to join a clause and a larger clause without a conjunction.

• Let’s go to the library to finish the essay; Tuesday would be great.

7. Hyphen (-)

In the English language, hyphens are used to form compound words. Another usage of the hyphen is to divide a word where there’s not enough space for the whole word. You can also use it to avoid the awkward doubling of vowels in a compound term.

• The president-elect withdrew his candidacy after being exposed for plunder.
• The correct spelling of goodbye is g-o-o-d-b-y-e.
• My mother has a well-stocked pantry.

There are types of dashes to consider.

En Dash (–)

The en dash is one of the different types of dashes used to indicate a range in time periods, distance, and more.

• Please refer to pages 60–73.
• The conference will take place on July 15–17.

Some people also use it to separate complex compound words. The symbol is longer than a hyphen but shorter than an em dash. The odd name comes from the simple fact that it has the same width as the lowercase letter n.

• Incorrect: Chicago-New York train (hyphen)
• Correct: Chicago–New York train (en dash)
• Incorrect: She’s a National Book Award-winning author.
• Correct: She’s a National Book Award–winning author.

One of the most common punctuation mistakes we make is getting confused between a hyphen and a dash. Note that the en dash doesn’t join compound words the way hyphens do.

Em Dash (—)

An em dash is one of the three kinds of dashes that functions like a comma, a colon, or parentheses in introducing a clause. It can separate independent clauses from subordinate clauses to help a writer expand on an idea.

Some people consider the em dash as more suitable for informal writing. But you’ll find this double hyphen in different types, even in the most formal writing.

• The operating hours—9 a.m. to 9 p.m.—are the best choice for this business and its customers.

9. Brackets []

Square brackets are rarely found in any piece of writing. But you use them to clarify information within quotes. In short, it’s like parentheses for direct quotations to make the quote clearer. For example:

• According to the author, “grammar resources [should be] widely accessible to language learners.”

10. Braces or Curly Brackets {}

Curly brackets, braces, or squiggly brackets are used to group a set. They’re commonly found in mathematical sets.

• I already have some venue options {Pier Sixty, Tribeca Rooftop, The Foundry} for the wedding.

11. Parentheses ()

In English grammar, parentheses are used to add information to a sentence. Such a piece of information may not fit in—hence the use of this punctuation makes the sentence clearer. For example:

• The family’s arrival (which I only learned about now) was shocking.
• I swear I saw the ghost (Do you believe in them?) during our stay at the old house.

12. Apostrophe (’)

There is a wide variety of apostrophe rules you need to follow. First, you need to use the apostrophe in contractions. A contraction is when two words are shortened by omitting one or more letters to form one word. For example:

• Do not—don’t.
• She will—she’ll.

Another one of the apostrophe’s functions is to show the possessive form of a noun.

• That bag is Cornelia’s.
• Will’s dedication is impressive.

A note on apostrophes is that you can also use them to form the plurals of letters and numbers.

You’ll also find the apostrophe in foreign languages. French uses it in articles when a vowel has been dropped.

A common misuse of the apostrophe is placing it before an S to make nouns plural. Here’s an example:

• Incorrect: I ate bacon’s for breakfast.
• Correct: I ate bacons for breakfast.

13. Quotation Marks (“ ”)

The common quotation marks or inverted commas are used to make direct quotations or repetitions of someone’s exact words or famous quotes.

The two types of quotation marks are single quotes (‘ ’) and the more common double quotation marks (“ ”). Single quotation marks are used to enclose a quote within a quote, while double quotation marks are used to indicate a direct quote.

Punctuation styles differ between British English and American English. In American English, periods and commas are placed inside the quotations, even if they’re not in the original material, while British English places them outside quotations.

Here are some examples of sentences:

• “The teacher told me, ‘You are one of my best students,’” I said to my mother.
• Thomas Edison once said , “Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent inspiration.”

14. Ellipses (…)

The ellipses are a writing tool used for indicating words removed from a quote. It shows sentence endings while letting the reader know it’s incomplete.

• “I can’t believe it,” she whispered, her voice trembling with disbelief and excitement. “This is truly a dream come true…”

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What Are Typographical Marks?

Typographical marks are punctuation marks 2.0. They’re common symbols we use in typography that help with legibility and accessibility. Here are some of the most popular ones:

1. Asterisk (*)

The asterisk is a symbol that looks like a star. It’s used to show a footnote in formal writing, primarily scientific and academic writing.

• 25% of the respondents prefer lavender over mint.

*According to survey data from the Essential Oils Center.

2. Ampersand (&)

The ampersand replaces the word “and,” but it is not encouraged by different style guides. Use it within specific formal references like official names.

• His fiancé gave her a Tiffany & Co ring as a birthday gift.
• The law firm that Justine sought help from is Miller & Associates.
• They gave a short performance at the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.

3. Bullet Point (•)

The bullet point is used for creating lists. Example:

For this project, you will need:

• Fabric of your choice.
• Fusible fleece.
• Washable ink marker.
• Coordinating thread.
• Sewing needle.

4. Pound Symbol (#)

The pound sign is the punctuation mark for marking the number of something. It’s also now used for hashtags online.

It’s not to be confused with the pound symbol for the British currency. The British pound symbol represented the libra pondo , the unit of measurement for weight in the Roman Empire.

• Candace is a #1 Internationally Bestselling Author.
• The hashtags #writing and #publishing are trending.

5. Tilde (~)

One of the many forms of punctuation you won’t always see is the tilde. Previously known as the twiddle or squiggly, this character’s informal usage means “about” or “approximately.” It also functions as an accent mark in Portuguese and Spanish words.

• They plan to visit São Paulo this summer, but the crowd is giving them second thoughts.
• I think Jane and I met ~3 years ago.

6. Backslash (\)

You won’t find the backslash in letter writing, business writing, and other forms of writing. This punctuation mark is used for programming or coding, so don’t mix it with the forward slash.

However, if you’re writing fiction and your character is coding in the story, and you want to include it, then a backslash is important. The same applies to non-fiction, especially if you’re writing about coding.

• Example: C:\programfiles

7. At Symbol (@)

The “@” symbol is a substitute for the word “at,” but only for informal writing. Its only purpose in informal writing is when you’re writing email addresses.

• C u @ the mall.
• My email address is [email protected] .

8. Caret Symbol (^)

The caret symbol may indicate an exponent if you can’t use the superscript function on the computer. You can also use it in proofreading.

• 2^2 is 4, and 2^3 is 8.

9. Pipe Symbol (|)

The pipe symbol has no real place in fiction writing. Its function lies in the disciplines of computing, physics, and math. But, it’s often used stylistically in online copywriting.

• Candace Osmond | Bestselling Author

What Are Punctuation Marks?

Punctuation marks are the signs and symbols we use in writing to clarify the meaning behind our writing. They separate sentences and their parts to help the reader understand exactly what we’re saying, when we’re saying it, and how we’re saying it.

What Is the Difference Between Grammar and Punctuation?

Think of grammar as the conductor of the language orchestra. It’s the rulebook, the guidelines, and the how-to for arranging phrases, clauses, and words in any language. Now, if grammar is the conductor, punctuation is the sheet music.

Punctuations are the symbols we scatter across the written word to create harmony and avoid chaos. In simpler terms, punctuation keeps everything from becoming a word jumble.

What Is the Role of Punctuation Characters in the English Language?

The role of punctuation characters in English is far more important than you think. These little symbols wear the crown in the kingdom of English. They’re not just pretty faces; they’re sentence-structuring, meaning-clarifying powerhouses.

Punctuation takes your reader by the hand and tells them when to stop, pause, speed up, read with a certain emphasis, and more. They help us tell the difference between a question and a statement or a reply and a thought.

What Is the History of Punctuation?

The history of punctuation goes something like this: Once upon a time, in ancient Greece, circa the 3rd century B.C.E. , a clever librarian named Aristophanes thought, “Hmm, we need a system to tell us when to take a breath while reading these scrolls out loud.” So, he came up with punctuation.

As folks started reading and writing more, thanks to advances in education and the spread of religion, punctuation went viral. Fast forward to the 9th century, and you’d see punctuation hobnobbing with words everywhere, becoming an indispensable player in the game of communication.

How Is Punctuation Evolving Over Time?

Punctuation is always evolving because the way we communicate is constantly changing. Did you know that the exclamation mark was originally called the note of admiration until the 15th century?

Today, in our digital age, punctuation has evolved even further. We now use punctuation marks to convey tone and even combine them to create emotions.

What Are Informal Punctuation Marks?

Informal punctuation marks are the characters we use in casual communication, like texting or instant messaging. They’re not typically used in everyday formal writing, but they’re commonly recognized and used in casual and informal writing and digital communication.

Smiley Face

Indicates happiness or amusement

I had a great time at the party :)

Laughing Face

Indicates hearty laughter

That was so funny XD

Indicates a pause or omission

19th century

I don’t know…maybe.

How Many Punctuation Marks Are There in the English Language?

The English language has 14 main punctuation marks:

• Question mark
• Exclamation point
• Quotation marks

How Are Punctuation Marks Used in Different Contexts?

Punctuation marks are versatile and adapt to all forms of writing. They can lend rhythm and flow to poetry, help us distinguish formal from informal English, and even inject a touch of personality into casual text and email exchanges.

How Are Punctuation Marks Used in Poems?

Punctuation in poetry helps to control the reading speed and adds to the overall beat of the piece. Periods create full stops, letting the reader pause, and commas create minor pauses.

Apostrophes show possession or create contractions, and dashes can signal abrupt thought changes.

A great example of this is Emily Dickinson, who’s known for her unique use of dashes in her poems. In her piece “A Bird Came Down the Walk,” the dashes create pauses and add emphasis to certain parts of the poem.

What Is the Role of Punctuation Marks in Formal and Informal English?

In formal English, punctuation marks adhere strictly to the rules. Periods, commas, semicolons, and colons are meticulously used to give structure and clarity. Formal English also demands the use of an Oxford comma in a list of three or more items. However, this also depends on the style guide you use.

But informal English has a looser approach. Colloquial language usually takes liberties with punctuation for stylistic purposes, like how you might see a string of exclamation points or question marks for emphasis.

How Are Punctuation Marks Like “?!” Used in Informal Writing?

The combination of “?!” or “!?” is an example of an interrobang. We use it to express shock or disbelief in the form of a question. So instead of it being a simple inquiry, it comes across as more of an exclamation of surprise or disbelief.

• Informal: “You’re moving to Japan?!”
• Formal: “Are you moving to Japan?”

It’s popular in informal writing, like text messages or social media, but isn’t typically used in formal writing.

What Is a Hedera Punctuation Mark, and Where Is It Used?

The hedera punctuation mark (❧) is a lovely piece of “flourish” used in early printed books, which is also called a fleuron . It doesn’t have a specific grammatical function but was often used to mark paragraph breaks. Nowadays, it’s more of a typographical curiosity than a functional punctuation mark.

Learning and Practicing Punctuation

Punctuation marks are integral to effective communication in English. Here are a few tips and tricks to master them.

What Are Some Basic Punctuation Rules Every English Learner Should Know?

• End your sentences with a period, question mark, or exclamation point.
• Commas are needed to separate items in a list or clauses in a sentence.
• Use a semicolon to connect closely related sentences.
• You need a colon to introduce a list or explanation.
• Use quotation marks around direct quotes or titles.
• Always use an apostrophe to indicate possession or contraction.
• Use hyphens to create compound words and dashes to indicate a range, pause, or abrupt change.

How Can Printable Worksheets and Charts Help in Learning Punctuation Marks?

Printable worksheets and charts are great resources if you want to practice using punctuation marks. They usually have visual guides and opportunities to apply what you’ve learned.

Punctuation Mark Exercises for Different Grade Levels

Here are a few examples of what you’d use in exercises for different grade levels:

• Elementary: Identify and use periods, question marks, and exclamation points in a sentence.
• Middle School: Use commas correctly in a series and separate clauses.
• High School: Practice using semi-colons, colons, and dashes in complex sentences.

How to Avoid Common Punctuation Errors

Punctuation can dramatically impact the meaning and tone of your sentences. Here’s how to sidestep some common pitfalls.

What Are the Common Punctuation Errors, and How to Correct Them?

1. Missing Oxford comma: The Oxford comma is the comma used right before the coordinating conjunction (usually “and” or “or”) in a list of three or more items. Its absence can sometimes create confusion.

• Incorrect usage: “I love my parents, Lady Gaga and Bigfoot.” Without the Oxford comma, it seems like the parents are Lady Gaga and Bigfoot!
• Correct usage: “I love my parents, Lady Gaga, and Bigfoot.”

2. Misplaced apostrophes: Apostrophes can indicate possession or contractions, but they are often misused. “It’s” is a contraction for “it is” or “it has,” while “its” is a possessive pronoun.

• Incorrect usage: “Its important to feed a dog it’s food.”
• Correct usage: “It’s important to feed a dog its food.”

3. Excessive exclamation points: We use these to add drama or urgency. However, too many exclamation points can lessen the impact you want to make and also look unprofessional.

• Incorrect usage: “I got the publishing job!!!”
• Correct usage: “I got the publishing job!”

4. Run-on sentences: These happen when two or more independent clauses are connected without proper punctuation.

• Incorrect usage: “I love reading and my favorite genre is Fantasy Romance.”
• Correct usage: “I love reading, and my favorite genre is Fantasy Romance.”

How to Learn Punctuation and Avoid Common Mistakes

• Practice every chance you get: The more you write and edit, the better you’ll become.
• Utilize writing aids: Tools like Grammarly are awesome for spotting errors and suggesting improvements.
• Read whenever you can: You learn faster when you see proper punctuation being used.

How to Practice Punctuation Online and Improve Your Skills

Every writer is unique and learns in different ways. What works for you might not work for others. But there are some tried and true methods of practicing your punctuation and writing skills online. Here are just a few key ones to consider:

• Online quizzes: Grammarist has a ton of punctuation tests, but there are many others, too. Punctuation tests can be reused whenever you need to brush up on your skills.
• Writing platforms: Several platforms, like Medium and Wattpad, let you publish your writing and get feedback from others. The feedback comes from other writers, editors, and professionals in the industry, but also general readers. Use these platforms to hone your skills and start generating income from your work.
• Educational websites: Grammarist offers comprehensive lessons on punctuation. Education.com also has a plethora of online games and apps you can get to practice and learn better punctuation skills. 

What Are Punctuation Tools?

Punctuation tools are like digital aids that help you find and correct any punctuation errors in your work. They can usually be downloaded and integrated right into programs like Google Docs and Microsoft Word. Grammarly and Hemingway Editor are some of the best ones to check out.

How Can a Punctuation Checker Assist You?

• Scans your written text for any punctuation, grammar, and spelling errors.
• Suggests ideas for corrections and gives you explanations of why these suggestions would work.
• Gives real-time advice as you write so you can learn as you go.

How to Use a Punctuation Chart for Reference?

• Print it out or keep it saved on your device.
• Refer to it while writing or editing.
• Use it to practice examples until different punctuation marks become second nature.

Let’s End on a Period

Punctuation marks are not just random symbols on a keyboard; they serve as road signs, guiding readers through the landscape of our thoughts. They give voice to our words, adding emotion and nuance, enhancing clarity, and ensuring the message we wish to convey is received as intended.

Consider the difference between “Let’s eat, Mom” and “Let’s eat Mom.” The misuse of punctuation can, at times, lead to quite a grim misunderstanding.

Punctuation Quiz

Edit the following sentences by properly punctuating each. Example: Its so hot in here Answer: It’s so hot in here!

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Semicolons, colons, and dashes

What this handout is about.

This handout explains the most common uses of three kinds of punctuation: semicolons (;), colons (:), and dashes (—). After reading the handout, you will be better able to decide when to use these forms of punctuation in your own writing.

The semicolon looks like a comma with a period above it, and this can be a good way to remember what it does. A semicolon creates more separation between thoughts than a comma does but less than a period does. Here are the two most common uses of the semicolon:

1. To help separate items in a list, when some of those items already contain commas.

Let’s look at an example, as that is the easiest way to understand this use of the semicolon. Suppose I want to list three items that I bought at the grocery store:

apples grapes pears

In a sentence, I would separate these items with commas:

I bought apples, grapes, and pears.

Now suppose that the three items I want to list are described in phrases that already contain some commas:

shiny, ripe apples small, sweet, juicy grapes firm pears

If I use commas to separate these items, my sentence looks like this:

I bought shiny, ripe apples, small, sweet, juicy grapes, and firm pears.

That middle part is a bit confusing—it doesn’t give the reader many visual cues about how many items are in the list, or about which words should be grouped together. Here is where the semicolon can help. The commas between items can be “bumped up” a notch and turned into semicolons, so that readers can easily tell how many items are in the list and which words go together:

I bought shiny, ripe apples; small, sweet, juicy grapes; and firm pears.

2. To join two sentences.

An independent clause is a group of words that can stand on its own (independently)—it is a complete sentence. Semicolons can be used between two independent clauses. The semicolon keeps the clauses somewhat separate, like a period would do, so we can easily tell which ideas belong to which clause. But it also suggests that there may be a close relationship between the two clauses—closer than you would expect if there were a period between them. Let’s look at a few examples. Here are a few fine independent clauses, standing on their own as complete sentences:

I went to the grocery store today. I bought a ton of fruit. Apples, grapes, and pears were on sale.

Now—where could semicolons fit in here? They could be used to join two (but not all three) of the independent clauses together. So either of these pairs of sentences would be okay:

I went to the grocery store today; I bought a ton of fruit. Apples, grapes, and pears were all on sale.

I went to the grocery store today. I bought a ton of fruit; apples, grapes, and pears were all on sale.

I could NOT do this:

I went to the grocery store today; I bought a ton of fruit; apples, grapes, and pears were all on sale.

But why would I want to use a semicolon here, anyway? One reason might have to do with style: the three short sentences sound kind of choppy or abrupt. A stronger reason might be if I wanted to emphasize a relationship between two of the sentences. If I connect “I bought a ton of fruit” and “Apples, grapes, and pears were all on sale” more closely, readers may realize that the reason why I bought so much fruit is that there was a great sale on it.

Colons follow independent clauses (clauses that could stand alone as sentences) and can be used to present an explanation, draw attention to something, or join ideas together.

Common uses of colons

1. To announce, introduce, or direct attention to a list, a noun or noun phrase, a quotation, or an example/explanation. You can use a colon to draw attention to many things in your writing. The categories listed below often overlap, so don’t worry too much about whether your intended use of the colon fits one category perfectly.

Lists/series example:

We covered many of the fundamentals in our writing class: grammar, punctuation, style, and voice.

Noun/noun phrase example:

My roommate gave me the things I needed most: companionship and quiet.

Quotation example:

Shakespeare said it best: “To thine own self be true.”

Example/explanation example:

Many graduate students discover that there is a dark side to academia: late nights, high stress, and a crippling addiction to caffeinated beverages.

2. To join sentences. You can use a colon to connect two sentences when the second sentence summarizes, sharpens, or explains the first. Both sentences should be complete, and their content should be very closely related. Note that if you use colons this way too often, it can break up the flow of your writing. So don’t get carried away with your colons!

Example: Life is like a puzzle: half the fun is in trying to work it out.

3. To express time, in titles, and as part of other writing conventions. Colons appear in several standard or conventional places in writing. Here are a few examples:

• With numbers. Colons are used to separate units of time (4:45:00 expresses four hours, forty-five minutes, and zero seconds); ratios (2:1), and Bible verses and chapters (Matthew 2:24).
• In bibliography entries. Many citation styles use a colon to separate information in bibliography entries.

Example: Kurlansky, M. (2002). Salt: A world history. New York, NY: Walker and Co.

• With subtitles. Colons are used to separate titles from subtitles.

Example: Everest: The Last Frontier

• After the salutation in a formal business letter. A colon can be used immediately after the greeting in a formal letter (less-formal letters tend to use a comma in this location).

Example: To Whom It May Concern: Please accept my application for the position advertised in the News and Observer.

Common colon mistakes

1. Using a colon between a verb and its object or complement

Example (incorrect):The very best peaches are: those that are grown in the great state of Georgia.

To correct this, simply remove the colon.

2. Using a colon between a preposition and its object

Example (incorrect): My favorite cake is made of: carrots, flour, butter, eggs, and cream cheese icing.

3. Using a colon after “such as,” “including,” “especially,” and similar phrases. This violates the rule that the material preceding the colon must be a complete thought. Look, for example, at the following sentence:

Example (incorrect): There are many different types of paper, including: college ruled, wide ruled, and plain copy paper.

You can see that “There are many different types of paper, including” is not a complete sentence. The colon should simply be removed.

How to check for mistakes

Ask yourself a question: does the material preceding the colon stand on its own? One way to tell if the colon has been properly used is to look only at the words that come in front of the colon. Do they make a complete thought? If not, you may be using the colon improperly. Check above to see if you have made one of the most common mistakes.

Should you capitalize the first letter after a colon?

Different citation styles (such as MLA, APA, Chicago, and AMA) have slightly different rules regarding whether to capitalize the first letter after a colon. If it is important that you follow one of these styles precisely, be sure to use the appropriate manual to look up the rule.

Here’s our suggestion: generally, the first word following the colon should be lower-cased if the words after the colon form a dependent clause (that is, if they could not stand on their own as a complete sentence). If the following phrase is a complete (independent) clause, you may choose to capitalize it or not. Whichever approach you choose, be sure to be consistent throughout your paper.

Example with an independent clause, showing two different approaches to capitalization: The commercials had one message: The geeks shall inherit the earth. (correct) The commercials had one message: the geeks shall inherit the earth. (correct)

Example with a dependent clause (which is not capitalized): There are three perfect times to smile: when I’m with friends, when I’m alone, and when I’m with my dog. (correct)

The first thing to know when talking about dashes is that they are almost never required by the laws of grammar and punctuation. Overusing dashes can break up the flow of your writing, making it choppy or even difficult to follow, so don’t overdo it.

It’s also important to distinguish between dashes and hyphens. Hyphens are shorter lines (-); they are most often used to show connections between words that are working as a unit (for example, you might see adjectives like “well-intentioned”) or to spell certain words (like “e-mail”).

With that background information in mind, let’s take a look at some ways to put dashes to work in your writing.

1. To set off material for emphasis. Think of dashes as the opposite of parentheses. Where parentheses indicate that the reader should put less emphasis on the enclosed material, dashes indicate that the reader should pay more attention to the material between the dashes. Dashes add drama—parentheses whisper. Dashes can be used for emphasis in several ways: A single dash can emphasize material at the beginning or end of a sentence.

Example: After eighty years of dreaming, the elderly man realized it was time to finally revisit the land of his youth—Ireland.

Example: “The Office”—a harmless television program or a dangerously subversive guide to delinquency in the workplace?

Two dashes can emphasize material in the middle of a sentence. Some style and grammar guides even permit you to write a complete sentence within the dashes.

Example: Everything I saw in my new neighborhood—from the graceful elm trees to the stately brick buildings—reminded me of my alma mater.

Example (complete sentence): The students—they were each over the age of eighteen—lined up in the streets to vote for the presidential candidates.

Two dashes can emphasize a modifier. Words or phrases that describe a noun can be set off with dashes if you wish to emphasize them.

Example: The fairgrounds—cold and wet in the October rain—were deserted.

Example: Nettie—her chin held high—walked out into the storm.

2. To indicate sentence introductions or conclusions. You can sometimes use a dash to help readers see that certain words are meant as an introduction or conclusion to your sentence.

Example: Books, paper, pencils—many students lacked even the simplest tools for learning in nineteenth-century America.

Example: To improve their health, Americans should critically examine the foods that they eat—fast food, fatty fried foods, junk food, and sugary snacks.

3. To mark “bonus phrases.” Phrases that add information or clarify but are not necessary to the meaning of a sentence are ordinarily set off with commas. But when the phrase itself already contains one or more commas, dashes can help readers understand the sentence.

Slightly confusing example with commas: Even the simplest tasks, washing, dressing, and going to work, were nearly impossible after I broke my leg.

Better example with dashes: Even the simplest tasks—washing, dressing, and going to work—were nearly impossible after I broke my leg.

4. To break up dialogue. In written dialogue, if a speaker suddenly or abruptly stops speaking, hesitates in speech, or is cut off by another speaker, a dash can indicate the pause or interruption.

Example: “I—I don’t know what you’re talking about,” denied the politician.

Example: Mimi began to explain herself, saying, “I was thinking—” “I don’t care what you were thinking,” Rodolpho interrupted.

We hope that this handout has helped you better understand colons, semicolons, and dashes! For more information about punctuation, be sure to check out our handout on commas .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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The Creative Penn

Writing, self-publishing, book marketing, making a living with your writing

Writing Tips: How Writers Can Use Punctuation To Great Effect

posted on March 23, 2018

Commas are my personal nemesis. Those tiny little marks on a page can completely change the sense of a sentence, as per the fantastic book, Eats, Shoots and Leaves by Lynne Truss. 

But how do we make the most of punctuation?  Rachel Stout from New York Book Editors explains in today's article.

When it comes to grammar and the correct way to do things, I worry more about punctuation than anything else when writing.

Other rules — splitting infinitives, knowing the difference between further and farther or when to use the active voice versus passive — don’t weigh as heavily on my mind. I can just look those up quickly and move on, comfortable with what I’ve written.

But punctuation is not as easily referenced. In a grammar book or online, how do I describe my various clauses and intended meaning so that punctuation can correctly be assessed?

Most of my time is spent evaluating or editing manuscripts, so I can tell you that punctuation rules are some of the most commonly ignored rules in writing.

Either writers admit to me up front that they have no idea whether or not they’ve used way too many commas (answer: yes), improperly used quotation marks (answer: maybe, let me see) or used too few semicolons (answer: almost certainly no).

Understanding how and when to use common punctuation marks (meaning I’m not really interested in discussing interrobangs at the moment, or ever) will not only make you a more sophisticated and practiced writer, but it will give you the ultimate tool: knowing how and when to break those rules and use punctuation to imply feeling and tone in a way that mere word choice cannot.

Breaking punctuation rules is only effective if you’re breaking the rule on purpose.

The words, the flow, the insinuation of pause and of inflection becomes apparent in this case, and instead of mumbo jumbo, the result is something more like Molly Bloom’s “yes I said yes I will Yes,” which closes out an entire punctuation-less chapter that is full of feeling, emotion, swirling thoughts and contradictions, ending on this note of pure bliss at the close of James Joyce’s Ulysses.

“yes I said yes I will Yes” is famous not because the words chosen are anything special, but because no matter whether you’re familiar with the rest of the story, that final paragraph stirs something inside of you when you read it.

The rush of feeling, of teetering on the edge of choice and love and passion and self-doubt is so familiar, so utterly human that it’s palpable without explanation. The careful non-use of punctuation causes the reader to go ever faster, flying through the words, which again themselves aren’t of utmost importance here.

It’s the flying, the racing, the rush of getting everything in because there are no periods or commas to indicate a stop or a pause, nothing to slow the reader down or to shift course. The words themselves are chosen purposefully to accompany the punctuation (or lack thereof), making its use the most important thing in the passage.

How to get there, though? We know that punctuation can change the literal meaning of a sentence. Too many serial comma debates have ended with someone laying down the trump card stating the irrefutable difference between “I love my parents, Beyoncé, and Benedict Cumberbatch” and “I love my parents, Beyoncé and Benedict Cumberbatch” to deny that.

Cormac McCarthy, for example, has been quoted as saying, “I believe in periods, capitals, in the occasional comma, and that’s it,” and anyone who's read anything of McCarthy’s knows how much effect the starkness of the words and sparseness of punctuation adds to the depth and breadth of his work.

Where in Joyce’s chapter, the lack of punctuation results in a huge rush of intense emotion, McCarthy’s novels are quieter, though still deep in feeling. Neither author could have achieved that if they were writing without knowledge of the rules of punctuation. They were successful because they wrote in spite of them.

The first thing to note when using punctuation creatively is that there are still limitations . Not all punctuation marks can be played around with. You’ll have the best results with commas, periods, quotation marks and dashes.

Semicolons, however, don’t have the same elasticity. Colons and parentheses can be hugely effective when used intentionally, but my advice is to use them sparingly. They cause such an interruption in reading that the pause or aside should be worth it. The aside an em-dash indicates is usually not as drastic as it fits better within the flow of the sentence.

Let’s get the basics of each mark down so we can figure out how to manipulate them. When I say basics, I truly mean basics because of course pages can be written about each, but for our purposes, the basic rules will suffice.

First up, the one with the most rules, even at the basic level: the comma.

Comma Rules and Uses

Separating items in a series.

Commas are used to separate items in a series of three or more nouns or two or more coordinate adjectives. Whether or not you decide to use the serial, or Oxford, comma before the final “and” or “or” in the list is up to you.

• Example (Nouns): I went to the store and bought apples, bananas, bread and milk.
• Example (Coordinate adjectives): The bright, shining sun was warm that day.

(Note: Adjectives are coordinate if you can change their order and the meaning remains the same. If you cannot, they are not coordinate and should not be separated by commas)

Surrounding nonessential appositives

An appositive is the word or phrase that describes or adds additional information about a noun in the sentence. Only nonessential appositives are surrounded by commas. An essential appositive is a word or phrase that if removed, changes the meaning of the sentence. Essential appositives are not offset with commas. If the appositive only adds to the sentence, but does not affect its meaning, then commas are used.

• Example (Essential): Fleetwood Mac’s song Landslide has been covered by many other artists.

Here, “Landslide” is the appositive, but without it, the sentence would not have the same meaning, so we don’t use commas.

• Example (Nonessential): The house where I grew up, a blue bungalow with red shutters, has been repainted.

Here, “a blue bungalow with red shutters” is the appositive and without it, the sentence would retain its meaning: “The house where I grew up has been repainted.” This is why the appositive is offset with commas.

Before a coordinating conjunction

There are many sub-rules here, but at the most basic level, when you are connecting two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, you should use a comma. An independent clause is a portion of a sentence that could stand on its own and a coordinating conjunction is one of the following: and, nor, for, but, so, or, yet.

• Example: I hate eating apples, but I love eating apple pie.

After an introductory phrase

Usually, an adverbial phrase, the part of the sentence that sets up or introduces its subject and verb is the introductory phrase. (Hint: I started the previous sentence with an introductory phrase offset by a comma!) Sometimes a comma is not used, especially if the introductory phrase is made up of three words or less. (Hint: I did not offset the introductory word in that sentence, and it is grammatically okay).

• Example: After seeing the movie, we all went out for ice cream.

Breaking the Rules

So we know James Joyce doesn’t always love commas, and Cormac McCarthy certainly isn’t a fan. Gertrude Stein didn’t use them much, either, and she did okay for herself.

The most effective thing a comma does in a sentence is to create a pause. It’s a visual breathing mark or break in a sentence that can either go unnoticed or stand out.

Adding a comma where one might not necessarily be required should be an intentional choice—a moment where you are asking the reader to stop, sit up and notice. Maybe you want to call attention to the first part of a sentence or you want to make them pause awkwardly to show awkwardness in a scene.

Maybe you want to not use commas at all in dialogue to indicate a lilted accent or rushed way or speaking, or a child who doesn’t yet have a grasp on his or her own cadence, but you’ll have correct comma usage throughout all narrative portions of the text.

The best hint here? Read your work aloud as it is written, and then read it aloud as you intend it to sound. Are they different? If so, add or subtract the commas—the pauses, the emphases—where desired.

Period Rules and Uses

Ending a declarative sentence: This one doesn’t need too much explaining (I hope!). A period goes at the end of a sentence to indicate, well, its end, unless the sentence is a question or exclamation.

That’s pretty much the only hard and fast rule to using a period, which makes it a much simpler mark than the comma we just barreled through, but there is sometimes confusion as to where a period should be placed in conjunction with other punctuation marks, so here’s a quick overview:

With quotation marks: In American English, the period always goes inside the closing quotation marks. In British English, the period goes outside. After an abbreviation: If you’ve ended a sentence with an abbreviation, like “etc.,” there is no need to add a second period. With parentheses: If the parenthetical statement is its own independent clause placed in between two other full sentences, then the full sentence, including its period, goes inside the parentheses. If the statement is included in the middle of or at the end of another independent clause, the period goes at the end of the non-parenthetical statement and thus, outside of the parentheses.

• Example: I’m good at grammar. (At least I think I am.) A more accurate statement might be: I’m getting the hang of it.
• Example: I’m a grammar pro (and I don’t give myself enough credit).

Because the period is universally simple, it’s difficult to misuse! However, I like to think about the British term for a period when thinking about how best to use it to enhance my writing: the full stop.

Where a comma is a pause, a period is a full stop. Short, fragmented writing, where each phrase, independent clause or not, is separated by a period can indicate so many things. Depression, stilted thinking, disbelief, the inability to comprehend, shock—the list goes on.

Think about any moment in life where you’ve been so overcome by emotion or new information that it’s near impossible to form a complete thought. Using periods to end a sentence fragment, to bring it to a “full stop,” can indicate that numbness or that inability to process.

Of course, the opposite usage is the run-on sentence. Run-on sentences are tricky because so often they are written without intent, but used intentionally, they can indicate a different side of emotional overwhelm .

Instead of being at a loss for words, or indicating a full stop, run-on sentences indicate a racing mind, a fast-paced scene, or a glut of activity and conversation.

Here, our friend the comma comes back into play. Using a comma splice, which is to say using a comma instead of a period, should be done sparingly. If used intentionally and in the right tone, a comma splice can carry the tone of a passage.

See how clearly the image and voice of Holden Caufield becomes through this run-on sentence full of comma splices from J.D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye:

If you really want to hear about it, the first thing you'll probably want to know is where I was born, and what my lousy childhood was like, and how my parents were occupied and all before they had me, and all that David Copperfield kind of crap, but I don't feel like going into it, if you want to know the truth.

You can just see the teenager pretending to be apathetic about lame (and probably phony) things like caring about personal history and family.

Quotation Mark Rules and Uses

To show dialogue: The placement of punctuation inside and outside of quotation marks and whether or not to use single or double quotes vacillates between British and American English as well as between scholars in each school, so I’m not going to get into the nitty-gritty here. What you do need to know, is that the most common use of quotation marks in fiction is to indicate dialogue, or someone speaking.

They are not used to indicate a thought, even when a narrator is recalling the idea of what someone said. They are used when recalling the exact words that someone said.

• Example (recalling an idea): John remembered that Susie had told him to put his pants on when he left the house.
• Example (recalling exact words): John remembered Susie’s words so clearly. “If you forget to put your pants on, the neighbors will be angry!” He’d better put them on, he thought to himself.

Note: I threw in a bonus non-quoted thought in that last one!

To show a new person speaking: The rulebooks will tell you that when a new speaker speaks, whether in a conversation between two people or with a narrative paragraph being broken into by a speaker, a new paragraph is necessary. With each new paragraph and each line of dialogue, you must indent.

The most forgiven rules in creative fiction and memoir are those that accompany dialogue, and thus, quotation marks. However, and I’ll keep repeating myself here, it must be done with intention .

It’s very clear when an author is not aware of the rules of where to place punctuation within or outside of quotation marks (though remember, it varies between British and American), or if they are not clear on how to indicate dialogue at all. Usually, these writers are inconsistent with how they indicate or punctuate dialogue.

Consistency is what matters with quotation marks and dialogue. Do you want everything in one line, no quotation marks at all, ala Frank McCourt in Angela’s Ashes? Take a look at how colloquial, familiar, and conversational this feels:

Dad is out looking for a job again and sometimes he comes home with the smell of whiskey, singing all the songs he can about suffering Ireland. Ma gets angry and says Ireland can kiss her arse. He says that’s nice language to be using in front of the children and she says never mind the language, food on the table is what she wants, not suffering Ireland.

On top of the conversational tone and the speed with which you begin to race through the sentence, the perspective here is limited, a little rough around the edges. That’s because at this moment, the narrator is a small child and thus, takes in everything about the world in a particular way.

Using or not using quotes, indenting, breaking paragraphs and all the other rules surrounding dialogue affect style as much as tone.

How do you want the words to look on the page? Many paragraph breaks can achieve the same stilted or at-a-loss feeling as fragmented sentences separated by periods can. The same read aloud test can be used here.

Em-Dashes, Colons, and Parentheses Rules

I’m lumping all of these together because they all achieve a similar goal in creative writing: to indicate an aside, amplify a portion of a sentence or thought, or to offer an alternative point of view.

If you don’t know which to use, my rule of thumb is to always go em-dash, though as I said at the start of this post, you’ve got to be careful not to go overboard.

Using a colon: Unless you’re formatting a list, the only time to use a colon is after an already complete thought. What comes after the colon usually amplifies or expands upon the first portion, but doesn’t indicate much of a pause.

• Example: Sarah has two favorite foods: pizza and ice cream.

Using parentheses: Em-dashes have eclipsed parentheses when used to separate explanatory or qualifying remarks from the rest of the sentence. Using either is correct, but only parentheses can be used to offset a complete sentence or thought, usually as an aside.

Using em-dashes: Aside from replacing parentheses when used within a complete sentence, the em-dash can also set off appositives like commas, indicate a switch in focus, or bring focus to a list connected to a clause.

• Example (replacing parentheses): Mary always said she was an expert in fencing—she’s really not.
• Example (setting off appositives): All three of my dogs—Fluffy, Bumper and Duke—have different personalities.
• Example (switch in focus): And now I will tell you my greatest secret—actually, no, I’ve changed my mind.
• Example (bring focus to a list): Sunscreen, towel, book—everything is packed for the beach!

Here’s where you can have the most fun, in my opinion.

As long as you don’t overuse them, it’s very difficult to misuse a colon, parentheses or em-dash.

Do you want your narrator interjecting his or her own thoughts all the time in a distinctive voice or take on life? Em-dash, em-dash, em-dash!

Do you want to formally and distinctively expand upon a thought, or make that expansion seem like an awaited reveal or an extremely important detail? Use a colon!

Are we getting a whispered aside, an alternative viewpoint, or something special that only the reader gets to know and not others in the story? Do you want to tell a story within a story? Parentheses can achieve that for you!

I often see these three punctuation marks as the playful ones, the marks that can really bring a liveliness to your writing and showcase the voice of a particular character or narrator. Use them sparingly, yes, but play around and see how adding a few em-dashes into your narrative might bring out a new side to your story that even you were unaware was there.

Thanks for going on this whirlwind Punctuation 101 with me. I know it can be exhausting to get down, but once you’ve got the basics firm in your toolbox, you can begin to play with them, alter them to your whim and intentionally manipulate punctuation to change the tone or impact your writing has.

Do you have a favorite punctuation mark? Do you have a favorite author who flagrantly bucks the rules? Please leave your thoughts below and join the conversation.

New York Book Editors are a team of professional editors who have worked with some of the biggest names in the industry as well as offering services to indie authors. They provide in-depth manuscript reviews, manuscript critique, comprehensive edit, proposal edit, copyediting and ghostwriting.

Reader Interactions

March 23, 2018 at 3:13 am

I like breaking the rules when it comes to grammar from time to time. Of course, I keep my writing flow simple and to the point.

I’m talking about writing for a blog here. If we’re talking about writing a book or something it’s a different story.

I don’t think most blog readers really care about how good your grammar is as long as it is okay and they can understand the information you are trying to get across.

But, it is always a good idea to learn the proper grammar and use of a comma. I love commas, they do change the way you deliver information.

Thank you for sharing all of these tips and useful information! 🙂

Have a wonderful weekend! 😀

March 23, 2018 at 3:30 pm

Breaking the rules is the best part about having rules!

March 23, 2018 at 8:23 am

Now *that* is a guide! It covers almost everything people will need, each point is clear, but laid out so it’s genuinely fun. This goes straight into my Perennial Recommendations list– thank you, Rachel!

One rule of thumb I’d like to add, for one extra-common mistake I keep seeing:

If you write the characters endquote-period-lowercase, always change it to endquote-comma-lowercase. Also, if the word after an endquote is a name or other capitalized proper noun, imagine it as a simple pronoun to decide whether it would be lowercase, and if it would be, use the comma as above. Some lines with their corrections, and some that don’t need changing, are:

“Here’s one example.” he said. –> “Here’s one example,” he said. “Another example.” John said. –> “Another example,” John said. “There’s no change needed here.” John had little else to say. “And no change needed needed when it ends without a tag.”

March 23, 2018 at 3:23 pm

Rachel here! Thanks for your note and even MORE for you addition. I thought about adding in a note about that, but then realized I’d be taking up almost the whole thing with commas, so I’m glad you commented!

March 23, 2018 at 3:24 pm

Hah, KEN! I read John in your examples and ran with it. – Rachel

March 24, 2018 at 11:07 am

“John” does a lot of my examples. As for myself, I’v e been called worse things. 🙂

March 24, 2018 at 11:58 pm

I’m obsessed with punctuation, with commas in particular, and sloppy use of the latter can turn me off even a very good book. Thanks for featuring this useful article!

March 30, 2018 at 4:02 pm

I think I overdo commas. That’s what I’m trying to improve.

April 18, 2018 at 7:42 am

Rachel, thank you for this excellent exposition. It’s remarkable to me how many writers I’ve encountered who believe that some punctuation marks should simply never be used. This is a view I’ve never shared. It’s not enough to say, for example, that em-dashes are pointless because commas or parentheses can fulfill the same function (an actual argument one of my writing colleagues once made). False. Em-dashes can be used in ways to achieve emotional effects that commas can’t (as your examples show). And I totally agree with your overriding principle: understanding the how and the when of punctuation, so that you know how to deviate with intention.

May 12, 2018 at 7:58 am

You say, “With quotation marks: In American English, the period always goes inside the closing quotation marks. In British English, the period goes outside.”

My understanding is the in British English, where you put the quotation marks depends on how much of the sentence that the period ends is inside the quotation marks. So, if the whole sentence is a quote, you punctuate the same as in American English. But if only the last two words, or an short phrase within the sentence is at the end, then the quote goes inside the period because the end quote doesn’t cover the entire thing that the period covers. And the reason that Americans don’t want to do it the British way, is that you have to think about where the quote begins to know how to punctuate the end of the sentence.

I think a sentence where the last word is in quotes and you put the end quote outside the period doesn’t really make sense and the British rules make more sense. If they always put the quote inside the period, even when the beginning quote started at the beginning of the sentence, then their rules would also not make sense, I think. The quote really should end after the quoted material with whatever punctuation comes within the quoted material inside the end quote, don’t you think.

There might be a reader who is more of an expert on British English that can tell you if my understanding is really correct.

Thank you for this article. I found it fascinating!

May 13, 2018 at 1:21 am

I think it’s important to recognize that there is never an exactly right answer to many of these questions, as style and usage changes over time and place. There are many variations.

September 12, 2019 at 4:27 pm

It would *surpris!ing* if writers didn’t sometimes utilize! the graphic potential of the medium

September 2, 2020 at 3:11 pm

Which is the correct use of comma with quotation marks – in American English?

1. Tolle calls this emotional part of the Ego the “pain body,” the aspect of the Ego…

2. Tolle calls this emotional part of the Ego the “pain body”, the aspect of the Ego…

December 31, 2020 at 12:19 pm

What about colons instead of commas before a quote? example: The man stood up, said: “Why are you so short?” I’ve read a few stories that use this form of punctuation, which is what I used in my novel. However, I’ve heard some who say that it ruins the flow, like a speed bump. I think it sounds fine–but I wrote it :0)

March 14, 2024 at 3:53 pm

When using three periods to indicatexa pause, often in dialogue, isit … or. . . With spaces? Thanks!

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Writing Studio

Quotation basics: grammar, punctuation, and style, some general quotation guidelines.

In an effort to make our handouts more accessible, we have begun converting our PDF handouts to web pages. Download this page as a PDF: Quotation Grammar, Punctuation, and Style Return to Writing Studio Handouts

When writing a formal essay, you will often need to use quotes from a text or texts as evidence to prove your point or to make an argument. Below are grammar and punctuation guidelines to help you integrate those quotes into your essay successfully.

We recommend consulting a style manual or your instructor for specific queries.

Periods and Commas

• You do not need to use any punctuation before a quotation if it forms part of your own sentence.

Example: Dennis cries that he is “being repressed!”

• Use a comma when introducing a quote with a phrase such as ‘he said.’

Example: The old man protests, “I don’t want to go on the cart.”

• Place parenthetical citations outside the end quotation mark, but before the punctuation.

Example: King Arthur declares, “Let’s not go to Camelot. It is a silly place” (13).

Colons and Ellipses

• Use a colon when introducing a quotation with a full independent clause (one that can stand on its own).

Example: Emily feels frustrated by his response: “Is there someone else that we can talk to?”

• Use an ellipsis (three periods, sometimes with spaces between: ‘…’ ) to indicate an omission in a quotation (Exception: it is not necessary to use an ellipsis when omitting words at the beginning of a quote unless you are using a block quote format).

Example: “The kind of intelligence a genius has … leaps with ellipses.”

• When you want to omit one or more full sentences, use a period and a space before the three ellipsis dots.

Example: “Hatred paralyzes life. … Hatred darkens life; love illuminates it.”

Slashes and Brackets

• When you are quoting poetry, use a slash ( / ) to mark a line break.

Example: “Let me not to the marriage of true minds / Admit impediments” (1-2).

• Use square brackets to add a word, change a pronoun, or change a verb tense in the quote.

Original quote: “It’s my duty as a knight to sample all the peril I can.”

In your essay: Sir Galahad thinks “it’s [his] duty as a knight to sample all the peril [he] can.”

Question Marks and Exclamation Points

• With a question mark or exclamation point, there is no need to use a comma or a period.

Example: The interested observer wonders, “Are you suggesting that coconuts migrate?”

• If the mark is part of your sentence and not part of the quote, it goes outside the last quotation mark.

Example: I don’t think we can ever understand the “ineluctable modality of the visual”!

Block Quotes

• MLA style calls for use of a block quote (indent 10 spaces, or 2 tabs) when citing five or more lines of typed prose or four or more lines of verse. APA style calls for block quotes when citing forty words or more.

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? / Thou art more lovely and more temperate. / Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, / And summer’s lease hath all too short a date. (1-4)

Quote Within a Quote

• When using a quote within a quote, single quotation marks are used for the inner quote.

Example: Josh laments, “Every time I try to talk to someone it’s ‘sorry this’ and ‘forgive me that.’”

Last revised: 08/2008 | Adapted for web delivery: 05/2021

In order to access certain content on this page, you may need to download Adobe Acrobat Reader or an equivalent PDF viewer software.

College of Business

How to nail your scholarship application essay.

When it comes to applying for scholarships, the task can be immediately overwhelming. Where do you find scholarships? How do you apply? What do they each require? This is going to take forever!

But at Colorado State, we do things a little differently. We’re so proud of our one-and-done scholarship application process. Almost all CSU scholarships live in the same place, and can be applied for with one application, one time, and that’s it. The Colorado State University Scholarship Application (CSUSA) takes a big hurdle out of your path right off the bat. Completing the CSUSA enters you for nearly every scholarship at CSU that you’re eligible for. Now all you have to do is nail that application essay … and we’re here to make that part easy, too. Here are some insider info, tips, and even a few essay excerpts to help you as you tackle your essay.

#1. It’s less formal than you think

Did you know that your scholarship application essay is meant to help us see the most-authentic version of you, your journey, and your goals? We’re not looking for a formal essay here. You won’t need to analyze anything, look for metaphors, or even write a structured outline when you start (but you can if it helps you).

The essay prompt might ask you to tell your story, highlight your ambitions, and explain how you see yourself succeeding in this big ol’ world. Essay prompts range from what kind of career you see yourself in, and how college might help you get there. They might ask you to describe a challenging event, explain how you navigated it, and how it inspires you to go forward in life. The essay is so much more your story than anything else. The more YOU you are, the better. Don’t worry too much about intros, transitions, structure, or formal conclusion paragraphs when you first sit down to write. Let it flow and be you.

• Tip : Write your first draft like you’re talking to your best friend, your favorite teacher, your mentor, your coach. Your voice/tone should be genuine, passionate, and infused with the vibe you’d give if you were telling your biggest dreams to your biggest cheerleaders. We’re rooting for you here.

#2. Vulnerability is your superpower here

Perhaps the biggest tool in your toolbox when it comes to writing a genuine, powerful essay is your willingness to be vulnerable. While vulnerability may seem like a weakness in some arenas, it’s your superpower in the scholarship application essay. So what exactly is it, and how can you use it to your advantage?

Vulnerability, by definition, is the willingness to show emotion or to allow one’s weaknesses to be seen or known. There can be some risk involved in being vulnerable, and that’s often why it has such a big impact. You’re essentially giving away your armor, and that allows you to create connection at a deep, emotional level. To put vulnerability to work in a story or experience, try to remember how you felt in that moment, and what was running through your head. Instead of just recounting events as they happened, retell them as YOU experienced them. Let emotion guide your story instead of rehashing a timeline of events. The story, told as it moved through you, is what makes the connection.

• Tip : As you recount an event or moment in your essay, try to incorporate the senses. What did you see, hear, smell, feel? Let emotion be your guide, but paint the picture fully.

#3. Word choice matters (and not in the way you might think)

One question you should ask yourself as you draft your essay is if the words you’re using actually suit you. Would you use these actual words if you were talking to someone? One thing that can derail your authenticity in writing is trying to use big or “impressive” words that wouldn’t naturally flow from you in your daily life. We’re not saying you shouldn’t use a thesaurus, but be choosy. If the word doesn’t “fit” you when you’re casually speaking, we’re going to feel that in your essay, too.

• Tip : Read your essay aloud while recording yourself. Does it flow? Are there words that you stumble over as you read them? If so, put those words into the thesaurus and see if anything comes up that doesn’t trip you up as you read. It should feel as natural to read it as it would if you were talking to a friend.

#4. Always, always, always get a proofreader (or two)

While it’s not the most-glamorous advice, we cannot stress enough the importance of having someone — and, preferably, multiple someones — review your essay. Even the most-seasoned professional writer will make errors, even after multiple drafts. Typos, missing words, tense errors, and even disorganized thoughts can distract readers from your beautiful, unique story. Our advice is to find a proofreader who can dial in your punctuation and grammar, and another who can help you with the more-subtle aspects of good writing, like flow, tone, and structure. You want to start and end strong, plus have a robust, visually and emotionally stimulating middle.

• Tip : Draft your first version raw without any expectations of yourself. Answer the essay prompt as if you’re writing in your journal. Then find a reliable proofreader (preferably outside the house, like a teacher) to help you level it up and polish it up. After you’ve done a little spiff, show it to a second proofreader. Fresh eyes mean everything.

Some essay excerpts to inspire you

Ready to learn more about the csu scholarship process.

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Prairie Smallwood

Prairie Smallwood is a writer and content creator for the Office of Admissions at Colorado State University. She is passionate about education and exploration, and knows that going to college can be both an adventure and an overwhelming experience. She aims to create content that helps students through that journey — the wonderful, the scary, and everything in between.

Opinion Gen Z’s new punctuation

There’s been a major transformation in which emojis young people use to communicate humor.

Adam Aleksic is a Gen Z linguist and content creator.

Don’t be alarmed if you see young people use increasingly macabre emojis online. In the past few years, for instance, the skull emoji has transformed into a symbol to communicate humor or irony. Much like an exclamation point or question mark, it can serve to both separate text and contextualize how a sentence should be understood. For example: I just wrote a Washington Post op-ed on Gen Z slang 💀

Although it might seem silly, the skull in my sentence serves a very important function . If I texted this to a friend without the emoji, it would either come across as boastful or oddly formal. Punctuating the text with a skull lightens the tone and signals humility by shifting attention to the absurdity of the situation.

In this sense, the emoji is a tone tag — a character specifying the message’s intent. You’re very aware of this concept, even if you don’t know it. Exclamation points are just tone tags indicating excitement, while question marks signal curiosity or confusion. People have tried introducing tone tags for irony before: In the late 1580s, English printer Henry Denham proposed a “percontation point” (⸮) for rhetorical questions. Other iterations of the “irony mark” popped up in the late 17th century — an inverted exclamation point (¡) — and, more recently, in 2010 — through a swirly character called the “SarcMark” — but nothing caught on.

These didn’t work for a few reasons. They were hard to standardize and were largely unnecessary in a time when most informal communication was happening in person, where marking tone is easy. If you find something funny, you laugh and people know what that means. But now we have to mark tone in informal communication online , which requires us to navigate an uncertain, ambiguous medium open to misinterpretation . If you’re not careful, you come across sounding passive-aggressive; too careful, you come across sounding unnatural.

Thankfully, the emoji keyboard presented a readily accessible and standardized solution. Since 2011, we’ve been able to indicate laughing through the laughing-crying emoji, which became so widely used that the Oxford English Dictionary chose it as its 2015 Word of the Year .

However, this very popularity , coupled with our constant need to mark tone online, led to overuse. Suddenly, things had grown so “funny” that we were weeping tears of joy all the time, meaning that it was hard to distinguish when someone was actually laughing versus just trying to lighten the tone.

A similar phenomenon happened with the words “lol” and “lmao.” Younger generations are now expressing humorous reactions through sentences like “LITERALLY CRYING,” which, somehow, I’m still guilty of typing with an expressionless face.

Our escalating vocabulary for showing what we find funny has likewise led to a dizzying cycle of emoji evolution , since tone tags change just like words do. Once the laughing-crying emoji became passé, we mirrored the expression “I’m crying” with the crying emoji, and once that lost its appeal, we turned to the skull emoji, drawing on the idea of being “dead” from laughing.

This is part of a linguistic process called “semantic bleaching .” The more we use a charged word, the more its original meaning is diluted until it’s lost altogether and needs to be replaced. This isn’t new. We’ve been semantically bleaching since words like “very” (which comes from Old French verai , meaning “truthfully”) and “really” (which once meant “in reality”). Eventually, the intensifiers became oversaturated for expressing sincerity, so now we just use them to add emotional weight to statements.

The skull emoji, too, is already becoming overused. In the sentence I just wrote a Washington Post op-ed on Gen Z slang 💀, I’m not using the emoji to cue laughter, as I once might have. Instead, I’m lightening my statement and, in the process, becoming another perpetrator of semantic bleaching. We’re already starting to see new tone tags emerge for genuine laughter, like the tombstone to say, “No really, I’m actually dead.”

These tone tags capture the culture of Gen Z, the first cohort to grow up entirely in the context of smartphone communication. We’re speeding through the age-old bleaching process because of our unprecedented experience of navigating online ambiguity. For better or worse, we’re locked into a complicated parade of punctuation, constantly relegating expressions of excitement in favor of their newer, trendier alternatives.

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Roughly Speaking

John Kugelman’s Sunday puzzle might sting a little, but don’t take it personally.

By Caitlin Lovinger

Jump to: Tricky Clues | Today’s Theme

SUNDAY PUZZLE — In his print introduction to this grid, Joel Fagliano writes: “John Kugelman is a software engineer and musician from Gainesville, Va. Despite only starting to make puzzles in 2023, he is The New York Times’s most-published Sunday crossword constructor this year (with three). As a lifelong puzzle solver, he doesn’t know why it took him so long to discover crossword construction — ‘I wish I’d thought of it 20 years ago!’”

Fortunately, crossword construction keeps you young, so we should get many more puzzles out of Mr. Kugelman before he shuffles off this mortal coil. After using spoonerisms , letter insertions and hidden punctuation as tricks in his previous themes, he offers a series of sharp-witted puns that are a little prickly but meant in good fun.

Today’s Theme

There are seven entries in the theme set, at 21-, 31-, 45-, 59-, 75-, 89- and 101-Across. Each is clued with an italicized phrase, in quotation marks, that could be read as an insult if parsed a particular way.

That aspect of the clues did not click with me at first. One is in French, another sounds vaguely Shakespearean, and in more than one case, the target of the slight is inanimate: If a fallen tree is disparaged in the forest, does it feel bad?

First, I finished 31-Across, “‘ Huh, I wasn’t aware I was at an ugly sweater party, ’” which solves to KNITTING NEEDLE. “Sweater <—> knitting,” I registered, but the snark in the clue went right over my head. Then, I got 45-Across, “‘ The only mystery in this novel is why I finished it .’” Ouch. That’s literary criticism right there. The entry is BURN AFTER READING, which I took to mean only one thing: Turn the last page, and throw it into the fire.

Fortunately, another clue involving the written word led me to the trick: 89-Across, “‘ Dear John, I’m writing you this letter to tell you — it’s not me. It’s 100% you. ’” When I read this, I said to myself, Oooh, that’s a sick burn. The answer is PUT DOWN ON PAPER — or, rather, PUTDOWN ON PAPER. Wait a minute. …

Sure enough, each entry uses a vituperative word — NEEDLE, BURN, PUTDOWN — as part of a phrase or term that usually has a benign meaning. The puzzle’s title, “Roughly Speaking,” is another example of this wordplay and helped me nail down the concept of the theme. The presentation of these clues was almost too smooth to sink in, but as soon as I figured out where we were going, the solve became immensely amusing.

Tricky Clues

16A. This clue — “‘Embiggens’ the English language” — borrows from a 1996 episode of “The Simpsons” and is an example of when someone COINS A WORD. “Embiggens” was added to Merriam-Webster in 2018 , presumably after it proved to be longstandingly cromulent. (“Cromulent” wasn’t added until 2023 .)

94A./15D. These puns are so good, it’s criminal, right? At 94A, “Someone who hopes to stay out of the spotlight?” is sticking to the shadows as a prison ESCAPEE. 15D, “Mistook?,” is a euphemism for what that person might have done to end up in the clink in the first place: STOLE.

39D. This clue is also related to confinement, and it misdirected me twice. For “fetter,” I first thought of “hobble” and then “shackle.” The entry, however, is MANACLE (and they all mean about the same thing ).

80D. The “Class where students learn about squares and planes” in this puzzle is SHOP, not “math.” This was another good misdirect in my solve.

90D. This entry has an intriguing etymology and is interesting in relation to the gibes theme. “Like the three sisters of ‘Macbeth’” solves to WEIRD, which is what Shakespeare called his witches. The term was borrowed from Scottish lore . Originally, WEIRD meant “fate” or “destiny,” rather than simply odd or off-putting, and described someone with supernatural powers.

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