problem solving in psychology slideshare

problem solving

Problem solving is a mental process of discovering, analyzing, and solving problems to overcome obstacles and find the best solution. A problem exists when a problem solver has a goal but does not know how to reach it. Problem solving involves making adjustments despite interference to attain a goal, according to Skinner's definition. Common problem solving methods include algorithms, heuristics, trial-and-error, insight, and brainstorming. Factors like the nature of the problem, prior experience, and mental state can impact the problem solving process. Teachers can help by selecting problems, motivating students, encouraging divergent thinking, and providing guidance and practice. Read less

problem solving in psychology slideshare

4. What is a Problem? A problem exists when a problem solver has a goal but does not know how this goal is to be reached.
5. Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue .
6. DEFINITION “Problem solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the attainment of a goal. It is a process of making adjustment in spite of interferences” Skinner
9. Algorithms  An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce a correct solution.  A mathematical formula is a good example of a problem-solving algorithm.
10. Heuristics Heuristics are general strategies used to make quick, short-cut solutions to problems that sometimes lead to solutions but sometimes lead to errors.
11. Trial-and-Error A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work.
12. Insight In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight.
13. BRAINSTORMING Brainstorming is a problem-solving strategy in which you come up with as many possible solutions as you can, usually within a certain period of time.
14. Factors Affecting Problem Solving
15. Factors inherent in the nature of the problem Simplicity & complexity of the problem.  size or shape of the problem. Appropriate or inappropriate definition of the problem. Nature of the definiteness of the problem. Similarity or analogy with the problems experienced or solved in the past. Help available from present circumstances & resources at hand.
16. Factors associated with the problem solver Level of previous learning or training. Interest and motivational level. Analysis of the problem. Mental set. Functional fixedness. Mental and physical states. Time spent on solving the problem.
17. Role of Teacher Help the pupils to locate and select the problem to be solved Create moderate motivation in learner Encourage divergent thinking Present the problem as a whole Guide the pupils Give practice

Definition:

Problem Solving is the process of identifying, analyzing, and finding effective solutions to complex issues or challenges.

Key Steps in Problem Solving:

Identification of the problem: Recognizing and clearly defining the issue that needs to be resolved.
Analysis and research: Gathering relevant information, data, and facts to understand the problem in-depth.
Formulating strategies: Developing various approaches and plans to tackle the problem effectively.
Evaluation and selection: Assessing the viability and potential outcomes of the proposed solutions and selecting the most appropriate one.
Implementation: Putting the chosen solution into action and executing the necessary steps to resolve the problem.
Monitoring and feedback: Continuously evaluating the implemented solution and obtaining feedback to ensure its effectiveness.
Adaptation and improvement: Modifying and refining the solution as needed to optimize results and prevent similar problems from arising in the future.

Skills and Qualities for Effective Problem Solving:

Analytical thinking: The ability to break down complex problems into smaller, manageable components and analyze them thoroughly.
Creativity: Thinking outside the box and generating innovative solutions.
Decision making: Making logical and informed choices based on available data and critical thinking.
Communication: Clearly conveying ideas, listening actively, and collaborating with others to solve problems as a team.
Resilience: Maintaining a positive mindset, perseverance, and adaptability in the face of challenges.
Resourcefulness: Utilizing available resources and seeking new approaches when confronted with obstacles.
Time management: Effectively organizing and prioritizing tasks to optimize problem-solving efficiency.

7.3 Problem-Solving

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe problem solving strategies
Define algorithm and heuristic
Explain some common roadblocks to effective problem solving

People face problems every day—usually, multiple problems throughout the day. Sometimes these problems are straightforward: To double a recipe for pizza dough, for example, all that is required is that each ingredient in the recipe be doubled. Sometimes, however, the problems we encounter are more complex. For example, say you have a work deadline, and you must mail a printed copy of a report to your supervisor by the end of the business day. The report is time-sensitive and must be sent overnight. You finished the report last night, but your printer will not work today. What should you do? First, you need to identify the problem and then apply a strategy for solving the problem.

The study of human and animal problem solving processes has provided much insight toward the understanding of our conscious experience and led to advancements in computer science and artificial intelligence. Essentially much of cognitive science today represents studies of how we consciously and unconsciously make decisions and solve problems. For instance, when encountered with a large amount of information, how do we go about making decisions about the most efficient way of sorting and analyzing all the information in order to find what you are looking for as in visual search paradigms in cognitive psychology. Or in a situation where a piece of machinery is not working properly, how do we go about organizing how to address the issue and understand what the cause of the problem might be. How do we sort the procedures that will be needed and focus attention on what is important in order to solve problems efficiently. Within this section we will discuss some of these issues and examine processes related to human, animal and computer problem solving.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

When people are presented with a problem—whether it is a complex mathematical problem or a broken printer, how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the problem must first be clearly identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be applied, hopefully resulting in a solution.

Problems themselves can be classified into two different categories known as ill-defined and well-defined problems (Schacter, 2009). Ill-defined problems represent issues that do not have clear goals, solution paths, or expected solutions whereas well-defined problems have specific goals, clearly defined solutions, and clear expected solutions. Problem solving often incorporates pragmatics (logical reasoning) and semantics (interpretation of meanings behind the problem), and also in many cases require abstract thinking and creativity in order to find novel solutions. Within psychology, problem solving refers to a motivational drive for reading a definite “goal” from a present situation or condition that is either not moving toward that goal, is distant from it, or requires more complex logical analysis for finding a missing description of conditions or steps toward that goal. Processes relating to problem solving include problem finding also known as problem analysis, problem shaping where the organization of the problem occurs, generating alternative strategies, implementation of attempted solutions, and verification of the selected solution. Various methods of studying problem solving exist within the field of psychology including introspection, behavior analysis and behaviorism, simulation, computer modeling, and experimentation.

A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them (table below). For example, a well-known strategy is trial and error. The old adage, “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again” describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe the printer isn’t actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.


Method	Description	Example
Trial and error	Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved	Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off bluetooth in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning
Algorithm	Step-by-step problem-solving formula	Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer
Heuristic	General problem-solving framework	Working backwards; breaking a task into steps

Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An algorithm is a problem-solving formula that provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman, 2011). You can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed instructions that produce the same result every time they are performed. Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday lives, especially in computer science. When you run a search on the Internet, search engines like Google use algorithms to decide which entries will appear first in your list of results. Facebook also uses algorithms to decide which posts to display on your newsfeed. Can you identify other situations in which algorithms are used?

A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed exactly to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A “rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for making a rational decision. Different types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis, 1989):

When one is faced with too much information
When the time to make a decision is limited
When the decision to be made is unimportant
When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision
When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment

Working backwards is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result. Consider this example: You live in Washington, D.C. and have been invited to a wedding at 4 PM on Saturday in Philadelphia. Knowing that Interstate 95 tends to back up any day of the week, you need to plan your route and time your departure accordingly. If you want to be at the wedding service by 3:30 PM, and it takes 2.5 hours to get to Philadelphia without traffic, what time should you leave your house? You use the working backwards heuristic to plan the events of your day on a regular basis, probably without even thinking about it.

Another useful heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by breaking it into a series of smaller steps. Students often use this common method to complete a large research project or long essay for school. For example, students typically brainstorm, develop a thesis or main topic, research the chosen topic, organize their information into an outline, write a rough draft, revise and edit the rough draft, develop a final draft, organize the references list, and proofread their work before turning in the project. The large task becomes less overwhelming when it is broken down into a series of small steps.

Further problem solving strategies have been identified (listed below) that incorporate flexible and creative thinking in order to reach solutions efficiently.

Additional Problem Solving Strategies :

Abstraction – refers to solving the problem within a model of the situation before applying it to reality.
Analogy – is using a solution that solves a similar problem.
Brainstorming – refers to collecting an analyzing a large amount of solutions, especially within a group of people, to combine the solutions and developing them until an optimal solution is reached.
Divide and conquer – breaking down large complex problems into smaller more manageable problems.
Hypothesis testing – method used in experimentation where an assumption about what would happen in response to manipulating an independent variable is made, and analysis of the affects of the manipulation are made and compared to the original hypothesis.
Lateral thinking – approaching problems indirectly and creatively by viewing the problem in a new and unusual light.
Means-ends analysis – choosing and analyzing an action at a series of smaller steps to move closer to the goal.
Method of focal objects – putting seemingly non-matching characteristics of different procedures together to make something new that will get you closer to the goal.
Morphological analysis – analyzing the outputs of and interactions of many pieces that together make up a whole system.
Proof – trying to prove that a problem cannot be solved. Where the proof fails becomes the starting point or solving the problem.
Reduction – adapting the problem to be as similar problems where a solution exists.
Research – using existing knowledge or solutions to similar problems to solve the problem.
Root cause analysis – trying to identify the cause of the problem.

The strategies listed above outline a short summary of methods we use in working toward solutions and also demonstrate how the mind works when being faced with barriers preventing goals to be reached.

One example of means-end analysis can be found by using the Tower of Hanoi paradigm . This paradigm can be modeled as a word problems as demonstrated by the Missionary-Cannibal Problem :

Missionary-Cannibal Problem

Three missionaries and three cannibals are on one side of a river and need to cross to the other side. The only means of crossing is a boat, and the boat can only hold two people at a time. Your goal is to devise a set of moves that will transport all six of the people across the river, being in mind the following constraint: The number of cannibals can never exceed the number of missionaries in any location. Remember that someone will have to also row that boat back across each time.

Hint : At one point in your solution, you will have to send more people back to the original side than you just sent to the destination.

The actual Tower of Hanoi problem consists of three rods sitting vertically on a base with a number of disks of different sizes that can slide onto any rod. The puzzle starts with the disks in a neat stack in ascending order of size on one rod, the smallest at the top making a conical shape. The objective of the puzzle is to move the entire stack to another rod obeying the following rules:

1. Only one disk can be moved at a time.
2. Each move consists of taking the upper disk from one of the stacks and placing it on top of another stack or on an empty rod.
3. No disc may be placed on top of a smaller disk.

Figure 7.02. Steps for solving the Tower of Hanoi in the minimum number of moves when there are 3 disks.

Figure 7.03. Graphical representation of nodes (circles) and moves (lines) of Tower of Hanoi.

The Tower of Hanoi is a frequently used psychological technique to study problem solving and procedure analysis. A variation of the Tower of Hanoi known as the Tower of London has been developed which has been an important tool in the neuropsychological diagnosis of executive function disorders and their treatment.

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY AND PROBLEM SOLVING

As you may recall from the sensation and perception chapter, Gestalt psychology describes whole patterns, forms and configurations of perception and cognition such as closure, good continuation, and figure-ground. In addition to patterns of perception, Wolfgang Kohler, a German Gestalt psychologist traveled to the Spanish island of Tenerife in order to study animals behavior and problem solving in the anthropoid ape.

As an interesting side note to Kohler’s studies of chimp problem solving, Dr. Ronald Ley, professor of psychology at State University of New York provides evidence in his book A Whisper of Espionage (1990) suggesting that while collecting data for what would later be his book The Mentality of Apes (1925) on Tenerife in the Canary Islands between 1914 and 1920, Kohler was additionally an active spy for the German government alerting Germany to ships that were sailing around the Canary Islands. Ley suggests his investigations in England, Germany and elsewhere in Europe confirm that Kohler had served in the German military by building, maintaining and operating a concealed radio that contributed to Germany’s war effort acting as a strategic outpost in the Canary Islands that could monitor naval military activity approaching the north African coast.

While trapped on the island over the course of World War 1, Kohler applied Gestalt principles to animal perception in order to understand how they solve problems. He recognized that the apes on the islands also perceive relations between stimuli and the environment in Gestalt patterns and understand these patterns as wholes as opposed to pieces that make up a whole. Kohler based his theories of animal intelligence on the ability to understand relations between stimuli, and spent much of his time while trapped on the island investigation what he described as insight , the sudden perception of useful or proper relations. In order to study insight in animals, Kohler would present problems to chimpanzee’s by hanging some banana’s or some kind of food so it was suspended higher than the apes could reach. Within the room, Kohler would arrange a variety of boxes, sticks or other tools the chimpanzees could use by combining in patterns or organizing in a way that would allow them to obtain the food (Kohler & Winter, 1925).

While viewing the chimpanzee’s, Kohler noticed one chimp that was more efficient at solving problems than some of the others. The chimp, named Sultan, was able to use long poles to reach through bars and organize objects in specific patterns to obtain food or other desirables that were originally out of reach. In order to study insight within these chimps, Kohler would remove objects from the room to systematically make the food more difficult to obtain. As the story goes, after removing many of the objects Sultan was used to using to obtain the food, he sat down ad sulked for a while, and then suddenly got up going over to two poles lying on the ground. Without hesitation Sultan put one pole inside the end of the other creating a longer pole that he could use to obtain the food demonstrating an ideal example of what Kohler described as insight. In another situation, Sultan discovered how to stand on a box to reach a banana that was suspended from the rafters illustrating Sultan’s perception of relations and the importance of insight in problem solving.

Grande (another chimp in the group studied by Kohler) builds a three-box structure to reach the bananas, while Sultan watches from the ground. Insight , sometimes referred to as an “Ah-ha” experience, was the term Kohler used for the sudden perception of useful relations among objects during problem solving (Kohler, 1927; Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2013).

Solving puzzles.

Problem-solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people challenge themselves every day with puzzles and other mental exercises to sharpen their problem-solving skills. Sudoku puzzles appear daily in most newspapers. Typically, a sudoku puzzle is a 9×9 grid. The simple sudoku below (see figure) is a 4×4 grid. To solve the puzzle, fill in the empty boxes with a single digit: 1, 2, 3, or 4. Here are the rules: The numbers must total 10 in each bolded box, each row, and each column; however, each digit can only appear once in a bolded box, row, and column. Time yourself as you solve this puzzle and compare your time with a classmate.

How long did it take you to solve this sudoku puzzle? (You can see the answer at the end of this section.)

Here is another popular type of puzzle (figure below) that challenges your spatial reasoning skills. Connect all nine dots with four connecting straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper:

Did you figure it out? (The answer is at the end of this section.) Once you understand how to crack this puzzle, you won’t forget.

Take a look at the “Puzzling Scales” logic puzzle below (figure below). Sam Loyd, a well-known puzzle master, created and refined countless puzzles throughout his lifetime (Cyclopedia of Puzzles, n.d.).

A puzzle involving a scale is shown. At the top of the figure it reads: “Sam Loyds Puzzling Scales.” The first row of the puzzle shows a balanced scale with 3 blocks and a top on the left and 12 marbles on the right. Below this row it reads: “Since the scales now balance.” The next row of the puzzle shows a balanced scale with just the top on the left, and 1 block and 8 marbles on the right. Below this row it reads: “And balance when arranged this way.” The third row shows an unbalanced scale with the top on the left side, which is much lower than the right side. The right side is empty. Below this row it reads: “Then how many marbles will it require to balance with that top?”

What steps did you take to solve this puzzle? You can read the solution at the end of this section.

Pitfalls to problem solving.

Not all problems are successfully solved, however. What challenges stop us from successfully solving a problem? Albert Einstein once said, “Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a different result.” Imagine a person in a room that has four doorways. One doorway that has always been open in the past is now locked. The person, accustomed to exiting the room by that particular doorway, keeps trying to get out through the same doorway even though the other three doorways are open. The person is stuck—but she just needs to go to another doorway, instead of trying to get out through the locked doorway. A mental set is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now.

Functional fixedness is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for. During the Apollo 13 mission to the moon, NASA engineers at Mission Control had to overcome functional fixedness to save the lives of the astronauts aboard the spacecraft. An explosion in a module of the spacecraft damaged multiple systems. The astronauts were in danger of being poisoned by rising levels of carbon dioxide because of problems with the carbon dioxide filters. The engineers found a way for the astronauts to use spare plastic bags, tape, and air hoses to create a makeshift air filter, which saved the lives of the astronauts.

Researchers have investigated whether functional fixedness is affected by culture. In one experiment, individuals from the Shuar group in Ecuador were asked to use an object for a purpose other than that for which the object was originally intended. For example, the participants were told a story about a bear and a rabbit that were separated by a river and asked to select among various objects, including a spoon, a cup, erasers, and so on, to help the animals. The spoon was the only object long enough to span the imaginary river, but if the spoon was presented in a way that reflected its normal usage, it took participants longer to choose the spoon to solve the problem. (German & Barrett, 2005). The researchers wanted to know if exposure to highly specialized tools, as occurs with individuals in industrialized nations, affects their ability to transcend functional fixedness. It was determined that functional fixedness is experienced in both industrialized and nonindustrialized cultures (German & Barrett, 2005).

In order to make good decisions, we use our knowledge and our reasoning. Often, this knowledge and reasoning is sound and solid. Sometimes, however, we are swayed by biases or by others manipulating a situation. For example, let’s say you and three friends wanted to rent a house and had a combined target budget of $1,600. The realtor shows you only very run-down houses for $1,600 and then shows you a very nice house for $2,000. Might you ask each person to pay more in rent to get the $2,000 home? Why would the realtor show you the run-down houses and the nice house? The realtor may be challenging your anchoring bias. An anchoring bias occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. In this case, you’re so focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may not recognize what kinds of houses are available at that price point.

The confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs. For example, if you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis. Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did. Representative bias describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you unintentionally stereotype someone or something; for example, you may assume that your professors spend their free time reading books and engaging in intellectual conversation, because the idea of them spending their time playing volleyball or visiting an amusement park does not fit in with your stereotypes of professors.

Finally, the availability heuristic is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision . Biases tend to “preserve that which is already established—to maintain our preexisting knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and hypotheses” (Aronson, 1995; Kahneman, 2011). These biases are summarized in the table below.


Bias	Description
Anchoring	Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving
Confirmation	Focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs
Hindsight	Belief that the event just experienced was predictable
Representative	Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something
Availability	Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an example that may be faulty

Were you able to determine how many marbles are needed to balance the scales in the figure below? You need nine. Were you able to solve the problems in the figures above? Here are the answers.

The first puzzle is a Sudoku grid of 16 squares (4 rows of 4 squares) is shown. Half of the numbers were supplied to start the puzzle and are colored blue, and half have been filled in as the puzzle’s solution and are colored red. The numbers in each row of the grid, left to right, are as follows. Row 1: blue 3, red 1, red 4, blue 2. Row 2: red 2, blue 4, blue 1, red 3. Row 3: red 1, blue 3, blue 2, red 4. Row 4: blue 4, red 2, red 3, blue 1.The second puzzle consists of 9 dots arranged in 3 rows of 3 inside of a square. The solution, four straight lines made without lifting the pencil, is shown in a red line with arrows indicating the direction of movement. In order to solve the puzzle, the lines must extend beyond the borders of the box. The four connecting lines are drawn as follows. Line 1 begins at the top left dot, proceeds through the middle and right dots of the top row, and extends to the right beyond the border of the square. Line 2 extends from the end of line 1, through the right dot of the horizontally centered row, through the middle dot of the bottom row, and beyond the square’s border ending in the space beneath the left dot of the bottom row. Line 3 extends from the end of line 2 upwards through the left dots of the bottom, middle, and top rows. Line 4 extends from the end of line 3 through the middle dot in the middle row and ends at the right dot of the bottom row.

Many different strategies exist for solving problems. Typical strategies include trial and error, applying algorithms, and using heuristics. To solve a large, complicated problem, it often helps to break the problem into smaller steps that can be accomplished individually, leading to an overall solution. Roadblocks to problem solving include a mental set, functional fixedness, and various biases that can cloud decision making skills.

References:

Openstax Psychology text by Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett and Marion Perlmutter licensed under CC BY v4.0. https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

Review Questions:

1. A specific formula for solving a problem is called ________.

a. an algorithm

b. a heuristic

c. a mental set

d. trial and error

2. Solving the Tower of Hanoi problem tends to utilize a ________ strategy of problem solving.

a. divide and conquer

b. means-end analysis

d. experiment

3. A mental shortcut in the form of a general problem-solving framework is called ________.

4. Which type of bias involves becoming fixated on a single trait of a problem?

a. anchoring bias

b. confirmation bias

c. representative bias

d. availability bias

5. Which type of bias involves relying on a false stereotype to make a decision?

6. Wolfgang Kohler analyzed behavior of chimpanzees by applying Gestalt principles to describe ________.

a. social adjustment

b. student load payment options

c. emotional learning

d. insight learning

7. ________ is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for.

a. functional fixedness

c. working memory

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. What is functional fixedness and how can overcoming it help you solve problems?

2. How does an algorithm save you time and energy when solving a problem?

Personal Application Question:

1. Which type of bias do you recognize in your own decision making processes? How has this bias affected how you’ve made decisions in the past and how can you use your awareness of it to improve your decisions making skills in the future?

anchoring bias

availability heuristic

confirmation bias

functional fixedness

hindsight bias

problem-solving strategy

representative bias

trial and error

working backwards

Answers to Exercises

algorithm: problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

anchoring bias: faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution

availability heuristic: faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you

confirmation bias: faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs

functional fixedness: inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended

heuristic: mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem

hindsight bias: belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t

mental set: continually using an old solution to a problem without results

problem-solving strategy: method for solving problems

representative bias: faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgment

trial and error: problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found

working backwards: heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result

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Problem Solving and Creativity - Cognitive Psychology - Lecture Slides, Slides of Cognitive Psychology

Problem Solving and Creativity, Problem Solving Cycle, Types of Problems, Well Structured Problems, Ill Structured Problems, Role of Insight, Creativity, Problem Identification, Problem Definition and Representation, Divergent Thinking are some points from this lecture of Cognitive Psychology course.

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7.3 Problem Solving

Learning objectives.

Describe problem solving strategies
Define algorithm and heuristic
Explain some common roadblocks to effective problem solving

Problem-Solving Strategies

When you are presented with a problem—whether it is a complex mathematical problem or a broken printer, how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the problem must first be clearly identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be applied, hopefully resulting in a solution.

A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them ( Table 7.2 ). For example, a well-known strategy is trial and error . The old adage, “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again” describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe the printer isn’t actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.

Method	Description	Example
Trial and error	Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved	Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off bluetooth in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning
Algorithm	Step-by-step problem-solving formula	Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer
Heuristic	General problem-solving framework	Working backwards; breaking a task into steps

When one is faced with too much information
When the time to make a decision is limited
When the decision to be made is unimportant
When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision
When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment

Everyday Connection

Solving puzzles.

Problem-solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people challenge themselves every day with puzzles and other mental exercises to sharpen their problem-solving skills. Sudoku puzzles appear daily in most newspapers. Typically, a sudoku puzzle is a 9×9 grid. The simple sudoku below ( Figure 7.8 ) is a 4×4 grid. To solve the puzzle, fill in the empty boxes with a single digit: 1, 2, 3, or 4. Here are the rules: The numbers must total 10 in each bolded box, each row, and each column; however, each digit can only appear once in a bolded box, row, and column. Time yourself as you solve this puzzle and compare your time with a classmate.

Here is another popular type of puzzle ( Figure 7.9 ) that challenges your spatial reasoning skills. Connect all nine dots with four connecting straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper:

Take a look at the “Puzzling Scales” logic puzzle below ( Figure 7.10 ). Sam Loyd, a well-known puzzle master, created and refined countless puzzles throughout his lifetime (Cyclopedia of Puzzles, n.d.).

Pitfalls to Problem Solving

Link to Learning

Check out this Apollo 13 scene where the group of NASA engineers are given the task of overcoming functional fixedness.

Bias	Description
Anchoring	Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving
Confirmation	Focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs
Hindsight	Belief that the event just experienced was predictable
Representative	Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something
Availability	Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an example that may be faulty

Please visit this site to see a clever music video that a high school teacher made to explain these and other cognitive biases to his AP psychology students.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Problem Solving and Decision Making

Introduction.

General Approaches to Problem Solving
Representational Accounts
Problem Space and Search
Working Memory and Problem Solving
Domain-Specific Problem Solving
The Rational Approach
Prospect Theory
Dual-Process Theory
Cognitive Heuristics and Biases

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Problem Solving and Decision Making by Emily G. Nielsen , John Paul Minda LAST REVIEWED: 26 June 2019 LAST MODIFIED: 26 June 2019 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0246

Problem solving and decision making are both examples of complex, higher-order thinking. Both involve the assessment of the environment, the involvement of working memory or short-term memory, reliance on long term memory, effects of knowledge, and the application of heuristics to complete a behavior. A problem can be defined as an impasse or gap between a current state and a desired goal state. Problem solving is the set of cognitive operations that a person engages in to change the current state, to go beyond the impasse, and achieve a desired outcome. Problem solving involves the mental representation of the problem state and the manipulation of this representation in order to move closer to the goal. Problems can vary in complexity, abstraction, and how well defined (or not) the initial state and the goal state are. Research has generally approached problem solving by examining the behaviors and cognitive processes involved, and some work has examined problem solving using computational processes as well. Decision making is the process of selecting and choosing one action or behavior out of several alternatives. Like problem solving, decision making involves the coordination of memories and executive resources. Research on decision making has paid particular attention to the cognitive biases that account for suboptimal decisions and decisions that deviate from rationality. The current bibliography first outlines some general resources on the psychology of problem solving and decision making before examining each of these topics in detail. Specifically, this review covers cognitive, neuroscientific, and computational approaches to problem solving, as well as decision making models and cognitive heuristics and biases.

General Overviews

Current research in the area of problem solving and decision making is published in both general and specialized scientific journals. Theoretical and scholarly work is often summarized and developed in full-length books and chapter. These may focus on the subfields of problem solving and decision making or the larger field of thinking and higher-order cognition.

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Why is Problem-Solving Important in School Psychology?

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Why is Problem-Solving Important in School Psychology?. Rachel Brown-Chidsey, Ph.D., NCSP University of Southern Maine. Module Overview. Definition of Problem Solving Purpose of Problem Solving Benefits of Problem Solving Case Example Summary Review Questions.

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Why is Problem-Solving Important in School Psychology? Rachel Brown-Chidsey, Ph.D., NCSP University of Southern Maine

Module Overview • Definition of Problem Solving • Purpose of Problem Solving • Benefits of Problem Solving • Case Example • Summary • Review Questions Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Definition of Problem Solving • Problem-solving school psychology practices are based on the following definition of a problem: • Problem = the distance between what is expected and what is occurring • Problem-solving is the work of reducing the distance between what is expected and what is occurring Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Problem-Solving Steps (Deno, 1995) • Problem identification: Someone thinks there’s a problem • Problem definition: The size of the problem is described in measurable ways and a hypothesis about the cause is developed • Exploring solutions: A possible solution is tried • Monitoring progress: Weekly student progress is measured to see if the solution works • Problem (re)solution: The student meets the learning goal or a new solution is tried Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Purpose of Problem Solving • Problem solving activities are designed to achieve three main goals: • Clearly state what is expected of students • Identify how close a student is to meeting the goal(s) • Identify instructional methods best suited to help students meet goal(s) Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Establishing Expectations • Having clear expectations for what students should be able to do at each grade level clarifies the learning objectives for students, teachers and parents • Clear expectations provide a more equitable and accessible curriculum because they avoid the presence of a “hidden curriculum”: • Hidden curriculum refers to knowledge and skills students should have already learned or are expected to learn despite it not being stated specifically • Example: expecting all students to say “please” and “thank you” during classroom interactions Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Expectations and Standards • Recent initiatives in all 50 U.S. states have resulted in state-level learning standards • These standards provide grade level expectations for all students • Standards can only be achieved if effective instruction is used Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Measuring Progress • Student attainment of standards can only be known if sensitive measures of knowledge and skills are used • Problem solving school psychology practices rely on assessment measures that can reliably indicate how close a student is to a learning goal • State exams are not sufficient measures of student progress Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Problem Solving Measures • Two major types of problem solving assessments are used: • Benchmark: these are baseline measures of a student’s knowledge and skills in the curriculum being taught • Usually done 3 times/year • Progress Monitoring: These are regular measures of a student’s progress toward learning goal(s) • Usually done weekly Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Why is Regular Assessment Necessary for Problem-Solving? • “If you don’t know where you are going, any road will get you there”(George Harrison) • Only by measuring how close a student is to the learning expectations can teachers know how much instruction is needed • Only by measuring student progress regularly can teachers know if the instruction is working Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

How is Problem Solving Different from Traditional Assessment? • Traditional assessment focuses on finding out whether a student has a disability • This is a deficit focused model • Problem solving assessment focuses on finding out what kind of instruction a student needs to be successful in school and life • This is a success focused model Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Benefits of Problem Solving • Focuses on student’s skills and strengths instead of weaknesses and deficits • Points directly to the type of instruction needed • Provides a baseline measure of student knowledge and skills which makes monitoring progress easy Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Summary • Problem solving school psychology practices are beneficial to students because they • Focus on student success and not deficits • Link directly to instruction for students • Include measurable indicators of student progress • Prevent over-identification of learning disabilities Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Resources • Brown-Chidsey, R. (Ed.). (2005). Assessment for intervention: A problem-solving approach. New York: Guilford Press. Deno, S. (1995). The school psychologist as problem solver. In J. Grimes & A. Thoms (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology III (pp. 471-484). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. • National Association of School Psychologists. (2007). NASP position statement on identification of students with specific learning disabilities. Retrieved 20 September 2007 from http://www.nasponline.org/about_nasp/positionpapers/SLDPosition_2007.pdf Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

Review Questions • The following slides include review questions about the information contained in this module • Click to advance to the next slide • After reading the slide and questions, click again to see the correct answer Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

A) What is the definition of a problem? • A discrepancy of 15 points or more • The difference between what is expected and what is occurring • Identified only through the use of published norm-referenced testing • None of the above Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

A) Answer: #2 The difference between what is expected and what is occurring Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

B) What are the 5 stages of problem solving? • Identification, definition, exploring solutions, monitoring solutions, solution • Definition, monitoring solutions, identification, referral • Benchmarking, progress monitoring, exploring solutions, defining, identification • None of the above Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

B) Answer: #1 Identification, definition, exploring solutions, monitoring solutions, solution Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

C) What are 2 advantages of problem solving practices? • The opportunity to use advanced and extended testing procedures • It is success focused and leads to instructional change • It provides data on how long a problem has been observed • None of the above Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

C) Answer: # 2 It is success focused and leads to instructional change Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

D) True or False? • Problem solving school psychology is compatible with the 2007 NASP position statement on the identification of students with specific learning disabilities Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

D) Answer: True Problem solving school psychology is very compatible with the 2007 NASP position statement on the identification of students with specific learning disabilities Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

E) Problem solving school psychology is: • A deficit-focused method • A discrepancy-based method • A success-based method • None of the above Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

E) Answer: #3 A success-based method Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

For More Information… • To learn more about problem solving, view the module entitled “Problem Solving Process.” Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes

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Chapter 11 Problem Solving and Creativity

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Presentation on theme: "Chapter 11 Problem Solving and Creativity"— Presentation transcript:

Research Methods David Parkinson 26th April 2007.

Heuristic Search techniques

Problem solving Problem solving: cognitive processes focused on achieving a specific goal. Strategies of problem solving: Trial and error, algorithms and.

Chapter 11: Problem-Solving and Creativity

Introduction to Cognition. Cognition The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering Thinking Thinking: process in which the.

Review for Chapter 8 Test. What is an object or an act that stands for something else? Symbol.

Problem Solving and Creativity Chapter 11. Outline 1.The Problem-Solving Cycle 2.Types of Problems 1.Well-Structured Problems 2.Ill-Structured Problems.

Problem Solving What is a problem? How do we go about solving problems? How can we be better problem-solvers?

Problem Solving. Well-defined problems –Much studied in AI –Requires search –Domain general heuristics for solving problems What about ill-defined problems?

Chapter 11: Problem Solving and Creativity

Means-end analysis Reducing differences between current state and goal state Stop when difference is 0 (no difference) Subgoals Intermediate goals – not.

Problem Solving Shortcuts through the Problem Space.

Cognitive Processes PSY 334 Chapter 8 – Problem Solving.

Chapter 12 Instructional Methods

Problem Solving.

Problem Solving & Creativity Dr. Claudia J. Stanny EXP 4507 Memory & Cognition Spring 2009.

Test Preparation Strategies

ACOS 2010 Standards of Mathematical Practice

About project

Psych 256: Cognitive Psychology FA16 – 002

Making connections between theory and reality, problem solving.

Image Credit: www.slideshare.net

As depicted in the illustration above, a dilemma such as saving the world would certainly be considered an ill-defined problem. This is because a problem of this magnitude would not have its goals or steps clearly laid out. Additionally it is highly likely, or at least we would hope so for the sake of mankind, that there may be more than one approach or correct answers to solve the problem. Although, I believe that Einstein brings up a valid point, which is that in order to effectively solve a problem it is imperative to first fully understand exactly what the nature of the obstacle(s) is that is in the way of the goal. (Penn State, n.d.)

In the article Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles , Cherry (2016) writes about challenges that make problem solving difficult, which are similar to the barriers outlined in the lesson 13 commentary. According to Cherry, we are presented with a host of problems in our lives each day. These problems can range from minor issues such as, which route to take to work to avoid morning rush hour traffic to much larger issues like developing a five-year plan for your life and career path. In cognitive psychology, the act of problem solving is a mental process one uses to identify, analyze and find answers (Cherry, 2016) when it is not obvious how to overcome the obstacles that prevent you from achieving a goal, otherwise known as a problem (Goldstein, 2015).

The mental processes that are work during problem solving include; recognizing the problem, making a mental representation of the problem, considering the pertinent information applicable to the problem, identifying various facets of the problem and lastly describing or labeling it. Problem solving strategies may include; algorithms or a step-by step process to generate the correct answer (ex: mathematical formula), heuristics or a mental “rule of thumb” that may be applicable to certain scenarios but do not guarantee a correct solution, trial and error that is similar to the generate and test method described in the lesson where you try different solutions to see what works and insight in which a problem is similar to something you dealt with previously, like an analogy. (Cherry, 2016)

The obstacles to problem solving in which we encounter are mental set, functional fixedness, irrelevant or misleading information and Cherry also adds in assumptions. Mental set occurs when we only refer to solutions we have used in the past rather than attempting to identify new ideas that may be more effective. Functional fixedness is when we perceive problems in their usual manner that interferes with our ability to quickly solve the issue. The lesson indicates several examples of people failing to think of ways to use objects other than their primary or common purpose. Misleading information can lead to faulty solutions, which makes it important to have accurate and relevant information during the problem solving process. Lastly, assumptions regarding constraints can hinder the ability of a person to produce viable solutions. (Cherry, 2016)

So whether you are attempting to solve a math problem, a riddle or saving the world it is useful to keep in mind the strategies to effect problem solving while being aware of the obstacles you may face to finding an effective solution.

References

Cherry, K. (2016, August 31). Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles . Retrieved November 19, 2016 from https://www.verywell.com/problem-solving-2795008

Goldstein, E. B. (2015). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research, and everyday experience (4th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Penn State World Campus (n.d.). Lesson 13: Problem Solving . Retrieved November 19, 2016 from https://psu.instructure.com/courses/1804143/modules/items/21169401

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Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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From deciding what to eat for dinner to considering whether it's the right time to buy a house, problem-solving is a large part of our daily lives. Learn some of the problem-solving strategies that exist and how to use them in real life, along with ways to overcome obstacles that are making it harder to resolve the issues you face.

What Is Problem-Solving?

In cognitive psychology , the term 'problem-solving' refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze, and solve problems.

A problem exists when there is a goal that we want to achieve but the process by which we will achieve it is not obvious to us. Put another way, there is something that we want to occur in our life, yet we are not immediately certain how to make it happen.

Maybe you want a better relationship with your spouse or another family member but you're not sure how to improve it. Or you want to start a business but are unsure what steps to take. Problem-solving helps you figure out how to achieve these desires.

The problem-solving process involves:

Discovery of the problem
Deciding to tackle the issue
Seeking to understand the problem more fully
Researching available options or solutions
Taking action to resolve the issue

Before problem-solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem itself. If your understanding of the issue is faulty, your attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or flawed.

Problem-Solving Mental Processes

Several mental processes are at work during problem-solving. Among them are:

Perceptually recognizing the problem
Representing the problem in memory
Considering relevant information that applies to the problem
Identifying different aspects of the problem
Labeling and describing the problem

Problem-Solving Strategies

There are many ways to go about solving a problem. Some of these strategies might be used on their own, or you may decide to employ multiple approaches when working to figure out and fix a problem.

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that, by following certain "rules" produces a solution. Algorithms are commonly used in mathematics to solve division or multiplication problems. But they can be used in other fields as well.

In psychology, algorithms can be used to help identify individuals with a greater risk of mental health issues. For instance, research suggests that certain algorithms might help us recognize children with an elevated risk of suicide or self-harm.

One benefit of algorithms is that they guarantee an accurate answer. However, they aren't always the best approach to problem-solving, in part because detecting patterns can be incredibly time-consuming.

There are also concerns when machine learning is involved—also known as artificial intelligence (AI)—such as whether they can accurately predict human behaviors.

Heuristics are shortcut strategies that people can use to solve a problem at hand. These "rule of thumb" approaches allow you to simplify complex problems, reducing the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.

If you find yourself sitting in a traffic jam, for example, you may quickly consider other routes, taking one to get moving once again. When shopping for a new car, you might think back to a prior experience when negotiating got you a lower price, then employ the same tactics.

While heuristics may be helpful when facing smaller issues, major decisions shouldn't necessarily be made using a shortcut approach. Heuristics also don't guarantee an effective solution, such as when trying to drive around a traffic jam only to find yourself on an equally crowded route.

Trial and Error

A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of potential solutions to a particular issue, then ruling out those that do not work. If you're not sure whether to buy a shirt in blue or green, for instance, you may try on each before deciding which one to purchase.

This can be a good strategy to use if you have a limited number of solutions available. But if there are many different choices available, narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving technique can be helpful before attempting trial and error.

In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. You are facing an issue in a relationship or your career when, out of nowhere, the solution appears in your mind and you know exactly what to do.

Insight can occur when the problem in front of you is similar to an issue that you've dealt with in the past. Although, you may not recognize what is occurring since the underlying mental processes that lead to insight often happen outside of conscious awareness .

Research indicates that insight is most likely to occur during times when you are alone—such as when going on a walk by yourself, when you're in the shower, or when lying in bed after waking up.

How to Apply Problem-Solving Strategies in Real Life

If you're facing a problem, you can implement one or more of these strategies to find a potential solution. Here's how to use them in real life:

Create a flow chart . If you have time, you can take advantage of the algorithm approach to problem-solving by sitting down and making a flow chart of each potential solution, its consequences, and what happens next.
Recall your past experiences . When a problem needs to be solved fairly quickly, heuristics may be a better approach. Think back to when you faced a similar issue, then use your knowledge and experience to choose the best option possible.
Start trying potential solutions . If your options are limited, start trying them one by one to see which solution is best for achieving your desired goal. If a particular solution doesn't work, move on to the next.
Take some time alone . Since insight is often achieved when you're alone, carve out time to be by yourself for a while. The answer to your problem may come to you, seemingly out of the blue, if you spend some time away from others.

Obstacles to Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is not a flawless process as there are a number of obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. These obstacles include:

Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people can make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions. Thus, they may not even try some potential options.
Functional fixedness : This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution.
Irrelevant or misleading information: When trying to solve a problem, it's important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. The more complex the problem, the easier it is to focus on misleading or irrelevant information.
Mental set: A mental set is a tendency to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.

How to Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills

In the end, if your goal is to become a better problem-solver, it's helpful to remember that this is a process. Thus, if you want to improve your problem-solving skills, following these steps can help lead you to your solution:

Recognize that a problem exists . If you are facing a problem, there are generally signs. For instance, if you have a mental illness , you may experience excessive fear or sadness, mood changes, and changes in sleeping or eating habits. Recognizing these signs can help you realize that an issue exists.
Decide to solve the problem . Make a conscious decision to solve the issue at hand. Commit to yourself that you will go through the steps necessary to find a solution.
Seek to fully understand the issue . Analyze the problem you face, looking at it from all sides. If your problem is relationship-related, for instance, ask yourself how the other person may be interpreting the issue. You might also consider how your actions might be contributing to the situation.
Research potential options . Using the problem-solving strategies mentioned, research potential solutions. Make a list of options, then consider each one individually. What are some pros and cons of taking the available routes? What would you need to do to make them happen?
Take action . Select the best solution possible and take action. Action is one of the steps required for change . So, go through the motions needed to resolve the issue.
Try another option, if needed . If the solution you chose didn't work, don't give up. Either go through the problem-solving process again or simply try another option.

You can find a way to solve your problems as long as you keep working toward this goal—even if the best solution is simply to let go because no other good solution exists.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Problem solving in Psychology perspect. Jul 21, 2013 • Download as DOCX, PDF •. 5 likes • 15,766 views. AI-enhanced description. Dinushika Madhubhashini. This document provides an overview of problem solving and creative thinking. It discusses key concepts like thinking, problem solving strategies, obstacles to problem solving like mental ...
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Col Mukteshwar Prasad. The term problem-solving refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze and solve problems. A problem can be defined as 'where there is a need to bridge gap between a current situation and a desired situation". Broadly there are three types of problemdiagnostic problems - working out what ...
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Aina Qazi. Problem solving involves defining a problem, determining its cause, identifying alternatives, selecting a solution, and implementing it. There are two main methods: trial and error, which uses repeated attempts, and insight, which provides a sudden understanding of relationships. Effective problem solving considers individual factors ...
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1 Cognitive Processes: Thinking and Problem Solving. Psychology I Mrs. Hart. 2 The Candle Problem The Candle Problem is a classic test of creative problem solving developed by psychologist Karl Duncker in Subjects are given a candle, a box of thumbtacks, and a book of matches, and asked to affix the lit candle to the wall so that it will not ...
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What is a problem? Problem Solving Mental processes that occur when people work toward determining the solution to a problem Problems Math, chemistry, physics problems; Writing a term paper Selecting the movie you want to watch Finding a roommate Finding a solution for a chess problem ... Cognitive Psychology Lecture 8: Problem Solving October ...
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Additional Problem Solving Strategies:. Abstraction - refers to solving the problem within a model of the situation before applying it to reality.; Analogy - is using a solution that solves a similar problem.; Brainstorming - refers to collecting an analyzing a large amount of solutions, especially within a group of people, to combine the solutions and developing them until an optimal ...
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Well-Structured Problems • Isomorphic Problems - Two problems are isomorphic if their formal structure is the same, and only their content differs - E.g. games that involve constructing words from jumbled or scrambled letters • Problems of Problem Representation - A major determinant of the relative ease of solving a problem is how ...
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Solving Puzzles. Problem-solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people challenge themselves every day with puzzles and other mental exercises to sharpen their problem-solving skills. Sudoku puzzles appear daily in most newspapers. Typically, a sudoku puzzle is a 9×9 grid. The simple sudoku below is a 4×4 grid. To solve the puzzle ...
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Use this link to download all PowerPoint decks in a single .zip file (40 MB). or the following links for individual modules. Psychological Foundations. Psychological Research. Biopsychology. States of Consciousness. Sensation and Perception. Thinking and Intelligence. Memory. Learning and Conditioning.
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Purpose of Problem Solving • Problem solving activities are designed to achieve three main goals: • Clearly state what is expected of students • Identify how close a student is to meeting the goal (s) • Identify instructional methods best suited to help students meet goal (s) Futures Task Force on Academic Outcomes.
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Image Credit: www.slideshare.net. As depicted in the illustration above, a dilemma such as saving the world would certainly be considered an ill-defined problem. ... In cognitive psychology, the act of problem solving is a mental process one uses to identify, analyze and find answers (Cherry, 2016) when it is not obvious how to overcome the ...
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Several mental processes are at work during problem-solving. Among them are: Perceptually recognizing the problem. Representing the problem in memory. Considering relevant information that applies to the problem. Identifying different aspects of the problem. Labeling and describing the problem.
Problem Solving
Abstract. Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal when the problem solver does not initially know a solution method. A problem exists when someone has a goal but does not know how to achieve it. Problems can be classified as routine or nonroutine, and as well defined or ill defined.

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Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles

What Is Problem-Solving?

Problem-Solving Mental Processes

Problem-Solving Strategies

Trial and Error

How to Apply Problem-Solving Strategies in Real Life

Obstacles to Problem-Solving

How to Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills

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VIDEO

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