essay on indian monsoon

Essay on Monsoon in India

Students are often asked to write an essay on Monsoon in India in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Monsoon in India

Introduction.

Monsoon in India is an annual phenomenon that greatly influences the country’s climate. It arrives around June and lasts until September.

Significance of Monsoon

The monsoon is crucial for India’s agriculture. It provides the necessary water for crop growth, helping farmers produce food for the nation.

Monsoon’s Impact

Monsoon also impacts the economy, as a good monsoon season boosts agricultural output, leading to economic growth. However, heavy rainfall can cause floods.

Despite challenges, the monsoon is eagerly awaited in India. It brings life, prosperity, and a break from the summer heat.

250 Words Essay on Monsoon in India

Monsoon is the lifeblood of India’s agrarian economy, influencing crop production, thereby determining the economic health of the country. The rain-fed paddy fields of West Bengal, the tea gardens of Assam, and the spice plantations of Kerala owe their bounty to the monsoon rains. The monsoon also replenishes reservoirs and groundwater, ensuring water security.

Monsoon and Culture

The monsoon has deeply permeated India’s cultural ethos. It’s celebrated in literature, music, dance, and festivals. The joyous festival of ‘Teej’ in Rajasthan or ‘Onam’ in Kerala, are intrinsically linked to the monsoon season.

Monsoon Variability and Climate Change

However, the monsoon’s capricious nature can wreak havoc, causing floods or droughts. Climate change exacerbates this variability, threatening food security and livelihoods. It necessitates the development of robust climate models and adaptation strategies to mitigate these risks.

In conclusion, the monsoon in India is not merely a meteorological phenomenon but a vital cog in the country’s economy and culture. Understanding its patterns and impacts is crucial, especially in the face of climate change. The monsoon, with its rhythmic ebb and flow, continues to shape the destiny of India.

500 Words Essay on Monsoon in India

Monsoon in India is a season of great significance, marking a period of rejuvenation for the country’s flora and fauna, agriculture, and economy. The Indian subcontinent, due to its geographical positioning and topography, experiences a unique monsoonal climate, characterized by a dramatic shift in wind patterns and rainfall.

The Phenomenon of Monsoon

The Indian monsoon is a lifeline for the economy, particularly for the agricultural sector. Over 58% of India’s population relies on agriculture, which in turn is heavily dependent on the monsoon rains. The monsoon not only determines the yield of crops but also influences the prices of essential commodities, thereby impacting the country’s inflation and economic growth.

Beyond agriculture, the monsoon also replenishes reservoirs and groundwater levels, ensuring a year-round water supply for domestic and industrial use. Moreover, the monsoon season is crucial for maintaining the country’s rich biodiversity. Many species of animals and plants are adapted to the monsoon cycle, and their survival hinges on timely and adequate rainfall.

Challenges of Monsoon

Despite its significance, the Indian monsoon also poses serious challenges. Unpredictable rainfall patterns can lead to droughts or floods, causing immense damage to life and property. Climate change is exacerbating these challenges, making monsoon patterns increasingly erratic and unpredictable.

In conclusion, the monsoon in India is a complex phenomenon with far-reaching implications. It is a season of rejuvenation and celebration, yet it also brings with it challenges that need to be managed effectively. As climate change continues to alter monsoon patterns, it is imperative for India to invest in robust climate-resilient strategies to safeguard its economy, ecology, and cultural heritage.

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Table Of Contents

Indian monsoon , the most prominent of the world’s monsoon systems, which primarily affects India and its surrounding water bodies. It blows from the northeast during cooler months and reverses direction to blow from the southwest during the warmest months of the year . This process brings large amounts of rainfall to the region during June and July.

At the Equator the area near India is unique in that dominant or frequent westerly winds occur at the surface almost constantly throughout the year; the surface easterlies reach only to latitudes near 20° N in February, and even then they have a very strong northerly component. They soon retreat northward, and drastic changes take place in the upper-air circulation ( see climate: Jet streams ). This is a time of transition between the end of one monsoon and the beginning of the next. Late in March the high-sun season reaches the Equator and moves farther north. With it go atmospheric instability, convectional (that is, rising and turbulent) clouds , and rain. The westerly subtropical jet stream still controls the flow of air across northern India, and the surface winds are northeasterlies.

As the high-sun season (that is, the Northern Hemisphere summer) moves northward during April, India becomes particularly prone to rapid heating because the highlands to the north protect it from any incursions of cold air. There are three distinct areas of relative upper tropospheric warmth—namely, (1) above the southern Bay of Bengal , (2) above the Plateau of Tibet , and (3) across the trunks of the various peninsulas that are relatively dry during this time. These three areas combine to form a vast heat-source region. The relatively warm area above the southern Bay of Bengal occurs mostly at the 500–100- millibar level. (This atmospheric pressure region typically occurs at elevations between 5,500 and 16,100 metres [18,000 and 53,000 feet] but may vary according to changes in heating and cooling.) It does not appear at a lower level and is probably caused by the release of condensation heat (associated with the change from water vapour to liquid water) at the top of towering cumulonimbus clouds along the advancing intertropical convergence . In contrast, a heat sink appears over the southern Indian Ocean as the relatively cloud-free air cools by emitting long-wavelength radiation. Monsoon winds at the surface blow from heat sink to heat source. As a result, by May the southwest monsoon is well-established over Sri Lanka , an island off the southeastern tip of the Indian peninsula.

Also in May, the dry surface of Tibet (above 4,000 metres [13,100 feet]) absorbs and radiates heat that is readily transmitted to the air immediately above. At about 6,000 metres (19,700 feet) an anticyclonic cell arises, causing a strong easterly flow in the upper troposphere above northern India. The subtropical jet stream suddenly changes its course to the north of the anticyclonic ridge and the highlands, though it may occasionally reappear southward of them for very brief periods. This change of the upper tropospheric circulation above northern India from westerly jet to easterly flow coincides with a reversal of the vertical temperature and pressure gradients between 600 and 300 millibars. On many occasions the easterly wind aloft assumes jet force. It anticipates by a few days the “burst,” or onset, of the surface southwesterly monsoon some 1,500 km (900 miles) farther south, with a definite sequential relationship, although the exact cause is not known. Because of India’s inverted triangular shape, the land is heated progressively as the sun moves northward. This accelerated spread of heating, combined with the general direction of heat being transported by winds, results in a greater initial monsoonal activity over the Arabian Sea (at late springtime), where a real frontal situation often occurs, than over the Bay of Bengal. The relative humidity of coastal districts in the Indian region rises above 70 percent, and some rain occurs. Above the heated land, the air below 1,500 metres (5,000 feet) becomes unstable, but it is held down by the overriding easterly flow. This does not prevent frequent thunderstorms from occurring in late May.

During June the easterly jet becomes firmly established at 150 to 100 millibars, an atmospheric pressure region typically occurring at elevations between 13,700 and 16,100 metres (45,000 and 53,000 feet). It reaches its greatest speed at its normal position to the south of the anticyclonic ridge, at about 15° N from China through India. In Arabia it decelerates and descends to the middle troposphere (3,000 metres [9,800 feet]). A stratospheric belt of very cold air, analogous to the one normally found above the intertropical convergence near the Equator, occurs above the anticyclonic ridge, across southern Asia at 30°–40° N and above the 500-millibar level (6,000 metres [19,700 feet]). These upper-air features that arise so far away from the Equator are associated with the surface monsoon and are absent when there is no monsoonal flow. The position of the easterly jet controls the location of monsoonal rains, which occur ahead and to the left of the strongest winds and also behind them and to the right. The surface flow, however, is a strong, southwesterly, humid, and unstable wind that brings humidities of more than 80 percent and heavy squally showers that are the “burst” of the monsoon. The overall pattern of the advance follows a frontal alignment , but local episodes may differ considerably. The amount of rain is variable from year to year and place to place.

Most spectacular clouds and rain occur against the Western Ghats in India, where the early monsoonal airstream piles up against the steep slopes, then recedes, and piles up again to a greater height. Each time it pushes thicker clouds upward until wind and clouds roll over the barrier and, after a few brief spells of absorption by the dry inland air, cascade toward the interior. The windward slopes receive 2,000 to 5,000 mm (80 to 200 inches) of rain in the monsoon season.

Various factors, especially topography , combine to make up a complex regional pattern. Oceanic air flowing toward India below 6,000 metres (19,700 feet) is deflected in accordance with the Coriolis effect . The converging moist oncoming stream becomes unstable over the hot land and is subject to rapid convection . Towering cumulonimbus clouds rise thousands of metres, producing violent thunderstorms and releasing latent heat in the surrounding air. As a result, the upper tropospheric warm belt migrates northwestward from the ocean to the land. The main body of air above 9,000 metres (29,500 feet) maintains a strong easterly flow.

Later, in June and July, the monsoon is strong and well-established to a height of 6,000 metres (less in the far north), with occasional thickening to 9,000 metres. Weather conditions are cloudy, warm, and moist all over India. Rainfall varies between 400 and 500 mm (16 and 20 inches), but topography introduces some extraordinary differences. On the southern slopes of the Khasi Hills at only 1,300 metres (4,300 feet), where the moist airstreams are lifted and overturned, the village of Cherrapunji in Meghalaya state receives an average rainfall of 2,730 mm (107 inches) in July, with record totals of 897 mm (35 inches) in 24 hours in July 1915, more than 9,000 mm (354 inches) in July 1861, and 16,305 mm (642 inches) in the monsoon season of 1899. Over the Ganges valley the monsoon, deflected by the Himalayan barrier, becomes a southeasterly airflow. By then the upper tropospheric belt of warmth from condensation has moved above northern India, with an oblique bias. The lowest pressures prevail at the surface.

It is mainly in July and August that waves of low pressure appear in the body of monsoonal air. Fully developed depressions appear once or twice per month. They travel from east to west more or less concurrently with high-level easterly waves and bursts of speed from the easterly jet, causing a local strengthening of the low-level monsoonal flow. The rainfall consequently increases and is much more evenly distributed than it was in June. Some of the deeper depressions become tropical cyclones before they reach the land, and these bring torrential rains and disastrous floods .

A totally different development arises when the easterly jet moves farther north than usual. The monsoonal wind rising over the southern slopes of the Himalayas brings heavy rains and local floods. The weather over the central and southern districts, however, becomes suddenly drier and remains so for as long as the abnormal shift lasts. The opposite shift is also possible, with midlatitude upper air flowing along the south face of the Himalayas and bringing drought to the northern districts. Such dry spells are known as “breaks” of the monsoon. Those affecting the south of India are similar to those experienced on the Guinea Coast during extreme northward shifts of the wind belts ( see West African monsoon ), whereas those affecting the north are due to an interaction of the middle and low latitudes. The southwest monsoon over the lower Indus plain is only 500 metres (about 1,600 feet) thick and does not hold enough moisture to bring rain. On the other hand, the upper tropospheric easterlies become stronger and constitute a true easterly jet stream . Western Pakistan , Iran , and Arabia remain dry (probably because of the divergence in this jet) and thus become the new source of surface heat.

By August the intensity and duration of sunshine have decreased, temperatures begin to fall , and the surge of southwesterly air diminishes spasmodically almost to a standstill in the northwest. Cherrapunji still receives over 2,000 mm (79 inches) of rainfall at this time, however. In September, dry, cool, northerly air begins to circle the west side of the highlands and spread over northwestern India. The easterly jet weakens, and the upper tropospheric easterlies move much farther south. Because the moist southwesterlies at lower levels are much weaker and variable, they are soon pushed back. The rainfall becomes extremely variable over most of the region, but showers are still frequent in the southeastern areas and over the Bay of Bengal.

By early October, variable winds are very frequent everywhere. At the end of the month, the entire Indian region is covered by northerly air and the winter monsoon takes shape. The surface flow is deflected by the Coriolis force and becomes a northeasterly flow. This causes an October–December rainy season for the extreme southeast of the Deccan (including the Madras coast) and eastern Sri Lanka, which cannot be explained by topography alone because it extends well out over the sea. Tropical depressions and cyclones are important contributing factors.

Most of India thus begins a sunny, dry, and dusty season. The driest period comes in November in the Punjab ; December in central India, Bengal, and Assam; January in the northern Deccan; and February in the southern Deccan. Conversely, the western slopes of the Karakoram Range and Himalayas are then reached by the midlatitude frontal depressions that come from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The winter rains they receive, moderate as they are, place them clearly outside the monsoonal realm.

Because crops and water supplies depend entirely on monsoonal rains, it became imperative that quantitative long-range weather forecasts be available. Embedded in the weather patterns of other parts of the world are clues to the summer conditions in South Asia . These clues often appear in the months leading up to monsoon onset. For a forecast to be released at the beginning of June, South American pressure and Indian upper-wind data for the month of April are examined. These data, though widely separated from one another, are positively correlated and may be used as predictors of June conditions. Forecasts may be further refined in May by comparing rainfall patterns in both Zimbabwe and Java with the easterly winds above the city of Kolkata ( Calcutta ) in West Bengal state. In this situation the correlation between rainfall and easterly winds is negative.

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Encyclopedic entry. A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region. Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics.

Earth Science, Meteorology, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography

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A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region. Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics . Monsoons are most often associated with the Indian Ocean. Monsoons always blow from cold to warm regions. The summer monsoon and the winter monsoon determine the climate for most of India and Southeast Asia. Summer Monsoon

The summer monsoon is associated with heavy rainfall . It usually happens between April and September. As winter ends, warm, moist air from the southwest Indian Ocean blows toward countries like India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. The summer monsoon brings a humid climate and torrential rainfall to these areas. India and Southeast Asia depend on the summer monsoon . Agriculture , for example, relies on the yearly rain. Many areas in these countries do not have large irrigation systems surrounding lakes, rivers, or snowmelt areas. Aquifers , or supplies of underground water, are shallow. The summer monsoon fills wells and aquifers for the rest of the year. Rice and tea are some crops that rely on the summer monsoon . Dairy farms, which help make India the largest milk producer in the world, also depend on the monsoon rains to keep cows healthy and well -fed. Industry in India and Southeast Asia also relies on the summer monsoon . A great deal of electricity in the region is produced by hydroelectric power plants, which are driven by water collected during the monsoons . Electricity powers hospitals, schools, and businesses that help the economies of these areas develop. When the summer monsoon is late or weak, the regions economy suffers. Fewer people can grow their own food, and large agribusinesses do not have produce to sell. Governments must import food. Electricity becomes more expensive, sometimes limiting development to large businesses and wealthy individuals. The summer monsoon has been called Indias true finance minister . Heavy summer monsoons can cause great damage . Residents of such urban areas as Mumbai, India, are used to the streets flooding with almost half a meter (1.5 feet) of water every summer. However, when the summer monsoon is stronger than expected, floods can devastate the region. In cities like Mumbai, entire neighborhoods can be drowned . In rural areas, mudslides can bury villages and destroy crops . In 2005, a strong monsoon devastated western India. As the summer monsoon blew in from the southwest, it first hit the state of Gujarat. More than 100 people died. Then, the monsoon rains hit the state of Maharashtra. Flooding in Maharashtra killed more than 1,000 people. On July 26, 2005, the city of Mumbai, Maharashtra, received almost a meter (39.1 inches) of rain.

Winter Monsoon

The Indian Oceans winter monsoon , which lasts from October to April, is less well -known than its rainy summer equivalent. The dry winter monsoon blows from the northeast. These winds start in the air above Mongolia and northwestern China. Winter monsoons are less powerful than summer monsoons in Southeast Asia, in part because the Himalaya Mountains prevent much of the wind and moisture of the monsoons from reaching the coast. The Himalayas also prevent much of the cool air from reaching places like southern India and Sri Lanka, keeping them warm all year. Winter monsoons are sometimes associated with droughts . Not all winter monsoons are dry , however. Unlike the western part of Southeast Asia, the eastern, Pacific coast of Southeast Asia experiences its rainy season in the winter. The winter monsoon brings moist air from the South China Sea to areas like Indonesia and Malaysia. Other Monsoons

The Asian-Australian monsoon , which includes the Indian Ocean, stretches from northern Australia to Russias Pacific coast. This huge monsoon wind system then stretches into the Indian Ocean. Finally, it reaches its end on the Indian coast of Africa. Monsoon winds exist in other parts of the world, too. The North American monsoon happens once a year, usually in the middle of summer. Warm, moist air from the Gulf of California blows northeast, while warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico blows northwest. These two winds meet over the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains in central Mexico. The monsoon brings moisture to the mountain ecosystem before continuing north to the U.S. states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. The North American monsoon can be a natural aid to firefighters . Summer temperatures in Arizona regularly reach more than 100 degrees Fahrenheit, making wildfires difficult to contain . The North American monsoon is also the primary water source for most desert ecosystems in the region. However, it can also confuse and interrupt daily life for people and businesses not used to dealing with heavy rain.

Monsoon Cup The Monsoon Cup is an international yachting race held every year in the state of Terengganu, Malaysia. The race is held during monsoon season, making it a challenging race for sailors.

Monsoon Zone The Monsoon Zone is a belt of low-pressure air currents that circle the Earth at the Equator. The Monsoon Zone is also known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The Monsoon Zone is usually warm and experiences mild winds. At sea, the Monsoon Zone is known as the Doldrums due to its lack of winds.

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Indian Geography

Monsoon in India: Features, Types, Regional Variations & More

The Monsoon in India is a defining climatic phenomenon that profoundly impacts the subcontinent’s weather patterns, agriculture, and daily life. Originating from various atmospheric and geographical factors, the monsoon in India brings essential rainfall that sustains the region’s agriculture and replenishes water resources. This article aims to study in detail the characteristics, types, and impacts of the Indian monsoon, exploring its intricate mechanisms and regional variations that shape the country’s weather patterns and influence multiple sectors.

What is Monsoon?

The word “ monsoon ” is derived from the Arabic word “ mausim ,” meaning “season.”
The term “ monsoon ” refers to a seasonal wind pattern characterised by significant changes in wind direction and associated precipitation.

About Monsoon in India

The Indian Monsoon is a critical climatic phenomenon characterised by seasonal wind shifts that bring heavy rains to the Indian subcontinent.
The Southwest Monsoon typically begins in June, bringing moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean, and continues until September.
The Northeast Monsoon, occurring from October to December, affects southeastern India.

Features of Monsoon in India

Some key features of the Monsoon in India are:

Seasonal Rainfall – The Monsoon in India is characterised by heavy rainfall, primarily between June and September.
Two Main Phases – It consists of the Southwest Monsoon (June to September) and the Northeast Monsoon (October to December).
Geographical Influence – The monsoon in India is influenced by the Himalayas, the Thar Desert, and the Indian Ocean, which affect wind patterns and rainfall distribution.
Diversity in Rainfall – Different regions receive varying amounts of rainfall, with coastal areas and the Western Ghats experiencing heavy precipitation, while some interior regions may receive less.
Monsoon Winds – The monsoon winds are characterised by a shift in wind direction, bringing moisture-laden winds from the southwest.

Types of Monsoon in India

There are mainly two types of Monsoon in India:

South-West Monsoon
North-East Monsoon

Each of them has been discussed in detail in the following section.

South-West Monsoon in India

The southwest monsoon in India extends from June to mid-September. During the hot summers, the Thar desert and adjoining areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent heat up considerably.
This causes low pressure over the north and central Indian subcontinent.
The sudden onset of monsoons is an important feature of southwest monsoons.
It is a rainy season for most parts of India. Hence, this season is also known as the Hot-Wet Season.

Read our detailed article on South West Monsoon in India .

North-East Monsoon in India

During October and November, the sun’s movement towards the south shifts monsoon troughs or low-pressure systems towards the south.
It results in the weakening of the trough over the Northern Plains.
Also, the withdrawal of southwest monsoon winds results in the development of a high-pressure system over that area, i.e., cold winds that swipe down from the Himalayas and Indo-Gangetic Plains towards the vast Indian Ocean.
By the beginning of October, monsoons had withdrawn from the Northern Plains.

Read our detailed article on North East or Retreating Monsoon in India.

Factors Affecting Monsoon in India

The monsoon climate arises from the shifting patterns of pressure and wind belts. Indian monsoon has its origin, and its mechanisms are related to the following factors:

ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone)

Tibetan Plateau

Jet Streams

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), also called the Equatorial convergence zone, is a low-pressure belt of converging trade winds and rising air that encircles the Earth near the Equator.
The ITCZ shifts north and south seasonally with the Sun. Over the Indian Ocean, it undergoes especially large seasonal shifts of 40°–45° of latitude.
This is due to the intense heating of the land mass that takes place over India.
This intense heating and the movement of the ITCZ create low pressure over northern India.
Meanwhile, the Indian Ocean heats up slowly, creating a zone of relatively high pressure (a subtropical anticyclone) off India’s southern coastline.
Here, it is deflected towards the right by the Coriolis force as the Earth spins.
The uplift of this air over the foothills of the Himalayas and intense convection of the landmass further increase rainfall.
At the same time, the continental landmass at the centre of Asia around Mongolia and the Himalayas experiences intense cooling as the Northern Hemisphere points away from the Sun.
The winds blow from the Northeast, away from the high-pressure cell over northern India, bringing dry conditions to most of the Indian subcontinent as they travel over land.
As a mechanical barrier, and
As a high-level heat source.
In summer, Tibet’s air is 2°C to 3°C warmer than the air over the adjoining regions, hence the heat source.
As a high-level heat source, the Tibet Plateau gives birth to a temporary jet called the Tropical Easterly Jet, which originates from the Tibet Plateau and travels over the Indian subcontinent and Indian Ocean.
They are found at heights ranging from 11 to 13 km above the surface of the Earth.
These streams are driven by substantial temperature differences between adjacent air masses.
Rather than moving in a straight path, the jet stream exhibits a wavelike flow.

Read our detailed article on Jet Streams.

Apart from polar and subtropical jet streams, which are permanent jet streams, there are some temporary jet streams.
Temporary jet streams are narrow winds with speeds of more than 94 kph in the upper, middle, and sometimes lower troposphere.
Two important ones are the Somali Jet and the African Easterly Jet or Tropical Easterly Jet, which play an essential role in the formation and progression of Indian Monsoons.
The Somalian current changes its flow direction due to upwelling and downwelling on the eastern coast of Africa.
However, with the onset of the summer monsoon, this current reverses direction, moving from south to north.
This jet reinforces the high-pressure system near Madagascar and enhances the intensity and pace of the southwest monsoons reaching India.

Regional Variations of Monsoon in India

Various regional variations in the monsoon across different parts of India include:

Western Ghats and Coastal Areas

This region experiences heavy monsoon rainfall due to orographic lift, where moist winds from the Arabian Sea are forced to rise over the Western Ghats, causing intense rain on the windward side.

Northern Plains

The Northern Plains receive moderate to heavy rainfall, with the monsoon arriving from the southwest. The region is influenced by the Indian monsoon’s northward progression and the Himalayan foothills.

Northeast India

The Northeast, including states like Assam and Meghalaya, receives very high rainfall due to its proximity to the Bay of Bengal and the influence of the Himalayan foothills.

Deccan Plateau

The Deccan Plateau receives less rainfall compared to the Western Ghats and coastal areas. The monsoon winds weaken as they cross the plateau, resulting in lower precipitation.

Arid and Semi-Arid Regions

Regions like Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat receive minimal rainfall, with the monsoon rains being sporadic and insufficient to replenish water sources fully.

Impact of Monsoon in India

The Monsoon in India has significant impact on various sectors:

A good monsoon in India ensures abundant harvests, while a poor monsoon can lead to drought and crop failures.
Adequate rainfall helps in maintaining the balance of water resources across the country.
It affects food prices, agricultural incomes, and rural employment. Good monsoon conditions can boost economic growth, while adverse conditions can strain economic resources.
Proper management of water and sanitation is essential to mitigate health risks.
Effective drainage systems and infrastructure maintenance are crucial to minimise damage and disruptions caused by monsoon rains.
However, extreme weather events can also cause environmental degradation and habitat loss.

Monsoon Prediction and Management

Weather Forecasting – Advances in meteorology enable accurate monsoon onset, intensity, and duration predictions, which are crucial for planning and preparedness.
Technology and Methods – Utilizing satellite imagery, radar systems, and climate models enhances the accuracy of weather forecasts and monitoring of monsoon patterns.
Government Initiatives – Various government programs and agencies work to improve monsoon forecasting, flood management, and disaster response to mitigate the impact of adverse weather conditions.
Policies and Schemes – Implementing policies and schemes to improve water management, agricultural practices, and infrastructure development helps address the challenges of monsoon variability.
Adaptation Strategies – Developing and implementing adaptation strategies, such as rainwater harvesting and resilient agricultural practices, assists communities in coping with the effects of the monsoon.
Agricultural and Urban Planning – Effective planning for agriculture and urban development, including improved drainage systems and crop management, is essential to mitigate the impact of monsoon-related disruptions.

The Monsoon in India is a crucial climatic system influencing the subcontinent’s weather, agriculture, and economy. Its distinct phases, regional variations, and effects on various sectors underscore its importance and complexity. As climate change and environmental challenges impact monsoon patterns, effective prediction, management, and adaptation strategies become increasingly vital. Sustainable practices and advancements in weather forecasting will be essential to mitigate the adverse effects and ensure that the monsoon continues to support India’s ecological balance and economic stability.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What causes the monsoon season.

The monsoon season is caused by the differential heating of the Indian subcontinent and the surrounding oceans, creating a low-pressure area over the land and drawing in moist air from the oceans, leading to heavy rainfall.

What is Indian monsoon?

The Indian monsoon is a seasonal wind system that brings heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent, primarily from June to September, driven by the differential heating of land and sea.

Where does monsoon start in India?

The monsoon starts in India in the state of Kerala, typically around the beginning of June.

Why monsoon is important in India?

The monsoon is important in India because it provides essential rainfall for agriculture, the main livelihood for a large portion of the population. It also replenishes water resources and supports the country’s ecosystem and biodiversity.

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[Explainer] How does the Indian monsoon develop?

The southwest monsoon that starts around the first week of June, making the first landfall in Kerala, is one of the most anticipated events of the year, as India receives 70-90 percent of its annual rainfall during this monsoon.
Various factors such as the availability of energy in the atmosphere, the intertropical convergence zone, the Coriolis effect and jet streams, play a role in facilitating the southwest monsoons.
Many efforts have been made in understanding the southwest monsoon, with two major modulators, the Indian Ocean Dipole and the Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation, discovered in the late 1990s and early 2000s. However, the Indian monsoon develops through a complex set of events, of which there is a lot yet to be discovered.

Every year, around the first week of June, a vast expanse of roiling grey clouds advances from the Arabian sea and makes landfall in Kerala to the tune of rumbling booms of thunder. Sheeting rain soon encompasses the whole state as the southwest monsoon sweeps over it.

From June to September, the southwest or summer monsoon moves across India, bathing the country in rain – during this period, India receives 70-90% of its annual rainfall. In the cooler months, from October to November, the retreating monsoon or the Northeast monsoon sets in, and brings rain to the eastern coast of India, especially Tamil Nadu.

What causes the southwest or summer monsoon?

In the ‘classical’ theory, Sir Edmund Halley in the 17 th century reasoned that the differential heating of land and water caused the Indian summer monsoon. According to him, in summer, the Asian land mass heated up to form a low-pressure system, which attracted winds from the Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal, which were at lower temperatures and thus high-pressure systems.

“But the classical theory doesn’t explain how or why monsoons are unique to certain places on Earth like India. Nor does it explain how the monsoon sets as a sudden burst,” says Arindam Chakraborty, a professor at the Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences (CAOS) in the Indian Institute of Science, who works on the Indian monsoon.

Read more: [Explainer] What factors affect the Indian summer monsoon?

What is the ‘ energetics’ theory of the monsoon?

“The more modern ‘energetics’ theory replaces the classical theory by accounting for the availability of energy to the atmosphere in the development of the monsoon,” says Chakraborty.

The physics of the Indian summer monsoon is not only affected by the amount of energy available from the sun, but also how much water vapour is available in the air and how well the water vapour can be lifted upward to form clouds.

The tilt in the Earth’s axis causes different parts of the Earth to receive direct rays from the sun during different times of the year. During summer in the northern hemisphere, the Tropic of Cancer receives direct rays from the sun, and the continental land masses in this hemisphere heat up considerably more than the oceans, creating a low-pressure zone over India and Central Asia. This causes the intertropical convergence zone (or ITCZ) – an area of low pressure that forms a band girdling the Earth – to shift northwards from the Equator towards the Tropic of Cancer. This zone is formed at the meeting of the southeast and northeast trade winds, which are winds close to the Earth’s surface that blow from east to west just north and south of the Equator, due to the Earth’s rotation from west to east.

When this shift occurs, the ITCZ shifts northwards from below India to run directly through the Indian subcontinent and strengthens the low pressure forming over this area. At the same time, the southeast trade winds, which cross the Equator due to this movement, become deflected towards the east due to the Coriolis effect (a force that causes fluids like air and water to curve as they travel across the Earth’s surface). These deflected trade winds now blow towards India from the southwest , picking up large amounts of moisture from the Arabian sea. As they hit the Indian peninsula, they cause the southwest or Indian summer monsoon.

The summer monsoon winds split into two arms with one traveling over the Arabian sea, while the other moves over the Bay of Bengal. The Arabian sea arm causes rainfall all along India’s western coast. The Bay of Bengal arm skirts the eastern coast and moves over the Bay of Bengal to strike against the Bengal coast and brings rain to the southern slopes of the Shillong plateau. The Himalayas, which act as a barrier towards the further inland movement of this arm, herd it towards northern India. The two arms converge over Punjab and Himachal Pradesh by mid-July.

The onset of southwest monsoon 2022. Photo by India Meteorological Department.

The validity of the ‘air mass’ theory for explaining how the Indian summer monsoon forms was proven in a seminal 1980 study by D.R. Sikka and Sulochana Gadgil. They analysed daily satellite images of clouds and concluded that intense cloud formations during the Indian summer monsoon and even variations in rainfall over different years were associated with the movement of the ITCZ in time and space.

However, this is not the entire story. The seasonal migration of the ITCZ not only affects surface winds (the trade winds), but also sets in motion many events in the upper levels of the atmosphere.

These events involve jet streams , which are bands of narrow, meandering, and fast-moving winds (usually 100-200 Km/h but can go up to 400 Km/h) in the upper levels of the atmosphere (between 9 km and 16 km above sea-level). There are three jet streams that are thought to affect the Indian summer monsoon – the subtropical westerly, the tropical easterly, and the Somali or cross-equatorial jet stream.

What are the subtropical, tropical easterly, and Somali jet streams? How do they affect the southwest monsoon?

The subtropical jet stream is formed when warm air from the equator meets the cool air from the polar regions and flows from west to east. During summer in the northern hemisphere, as the Tropic of Cancer begins to receive the sun’s direct rays, two things happen. One, in response to a northward shift in heating patterns during the Indian summer, the subtropical jet stream moves northwards, right over the Tibetan plateau from its position over central India . Due to this, the second event occurs – a seasonal jet stream, the tropical easterly, is set up. As the Tibetan plateau begins to heat up, the air rises to meet the subtropical westerly jet stream; the intermingling of these two currents is affected by the Coriolis force, which deflects the newly formed tropical jet stream towards the west. The tropical jet stream flows from east-to-west (10-12 km above the Gangetic plains) across India, and subsides above the Indian Ocean, where it then lends extra energy to and ‘pushes’ the southwest monsoon towards India.

The Somali jet stream is set up due to the intense heating of the air over northern Bay of Bengal from moist convection , which attracts winds from the equatorial Indian Ocean toward the Indian subcontinent forming the low-level westerlies (prevailing winds from the west toward the east in the middle latitudes) over the Arabian Sea. These westerly winds bring moisture over Indian land, thus further enhancing the convection.

“Therefore, the monsoon itself is thought to intensify the movement of the southwest winds of the lower atmosphere. The accumulation of water vapour of in the atmosphere is held responsible for the ‘burst’ or sudden onset of the Indian summer monsoon in early June, and for the rapid movement of the summer monsoon across India,” adds Chakraborty.

What is the retreating monsoon?

As summer wanes in the northern hemisphere, the ITCZ begins to drift down towards the south of the Equator, which causes a reversal in the movements of the trade winds. Now, the Asian landmass, including India, cools rapidly, and forms a large area of high pressure, while the oceans, which cool at a slower rate, form low pressure zones. This causes drier and colder air from the continent to blow offshore causing the retreating monsoon or the northeast monsoon.

The retreating monsoon leads to rainfall in Chennai. Photo by McKay Savage/ Wikimedia Commons.

In northwest India, the monsoon withdraws rapidly and completely by September. But in Southeast India, this withdrawal is more gradual, as the retreating monsoon picks up moisture form the Bay of Bengal. This brings December rains to the Tamil Nadu coast , which remained dry during the southwest monsoon.

What other factors affect the Indian monsoons?

“The Indian monsoon is an extremely complex climate pattern that is affected by many factors, of which the most well-known are the El Nino and La Nina, the Indian ocean dipole (IOD), and the EQUINOO (Equatorial Indian ocean oscillation) ”, says Chakraborty.

The El Nino and La Nina are large scale warming or cooling events of the sea surface, along the central and east-central Pacific Ocean around the Equator, the effects of which have largely been held responsible for several droughts in India. The IOD is an alternate warming and cooling of the equatorial region of the Indian Ocean in the west and east, much like the El Nino and La Nina events, and the EQUINOO refers to alternating enhanced and depressed cloud formation between the western equatorial Indian Ocean and the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean.

During the last 30 years, great strides have been made in understanding the Indian summer monsoon, with two major modulators – the IOD and the EQUINOO – discovered in the late 1990s and early 2000s.

“But we’re still a long way off from fully understanding the system; as is the case in such complex systems, there is much that needs to be investigated and explored about the Indian monsoon,” adds Chakraborty.

Banner image: The vast expanse of roiling grey clouds advances from the Arabian sea and makes landfall in Kerala, around the first week of June, kick-starting the southwest monsoon season. Photo by Anoop Joy/Flickr.

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Geography Notes

Indian monsoons: significance and peculiar features.

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Comprehensive studies of the upper layers of atmosphere have brought into sharp focus the debate over the validity of the classical concept of the monsoons.

This concept explains the basically Indian sub-continental phenomenon in terms of differential seasonal heating of land and sea which induces low and high pressure centres in successive seasons. The recent theories, on the other hand, have highlighted the role of two important factors in the origin of the Indian monsoon. These factors are—(i) influence of Tibet plateau; (ii) Jet streams.

Dr P. Koteswaram had, in an international seminar on ‘The Monsoons of the World’, held the summer time heating of the Tibetan plateau to be the most important factor in the causation and maintenance of monsoonal circulation. Again, in 1973, when a joint Indo-Soviet monsoon expedition (Monex) was organised, the Indian and Soviet meteorologists arrived at the conclusion that the Tibetan highland plays a crucial role in initiating the monsoon circulation over the Indian subcontinent.

The Tibet plateau is 600 km wide in the west and 1,000 km wide in the east, with a length of about 2,000 km. The average height of the plateau is 4,000 m. Thus, the plateau is capable of acting as a massive physical barrier. It is also one of the most important geographical controls on general circulation.

According to Maung Tun Yin, the abrupt onset of the summer monsoon at the beginning of June is related to the sudden northward shift of the Tibet plateau'(or northern plains) to a position along 40°N. According to Yin, the plateau accentuates the northward displacement of the jet stream. Similarly, during October the plateau plays an important role in pushing the jet far to the south (Fig. 13.23).

Yin, thus, gives more importance to the hydrodynamic effect of the Himalayas than to the thermally induced low pressure centre over northwestern India in monsoonal wind’ circulation.

Another process called dynamic anti- cyclogenesis has been emphasised recently. By this process, a warm-core high pressure thermal anti-cyclone appears in mid-troposphere during the south-west monsoon. On the southern side of this anti-cyclone, the tropical easterly jet is produced. The energy for the tropical easterly jet stream comes from three sources—(i) intense heating of middle and upper troposphere above the Tibetan plateau; (ii) large amounts of latent heat released by the south-west monsoon over the Indian sub continent; and (iii) heat transfer from elevated surfaces of the Himalayas and-Tibet to the upper atmospheric anti-cyclone. This tropical easterly jet stream actually originates in longitudes east of India and then travels across India and the Arabian Sea towards eastern Africa.

These upper level easterly jets create an air flow on the southern side of the Tibetan plateau reaching down to low levels over northernmost India. This phenomenon, along with the weakening of western subtropical jet south of the Himalayas and the apparent shift of the ITCZ northwards at about 25°N, has the effect of drawing the southwest monsoon into the Indian subcontinent.

In October, the conditions are reversed. The middle and upper tropospheric anti-cyclone over the Tibetan plateau disintegrates. The tropical easterly jet stream becomes non-existent. On the contrary, the subtropical westerly jet stream reestablishes itself over northern India with the result that the summer monsoon retreats towards the south.

Thus, the presence of the Tibetan highland is very important, even if there is no significant barrier effect on the flow of air.

R. Frost does not agree with Koteswaram’s assertion that the development of an anti-cyclone over Tibet is closely related to the burst of the Indian summer monsoon. He attributes the onset of monsoon over the Indian subcontinent to intense insolational heating of the atmosphere leading to the breakdown of the lower troposphere boundary and the advection or dynamic cooling of the air above it. Frost also argues that the advent of monsoon does not follow the northward displacement of the jet stream, rather it follows the latter.

Significance of Monsoon Rains in India’s Economy :

India’s economy has often been referred to as a gamble in the monsoons, and with some justification.

Nearly 80 per cent of rains in India are caused by the south-west monsoons during June-September. These rains feed about 70 per cent (or 99 million hectares) of the total net sown area of 141 million hectares. This is the rain-fed cropped area. Also, the monsoon rains account for a substantial part of the water for irrigated areas through canals, ground water, tanks and reservoirs.

In a country where more than 50 per cent of the total population is directly dependent on agriculture, a failure or inadequacy of the monsoon rains can play havoc with the economy. Rainfall is also essential for fodder crops and grass which sustain the large livestock population in India.

The livestock act as the crucial buffer for the vulnerable sections of society—especially during the lean season. Late onset and early withdrawals result in loss of valuable investments which the farmers may have made in the form of costly fertilisers, improved seeds and modern machinery.

Besides agriculture, the all-important energy sector is also heavily dependent on the monsoon rains. This is because hydel power, which accounts for about 15 per cent (as of 2008-09) of total power generation, derives the desired buffer of water resources from the monsoon rains. Inadequate water levels in the reservoirs hydel power plants during deficient monsoon situation lead to below capacity power generation. This affects the efficiency of secondary (industrial) and tertiary (services) sectors of the economy.

Both excessively high and low amounts of rainfall result in hazardous situations of drought and flood which are common in India. To protect the vulnerable sections against these adversities, the government spends large amounts from its already constrained resources. This has a dampening effect on economic growth.

Flohn attributes the seasonal reversal of wind direction on the surface to seasonal migration of planetary circulation zones. According to him, the south-west monsoon represents the northward shift of equatorial westerly low belt and the winter monsoon is simply the re-establishment of the north-east trade winds prevailing in these latitudes.

According to this hypothesis, the origin of winter monsoon from the thermal high pressure system developed over northern India due to intense cooling of landmasses, appears to be doubtful. It has now been firmly established that these high pressure systems are too shallow to cause a reversal of the prevailing wind direction.

According to another theory, just about the time the monsoon is about to lash the Kerala coast with a sudden burst of torrential rain, changes become apparent in the different layers of the atmosphere. This has led some scientists to suggest that the monsoon’s onset is related to a sudden acceleration of air from the southern hemisphere towards India.

They say that a broad belt of high pressure develops around the Mascarene Islands near Mauritius in the Indian Ocean and this generates the cross-equatorial flow known as the Somali Jet which brings heavy rain to India’s west coast. A strong, low level jet usually means a strong monsoon over peninsular India.

Scientists now know that monsoon vagaries on a 10- to 15-day time scale are related to the behaviour of the monsoon trough. When positioned normally over the Gangetic plains, it controls moisture convergence and rainfall and areas within upto 500 kin on either side of the trough get moderate, but well-distributed rain. However, the trough is not stationary and scientists explain that it sometimes moves northwards and closer to the Himalayan foothills and this can interrupt rainfall in the northern plains.

Peculiar Features of the Indian Monsoon:

The Indian monsoon is characterised by great variability. Although the annual average precipitation in India is 98 cm, it may show a deficit of 20 cm (as in 1899) and a surplus of 30 cm (as in 1907). For moderate rainfall regions, even small variability can cause severe damage to the crop. These are the regions of recurrent droughts and famines.

A delay in onset usually results in an early retreat. Such a situation is harmful to both rabi and ‘kharif crops.

Sometimes, monsoon rains have a tendency to persist in one area or be subject to long breaks during July-August. This happens just when the summer crops are growing and need plenty of moisture. Winter crops are also affected as they rely on the residue moisture from summer crops. Sometimes, a situation occurs where drought and floods affect different parts of the same state.

The monsoon precipitation over India is characterised by great spatial inequality. While certain areas like the Western Ghats and the north-east receive upto 400 cm of rain in a year, western Rajasthan receives less than 10 cm rainfall. Most of India, though, receives between 60 cm and 100 cm of rainfall.

The monsoon precipitation is concentrated only in a few months, 80 per cent of it occurring in the June-September period while the rest is distributed as—13 per cent during October- December, 3 per cent during January-March and 10 per cent during March-May (‘Mango showers’ in south India).

The Indian monsoon rainfall is characterised by an erratic nature—at times the rainfall is slight and at times, it occurs in the form of heavy downpour and torrents causing soil erosion.

There is rainfall in every month of the year in some part of the country:

i. January, February—over northern India;

ii. March—thunderstorms and heavy rains in Bengal, Assam;

iii. April-May—Mango showers over South India;

iv. July-September—south-west monsoon;

v. October-December—retreating monsoon over east coast.

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Advance Of The Indian Monsoon Onset

By: Arathy Menon

The Indian monsoon provides water for agriculture, industry and the basic water needs of more than a billion people. The monsoon onset usually takes place in south India during the beginning of June and the monsoon rains then advances in a north-westward direction, over a period of six weeks, covering the entire country by around mid-July. It is interesting to note that the monsoon rains progress in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the mean winds which are southwesterly during the monsoon season from June to September.

Figure 1: An animation showing the progression of the monsoon onset isochrones (Courtesy: India Meteorological Department).

Based on an observational dataset, Parker et al., (2016) showed that during the beginning of the monsoon season, northwesterlies prevail in the mid-troposphere, and they carry dry air from the Afghanistan region right across the Indian subcontinent as far as the southeast coast of India. During the pre-monsoon period, this layer of dry air in the mid-troposphere suppresses deep convection and rainfall. As the monsoon season begins, these northwesterlies are moistened by the moist monsoon winds which support the development of shallow cumulus and congestus clouds, slowly eroding the dry-air intrusion from the southeast. As the season develops, the northern limit of the onset progresses towards the northwest as the rate of moistening of the dry layer from southeast increases, relative to the horizontal advection of the dry air from the northwest. Volonté et al., (2020) elaborated on this finding by showing that the north-westward progression of the monsoon is a non-steady process modulated by the balance of the interaction between the moist monsoon air mass and the dry northwesterly air mass.

Figure 2: A schematic from Parker et al., (2016) showing the situation around the time of onset (around the 1 st of June, top panel) along northwest-southeast India, when the dry layer is still quite deep in the southeast but has been sufﬁciently moistened to allow the onset of deep convection there. The bottom panel shows the situation around the 15 th of July when the onset has advanced to the northwest and the dry layer extends only a few hundred kilometres into the subcontinent.

In one of our recent pieces of research, we used the Met Office Unified model at 4 km grid-spacing and found that the land-atmosphere interactions also play a major role in the advance of the monsoon by modifying the local onset. During the beginning of local onset over a region, onset or pre-monsoon showers lead to an increase in soil moisture heterogeneity. This introduces a gradient in sensible heat flux over that region. Increased gradients in sensible heat generate local mesoscale circulations which favour an earlier triggering of rains. However, as the onset advances and the soil becomes wetter, surface fluxes become less sensitive to soil moisture and then the mid-tropospheric moistening plays the major role in the further progression of the monsoon.

Figure 3: The time evolution of mean sensible heat flux (red lines) and spatial standard deviation in sensible heat flux (blue lines) at 6:30 UTC over a region in central India. Solid lines represent the values from a model simulation using CCI land ancillaries and dashed lines show values from a model simulation using IGBP land ancillaries. As the onset advances, in June and July, the mean sensible heat flux (H) falls due to the increase in soil moisture from the rains. During June, i.e., during the beginning of the onset, the spatial variability in H is at a maximum due to patchiness in rains and these gradients can result in local mesoscale circulations and rainfall during the beginning of the local onset.

A proper understanding of the basic physical mechanisms of the onset advance is a prerequisite for improving the biases in weather and climate models, eventually improving forecasts. An agrarian society like India, whose economy is mainly based on rain-fed agriculture depends a lot on accurate monsoon predictions.

Menon, A., A. G. Turner, A. Volonté, C. M. Taylor, S. Webster, and G. Martin, 2021: The role of mid‐tropospheric moistening and land surface wetting in the progression of the 2016 Indian monsoon. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. , https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.4183 .

Parker, d. j., p. willetts, c. birch, a. g. turner, j. h. marsham, c. m. taylor, s. kolusu, and g. m. martin, 2016: the interaction of moist convection and mid‐level dry air in the advance of the onset of the indian monsoon. quart. j. roy. meteor. soc. , 142 (699), 2256-2272. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2815, volonté, a., a. g. turner, and a. menon, 2020: airmass analysis of the processes driving the progression of the indian summer monsoon. quart. j. roy. meteor. soc. , 146 (731), 2949-2980. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3700 ., share this:.

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Essay On Rainy Season in English for Student (100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500 Words)


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Introduction About the Topic - Essay on Rainy Season

Rainy season is one of the most awaited seasons of the entire year . The rainy season starts in India from the month of June and continues till August . The rains are a time of joy as they relieve us from the heat and make the weather cool and beautiful.

The rains bring new life into the plants and trees. Our surroundings look green. The rains are a blessing for farmers. They can sow their different crops as per the season. It is the best season for cultivation of crops. The crops grow well and yield good produce during this season.

The extent of the rainy season and the large amount of rain varies from place to place, depending upon the local topography, wind patterns, and other climatic factors. Some places across the world have a rainy season extending up to one to three or maybe four months, while the equatorial regions experience wet and dry climates throughout the year. Rains are important for natural resources for a place’s flora, fauna, agriculture, and ecological balance.

Although a moderate rainy season is the best, too low and too much rain have bad consequences. A weak rainy season may cause famine and drought, while a very strong rainy season may result in floods. Nevertheless, the annual rainy season is essential for life on the planet.

Why is the Essay on the Rainy Season Important for Your Exams?

An essay on the rainy season is crucial for exams as it assesses your ability to articulate thoughts, express ideas coherently, and demonstrate a structured writing style. It gauges your comprehension of seasonal changes, environmental impacts, and the significance of the rainy season in various aspects of life. Crafting a well-structured essay also showcases your writing skills, a fundamental aspect of academic evaluation. Additionally, it helps examiners evaluate your knowledge on related topics, including ecology, agriculture, and the cultural aspects associated with the rainy season.

Long and Short Essay on Rainy Season in English

Here, we are providing long and short essays on the rainy season in English. These rainy season essays have been written in a very simple language, yet emphasis has been made on elaborating every aspect of the rainy season .

After going through these essays, you will get to know – what is a rainy season, what causes a rainy season, the extent/duration of the rainy season across the globe, the advantages or disadvantages of the rainy season, etc.

Help your children know about this interesting and slightly cool season using a simple and easily written essay on the rainy season. You can select any rainy season essay according to your children's class standard.

Essay on Rainy Season (100 words)

The rainy season is magical for all of us. Raindrops dance on leaves, creating a symphony of joy. We wear colorful raincoats and jump in puddles, giggling with delight. Nature gets a refreshing shower, turning everything green. Flowers bloom, and birds sing happily. Rainy days bring cozy moments indoors with hot chocolate and storybooks. Sometimes, a rainbow graces the sky, painting it with vibrant colors. It's a season of wonder and growth, teaching us about the beauty of change. The rainy season is a time of joy and discovery, creating memories that last a lifetime for kids.

Essay on Rainy Season (150 words)

The rainy season starts in India in July when winds of South West Monsoon start blowing. According to the Hindi month, it falls in Asadha and Shawan. Everyone enjoys it a lot as the environment becomes so clear, cool, and clean because of the fresh air and rainy water. Plants, trees, and grasses become so green and look very attractive. New leaves are arising in the plants and trees as they get natural water after the hottest summer. The whole environment gives a greenery look all around, which is very nice for the eyes.

The rainy season brings my favorite festivals like Raksha Bandhan, Tej, Dussehra, etc. We also enjoy eating lots of fresh fruits and well-ripe mangoes during this season. My mom cooks lots of delicious dishes (such as pakaude, Idli, halwa, tea, coffee, sandwich, etc.) for us while raining.

Essay on Rainy Season (200 words)

The rainy season is commonly known as the “wet season”. In the Indian subcontinent, it is known as the “Monsoon” season. Typically, the rainy season or monsoon lasts at least a month; in India, the season starts from June and ends in September. Strong winds and spells of rain are the most known characteristics of the rainy season.

According to the Koppen Climate classification, rainy seasons are classified into months where the average precipitation (rainfall) is at least 60 millimeters. Regions have months that categorize the rainy season like the Mediterranean, which have dry summers and wet winters. Interestingly, there is no such month like the rainy season in tropical rainforests as their rainfall is equally distributed throughout the year.

Historically, people have always related the rainy season with the growth of vegetation. However, from an agricultural perspective, food crops do not reach their full maturity and it can cause food shortages in mankind.

During the rainy season, an increase in the incidence of malaria and other water-borne diseases are also observed. The sudden onset of monsoon can also make people prone to other diseases such as jaundice, typhoid, cholera and much more.

Essay on Rainy Season (250 words)

The rainy season is a much-awaited time of the year, bringing relief from the scorching heat of summer. It usually occurs during the monsoon, when warm air rises and meets cooler air, causing moisture to condense and fall as rain. This season is a vital part of the Earth's water cycle, replenishing water sources and nourishing the soil.

One of the most enchanting aspects of the rainy season is the rhythmic sound of raindrops falling on rooftops and leaves. It creates a soothing melody that echoes through the air, providing a calming backdrop to our daily lives. The earthy fragrance that fills the air during rainfall is another delightful feature, signaling the rejuvenation of nature.

Rainy days also bring a burst of vibrant colors as flowers bloom and plants thrive with the abundance of water. Puddles become playgrounds for children, who joyfully splash around, adding a playful charm to the season. However, it's essential to remember that while the rain brings joy, it can also lead to floods and other challenges, highlighting the importance of responsible water management.

In conclusion, the rainy season is a time of renewal and celebration, offering a break from the heat and a chance for nature to flourish. Embracing the beauty of this season, while understanding its challenges, allows us to appreciate the delicate balance of our environment.

Essay on Rainy Season (300 words)

The Rainy Season or also addressed as the monsoon season. Rainy season reaches India around the middle of June and stays until late august/early September. This season is divided by heavy incessant rainfall and humid conditions. Regardless of the humidity, the cool showers bring much-needed relief from the extremely hot sun.

As it starts raining, dry barren ponds, rivers and puddles are infused with life again. Rivers start flowing again at their full capacity again and birds chirp all day long. Rainy Season, since times, has been the favorite season of the land. Rainy season fuels flora and fauna enough to bear the brunt of dry barren summers and extremely harsh freezing winters. Flowers bloom in all their full glory and crop roots soak up water during the monsoon.

Pre-monsoon showers that lead to the actual onset of the monsoon season are known by different names in different states of India. They are known as “mango showers " in Karnataka because these showers help in the early ripening of the juicy fruit. The intensity of rainfall is not uniform but is scattered vert differently in different regions. Areas like Cherrapunji receive the most rainfall while Desert areas in Rajasthan receive tiny rainfall. The rainfall distribution is influenced by numerous factors like the position of mountain ranges and the direction of monsoon winds and many more.

Essay on Rainy Season (400 words)

India is a hot country and we have the Indian Ocean to the south of the country. In summer, the air becomes very hot, so it rises very high in the sky and in its place winds, full of moisture. The air strikes against the mountains and brings rain into the regions. These winds are commonly known as monsoon winds, and the season is called the monsoon season or the rainy season.

The rainy season in India begins from July and ends in August or September. Sometimes it rains heavily for days and sometimes we cannot see the sun. The clouds run around the sun in the sky freely. Clouds are dark in color. The clouds are so dark that sometimes even the middle of the day looks like night.

When the first rain falls, the whole India celebrates. Everybody goes mad and full of joy. The frogs croak in the rain water so loudly. The farmers go out with their bullocks on the farm. Farmers plough their fields, and within a few days the whole earth becomes green with grass and plants. The leaves of all trees and plants get washed. The scenery looks very beautiful and soothing to our eyes. The animals became happy too. They graze happily on the grass. Rare sights like the rainbow and the dance of the peacock can be seen.

There are some disadvantages also in the rainy season. Various new insects are born.

They make it impossible for us to read and write. We can see grass-hoppers, snakes, earthworms and other insects during this season. The roads are flooded in many rivers. Crops get destroyed because of heavy rain. Poor people have no shelter, Some houses fall down due to excessive rain.

For farmers, the rainy season is a period of optimism and hard work. The rain provides the much-needed water for crops, ensuring a bountiful harvest. Agricultural activities, such as planting and cultivation, are in full swing during this time, contributing significantly to the livelihoods of many.

In conclusion, the rainy season is a multifaceted phenomenon that brings both joy and challenges. Its impact extends beyond the physical environment, influencing cultural practices, agriculture, and daily life. While the rain rejuvenates nature and fosters a sense of community, it also requires careful management to mitigate potential risks. Embracing the essence of the rainy season involves appreciating the delicate balance between its positive and challenging aspects.

Essay on Rainy Season (500 words)

The rainy season, also known as monsoon, is a captivating phase that brings relief from the scorching heat of summer. It typically occurs in tropical regions, marking a transition characterized by heavy rainfall and a lush green landscape. This season holds a special place in the hearts of many, as it rejuvenates the earth and offers a break from the sweltering temperatures.

One of the most enchanting aspects of the rainy season is the soothing sound of raindrops falling on different surfaces. The rhythmic pattern creates a melodic symphony that resonates with nature enthusiasts and casual observers alike. This auditory experience is a therapeutic retreat for those seeking solace and tranquility.

The earth undergoes a remarkable transformation during the rainy season. Barren landscapes suddenly burst into life with vibrant hues of green as vegetation thrives on the ample water supply. Rivers and lakes swell, replenishing their depleted levels and sustaining the diverse ecosystems that rely on them. The aroma of wet soil permeates the air, creating a distinctive scent that adds to the sensory richness of the season.

While the rainy season brings a sense of renewal, it also poses challenges, especially in regions prone to flooding. Excessive rainfall can lead to waterlogging and disrupt normal life. However, communities have adapted over time, implementing drainage systems and flood control measures to mitigate the impact of heavy rains.

Agriculture benefits significantly from the rainy season, as crops receive the much-needed nourishment to grow and flourish. Farmers eagerly anticipate this time of the year, as it marks the beginning of planting and sowing activities. The abundance of water ensures a bountiful harvest, contributing to food security and the livelihoods of those dependent on agriculture.

Rainy days often prompt people to indulge in cozy activities. The sound of raindrops against windows creates a conducive atmosphere for reading a book, enjoying a cup of hot tea, or engaging in introspective moments. It fosters a sense of introspection and contemplation, encouraging individuals to slow down and appreciate the simple pleasures of life.

The monsoon season is also celebrated in various cultural and religious festivals around the world. These festivities often involve rituals expressing gratitude for the life-giving force of rain. People come together to celebrate, forming a sense of community as they share the joy of nature's abundance.

On a global scale, the rainy season plays a crucial role in maintaining the Earth's water cycle. It contributes to the replenishment of groundwater, ensuring a sustainable supply of water for various purposes. Additionally, the cooling effect of rain helps regulate temperatures, mitigating the impact of extreme heat.

In conclusion, the rainy season is a multifaceted phenomenon that captivates people with its beauty, challenges, and contributions to the environment. It symbolizes renewal, growth, and the interconnectedness of life on Earth. While it may bring inconveniences, the benefits far outweigh the drawbacks, making it a season to be embraced and celebrated.

Frequently Asked Questions

Question 1:How do you write a rainy season essay?

Answer: To write a rainy season essay, start with an introduction about the rainy season's importance and its duration. After that describe the weather, its effects on nature, agriculture, and people. Mention any cultural or regional celebrations related to it. Conclude by sharing personal thoughts or experiences regarding the rainy season.

Question 2: Why is the rainy season the best?

Answer: The rainy season is often considered the best because it brings relief from hot weather, replenishes water sources, and nourishes the earth, promoting greenery in the surrounding. It also provides a cozy atmosphere for indoor activities and a soothing ambiance for relaxation, making it a favorite season for many people.

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India’s Ominous Future: Too Little Water, or Far Too Much

By Bryan Denton and Somini Sengupta Nov. 25, 2019

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Decades of short-sighted government policies are leaving millions defenseless in the age of climate disruptions – especially the country’s poor.

August 2019 — Mumbai

June 2019 — Charam, Uttar Pradesh

October 2019 — Chennai

Throughout India, the number of days with very heavy rains has increased over the last century.

At the same time, the dry spells between storms have gotten longer. Showers that reliably penetrate the soil are less common.

For a country that relies on rain for the vast share of its water, that combination is potentially ruinous.

The monsoon is central to Indian life and lore. It turns up in ancient Sanskrit poetry and in Bollywood films. It shapes the fortunes of millions of farmers who rely on the rains to nourish their fields. It governs what you eat. It even has its own music.

Climate change is now messing with the monsoon, making seasonal rains more intense and less predictable. Worse, decades of short-sighted government policies are leaving millions of Indians defenseless in the age of climate disruptions – especially the poor.

After years of drought, a struggling farmer named Fakir Mohammed stares at a field of corn ruined by pests and unseasonably late rains. Rajeshree Chavan, a seamstress in Mumbai, has to sweep the sludge out of her flooded ground floor apartment not once, but twice during this year’s exceptionally fierce monsoon. The lakes that once held the rains in the bursting city of Bangalore are clogged with plastic and sewage. Groundwater is drawn faster than nature can replenish it.

Water being water, people settle for what they can find. In a parched village on the eastern plains, they gather around a shallow, fetid stream because that’s all there is. In Delhi, they worship in a river they hold sacred, even when it’s covered in toxic foam from industrial runoff. In Chennai, where kitchen taps have been dry for months, women sprint downstairs with neon plastic pots under their arms when they hear a water truck screech to a halt on their block.

The rains are more erratic today. There’s no telling when they might start, nor how late they might stay. This year, India experienced its wettest September in a century; more than 1,600 people were killed by floods; and even by the time traditional harvest festivals rolled around in October, parts of the country remained inundated.

Even more troubling, extreme rainfall is more common and more extreme. Over the last century, the number of days with very heavy rains has increased, with longer dry spells stretching out in between. Less common are the sure and steady rains that can reliably penetrate the soil. This is ruinous for a country that gets the vast share of its water from the clouds.

The problem is especially acute across the largely poor central Indian belt that stretches from western Maharashtra State to the Bay of Bengal in the east: Over the last 70 years, extreme rainfall events have increased threefold in the region, according to a recent scientific paper, while total annual rainfall has measurably declined.

“Global warming has destroyed the concept of the monsoon,” said Raghu Murtugudde, an atmospheric scientist at the University of Maryland and an author of the paper. “We have to throw away the prose and poetry written over millennia and start writing new ones!”

India’s insurance policy against droughts, the Himalayas, is at risk, too. The majestic mountains are projected to lose a third of their ice by the end of the century if greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise at their current pace.

But, as scientists are quick to point out, climate change isn’t the only culprit to blame for India’s water woes. Decades of greed and mismanagement are far more culpable. The lush forests that help to hold the rains continue to be cleared. Developers are given the green light to pave over creeks and lakes. Government subsidies encourage the over-extraction of groundwater.

The future is ominous for India’s 1.3 billion people. By 2050, the World Bank estimates , erratic rainfall, combined with rising temperatures, stand to “depress the living standards of nearly half the country’s population.”

October 2019 — Turkabad Kharadi, Maharashtra

Rural India

Drought in the Marathwada region

When rains fail, it compounds other problems. This year, a pest infestation in Maharashtra combined with drought to devastate millet and corn.

In an effort to save their crops, the region’s farmers drew heavily on groundwater that is dwindling fast.

The Marathwada region , stretching out across western India, is known for its cruel, hot summers. Hardly any rivers cut through it, which means that Marathwada’s people rely almost entirely on the monsoon to fill the wells and seep into the black cotton soil.

Marathwada is also an object lesson in how government decisions that have nothing to do with climate change can have profoundly painful consequences in the era of climate change.

In October, just weeks before the traditional harvest season, Fakir Mohammed led me through his family’s one-and-a-half-acre plot of land. A neem tree stood in the middle of the fields. Lie under it, Mr. Mohammed said with pride, and you’ll never get sick.

The same could not be said of his land.

The rains had been deficient for most of the last nine years. This year, they came late, and when they came, the thirsty ground drank everything.

Then, an infestation of fall armyworm attacked Mr. Mohammed’s corn. The millet was ravaged by a fly. The cotton had flowered, but Mr. Mohammed could tell it would be a paltry harvest. “We worked very hard,” he said. “But we’ll get nothing out of this.”

Worse, the rains this year did nothing to solve the community’s drinking water shortage. Even at the end of the monsoon, Mr. Mohammed’s well was dry. A dam nearby, built to supply drinking water to his village and nearly 20 others, had turned to scrubland, fit only for a few skinny cows to graze.

Water is so precious that the women of his family said they drank half a cup if they wanted a whole one. They went without a daily shower so their children could go to school clean and fresh. When their nerves were frayed, they smacked a child who spilled a cup by accident.

Every day, four government trucks came down the muddy lane to fill the village water tank, which met a fraction of what the village needs. Most people bought drinking water from far away.

Mr. Mohammed was grateful for whatever the clouds had to give this year, but he was also anxious. “There’s no water to drink, but at least it’s good for the fields,” he said. “I’m scared in my heart. I don’t know what’s going to happen in the future.”

Mr. Mohammed, who says he is around 60, is not wrong to worry. Since 1950, annual rainfall has declined by 15 percent across Marathwada, according to an analysis by Roxy Mathew Koll, a monsoon specialist at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology. In that same period, cloudbursts have shot up threefold.

But here’s what’s shocking. Also during that same period, Marathwada, along with the rest of India, has seen a boom in the production of one of thirstiest crops on earth: sugar cane.

Down the road from Mr. Mohammed’s village, on land that gets water from an upstream dam, farmers had planted acres and acres with sugar cane. Why? Because sugar mills had sprung up across the state, some owned by politicians and their friends. They were ready to pay handsomely for cane.

Bizarrely, the taxpayers of India, one of the most water-stressed countries in the world, have aided sugar producers handsomely. The government subsidizes electricity, encouraging farmers to pump groundwater for their sugarcane fields, as well as fertilizers, which are used in vast quantities for sugar. State-owned banks offer cheap loans, which are sometimes written off, especially when politicians are courting farmers’ votes. This year, the government has approved nearly $880 million in export subsidies for sugar mills.

With all those perks, sugar cane production has grown faster than any other crop since independence from British rule in 1947, making India the world’s biggest sugar producer, according to an analysis by Ramanan Laxminarayan, a researcher at the Princeton Environmental Institute. Three-fourths of irrigated sugar cane production takes place in areas under “extremely high water stress,” the World Resources Institute found.

In October, just before the Hindu festival to mark the harvest, another Marathwada farmer named Ashok Pawar sent me pictures of ruin: Freakish rains had washed away his soy and mung beans. No one in his village had seen anything like it so late in the season.

Urban India

Floods in Mumbai

In another compound disaster, this year’s monsoons in Mumbai coincided with high tides on the Mithi.

Sewers were overwhelmed, and fetid water backed up into the streets.

The image of the pot-bellied Hindu god, Ganesha, that hangs above Savita Vilas Kasurde’s narrow doorway is intended to keep obstacles away from her family’s path.

The same cannot be said for the Mithi River, which flows a few steps from Ms. Kasurde’s door. Its path has been blocked every which way as it winds through this city of 13 million people.

Mumbai’s international airport straddles the Mithi; you can see the planes taking off from Ms. Kasurde’s street. Sewage and rubbish pour into the Mithi. A vast spread of high-rises have been built on land reclaimed from the Mithi, along with higgledy-piggledy working class enclaves like this one, perched precariously on its edge. They are the ones that flood first and flood worst after a heavy rain. The city’s other natural defense against floods, mangrove trees, have been pulled out to make room for concrete.

Ms. Kasurde is a seasoned veteran. When the water rises, she hauls her fridge on top of the highest table, unplugs the television, wraps her children’s school books in plastic. When the water is up to her knees, she takes it all upstairs to the second floor bedroom. The power goes out when it rains hard. Going to the shared neighborhood toilet means wading through fetid waters. “We just sit in the dark,” said Ms. Kasurde.

Mumbai got more rain this year than it had in 65 years, and several times this season, it came in exceptionally heavy downpours. The drains overflowed. The lanes filled with muck. Commuter trains were disrupted. Flights were diverted. Several times in Mrs. Kasurde’s neighborhood, schools turned to storm shelters. Those without an upstairs room sloshed through the water to get there.

After each flood, as the waters began to recede, they returned to cover their noses and sweep the water and sludge out of their homes. Mosquitoes can breed in the puddles of dirty water. A dengue outbreak was the last thing they needed.

This is what worried Rajeshree Chavan nearby when I saw her in the middle of the monsoon. She had managed to save her sewing machine, the source of her livelihood, twice this year when her ground floor room flooded. She had to throw away a sack of rice and her kids’ clothes.

It infuriated her that politicians came through only when they were trolling for votes. Even the state’s top politician was here earlier in the year, she said. He wanted the neighborhood’s support for the governing Bharatiya Janata Party, she recalled. He promised new houses for people on higher ground, in the northern suburbs of the city. He left after giving symbolic plastic keys to five families.

Bryan Denton , a photographer based in India, and Somini Sengupta , the Times’s global climate reporter, visited cities and villages around India to see how climate change and misguided policies are upending the country’s relationship to a precious resource.

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Open access
Published: 04 August 2023

Regional and temporal variability of Indian summer monsoon rainfall in relation to El Niño southern oscillation

K. S. Athira 1 , 2 , 3 ,
M. K. Roxy 1 ,
Panini Dasgupta 1 , 4 , 5 ,
J. S. Saranya 1 , 3 , 6 ,
Vineet Kumar Singh 1 , 7 , 8 &
Raju Attada 2

Scientific Reports volume 13 , Article number: 12643 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Ocean sciences

An Author Correction to this article was published on 15 September 2023

This article has been updated

The Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) exhibits significant variability, affecting the food and water security of the densely populated Indian subcontinent. The two dominant spatial modes of ISMR variability are associated with the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the strength of the semi-permanent monsoon trough along with related variability in monsoon depressions, respectively. Although the robust teleconnection between ENSO and ISMR has been well established for several decades, the major drivers leading to the time-varying relationship between ENSO and ISMR patterns across different regions of the country are not well understood. Our analysis shows a consistent increase from a moderate to substantially strong teleconnection strength between ENSO and ISMR from 1901 to 1940. This strengthened relationship remained stable and strong between 1941 and 1980. However, in the recent period from 1981 to 2018 the teleconnection decreased consistently again to a moderate strength. We find that the ENSO–ISMR relationship exhibits distinct regional variability with time-varying relationship over the north, central, and south India. Specifically, the teleconnection displays an increasing relationship for north India, a decreasing relationship for central India and a consistent relationship for south India. Warm SST anomalies over the eastern Pacific Ocean correspond to an overall decrease in the ISMR, while warm SST anomalies over the Indian Ocean corresponds to a decrease in rainfall over the north and increase over the south of India. The central Indian region experienced the most substantial variation in the ENSO–ISMR relationship. This variation corresponds to the variability of the monsoon trough and depressions, strongly influenced by the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and North Atlantic Oscillation, which regulate the relative dominance of the two spatial modes of ISMR. By applying the PCA-Biplot technique, our study highlights the significant impacts of various climate drivers on the two dominant spatial modes of ISMR which account for the evolving nature of the ENSO–ISMR relationship.

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Rainfall variability patterns in Nigeria during the rainy season

Introduction.

Each year, the Indian subcontinent receives about 78% of its annual rainfall during the southwest monsoon season from June to September 1 . Interannual variations of the Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) are only about 9% of its mean but have significant socio-economic impact 2 , 3 , especially on the agriculture sector, water availability and GDP of the country 4 , 5 . On the interannual timescales, ISMR is affected by several ocean-atmospheric coupled climate phenomena such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), Atlantic Meridional Oscillation (AMO) and Atlantic Zonal Mode (AZM) 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 . ENSO being the largest tropical modulator of the Indian monsoon, is also the largest interannual climate signal in the tropics 15 , 16 . The changes in the zonal Walker circulation during El Niño cause anomalous subsidence over the Indian landmass, thereby suppressing the monsoon circulation and a subsequent reduction in rainfall over the Indian subcontinent 17 , 18 . The entire west coastal belts, monsoon zone and eastern regions are affected due to El Niño related droughts.

Generally, there are two major contributors to the interannual variability of ISMR 7 . One is the external forcing, which originates in response to climate variability and change. The second one is the internal component due to the intraseasonal activity manifested through the active and break phases of the monsoon 10 , 19 , 20 . The interannual variability of ISMR occurs partly due to external forcing and partly due to internal forcing 21 .

ISMR exhibits large spatial variability with surplus and deficit rainfall over different regions of the subcontinent. Interannual variability of ISMR is more evident when we consider the spatial variability of rainfall. Mishra et al. 22 identified two major spatial patterns of ISMR variability and noticed that these two ISMR modes are majorly related to ENSO and the strength of the semi-permanent monsoon trough respectively. They note that the prominence of the monsoon trough is closely related to the frequency of monsoon depressions that form over the Bay of Bengal. Notably, the second pattern of ISMR has a declining strength throughout the last century (1901–2018) due to the weakening of monsoon circulation and the declining number of monsoon depressions 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 . As a result, there is a reduction in rainfall over the core monsoon areas of central-eastern India and the west coast of India 23 , 24 . However, their study does not explore how these variability and associated teleconnections manifest regionally, over different parts of the country for different time periods. The strength of the monsoon trough and frequency of depression is also related to the post-ENSO sea surface temperature (SST) conditions. Chowdary et al. 28 found that El Niño events result in the warming of the north Indian Ocean during the subsequent summer. This warming is primarily driven by air-sea interactions occurring within the tropical Indian Ocean. While these studies are helpful in gaining overall insights into the ENSO–ISMR relationship, the regional variability and its long-term changes are less understood 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 . Since the effect of ENSO is not the same for different regions of the country, understanding the regional ENSO–ISMR relationship is important for identifying and improving monsoon forecast skills also.

The inverse relationship between ENSO–ISMR is the primary source of predictability of ISMR 32 , 33 , 34 . However, the ENSO–ISMR inverse relationship shows a weakening trend in the recent decade after the 1980s owing to several factors such as increased surface warming over Eurasia 35 , strengthening and poleward shift of the jet streams over the North Atlantic 36 , increased greenhouse gas concentration 37 and shift in the surface wind circulation pattern over the Indo-Pacific region 38 . Importantly, the ENSO–ISMR inverse relation also varied spatially over the past century. Mahendra et al. (2021) 39 studied this spatial variation and suggested that the ENSO–ISMR relationship is modified in different epochs with a steady relationship in northern central India and southern peninsula and a decreasing relationship in central and east India. This spatial variability is linked to anomalous upward motion associated with Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and the westward extension of low-level cyclonic circulation from the Western-North Pacific region.

In this study, our primary focus is to examine the changes in the relationship between ENSO and ISMR, during the summer monsoon months (JJAS). We specifically investigate how the major drivers of ISMR influence this relationship. Our first objective is to analyze the associations between the dominant spatial modes of ISMR and various climate processes, including IOD, PDO, North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), Quasi–Biennial Oscillation (QBO), Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO), AMO, and Atlantic Niño. We aim to understand how these different climate modes locally impact the ENSO–ISMR relationship. Our second objective aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the reasons behind the changing ENSO–ISMR relationship across different regions of the country (south, central, and north India).

Results and discussion

Dominant modes of ismr variability and its drivers.

The dominant modes of spatial variability pattern of ISMR are isolated by employing EOF analysis on standardised rainfall data 22 . Figure 1 a–b shows the first two leading EOFs of standardised ISMR from 1901 to 2018. The first mode shows rainfall anomalies all over India, particularly the central and north-western parts of India and explains 15% of the total variance. A dipole pattern is seen in the second mode of EOF in which positive rainfall anomalies are present in Gangetic plains and negative anomalies are seen in south India or vice versa (Fig. 1 b). A reduction in rainfall is also observed over the core monsoon areas of central-eastern India and most parts of west coast as observed by Roxy et al. 23 and Vishnu et al. 24 . Darshana et al. 40 noticed positive rainfall anomalies over the western-southern peninsular India and negative rainfall anomalies over the eastern Indo-Gangetic plains and attributed it to the Indo-western Pacific Ocean Capacitor (IPOC) mode. EOF2 explains 8.5% of the total variance. The time series corresponding to these first two modes (principal components) are named as PC1 and PC2 (Fig. 1 c, d). PC1 indicates the first mode of EOF. The Niño 3.4 time series is also plotted along with PC1 and there is a strong correlation between them with a coefficient value of 0.54 which is statistically significant at the 95% confidence level (Fig. 1 c). PC2 indicates the second mode of EOF and shows an increasing trend (Fig. 1 d). This means that the negative and positive rainfall anomaly pattern over Gangetic plains and southern peninsula is increasing respectively. Along with this PC2 time series, the vorticity at 850 hPa averaged over 80°E–100°E, 10°N–30°N (representing the strength of the monsoon trough) and the frequency of monsoon depression are represented in Fig. 1 d. The correlation of PC2 with vorticity at 850 hPa and depression frequency is found out to be -0.36 and -0.28 respectively which is statistically significant at the 95% confidence level.

( a ) EOF1 ( b ) EOF2 of standardised ISMR. ( c ) time series of EOF1 represented as PC1 correlated with Niño 3.4 time series ( d ) time series of EOF2 represented as PC2 correlated with the time series of depression frequency and time series of vorticity at 850 hPa. ( e ) and ( f ) Correlated global SST pattern of ISMR EOF1 and EOF2 respectively ( g ) and ( h ) Correlation of PC1 and PC2 with both wind (700-1000 hPa mean) and vertical velocity at 850 hPa respectively. Colour scale denotes correlation coefficient and standardized anomaly of rainfall. This figure is created using Python 3.8.0 software ( https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-380/ ).

In Fig. 1 e, PC1 shows a positive correlation with SST over Niño 3.4 region, implying that a reduction in rainfall over India in EOF1 mode is associated with the warm SSTs over the Niño 3.4 region signifying the influence of El Niño in causing a decrease in monsoon rainfall. In Fig. 1 f, PC2 shows a positive correlation with the SSTs over north Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal) and the South China Sea. This indicates that a reduction in rainfall over the Gangetic plains and an increase in rainfall over the southern peninsula is related to warm SSTs over the north Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal) and South China Sea. These warm SSTs further indicate the influence of Indian Ocean warming in bringing about this condition on long term trends in ISMR.

In order to identify the major drivers of ISMR variability corresponding to EOF1 and EOF2, correlation analysis is carried out for PC1 and PC2 with mean winds at 700 – 1000 hPa to study the associated low-level circulations and omega at 500 hPa. In Fig. 1 g, PC1 (indicating reduced ISMR) is positively correlated with the omega at 500 hPa which means that the decrease in rainfall over India is related to the increased omega at 500 hPa. It can also be observed from the same figure that PC1, when correlated with the low-level winds, exhibits a weak circulation pattern related to the reduced rainfall. Similarly, in Fig. 1 h, PC2 is negatively correlated with the omega at 500 hPa over the southern peninsula, implying that an increase in rainfall there is related to a decrease in omega. In addition, PC2 is positively correlated with the omega at 500 hPa over the Gangetic plains signifying that a decrease in rainfall over the Gangetic plains is related to the increase in omega. Also, PC2 when correlated with low level winds show anomalous westerlies, that can carry more moisture from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal favouring the formation of monsoon depressions.

The effect of different climate modes on regional ISMR variability

Apart from ENSO, various other climate modes ranging from interannual to multidecadal timescales, such as IOD 7 , 41 , 42 , IOB 43 , PDO 44 , 45 , Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) 46 , QBO 47 , NAO 48 , 49 , Atlantic Niño 50 , and AMO 51 , 52 , also influence ISMR. To explore the role of these different climate drivers on the ISMR variability, correlation matrix and biplot analysis are used. The major drivers, ENSO and the strength of the monsoon trough have 0.5 (Fig. 1 c) and − 0.36 (Fig. 1 d) correlation coefficient values with the ISMR. While these two factors are dominant in regulating ISMR variability, this is also an indication that there are other factors that lead to ISMR variation. Hence the various climate modes are taken into consideration and their role in the ISMR variability is analysed using the correlation matrix and biplot. We find that the correlation values between the first two ISMR variability patterns and AMO and Atlantic Niño index are weak and insignificant ( p > 0.05). Therefore, these two climate modes are not discussed further in our study. Regardless, a subsequent mode of ISMR variability linked to the Atlantic Niño related variability cannot be entirely dismissed. Figure 2 a represents the correlation matrix of different climate indices. This gives the correlation between different climate indices with PC1 and PC2. The PC1 and PC2 in the PCA biplot is different from the PC1 and PC2 of ISMR variability. Here in the biplot PC1 and PC2 refer to a leading mode of covariability between different climate modes. Since PC1 and PC2 are two independent processes their correlation is very low (-0.03). The PCA-biplot (Fig. 2 b), represents the interrelationship between different climate modes. In two dimensional biplot space, an arrow represents a variable and its length denotes the percentage of variance. The unit circle implies the maximum correlation value one. There are two independent processes ISMR PC1 and ISMR PC2. The processes that cluster around ISMR PC1 are related to each other and those which cluster around ISMR PC2 are interrelated. The processes close to x-axis are grouped under one category and the ones close to y-axis are grouped under other. We observe that PC1 is connected with ENSO, IOD, PDO and IPO. Meanwhile, PC2 is associated with the NAO, IPO, PDO and IOB mode index along with monsoon trough (MT) strength and depression frequency (MDF). MT is connected to both PC1 and PC2. Physically it means that MT is related to both ENSO and internal factors related to monsoon variability. PDO, IPO, and MT contribute to both PC1 and PC2 spatial patterns of rainfall. The biplot space does not explain the QBO well (the length of arrow is short). From the biplot we can infer that the MDF vector and the PDO vector has an out of phase relationship. This finding aligns with the study by Vishnu et al. 13 that over the past seven decades the monsoon depressions that form over the Bay of Bengal has an out of phase relationship with PDO due to the variation in the relative humidity. The natural climate variability is driven by various climatic oscillations and understanding the physical mechanism for the variation in the spatial and temporal scale variability of ISMR is still complex as it is influenced by large scale atmospheric, oceanic and coupled climate phenomena 53 .

( a ) Correlation matrix and ( b ) PCA-Biplot of different climate mode indices i.e., (IPC1) (PC1 with ISMR), (IPC2) (PC2 with ISMR), Niño 3.4 index, yearly monsoon depression frequency (MDF), monsoon trough (MT) index defined as vorticity anomalies at 850 hPa averaged over 80˚E-100˚E, 10˚N-30˚N, Indian Ocean Basin (IOB) mode index calculated from the first EOF of Indian Ocean SST, Dipole Mode Index (DMI) for Indian Ocean Dipole, tri-pole index for Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO), Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) index, index for North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), Quasi Biennial Oscillation (QBO) index for the period 1901 –2018. The axes represent the principal components from the PCA of the correlation matrix. PC1 and PC2 explain 21.22% and 19.95% variance of the total variance respectively (together 41% variability). This figure is created using Python 3.8.0 ( https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-380/ ).

To provide the physical interpretation of the biplot, we have done a composite analysis considering the phases of the EOF modes (PC1 and PC2). Here Fig. 3 a–c represents the composites of ISMR, SST and geopotential height when PC1 is greater than its positive one standard deviation values and vice-versa when PC1 is in the negative phase (Fig. 3 d–f). We notice that the ENSO and PDO patterns are present in the ISMR PC1 composites. Similarly, Fig. 3 g–i represent the composites when PC2 is greater than its positive standard deviation values and vice-versa when PC2 is in the negative phase (Fig. 3 j–l). Here a north–south dipole pattern in the rainfall anomaly is observed, indicative of strength of monsoon trough and variability in monsoon depressions. In the composites of ISMR PC2, the role of NAO and IOB is prominent.

Composites of seasonal (JJAS mean) ISMR, SST and Z500 (geopotential height at 500 hPa) anomalies for the years when ( a–c ) PC1 greater than its positive standard deviation value, ( d–f ) PC1 less than its negative standard deviation value, ( g–i ) PC2 greater than its positive standard deviation, ( j–l ) PC2 less than its negative standard deviation. This figure is created using Python 3.8.0 software ( https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-380/ ).

Changing ENSO-ISMR relationship and regional rainfall variability

In order to understand the association between ENSO and ISMR, a correlation analysis is carried out between their representative indices. Figure 4 a shows the spatial correlation between Niño 3.4 SST (JJAS (June, July, August, September)) anomaly and ISMR anomaly, during the period 1901 – 2018. Overall, there is a negative correlation for most parts of India while a very weak negative correlation exists for the Western Ghats, east India and northeast India. In south India, central India and parts of north India the correlation of ENSO and rainfall varies between -0.2 to -0.6 which is statistically significant at the 95% confidence level.

( a ) spatial map of correlation between ISMR and ENSO from 1901 to 2018 ( b ) 30 year running correlation between ISMR and Niño 3.4 SST. ( c–e ) spatial map of correlation between ISMR and ENSO during 1901–1940, 1941–1980 and 1981–2018. ( f ) The variability (standard deviation) in the running correlation between ISMR and Niño 3.4 time series ( g ) 30-year running correlation between the mean rainfall at the three boxes (north, central and south) and Niño 3.4 SST. This figure is created using Python 3.8.0 software ( https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-380/ ).

To see if this ENSO–ISMR relationship is consistent or varying, a running correlation is done which helps us to understand the evolution of ENSO–ISMR relationship with time. Figure 4 b represents the 30-year running correlation of ENSO–ISMR relationship for the period 1901 to 2018. The correlation between the ENSO and ISMR varies between -0.4 to -0.7. Based on the change in the ENSO–ISMR relationship, the entire period from 1901 to 2018 is divided into three periods; 1901–1940, 1941–1980 and 1981–2018. From 1901 the correlation between ENSO and ISMR started rising from -0.41 until 1940. The ENSO–ISMR relationship then became stable for the period 1941 to 1980 with a very strong negative correlation between the values -0.6 to -0.7. Then after 1980, the correlation began to decline from a coefficient value of -0.6 to -0.4 which indicates that after 1980, the ENSO–ISMR relationship is weakening, which is in agreement with Seetha et al. 32 . Theses epochs also coincides with positive, negative and positive PDO phases respectively.

The Fig. 4 c–e shows the spatial map of the correlation between ISMR anomalies and Niño 3.4 region SST anomalies (JJAS) for different periods. This shows that the ENSO–ISMR relationship not only shows temporal variability but also has a strong spatial variability. From 1901 to 1940, the relationship was prominent over south India, parts of the west and north India. In the middle period from 1941–1980 the relationship between the ENSO and ISMR was strong over most parts of the country as seen from high negative correlation values. After 1980, the relationship between ENSO and ISMR weakens except for south and north India. Central India and Western Ghats are devoid of a negative interrelationship and a weak positive correlation can also be observed. Chakravorty et al. 54 pointed out that in the recent years during the development phase of El Niño, central India displays weak El Niño ISMR relationship while for south India a strong negative correlation is observed. Comparing the ENSO–ISMR relationship for all the three periods, it can be said that for south India the relationship is stable for all the three periods. For central India the ENSO–ISMR relationship has been decreasing in the recent period and for north India there has been a gradual increase in the relationship from 1901 to 2018.

This variability in the ENSO–ISMR relationship for different regions of India can be visualised in the spatial map of running correlation. In Fig. 4 f, along with the standard deviation, a 30-year running correlation is carried out between JJAS monthly rainfall anomaly at each grid point in the Indian region and Niño 3.4 SST anomaly during JJAS from 1901–2018 to distinctly point out the regions of variability. The standard deviation of the running correlation denotes the variability in correlation over time. We identify the regions where the variability in the correlation is large and small and accordingly three boxes are selected (Fig. 4 f). These three boxes, corresponding to the north (71˚E–84˚E, 27˚N–31˚N), central (72˚E–89 ˚E, 21˚N–26˚N) and south India (73˚E–81˚E, 13˚N–19˚N) represent moderate, largely variable and low correlation respectively with the Niño 3.4 time series. We observe low variability in the ENSO–ISMR relationship in the southern peninsula. A moderate variability is observed in the north Indian region. The highest variability in the ENSO–ISMR relationship is observed in the central Indian region.

To explore the ENSO–ISMR relationship for three different regions during different periods of time, a time series analysis of the running correlation for the three regions is carried out. Figure 4 g shows the 30-year running correlation between the mean rainfall over the north, central and south regions and Niño 3.4 SST. Over south India, the ENSO–ISMR relationship is consistent over the last century (1901–2018) as shown by near-constant running correlation over this region (the correlation value varies between -0.3 to -0.6). The relationship between ENSO and the north India rainfall has increased with time as seen from the correlation values increasing from -0.4 to -0.7 during the same period. The ENSO–ISMR relationship exhibits the highest variability over central India. From 1901 to 1940 the correlation between rainfall of central India and Niño 3.4 was weak (approximately -0.3 to -0.5). During the period 1941 to 1980, a strong correlation was observed (approximately -0.5 to -0.6). Again, during the recent period (1981 to present), the correlation with Niño 3.4 SST has become weak (approximately between -0.1 to -0.3). Before 1980, the correlation varied similarly at all three regions with increasing values till 1980 suggesting the strong ENSO–ISMR relationship. But after 1980, there is a significant change in the ENSO–ISMR relationship for north, central and south India where there is an increasing, weakening and stable correlation respectively. For north India, the relationship between ENSO and ISMR becomes strong after 1980 as seen by an increase in the correlation values. For central India, the ENSO–ISMR relationship has been weakening in recent years. South India shows a stable negative correlation ranging between -0.3 to -0.6 for the entire period, indicating that the ENSO–ISMR relationship remains almost constant in this region throughout the study period.

The Fig. 5 shows the 30-year running correlation for rainfall over each of the three regions over India, with respect to the two drivers, ENSO and the monsoon trough. -1*Niño 3.4 represents La Niña condition and hence shows a positive correlation with rainfall of south India, central India and north India. For south India (Fig. 5 a) the influence of both the factors are dominant which means that south India rainfall is dependent on ENSO variability as well as the strength of monsoon trough and related variability in monsoon depressions. In Fig. 5 b, for central India, the contribution by ENSO and monsoon trough and depressions are increased up to 1980, and then the contribution by ENSO started declining drastically. However, the influence of monsoon trough and depressions remained strong. Thus, a decline in the number of monsoon depressions 24 can significantly affect the central India rainfall. (The decreasing influence of ENSO and increasing influence of monsoon trough strength and depression related variability for central India can be easily interpreted by comparing both the time series of running correlation. Hence Niño 3.4 is multiplied by -1). In sharp contrast to central India, the influence of ENSO on the rainfall in north India is increasing (Fig. 5 c) and has become stronger in the recent period, while the impact of monsoon trough and depressions on the rainfall is decreasing in this region. This may be due to the decreasing reach of the monsoon depression into the north Indian region in recent decades 24 , 55 . Mahendra et al. 39 also found similar spatial inhomogeneity in ENSO–ISMR relationship for north, central and south India but has linked this spatial variability as a response to IOD and westward extension of low-level circulation from Western North Pacific. They observed stable and stronger ENSO - ISMR relationship in all the epochs for both north and south India. But our study shows an increasing relationship for north India and a stable relationship for south India and a decreasing relationship for central India. We attribute this variation in ENSO–ISMR relation for different parts of the country to monsoon trough and related variability in monsoon depressions. Since the PC2 is also significantly related to the phases of NAO other than monsoon trough and depression, we also investigate the changing NAO–ISMR relationship (Supplementary Fig S1 ). This plot shows that like ENSO–ISMR relationship, NAO–ISMR relation is maximum variable (changed) over central India, specifically over central-east India. Similar to the Fig. 4 g, Supplementary Fig. S1 (e) represent the time evolution of NAO-ISMR relation over north, south and central India. NAO–ISMR relation was found to be relatively strong during 1901–1940, 1981–2018 and had opposite sign. The relation was weak during 1941–1980 when ENSO dominance was strong. NAO–ISMR correlation for three period 1901–1940, 1941–1980 and 1981–2018 indicates that during 1901–1940 and 1981–2018 a north–south and east–west dipole structures are present respectively. However, NAO–ISMR relation was weak during negative PDO phase during 1941–1980. Variability in NAO–ISMR relation is maximum over central-India region where variability in ENSO–ISMR relation is also maximum. NAO–ISMR relation is strong in positive PDO phases and weak in negative PDO phases as opposite to ENSO–ISMR relationship. Importantly, Goswami et al. 56 also emphasised the significance of NAO on the predictability of ISMR due to the complexity of relationship between north Atlantic SST and ISMR and the role of NAO on ISMR can be linked to the influence of extratropical Rossby waves on ISMR.

30 year running correlation of ( a ) south India box rainfall ( b ) central India box rainfall ( c ) north India box rainfall with Niño 3.4 SST (red line) and Monsoon trough/depressions related variability represented by PC2 (blue line). This figure is created using Python 3.8.0 software ( https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-380/ ).

The influence of the two major drivers on the rainfall over the three regions are also evident in the power spectrum and wavelet analysis. The periodicity present in the time series and the corresponding timescale can be identified from the power spectrum and wavelet analysis respectively (Fig. 6 ). For PC2, the power spectrum shows both 2–4 years periodicity and a decadal variability (Fig. 6 a). From the wavelet analysis it can be seen that those 2–4 years of variability are seen in the year 1960 and the decadal variability is seen after 1980 (Fig. 6 b). The power spectrum of Niño 3.4 SST (Fig. 6 c) indicates a 2–7 years periodicity and the decadal variability associated with ENSO. The wavelet analysis of Niño 3.4 SST (Fig. 6 d) shows that 2–7 years periodicity is more prominent after 1960. The decadal variability is more prominent for PC2 compared to that of Niño 3.4.

Power spectrum and wavelet of: ISMR PC2 ( a ) showing 2–4 years and a decadal variability, ( b ) 2–4 years of variability present in 1960s and decadal variability after 1980s, Niño 3.4 index ( c ) showing 2–7 years and a decadal variability ( d ) 2–7 years of variability seen in 1980s, JJAS rainfall in South India box ( e ) showing 2–7 years and a decadal variability ( f ) 2–7 years of variability seen in 1980s, Central India box ( g ) showing 2–4 years and a decadal variability ( h ) 2–4 years of variability present in 1960s and North India box ( i ) showing only 2–7 years of variability ( j ) 2–7 years of variability seen in 1910–1940s. This figure is created using Python 3.8.0 software ( https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-380/ ).

In order to identify the frequency associated with the time series of north, central and south India regions, the power spectrum is drawn (Fig. 6 a, c, e, g, i). Wavelet analysis is carried out to identify the time scale in which these frequencies are present (Fig. 6 b, d, f, h, j). For south India, a periodicity of 2 to 7 years (Fig. 6 e) is prominent during the years up to 1920 and then from 1980 to 2000 (Fig. 6 f) which is similar to that of Niño 3.4 SST showing the relationship with ENSO. A 2–7 year variability is observed from the power spectrum of both Niño 3.4 and south India rainfall which is prominent after the 1960’s (from the wavelet analysis of Niño 3.4 and south India rainfall). This implies that south India rainfall is related to ENSO. A decadal variability is also seen for south India indicating a connection with the decadal variability represented in PC2. Central India shows a frequency signal between 2 to 4 years (Fig. 6 g) from 1910 to 1920 and 1960 to 1980 (Fig. 6 h). The power spectrum of central India resembles that of PC2 which means that the rainfall over central India is dependent on PC2. For north India 8 years of periodicity (Fig. 6 i) can be seen during the years 1910 to 1940 (Fig. 6 j). Comparing it with the power spectrum and wavelet analysis of Niño 3.4 SST and PC2 it is seen that north India rainfall is dependent on Niño 3.4 SST and not on PC2 because it does not exhibit decadal variability. It is clear from this analysis that the rainfall of south India shows a relation with both ENSO and monsoon trough and depressions, central India rainfall exhibits relation with only monsoon trough and depressions and north India rainfall has its relation with ENSO only. Hence power spectrum and wavelet analysis confirm the influence of the two major drivers on north, central and south India shown in running correlation.

The current study re-examines the dominant spatial variability patterns of ISMR and their evolution with time over different parts of the country, and investigates the drivers of this variability. Here, we investigate how the changing influences of ISMR drivers affect its variability, with a primary focus on the changing influence of ENSO on ISMR. There are two major spatial patterns of ISMR which explain about 24% of the total interannual variability. The first mode (PC1) implies reduced rainfall across the Indian subcontinent, especially the central and western parts of India, accounting for 15.11% of the total variability. The second mode (PC2) indicates a dipole pattern with reduced rainfall over the Indo-Gangetic plain and increased rainfall over south India accounting for 8.48% of the total variability. The PC1 pattern of ISMR is significantly influenced by ENSO, IOD, PDO, IPO, and variation in the monsoon trough. While the PC2 pattern is significantly associated with NAO, IOB, PDO, IPO, MDF and the strength of the monsoon trough.

It is noteworthy that there are two distinct groups of climate processes, namely ENSO and IOD influencing PC1-like spatial rainfall patterns, and NAO and IOB favouring PC2-like spatial rainfall patterns. As previously discussed in other studies, the role of NAO on ISMR can be linked to the influence of extratropical Rossby waves on ISMR (Goswami 2022). Interestingly, PDO, IPO, and variation in monsoon trough strength (MT) contribute to both PC1 and PC2 spatial patterns of rainfall. The decadal variation of monsoon depression frequency and its association with PDO have been explored by Vishnu et al. 13 , 24 . Similarly, both leading modes of ISMR variability can be affected by the strength of the monsoon trough.

Furthermore, we examine the changes in the ENSO–ISMR relationship over the past century and the role of two dominant spatial variability patterns in driving these changes. As previously discussed by Mahendra et al. 39 , we also observe significant spatio-temporal variability in the ENSO–ISMR relationship. The relationship between ENSO and ISMR has not remained consistent throughout the period from 1901 to 2018. We notice that the ENSO–ISMR inverse relationship started getting stronger from 1901 to 1940, became stable from 1941 to 1980 and then the relationship has weakened in the recent epoch (1981 onwards). Theses epochs also coincides with positive, negative and positive PDO phases respectively. However, this change in ENSO–ISMR relationship is spatially non-uniform. We find that over south India there is no considerable variation in the ENSO–ISMR relationship. Whereas over north India the ENSO–ISMR relationship is becoming strong in recent decades and has shown significant multidecadal variation. On the contrary, association between the central India rainfall and ENSO has diminished in the recent decades. We find that the role of monsoon trough and depression related variability has emerged as the primary cause of rainfall variability over central India surpassing the role of ENSO related variability. Earlier, we demonstrated that NAO and IOB are significantly associated with monsoon trough and depression-related variability. Based on this, we also find an increasing relationship between NAO and ISMR over the central Indian region. For the rainfall over south India, the influence of ENSO and strength of monsoon trough and variability related to monsoon depressions have been consistent over the entire period. Over north India, rainfall variability is increasingly dependent on ENSO, while the role of the monsoon trough and depression is decreasing. This may be due to the decreasing reach of the monsoon depression into the north Indian region in recent decades 24 , 55 . Our study highlights the changing influence of monsoon drivers over different parts of the country. However, the current study does not discuss the specific mechanisms involved in the changing ISMR variability influenced by climate patterns such as NAO, but recommends it for future research.

Materials and methods

In the present study, we use correlation analysis to examine the relationship between ENSO and ISMR, EOF analysis to identify the major drivers of ISMR variability, power spectrum analysis to distinguish the frequency present in the time series for the rainfall of different regions and wavelet analysis to identify the corresponding timescale in which these frequencies are present in the time series. Standardised rainfall data at each grid point is used for the EOF analysis at each grid point. The statistical significance of the analysis carried out here is ascertained following the student t-test. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) biplot analysis is carried out to identify the influence of different phenomena on the two major variability patterns of ISMR. The concepts of PCA biplot technique were explained by Jollife and Cadima 57 . The PCA biplot represents both observations and variables in a two-dimensional bivariate plane and denotes the direction of maximum variability. In a PCA biplot, perpendicular vectors represent independent processes. The amplitude of the vector represents the variance of the process. The processes which are close to each other are statistically similar. The PCs and all analysis are based on JJAS season.

Materials used

Rainfall data is obtained from the India Meteorological Department (IMD). Monthly and daily gridded rainfall data with a resolution of 0.25˚ × 0.25˚ 58 is used for the analysis from 1901–2018 during the June to September months, covering 118 years. The SST data used is the Hadley Centre Sea Ice and Sea Surface Temperature data set (HadISST) obtained from the Met Office Hadley Centre observations datasets with a resolution of 1˚ × 1˚ 59 for the same period. NOAA-CIRES-DOE Twentieth Century Reanalysis (V3) is used for retrieving the monthly horizontal and vertical velocity, meridional wind component, zonal wind component and geopotential height dataset. This dataset has 1˚ × 1˚ resolution. The Niño 3.4 index, Dipole Mode Index (DMI) for IOD, Tripole Index (TPI) which tracks the decadal variability of SST associated with IPO and the indices for PDO, NAO and Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO) are obtained from the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) climate indices archive. Depression frequency data is obtained from the IMD data archive. We derived the Indian Ocean Basin (IOB) mode index from the first Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) of SSTs in the Indian Ocean (40˚E–80˚E, 20˚S–40˚N) and it represents the first mode of interannual variability in the tropical Indian Ocean 60 . IOB mode is characterised by basin wide warming or cooling and can influence the climate of the surrounding regions 61 . IOB index peaks during the post-ENSO years. The Niño 3.4 index is defined as the area averaged SST anomalies in the Niño 3.4 region (5˚S–5˚N, 170˚W–120˚W). DMI measures the strength of the IOD represented by the anomalous SST difference between the western equatorial Indian Ocean (50˚E–70˚E and 10˚S–10˚N) and the south-eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (90˚E–110˚E and 10˚S–0˚N). The TPI index is derived from the SST anomaly differences between the central equatorial Pacific (170˚E–90˚W and 10˚S–10˚N) and the northwest (140˚E–145˚W and 25˚N–45˚N) and southwest Pacific (140˚E–145˚W and 25˚N–45˚N). PDO index is defined as the leading principal component of North Pacific monthly sea surface temperature variability poleward of 20˚N. NAO index consists of a north–south dipole in atmospheric pressure anomalies, with one centre located over Greenland and the other centre of opposite sign spanning the central latitudes of the North Atlantic between 35˚N and 40˚N. The index is based on a rotated principal component analysis of monthly standardized 500mb height anomalies in the North Atlantic poleward of 20˚N. The QBO index from 1948 onwards is based on the zonal averaged (5˚N – 5˚S) u wind at 30 hPa pressure level. Before 1948, the QBO index is taken from the Free University of Berlin (FUB) database. All these indices are averaged for JJAS season. The definition of various indices is summarised in Table 1 .

Data availability

We used daily and monthly gridded rainfall data to study the rainfall variability 58 . Hadley Centre Sea Ice and Sea Surface Temperature (HadISST) data set is obtained from the Met Office Hadley Centre 59 and is available at https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/hadobs/hadisst/data/download.html . Monthly vertical velocity, meridional wind component, zonal wind component and geopotential height data is obtained from NOAA-CIRES-DOE Twentieth Century Reanalysis (V3) available at https://psl.noaa.gov/data/gridded/data.20thC_ReanV3.html . Various climate indices such as the Niño 3.4 index, Dipole Mode Index (DMI), Tripole Index (TPI), the indices for Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and Quasi – Biennial Oscillation (QBO) are obtained from the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) climate indices archive available at https://psl.noaa.gov/data/climateindices/list/ . Depression frequency data is available at cyclone e-atlas on IMD site http://14.139.191.203/ .

Code availability

The codes used in the current analysis are available at https://github.com/paninidasgupta/ENSO-Monsoon-Relation/tree/main .

Change history

15 september 2023.

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42501-7

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Acknowledgements

The first author acknowledges IISER Mohali for the support. The first author acknowledges the insightful suggestions given by Dr. M. R. Ramesh Kumar, Chief Scientist (Retd), National Institute of Oceanography, Goa for an early version of the study, and the support of Dr. P. O. Nameer, Dean, College of Climate Change and Environmental Sciences (CCES) and Dr. M. Rajeevan, Former Secretary to the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), for her visit to the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM). The authors acknowledge and appreciate anonymous reviewers for their constructive feedback, which helped in improving the quality of work.

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K. S. Athira, M. K. Roxy, Panini Dasgupta, J. S. Saranya & Vineet Kumar Singh

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K. S. Athira & Raju Attada

College of Climate Change and Environmental Sciences, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, India

K. S. Athira & J. S. Saranya

Department of Meteorology and Oceanography, College of Science and Technology, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India

Panini Dasgupta

Future Innovation Institute, Seoul National University, Siheung, 15011, Seoul, Republic of Korea

School of Earth and Environmental Sciences/Research Institute of Oceanography, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea

J. S. Saranya

Department of Atmospheric and Space Sciences, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India

Vineet Kumar Singh

Typhoon Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea

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M.K.R. contributed to the concept and design of the study. A.K.S., P.D. and S.J.S carried out the analysis. A.K.S. wrote the paper. Reviewing and editing was done by M.K.R., V.K.S. and R.A. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Athira, K.S., Roxy, M.K., Dasgupta, P. et al. Regional and temporal variability of Indian summer monsoon rainfall in relation to El Niño southern oscillation. Sci Rep 13 , 12643 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38730-5

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Received : 07 December 2022

Accepted : 13 July 2023

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38730-5

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Impact of Climate Change on Indian Monsoon

19 Sep 2022
GS Paper - 1
Physical Geography
Important Geophysical Phenomena
Agricultural Resources
Climate Change

For Prelims: Climate Change, Flooding, Droughts, Indian Ocean Dipole, Monsoon depression.

For Mains: Impact of Climate Change on Indian Monsoon.

Why in News?

Recently, Research has shown that global warming, triggered by Climate Change , increases the fluctuations in the monsoon , resulting in both long dry periods and short spells of heavy rains.

The Year 2022 has seen the second highest extreme events since 1902 . An alarming case as incidents of floods and droughts have increased.

What are the Impacts of Climate Change on Indian Monsoon?

Monsoon depression originally refers to a low-pressure system affecting the North Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal in summer. It encompasses a relatively large area and the diameter of closed isobar can be as wide as 1000 km.
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and parts of Maharashtra have recorded excess rainfall in 2022, in contrast, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Bihar did not receive normal rains.
August 2022 too saw two back-to-back depressions forming in the Bay of Bengal and traveling across Central India.
While summer monsoon rainfall each year is unique, there has been a large regional and temporal variability in rainfall in 2022.
IOD is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature between two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
The IOD affects the climate of Australia and other countries that surround the Indian Ocean Basin, and is a significant contributor to rainfall variability in this region.
One of the major impacts of changes in track of monsoon systems can be seen on kharif crops, particularly rice production. They form a significant share of more than 50% of total food grain production during this period.
The fall in Kharif output may keep rice prices at elevated levels.
Bihar, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh, which account for a third of the country’s total rice production, have been highly deficit despite an active monsoon current in July and August.
According to a study, ‘Climate change, the monsoon, and rice yield in India’, very high temperatures (> 35°C) induce heat stress and affect plant physiological processes, leading to spikelet sterility, non-viable pollen and reduced grain quality.
Monsoon rainfall became less frequent but more intense in India during the latter half of the 20 th century.
Scientists and food experts believe that a better rainfall scenario could have helped increase the harvest.
However, India’s hundreds of millions of rice producers and consumers are being affected negatively with these unprecedented changes which are also raising concerns over food security.

Way Forward

India needs to invest more resources in better prediction of Monsoon forecast in order to achieve reliability and sustainability.
With a warming climate, more moisture will be held in the atmosphere, leading to heavier rainfall, consequently, inter-annual variability of the monsoon will increase in future. The country needs to prepare for this change .
Thus, to secure and bring sustainability to the climate pattern of India we need to take effective and timely steps not just at the domestic front (National Action Plan on Climate Change) but also at the international front (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change), as we live in a shared world with a shared future.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Q. With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2017)

IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is an atmosphere ocean coupled phenomenon in the tropical Indian Ocean (like the El Nino is in the tropical Pacific), characterised by a difference in Sea-Surface Temperatures (SST).
A ‘positive IOD’ is associated with cooler than normal sea-surface temperatures in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and warmer than normal sea-surface temperatures in the western tropical Indian Ocean.
The opposite phenomenon is called a ‘negative IOD’, and is characterised by warmer than normal SSTs in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and cooler than normal SSTs in the western tropical Indian Ocean.
Also known as the Indian Nino, it is an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean in which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and colder than the eastern part of the Indian Ocean. Hence, statement 1 is not correct.
The IOD is one aspect of the general cycle of global climate, interacting with similar phenomena like the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific Ocean. An IOD can either aggravate or weaken the impact of El Nino on Indian monsoon. If there is a positive IOD, it can bring good rains to India despite of an El Nino year. H ence, statement 2 is correct.
Therefore, option (b) is the correct answer.

Q1. ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (2017)

Q2 . What characteristics can be assigned to monsoon climate that succeeds in feeding more than 50 percent of the world population residing in Monsoon Asia? (2017)

Q3. How far do you agree that the behaviour of the Indian monsoon has been changing due to humanizing landscape? Discuss. (2015)

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All You Need to Know About India’s Epic Monsoon Season

TripSavvy / Catherine Song

The main monsoon season in India runs from June to September and the question on everyone’s lips is always, “What's it really like and is travel still possible?” This is very understandable as the thought of rain and floods is enough to put a dampener on any holiday. However, the good news is that you don’t have to let the monsoon ruin your travel plans, and travel can even be advantageous during this time.

Here's all you need to know about India during the monsoon, as well as where to travel to avoid the rain.

What Causes the Monsoon in India

The monsoon is caused by differing temperature trends over the land and ocean. In India, the southwest summer monsoon is attracted by a low pressure area that's caused by the extreme heat of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan and adjoining areas during summer. During the monsoon, the wind direction reverses. Moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean come to fill up the void, but because they can't pass through the Himalayas region, they're forced to rise. The gain in altitude of the clouds results in a drop in temperature, bringing about rain.

When the southwest monsoon reaches India, it splits into two parts around the mountainous region of the Western Ghats in south-central India. One part moves northwards over the Arabian Sea and up the coastal side of the Western Ghats. The other flows over the Bay of Bengal, up through Assam, and hits the Eastern Himalayas.

The southwest monsoon's withdrawal begins in Rajasthan, with the direction of air circulation again reversing. This is supposed to take place at the start of September but it's common for it to be delayed, prolonging the length of the monsoon.

What can be Expected During the Monsoon in India

The southwest monsoon reaches the coast of the southern state of Kerala around June 1. It usually arrives in Mumbai approximately 10 days later, reaches Delhi by the end of June, and covers the rest of India by mid-July. Every year, the date of the monsoon's arrival is the subject of much speculation. Despite numerous predictions by the meteorological department, it's rare that anyone gets it right though!

Want to chase the monsoon in India? Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu , on the southernmost tip of India, receives the first rainfall. Stay in a hotel facing the ocean and watch the storm roll in. Nearby Kovalam, in Kerala, is also an excellent place to experience the monsoon's energetic arrival.

The monsoon doesn't appear all at once. Rather, it builds up over a couple of days of "pre-monsoon showers". Its actual arrival is announced by an intense period of heavy rain, booming thunder and plenty of lightening. This rain injects an amazing amount of vigor into people, and it's common to see children running about, dancing in the rain, and playing games. Even the adults join in because it's so refreshing.

After the first initial downpour, which can last for days, the monsoon falls into a steady pattern of raining for at least a couple of hours most days. It can be sunny one minute and pouring the next. The rain is very unpredictable. Some days very little rainfall will occur, and during this time the temperature will start heating up again and humidity levels will rise. The amount of rain that's received peaks in most areas during July, and starts tapering off a bit in August. While less rain is usually received overall in September, the rain that does come can often be torrential.

Unfortunately, many cities become flooded at the start of the monsoon and during heavy downpours. This is due to drains being unable to cope with the volume of water, often because of trash that has built up over the summer and hasn't been properly cleared.

Where Receives the Most Rain in India During the Monsoon

It’s important to note that some regions receive more rain than others during the monsoon. Out of India's major cities, Mumbai receives the most rain during the southwest monsoon. Kolkata used to receive a lot of rain but this has decreased in recent years, with the northeast monsoon tending to bring more downpours.

The eastern Himalaya region, around Darjeeling and Shillong (the capital of Meghalaya), is one of the wettest areas in not just India, but the whole world, during the monsoon. This is because the monsoon picks up additional moisture from the Bay of Bengal as it heads towards the Himalayan range. Travel to this region should definitely be avoided during monsoon time, unless you really love the rain! If you do, then Cherrapunji in Meghalaya is the place for you (it has the honor of getting the highest rainfall in the world).

Love Monsoon Rain? Don't Miss the Monsoon in Meghalaya!

Where Receives the Least Rain in India During the Monsoon

As far as major cities are concerned, Delhi, Bangalore and Hyderabad receive comparatively less rain. Chennai doesn't receive much rain at all during the southwest monsoon, as Tamil Nadu gets most of its rainfall from the northeast monsoon, from October to December. Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh also experience this monsoon, as well as heavy rainfall during the southwest monsoon.

Areas that receive the least rain and are most suited to travel during the monsoon include the desert state of Rajasthan, the Deccan Plateau on the eastern side of the Western Ghats mountain range, and Ladakh in far north India.

What are the Benefits of Traveling to India During the Monsoon

Monsoon time can be a great time to visit India as tourist attractions aren't crowded, airfares can be cheaper, and bargain rates are up for grabs at hotels throughout the country.

You'll also get to see another side of India, where nature comes alive in a landscape of cool, lush greenery. Check out these 9 Top India Monsoon Travel Destinations for inspiration.

The Indian monsoon

2007, Resonance

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Vincent Moron , Michael Ghil

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Sulochana Gadgil

Frontiers in Earth Science

Netrananda Sahu

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seshagirirao Kolusu , Peter Willetts

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Short Essay on Rainy Season [100, 200, 400 Words] With PDF

In this lesson, you are going to learn how you can write short essays on the topic ‘Rainy Season. Here, I will write three sets of essays on the same topic covering different word limits.

Short essay on rainy season in 100 words, short essay on rainy season in 200 words, short essay on rainy season in 400 words.

Feature image of Short Essay on Rainy Season

If the world is conducted by a specific pattern of seasonal changes, then India is the exception. To understand the pattern of the rainy season, one must visit India. The climate of India is known famously as the Indian monsoon climate. The Arabic term Mausam means season. India is the only country that experiences a whole season of rainfall.

It is both unique and beautiful since India does not have an equal distribution of rainfall throughout the year. Some places receive extremely heavy rainfall, while others have scanty rain. Coastal India receives it twice a year. Rainfall is the strength behind the agricultural background of India. Disbalance in the rain cycle causes huge trouble in the country as well.

The rainy season can be called a weather condition in greater parts of the earth, while in India, it is a complete season. Rainfall is not just a thundershower in India but occupies a significant position for more than three months. India is the only country whose agriculture happens due to rainfall. Any disruption in the arrival and departure of rain can create both floods and drought throughout the country.

The climate of India is specifically known as the Indian monsoon climate. The Arabic term Mausam is used to cite the term monsoon. Thus it is clear that the rainy season is a characteristic feature of this country. On average, the plains receive greater rainfall and the hilly regions experience rain in form of snow drizzle. Several parts of the world also enjoy rain in this manner. It happens in India from June to September till autumn arrives.

It cools down the excessively high temperature of the summer and brings new life to planets, animals, and humans. New green leaves grow during this time. Children love floating paper boats in the water. But simultaneously it is a season of many water-borne diseases, which must be avoided with caution. Else rainy season is a gift of nature and a supporter of the life cycle in the world.

Different seasons are responsible for the specific type of cultivation, crops, human habitation, birds and animals, and also the flora. The weather condition also influences the economy of a specific place. Thus rainy season as a particular season character on earth has its own influences. It is both enjoyable and also a disaster when uncontrollable. It can create as well as destroy life. So it is unique in several respects.

Generally, the cycle of seasons is divided into four major divisions. Those are summer, winter, spring, and autumn. The rainy season is not specifically a global phenomenon on earth and hence it is not generally included in the cycle of seasons. If one has to understand the pattern of the rainy season then the ideal country is India.

The Indian climate is named the Indian monsoon climate. The term monsoon has been derived from the word Mausam meaning season. So the characteristic feature of India goes with rainfall. Rain influences the agriculture, vegetation, culture, economy, and distribution of the population in India. If there is any disturbance in the arrival or departure of rainfall, then it can cause severe flooding and drought.

Rainfall in India generally arrives between June and September and it provides enough water for irrigation. Presently rainwater is collected for rainwater harvesting and also to reduce wastage of water and drought in several places of India. India is an agricultural country and a greater part of the economy of India depends on agriculture. So in turn, agriculture is dependent on rainfall.

The distribution of rainfall during the rainy season is diverse in India. Countries like Cherrapunji receive high amounts of rainfall whereas places like Shillong Rajasthan Gujarat and parts of Western India receive extremely low amounts of rainfall. So deserts are abundant there. The rainy season does not necessarily invite any festival; however, Rath Yatra is one of the most prominent festivals in India celebrated during this time. Nature is beautifully decorated during the rainy season and new leaves fill up the trees.

Children enjoy the rainy season by floating paper boats and women cook hot and delicious meals during the rainy afternoon and night. However, this season is also noted for several diseases it carries with it like diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, malaria, and others. These diseases are fatal and can cause severe damage to human health. Is always advisable to be prepared before the rainy season. And if all these are maintained properly rainfall is definitely a time of enjoyment after the hot and dry summer season.

In this session above, I have tried to write all the essays with a very simplistic approach so that all kinds of students can understand and comprehend these writeups very easily. Hopefully, all your doubts regarding this topic have been cleared after going through this session. If you still have any confusion, let me know through some quick comments.

Join us on Telegram to get the latest updates on our upcoming sessions. Thank you for being with us. All the best.

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The influences of indian monsoon phases on aerosol distribution and composition over india.

1. Introduction

2. data sets, 2.1. moderate resolution imaging spectrometer (modis), 2.2. cloud–aerosol lidar and infrared pathfinder satellite observations (calipso), 2.3. hysplit, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. seasonal variations in aod, 3.2. variability of aod during active and break spells, vertical distribution from calipso data, types, and sources (hyplit model), 3.3. variability of aod during strong and week monsoon years, vertical distribution from calipso data, types, and sources (hyplit model), 4. summary and conclusions.

Over the Indian region, aerosol distribution exhibits clear differences between strong and weak monsoon years, as well as between active and break days. During active monsoon phases (with higher rainfall), lower AOD and aerosol extinction are observed. This can be attributed to increased removal of aerosols by the washout and rainout processes, leading to a shorter atmospheric lifespan for these particles. Conversely, break days (associated with drier conditions) experience higher AOD and aerosol extinction, due to the buildup of aerosols with longer atmospheric lifetime in the absence of significant rainfall.
Interestingly, the strong association between columnar AOD and aerosol extinction was observed during break and active days and was less evident during strong and weak monsoon years. Additionally, strong monsoon years have shown significant increases in AOD, particularly in Central India. This phenomenon might be explained by the presence of prolonged and intense dry spells (breaks) during these years, leading to a substantial rise in the aerosol burden across the Indian region.
CALIPSO VFM measurements revealed distinct aerosol compositions during active and break phases. During active phases, polluted dust (29%), dusty marine (26%), dust (15%), and elevated smoke (14%) aerosols were the dominant types. In contrast, the break phase was dominated by polluted dust (43%) and dusty marine (36%) aerosols, with a lower contribution from dust (11%). Interestingly, the compositions during strong and weak monsoon years differed from the active–break pattern. Here, dust and polluted dust aerosols were the primary contributors, with 43% and 31% during strong monsoons, and 38% and 35% during weak monsoons, respectively.
HYSPLIT trajectory analysis revealed that, during the active phase, a significant portion of the air mass reaching the receptor site originated from the Arabian Sea (approximately 94%). A smaller fraction (6%) originated from the continental region of east–central India. In contrast, during the break phase, the air masses primarily originated from the African continent, transporting mineral dust through lower-level southwesterly winds. This shift in air mass origin influences the aerosol composition, reflecting the combined properties of both land and ocean sources during the break phase.
This study emphasizes the critical role of aerosol distribution in influencing Indian Summer Monsoon rainfall patterns, with variations observed between strong and weak monsoon years, as well as active and break days. The findings suggest that regional rainfall variability is likely linked to two key factors: (1) the transport of aerosols from different source regions and (2) the relative contribution of absorbing and scattering aerosol types within the overall aerosol population.

Author Contributions

Data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Khan, P.I.; Ratnam, D.V.; Prasad, P.; Saheb, S.D.; Jiang, J.H.; Basha, G.; Kishore, P.; Patil, C.S. The Influences of Indian Monsoon Phases on Aerosol Distribution and Composition over India. Remote Sens. 2024 , 16 , 3171. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173171

Khan PI, Ratnam DV, Prasad P, Saheb SD, Jiang JH, Basha G, Kishore P, Patil CS. The Influences of Indian Monsoon Phases on Aerosol Distribution and Composition over India. Remote Sensing . 2024; 16(17):3171. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173171

Khan, Pathan Imran, Devanaboyina Venkata Ratnam, Perumal Prasad, Shaik Darga Saheb, Jonathan H. Jiang, Ghouse Basha, Pangaluru Kishore, and Chanabasanagouda S. Patil. 2024. "The Influences of Indian Monsoon Phases on Aerosol Distribution and Composition over India" Remote Sensing 16, no. 17: 3171. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173171

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Heavy monsoon rains and floods kill at least 33 in south India and 5 children in Pakistan this week

People wade through a flooded road after heavy rains in Vijayawada, India, Monday, Sept. 2, 2024. (AP Photo)

People, many carrying their belongings, wade through a flooded road after heavy rains in Vijayawada, India, Monday, Sept. 2, 2024. (AP Photo)

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HYDERABAD, India (AP) — Heavy monsoon rains and floods have killed at least 33 people in southern India and five children in Pakistan over the past two days, authorities said Tuesday.

In India’s Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states, houses collapsed and were swept away by torrential downpours while floods disrupted road and rail traffic, officials said. The weather service issued a red alert for 11 districts, predicting more rains in the region, Telangana’s top bureaucrat, Shanta Kumari, said.

More than 4,000 people have been moved to 110 government-run relief camps in Telangana since Monday, according to the state’s top elected official, A. Revanth Reddy.

Overflowing lakes, tanks and streams have cut off some villages in Mahabubnagar and Nalgonda districts.

Vijayawada, the commercial capital of Andhra Pradesh, is experiencing the worst flooding in two decades with the Budameru River flooding 40% of the city and stranding nearly 275,000 people in more than a dozen residential area.

Disaster relief teams are struggling to transport stranded families to safter areas, said Andhra Pradesh’s top elected official, N. Chandrababu Naidu.

Since June, at least 170 people have died across India’s six northeastern states due to floods and mudslides brought on by the rains, according to official figures.

In neighboring Pakistan, flash floods triggered by heavy monsoon rains killed five children on Monday in southwestern Balochistan province, bringing the country’s overall death toll from rain-related incidents to at least 300 since July 1.

The five deaths were reported in the Zhob and Khuzdar districts, according to a statement by the disaster management authority. In Balochistan alone, floods have killed 32 people, including 18 children and 12 women over the past two months.

The deluges have also inundated dozens of villages and blocked highways in parts of Balochistan, and damaged nearly 20,000 homes across the country, mostly in Balochistan.

Disasters caused by landslides and floods are common in both India and Pakistan during the June-September monsoon season. Scientists and weather forecasters have blamed climate change for heavier rains in recent years.

In 2022, climate-induced downpours inundated one-third of Pakistan, killing 1,739 people and causing $30 billion in damage.

Associated Press writer Abdul Sattar in Quetta, Pakistan, contributed to this report.

Heavy monsoon rains and floods kill at least 33 in India and 5 children in Pakistan

Officials say that heavy monsoon rains and floods killed at least 33 people in southern India and five children in Pakistan over the past two days

HYDERABAD, India -- Heavy monsoon rains and floods have killed at least 33 people in southern India and five children in Pakistan over the past two days, authorities said Tuesday.

In India's Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states, houses collapsed and were swept away by torrential downpours while floods disrupted road and rail traffic, officials said. The weather service issued a red alert for 11 districts, predicting more rains in the region, Telangana’s top bureaucrat, Shanta Kumari, said.

More than 4,000 people have been moved to 110 government-run relief camps in Telangana since Monday, according to the state's top elected official, A. Revanth Reddy.

Overflowing lakes, tanks and streams have cut off some villages in Mahabubnagar and Nalgonda districts.

Disaster relief teams are struggling to transport stranded families to safter areas, said Andhra Pradesh's top elected official, N. Chandrababu Naidu.

Since June, at least 170 people have died across India's six northeastern states due to floods and mudslides brought on by the rains, according to official figures.

In neighboring Pakistan, flash floods triggered by heavy monsoon rains killed five children on Monday in southwestern Balochistan province, bringing the country's overall death toll from rain-related incidents to at least 300 since July 1.

The deluges have also inundated dozens of villages and blocked highways in parts of Balochistan, and damaged nearly 20,000 homes across the country, mostly in Balochistan.

In 2022, climate-induced downpours inundated one-third of Pakistan, killing 1,739 people and causing $30 billion in damage.

Associated Press writer Abdul Sattar in Quetta, Pakistan, contributed to this report.

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Monsoon floods kill dozens in India, thousands in relief camps

The Indian Air Force flies more than 200 rescue officers and 30 tonnes of emergency aid to Telangana and Andhra Pradesh states.

Intense monsoon rains and floods in India’s southern states have killed at least 25 people, with thousands rescued and taken to relief camps, officials say.

At least 16 people have been killed in Telangana state, and nine in neighbouring Andhra Pradesh in the past two days.

“Lots of houses have been damaged as well,” Y Nagi Reddy, director general of Telangana’s disaster response and fire service, told AFP news agency on Monday, adding that there had been 400mm (16 inches) of rainfall within the past 24 hours.

According to local media reports, the Telangana government has also urged India’s federal government to declare the floods a “national calamity”.

“The [Telangana] government will submit a comprehensive report on the flood damage to the Centre. We will write to Prime Minister Narendra Modi requesting him to visit the flood-affected areas in the state and also urging the Centre to declare the floods in Telangana as a national calamity,” a statement released by the government said.

So far, around 3,800 people have been rescued in Telangana and moved to relief camps.

On Monday, the Indian Air Force also said it had flown in more than 200 rescue officers and 30 tonnes of emergency aid to both states.

Rains cause widespread destruction every year, but experts say climate change is shifting weather patterns and increasing the number of extreme weather events.

Last week, at least 28 people were killed over three days in the western state of Gujarat. Schools in parts of Kutch district were shut, officials said, as heavy rain lashed the region.

“There is severe water logging in several places in Kachchh district due to heavy rains over the last couple of days. We evacuated people from coastal areas and shifted them to schools and other facilities,” the district collector for Kachchh, Amit Arora, told Reuters news agency last Friday.

India’s weather office said a deep depression had formed over land and would gradually move northwest over the Arabian Sea, causing the intense rainfall.

“Cyclone formation generally takes place over sea and then it moves over to land. This type of system is unusual because it formed over land and is now moving towards the sea,” Ashok Kumar Das, head of the India Meteorological Department in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, told Reuters.

Last month, in the northeastern state of Tripura, floods and landslides killed more than 20 people.

Neighbouring Bangladesh, downriver from India, also experienced deadly floods that killed at least 40 people in August, with nearly 300,000 residents taking refuge in emergency shelters.

India braces for another month of above-average rainfall in September

Medium Text

Traffic moves through a flooded road after heavy rains in Ahmedabad

August rainfall was 15.3% above average
September rains forecast to be 109% of 50-year average
Excess rainfall is threat to summer crops

Reporting by Rajendra Jadhav; Editing by Gareth Jones

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India - monsoon rains, update (ndmi, sphere india, imd) (echo daily flash of 03 september 2024).

Due to the Southwest Monsoon, heavy rainfall, widespread floods and landslides continue to affect western and south-eastern India, in particular Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states since late August, causing more casualties and damage.
In Gujarat, the National Emergency Response Centre (NDMI) reports, as of 2 September, 61 fatalities, 42 injured people, 38,377 evacuated people and a total of more than 8 million affected people. In Andhra Pradesh, NDMI reports 19 fatalities, two persons still missing, 46,751 evacuated people and more than 448,000 affected people. The Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh has appealed for additional financial support from the central government and has requested the crisis be officially recognized as a 'National Calamity'. In Telangana, NDMI reports 3,218 evacuated people.
Over the next 72 hours, more heavy rainfall is still forecast over the Gujarat state, while dryer conditions are forecast over Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states.