a statement in the essay

Thesis Statements

What this handout is about.

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I create a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis” that presents a basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following :

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question. If the prompt isn’t phrased as a question, try to rephrase it. For example, “Discuss the effect of X on Y” can be rephrased as “What is the effect of X on Y?”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is likely to  be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on contemporary communication, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: “Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.” Looking back at your notes, you might start with this working thesis:

Social media impacts public awareness in both positive and negative ways.

You can use the questions above to help you revise this general statement into a stronger thesis.

• Do I answer the question? You can analyze this if you rephrase “discuss the impact” as “what is the impact?” This way, you can see that you’ve answered the question only very generally with the vague “positive and negative ways.”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not likely. Only people who maintain that social media has a solely positive or solely negative impact could disagree.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? No. What are the positive effects? What are the negative effects?
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? No. Why are they positive? How are they positive? What are their causes? Why are they negative? How are they negative? What are their causes?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? No. Why should anyone care about the positive and/or negative impact of social media?

After thinking about your answers to these questions, you decide to focus on the one impact you feel strongly about and have strong evidence for:

Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.

This version is a much stronger thesis! It answers the question, takes a specific position that others can challenge, and it gives a sense of why it matters.

Let’s try another. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

You begin to analyze your thesis:

• Do I answer the question? No. The prompt asks you to analyze some aspect of the novel. Your working thesis is a statement of general appreciation for the entire novel.

Think about aspects of the novel that are important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

• Do I answer the question? Yes!
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not really. This contrast is well-known and accepted.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? It’s getting there–you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation. However, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? Not yet. Compare scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions and anything else that seems interesting.
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?”

After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. 2018. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing , 8th ed. New York: Pearson.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to Write a Thesis Statement (Full Guide + 60 Examples)

Crafting the perfect thesis statement is an art form that sets the foundation for your entire paper.

Here is how to write a thesis statement:

Write a thesis statement by clearly stating your topic, expressing your position, and providing key points. For example: “Social media impacts teens by influencing self-esteem, enabling cyberbullying, and shaping social interactions.” Be specific, concise, and arguable.

This ultimate guide will break down everything you need to know about how to write a thesis statement, plus 60 examples.

What Is a Thesis Statement?

Table of Contents

A thesis statement is a concise summary of the main point or claim of an essay, research paper, or other piece of academic writing.

It presents the topic of your paper and your position on the topic, ideally in a single sentence.

Think of it as the roadmap to your paper—it guides your readers through your arguments and provides a clear direction.

Key Elements of a Thesis Statement

• Clarity: Your thesis should be clear and specific.
• Position: It should convey your stance on the topic.
• Argument: The statement should make a claim that others might dispute.

Types of Thesis Statements

There are various types of thesis statements depending on the kind of paper you’re writing.

Here are the main ones:

• Standard Method – This is the classic thesis statement used in many academic essays. It provides a straightforward approach, clearly stating the main argument or claim and outlining the supporting points.
• Research Paper – Designed for research papers, this type involves extensive research and evidence. It presents a hypothesis or a central argument based on your research findings.
• Informative Essay – Used for essays that aim to inform or explain a topic. It provides a clear summary of what the reader will learn.
• Persuasive Essay – For essays meant to persuade or convince the reader of a particular point of view. It clearly states your position and outlines your main arguments.
• Compare and Contrast Essay – Used when comparing two or more subjects. It highlights the similarities and differences between the subjects and presents a clear argument based on these comparisons.
• Analytical Essay – Breaks down an issue or idea into its component parts, evaluates the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience.
• Argumentative Essay – Makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with specific evidence. It’s similar to the persuasive essay but usually requires more evidence and a more formal tone.
• Expository Essay – Explains or describes a topic in a straightforward, logical manner. It provides a balanced analysis of a subject based on facts without opinions.
• Narrative Essay – Tells a story or relates an event. The thesis statement for a narrative essay usually highlights the main point or lesson of the story.
• Cause and Effect Essay – Explores the causes of a particular event or situation and its effects. It provides a clear argument about the cause and effect relationship.

How to Write a Thesis Statement (Standard Method)

Writing a standard thesis statement involves a few straightforward steps.

Here’s a detailed guide:

• Identify Your Topic: What is your essay about?
• Take a Stance: What is your position on the topic?
• Outline Your Main Points: What are the key arguments that support your stance?
• Combine All Elements: Formulate a single, coherent sentence that encompasses all the above points.
• “Social media has a significant impact on teenagers because it influences their self-esteem, provides a platform for cyberbullying, and shapes their social interactions.”
• “Climate change is a pressing issue that requires immediate action because it threatens global ecosystems, endangers human health, and disrupts economies.”
• “The rise of remote work is transforming the modern workplace by increasing flexibility, reducing overhead costs, and enhancing work-life balance.”
• “School uniforms should be mandatory in public schools as they promote equality, reduce bullying, and simplify the morning routine.”
• “Digital literacy is essential in today’s world because it improves communication, enhances job prospects, and enables informed decision-making.”

How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Research Paper

Research papers require a more detailed and evidence-based thesis.

Here’s how to craft one:

• Start with a Research Question: What are you trying to find out?
• Conduct Preliminary Research: Gather evidence and sources.
• Formulate a Hypothesis: Based on your research, what do you think will happen?
• Refine Your Thesis: Make it specific and arguable.
• “The implementation of renewable energy sources can significantly reduce carbon emissions in urban areas, as evidenced by case studies in cities like Copenhagen and Vancouver.”
• “Genetically modified crops have the potential to improve food security, but their impact on biodiversity and human health requires further investigation.”
• “The use of artificial intelligence in healthcare can improve diagnostic accuracy and patient outcomes, but ethical concerns about data privacy and algorithmic bias must be addressed.”
• “Urban green spaces contribute to mental well-being and community cohesion, as demonstrated by longitudinal studies in various metropolitan areas.”
• “Microplastic pollution in oceans poses a severe threat to marine life and human health, highlighting the need for stricter waste management policies.”

How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Essay

You’ll write thesis statements a little differently for different kinds of essays.

Informative Essay

• Choose Your Topic: What are you informing your readers about?
• Outline Key Points: What are the main pieces of information?
• Draft Your Statement: Clearly state the purpose and main points.
• “The process of photosynthesis is essential for plant life as it converts light energy into chemical energy, produces oxygen, and is the basis for the food chain.”
• “The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that process food, absorb nutrients, and eliminate waste.”
• “The Industrial Revolution was a period of major technological advancement and social change that reshaped the economies and societies of Europe and North America.”
• “The history of the internet from its early development in the 1960s to its current role in global communication and commerce is a fascinating journey of innovation and transformation.”
• “The impact of climate change on Arctic ecosystems is profound, affecting wildlife, indigenous communities, and global weather patterns.”

Persuasive Essay

• Identify Your Position: What are you trying to convince your reader of?
• Gather Supporting Evidence: What evidence backs up your position?
• Combine Elements: Make a clear, arguable statement.
• “Implementing a four-day workweek can improve productivity and employee well-being, as supported by studies from Iceland and Japan.”
• “The death penalty should be abolished as it is inhumane, does not deter crime, and risks executing innocent people.”
• “Public transportation should be made free to reduce traffic congestion, decrease pollution, and promote social equity.”
• “Recycling should be mandatory to conserve natural resources, reduce landfill waste, and protect the environment.”
• “Vaccination should be mandatory to protect public health and prevent the spread of contagious diseases.”

Compare and Contrast Essay

• Choose Subjects to Compare: What are the two (or more) subjects?
• Determine the Basis of Comparison: What specific aspects are you comparing?
• Draft the Thesis: Clearly state the subjects and the comparison.
• “While both solar and wind energy are renewable sources, solar energy is more versatile and can be used in a wider variety of environments.”
• “Although both capitalism and socialism aim to improve economic welfare, capitalism emphasizes individual freedom while socialism focuses on collective equality.”
• “Traditional classroom education and online learning each offer unique benefits, but online learning provides greater flexibility and access to resources.”
• “The novels ‘1984’ by George Orwell and ‘Brave New World’ by Aldous Huxley both depict dystopian societies, but ‘1984’ focuses on totalitarianism while ‘Brave New World’ explores the dangers of technological control.”
• “While iOS and Android operating systems offer similar functionality, iOS provides a more streamlined user experience, whereas Android offers greater customization options.”

How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay

An analytical essay breaks down an issue or idea into its component parts, evaluates the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience.

• Choose Your Topic: What will you analyze?
• Identify Key Components: What are the main parts of your analysis?
• Formulate Your Thesis: Combine the components into a coherent statement.
• “Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’ explores themes of madness and revenge through the complex characterization of Hamlet and his interactions with other characters.”
• “The economic policies of the New Deal addressed the Great Depression by implementing financial reforms, creating job opportunities, and providing social welfare programs.”
• “The symbolism in ‘The Great Gatsby’ by F. Scott Fitzgerald reflects the moral decay and social stratification of the Jazz Age.”
• “The narrative structure of ‘Inception’ uses nonlinear storytelling to explore the complexities of dreams and reality.”
• “The use of color in Wes Anderson’s films enhances the whimsical and nostalgic tone of his storytelling.”

How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with specific evidence.

It’s similar to the persuasive essay but usually requires more evidence and a more formal tone.

• Choose Your Topic: What are you arguing about?
• Gather Evidence: What evidence supports your claim?
• Formulate Your Thesis: Make a clear, evidence-based statement.
• “Climate change is primarily driven by human activities, such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels, which increase greenhouse gas emissions.”
• “The benefits of universal healthcare outweigh the costs, as it ensures equal access to medical services, reduces overall healthcare expenses, and improves public health.”
• “The death penalty should be abolished because it violates human rights, is not a deterrent to crime, and risks the execution of innocent people.”
• “Animal testing for cosmetics should be banned as it is unethical, unnecessary, and alternatives are available.”
• “Net neutrality should be maintained to ensure a free and open internet, preventing service providers from prioritizing or blocking content.”

How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Expository Essay

An expository essay explains or describes a topic in a straightforward, logical manner.

It provides a balanced analysis of a subject based on facts without opinions.

• Choose Your Topic: What are you explaining or describing?
• Outline Key Points: What are the main facts or components?
• Formulate Your Thesis: Combine the elements into a clear statement.
• “The water cycle consists of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation, which are essential for maintaining the earth’s water balance.”
• “The human respiratory system is responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through a series of organs, including the lungs, trachea, and diaphragm.”
• “Photosynthesis in plants involves the absorption of light energy by chlorophyll, which converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.”
• “The structure of DNA is a double helix composed of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of genetic information.”
• “The process of mitosis ensures that cells divide correctly, allowing for growth, repair, and reproduction in living organisms.”

How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Narrative Essay

A narrative essay tells a story or relates an event.

The thesis statement for a narrative essay usually highlights the main point or lesson of the story.

• Identify the Main Point: What is the main lesson or theme of your story?
• Outline Key Events: What are the key events that support this point?
• Formulate Your Thesis: Combine the main point and events into a coherent statement.
• “Overcoming my fear of public speaking in high school taught me the value of confidence and perseverance.”
• “My summer volunteering at a wildlife rescue center showed me the importance of compassion and teamwork.”
• “A family road trip across the country provided me with unforgettable memories and a deeper appreciation for our diverse landscapes.”
• “Moving to a new city for college challenged me to adapt to new environments and build independence.”
• “A childhood friendship that ended in betrayal taught me the importance of trust and resilience.”

How to Write a Thesis Statement for a Cause and Effect Essay

A cause and effect essay explores the causes of a particular event or situation and its effects.

It provides a clear argument about the cause and effect relationship.

• Identify the Event or Situation: What are you analyzing?
• Determine the Causes: What are the reasons behind this event or situation?
• Identify the Effects: What are the consequences?
• Formulate Your Thesis: Combine the causes and effects into a coherent statement.
• “The rise in global temperatures is primarily caused by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, and leads to severe weather patterns and rising sea levels.”
• “The introduction of invasive species in an ecosystem disrupts the balance and leads to the decline of native species.”
• “Economic recession is caused by a combination of factors, including high unemployment rates and declining consumer confidence, and results in reduced business investments and government spending.”
• “Prolonged exposure to screen time can cause digital eye strain and sleep disturbances, affecting overall health and productivity.”
• “Deforestation contributes to soil erosion and loss of biodiversity, leading to the degradation of ecosystems and reduced agricultural productivity.”

How to Write a Good Thesis Statement

Writing a good thesis statement is all about clarity and specificity.

Here’s a formula to help you:

• State the Topic: What are you writing about?
• Express Your Opinion: What do you think about the topic?
• Provide a Reason: Why do you think this way?
• “Remote work is beneficial because it offers flexibility, reduces commuting time, and increases job satisfaction.”
• “Regular exercise is essential for maintaining physical and mental health as it boosts energy levels, improves mood, and reduces the risk of chronic diseases.”
• “Reading fiction enhances empathy by allowing readers to experience different perspectives and emotions.”
• “A plant-based diet is advantageous for both personal health and environmental sustainability.”
• “Learning a second language enhances cognitive abilities and opens up cultural and professional opportunities.”

Check out this video about how to write a strong thesis statement:

How to Write a Thesis Statement (Formula + Template)

Use this simple formula to craft your thesis statement:

[Main Topic] + [Your Opinion/Position] + [Reason/Key Points]

Template: “__________ (main topic) has __________ (your opinion) because __________ (reason/key points).”

• “Electric cars are the future of transportation because they reduce greenhouse gas emissions, lower fuel costs, and require less maintenance.”
• “Social media platforms should implement stricter privacy controls because user data is vulnerable to breaches, exploitation, and misuse.”
• “Higher education should be more affordable to ensure equal access and promote social mobility.”
• “Television news often fails to provide balanced coverage, leading to public misinformation.”
• “Volunteer work should be encouraged in schools to foster community engagement and personal development.”

Thesis Statement Tips

Writing a strong thesis statement is crucial for a successful essay. Here are some tips to help you craft a killer thesis statement:

• Be Specific: Avoid vague language. Make sure your thesis statement clearly defines your argument or main point.
• Be Concise: Keep it to one or two sentences. Your thesis statement should be brief and to the point.
• Make It Arguable: Ensure that your thesis statement presents a claim or argument that can be disputed.
• Place It Appropriately: Typically, your thesis statement should be placed at the end of your introduction paragraph.
• Revise and Refine: Don’t be afraid to revise your thesis statement as you write and refine your essay. It should evolve as your ideas develop.

Common Thesis Statement Errors

Avoid these common errors when crafting your thesis statement:

• Too Broad: A thesis statement that is too broad makes it difficult to focus your essay. Narrow it down to a specific point.
• Too Vague: Avoid vague language that lacks specificity. Be clear about what you’re arguing.
• Lacks an Argument: Ensure that your thesis statement makes a clear argument or claim. Avoid statements that are purely factual or descriptive.
• Too Complex: A thesis statement should be straightforward and easy to understand. Avoid overly complex sentences.
• Off-Topic: Make sure your thesis statement is directly related to the topic of your essay. Stay on track.

How Do You Start a Thesis Statement?

Starting a thesis statement involves using clear and concise language that sets the stage for your argument.

Here are some exact words and phrases to begin with:

• “The purpose of this paper is to…”
• “This essay will argue that…”
• “In this essay, I will demonstrate that…”
• “The central idea of this paper is…”
• “This research aims to prove that…”
• “This study focuses on…”
• “This analysis will show that…”
• “The main argument presented in this paper is…”
• “The goal of this essay is to…”
• “Through this research, it will be shown that…”

How Long Should a Thesis Statement Be?

A thesis statement should be clear and concise, typically one to two sentences long.

Aim for 20 to 30 words, ensuring it includes the main topic, your position, and the key points that will be covered in your paper.

This provides a focused and precise summary of your argument, making it easier for readers to understand the main direction of your essay or research paper.

While brevity is essential, it’s also crucial to provide enough detail to convey the scope of your argument.

Avoid overly complex sentences that can confuse readers. Instead, strive for a balance between clarity and comprehensiveness, ensuring your thesis statement is straightforward and informative.

Summary Table of Thesis Statement Writing

Final Thoughts: How to Write a Thesis Statement

Writing a strong thesis statement is the cornerstone of a successful paper.

It guides your writing and helps your readers understand your argument. Remember to be clear, specific, and concise. With practice, you’ll master the art of crafting killer thesis statements.

Read This Next:

• How to Write a Hypothesis [31 Tips + Examples]
• How to Write a Topic Sentence (30+ Tips & Examples)
• How to Write a Paragraph [Ultimate Guide + Examples] What Is A Universal Statement In Writing? (Explained) 21 Best Ways To Write Essays When You Are Stuck [Examples]

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How to write a thesis statement + examples

What is a thesis statement?

Is a thesis statement a question, how do you write a good thesis statement, how do i know if my thesis statement is good, examples of thesis statements, helpful resources on how to write a thesis statement, frequently asked questions about writing a thesis statement, related articles.

A thesis statement is the main argument of your paper or thesis.

The thesis statement is one of the most important elements of any piece of academic writing . It is a brief statement of your paper’s main argument. Essentially, you are stating what you will be writing about.

You can see your thesis statement as an answer to a question. While it also contains the question, it should really give an answer to the question with new information and not just restate or reiterate it.

Your thesis statement is part of your introduction. Learn more about how to write a good thesis introduction in our introduction guide .

A thesis statement is not a question. A statement must be arguable and provable through evidence and analysis. While your thesis might stem from a research question, it should be in the form of a statement.

Tip: A thesis statement is typically 1-2 sentences. For a longer project like a thesis, the statement may be several sentences or a paragraph.

A good thesis statement needs to do the following:

• Condense the main idea of your thesis into one or two sentences.
• Answer your project’s main research question.
• Clearly state your position in relation to the topic .
• Make an argument that requires support or evidence.

Once you have written down a thesis statement, check if it fulfills the following criteria:

• Your statement needs to be provable by evidence. As an argument, a thesis statement needs to be debatable.
• Your statement needs to be precise. Do not give away too much information in the thesis statement and do not load it with unnecessary information.
• Your statement cannot say that one solution is simply right or simply wrong as a matter of fact. You should draw upon verified facts to persuade the reader of your solution, but you cannot just declare something as right or wrong.

As previously mentioned, your thesis statement should answer a question.

If the question is:

What do you think the City of New York should do to reduce traffic congestion?

A good thesis statement restates the question and answers it:

In this paper, I will argue that the City of New York should focus on providing exclusive lanes for public transport and adaptive traffic signals to reduce traffic congestion by the year 2035.

Here is another example. If the question is:

How can we end poverty?

A good thesis statement should give more than one solution to the problem in question:

In this paper, I will argue that introducing universal basic income can help reduce poverty and positively impact the way we work.

• The Writing Center of the University of North Carolina has a list of questions to ask to see if your thesis is strong .

A thesis statement is part of the introduction of your paper. It is usually found in the first or second paragraph to let the reader know your research purpose from the beginning.

In general, a thesis statement should have one or two sentences. But the length really depends on the overall length of your project. Take a look at our guide about the length of thesis statements for more insight on this topic.

Here is a list of Thesis Statement Examples that will help you understand better how to write them.

Every good essay should include a thesis statement as part of its introduction, no matter the academic level. Of course, if you are a high school student you are not expected to have the same type of thesis as a PhD student.

Here is a great YouTube tutorial showing How To Write An Essay: Thesis Statements .

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How to Write a Strong Thesis Statement: 4 Steps + Examples

What’s Covered:

What is the purpose of a thesis statement, writing a good thesis statement: 4 steps, common pitfalls to avoid, where to get your essay edited for free.

When you set out to write an essay, there has to be some kind of point to it, right? Otherwise, your essay would just be a big jumble of word salad that makes absolutely no sense. An essay needs a central point that ties into everything else. That main point is called a thesis statement, and it’s the core of any essay or research paper.

You may hear about Master degree candidates writing a thesis, and that is an entire paper–not to be confused with the thesis statement, which is typically one sentence that contains your paper’s focus. 

Read on to learn more about thesis statements and how to write them. We’ve also included some solid examples for you to reference.

Typically the last sentence of your introductory paragraph, the thesis statement serves as the roadmap for your essay. When your reader gets to the thesis statement, they should have a clear outline of your main point, as well as the information you’ll be presenting in order to either prove or support your point. 

The thesis statement should not be confused for a topic sentence , which is the first sentence of every paragraph in your essay. If you need help writing topic sentences, numerous resources are available. Topic sentences should go along with your thesis statement, though.

Since the thesis statement is the most important sentence of your entire essay or paper, it’s imperative that you get this part right. Otherwise, your paper will not have a good flow and will seem disjointed. That’s why it’s vital not to rush through developing one. It’s a methodical process with steps that you need to follow in order to create the best thesis statement possible.

Step 1: Decide what kind of paper you’re writing

When you’re assigned an essay, there are several different types you may get. Argumentative essays are designed to get the reader to agree with you on a topic. Informative or expository essays present information to the reader. Analytical essays offer up a point and then expand on it by analyzing relevant information. Thesis statements can look and sound different based on the type of paper you’re writing. For example:

• Argumentative: The United States needs a viable third political party to decrease bipartisanship, increase options, and help reduce corruption in government.
• Informative: The Libertarian party has thrown off elections before by gaining enough support in states to get on the ballot and by taking away crucial votes from candidates.
• Analytical: An analysis of past presidential elections shows that while third party votes may have been the minority, they did affect the outcome of the elections in 2020, 2016, and beyond.

Step 2: Figure out what point you want to make

Once you know what type of paper you’re writing, you then need to figure out the point you want to make with your thesis statement, and subsequently, your paper. In other words, you need to decide to answer a question about something, such as:

• What impact did reality TV have on American society?
• How has the musical Hamilton affected perception of American history?
• Why do I want to major in [chosen major here]?

If you have an argumentative essay, then you will be writing about an opinion. To make it easier, you may want to choose an opinion that you feel passionate about so that you’re writing about something that interests you. For example, if you have an interest in preserving the environment, you may want to choose a topic that relates to that. 

If you’re writing your college essay and they ask why you want to attend that school, you may want to have a main point and back it up with information, something along the lines of:

“Attending Harvard University would benefit me both academically and professionally, as it would give me a strong knowledge base upon which to build my career, develop my network, and hopefully give me an advantage in my chosen field.”

Step 3: Determine what information you’ll use to back up your point

Once you have the point you want to make, you need to figure out how you plan to back it up throughout the rest of your essay. Without this information, it will be hard to either prove or argue the main point of your thesis statement. If you decide to write about the Hamilton example, you may decide to address any falsehoods that the writer put into the musical, such as:

“The musical Hamilton, while accurate in many ways, leaves out key parts of American history, presents a nationalist view of founding fathers, and downplays the racism of the times.”

Once you’ve written your initial working thesis statement, you’ll then need to get information to back that up. For example, the musical completely leaves out Benjamin Franklin, portrays the founding fathers in a nationalist way that is too complimentary, and shows Hamilton as a staunch abolitionist despite the fact that his family likely did own slaves. 

Step 4: Revise and refine your thesis statement before you start writing

Read through your thesis statement several times before you begin to compose your full essay. You need to make sure the statement is ironclad, since it is the foundation of the entire paper. Edit it or have a peer review it for you to make sure everything makes sense and that you feel like you can truly write a paper on the topic. Once you’ve done that, you can then begin writing your paper.

When writing a thesis statement, there are some common pitfalls you should avoid so that your paper can be as solid as possible. Make sure you always edit the thesis statement before you do anything else. You also want to ensure that the thesis statement is clear and concise. Don’t make your reader hunt for your point. Finally, put your thesis statement at the end of the first paragraph and have your introduction flow toward that statement. Your reader will expect to find your statement in its traditional spot.

If you’re having trouble getting started, or need some guidance on your essay, there are tools available that can help you. CollegeVine offers a free peer essay review tool where one of your peers can read through your essay and provide you with valuable feedback. Getting essay feedback from a peer can help you wow your instructor or college admissions officer with an impactful essay that effectively illustrates your point.

Related CollegeVine Blog Posts

How to Write a Solid Thesis Statement

The important sentence expresses your central assertion or argument

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A thesis statement provides the foundation for your entire research paper or essay. This statement is the central assertion that you want to express in your essay. A successful thesis statement is one that is made up of one or two sentences clearly laying out your central idea and expressing an informed, reasoned answer to your research question.

Usually, the thesis statement will appear at the end of the first paragraph of your paper. There are a few different types, and the content of your thesis statement will depend upon the type of paper you’re writing.

Key Takeaways: Writing a Thesis Statement

• A thesis statement gives your reader a preview of your paper's content by laying out your central idea and expressing an informed, reasoned answer to your research question.
• Thesis statements will vary depending on the type of paper you are writing, such as an expository essay, argument paper, or analytical essay.
• Before creating a thesis statement, determine whether you are defending a stance, giving an overview of an event, object, or process, or analyzing your subject

Expository Essay Thesis Statement Examples

An expository essay "exposes" the reader to a new topic; it informs the reader with details, descriptions, or explanations of a subject. If you are writing an expository essay , your thesis statement should explain to the reader what she will learn in your essay. For example:

• The United States spends more money on its military budget than all the industrialized nations combined.
• Gun-related homicides and suicides are increasing after years of decline.
• Hate crimes have increased three years in a row, according to the FBI.
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) increases the risk of stroke and arterial fibrillation (irregular heartbeat).

These statements provide a statement of fact about the topic (not just opinion) but leave the door open for you to elaborate with plenty of details. In an expository essay, you don't need to develop an argument or prove anything; you only need to understand your topic and present it in a logical manner. A good thesis statement in an expository essay always leaves the reader wanting more details.

Types of Thesis Statements

Before creating a thesis statement, it's important to ask a few basic questions, which will help you determine the kind of essay or paper you plan to create:

• Are you defending a stance in a controversial essay ?
• Are you simply giving an overview or describing an event, object, or process?
• Are you conducting an analysis of an event, object, or process?

In every thesis statement , you will give the reader a preview of your paper's content, but the message will differ a little depending on the essay type .

Argument Thesis Statement Examples

If you have been instructed to take a stance on one side of a controversial issue, you will need to write an argument essay . Your thesis statement should express the stance you are taking and may give the reader a preview or a hint of your evidence. The thesis of an argument essay could look something like the following:

• Self-driving cars are too dangerous and should be banned from the roadways.
• The exploration of outer space is a waste of money; instead, funds should go toward solving issues on Earth, such as poverty, hunger, global warming, and traffic congestion.
• The U.S. must crack down on illegal immigration.
• Street cameras and street-view maps have led to a total loss of privacy in the United States and elsewhere.

These thesis statements are effective because they offer opinions that can be supported by evidence. If you are writing an argument essay, you can craft your own thesis around the structure of the statements above.

Analytical Essay Thesis Statement Examples

In an analytical essay assignment, you will be expected to break down a topic, process, or object in order to observe and analyze your subject piece by piece. Examples of a thesis statement for an analytical essay include:

• The criminal justice reform bill passed by the U.S. Senate in late 2018 (" The First Step Act ") aims to reduce prison sentences that disproportionately fall on nonwhite criminal defendants.
• The rise in populism and nationalism in the U.S. and European democracies has coincided with the decline of moderate and centrist parties that have dominated since WWII.
• Later-start school days increase student success for a variety of reasons.

Because the role of the thesis statement is to state the central message of your entire paper, it is important to revisit (and maybe rewrite) your thesis statement after the paper is written. In fact, it is quite normal for your message to change as you construct your paper.

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While Sandel argues that pursuing perfection through genetic engineering would decrease our sense of humility, he claims that the sense of solidarity we would lose is also important.

This thesis summarizes several points in Sandel’s argument, but it does not make a claim about how we should understand his argument. A reader who read Sandel’s argument would not also need to read an essay based on this descriptive thesis.  

Broad thesis (arguable, but difficult to support with evidence) 

Michael Sandel’s arguments about genetic engineering do not take into consideration all the relevant issues.

This is an arguable claim because it would be possible to argue against it by saying that Michael Sandel’s arguments do take all of the relevant issues into consideration. But the claim is too broad. Because the thesis does not specify which “issues” it is focused on—or why it matters if they are considered—readers won’t know what the rest of the essay will argue, and the writer won’t know what to focus on. If there is a particular issue that Sandel does not address, then a more specific version of the thesis would include that issue—hand an explanation of why it is important.  

Arguable thesis with analytical claim 

While Sandel argues persuasively that our instinct to “remake” (54) ourselves into something ever more perfect is a problem, his belief that we can always draw a line between what is medically necessary and what makes us simply “better than well” (51) is less convincing.

This is an arguable analytical claim. To argue for this claim, the essay writer will need to show how evidence from the article itself points to this interpretation. It’s also a reasonable scope for a thesis because it can be supported with evidence available in the text and is neither too broad nor too narrow.  

Arguable thesis with normative claim 

Given Sandel’s argument against genetic enhancement, we should not allow parents to decide on using Human Growth Hormone for their children.

This thesis tells us what we should do about a particular issue discussed in Sandel’s article, but it does not tell us how we should understand Sandel’s argument.  

Questions to ask about your thesis 

• Is the thesis truly arguable? Does it speak to a genuine dilemma in the source, or would most readers automatically agree with it?  
• Is the thesis too obvious? Again, would most or all readers agree with it without needing to see your argument?  
• Is the thesis complex enough to require a whole essay's worth of argument?  
• Is the thesis supportable with evidence from the text rather than with generalizations or outside research?  
• Would anyone want to read a paper in which this thesis was developed? That is, can you explain what this paper is adding to our understanding of a problem, question, or topic?
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How to write a thesis statement, what is a thesis statement.

Almost all of us—even if we don’t do it consciously—look early in an essay for a one- or two-sentence condensation of the argument or analysis that is to follow. We refer to that condensation as a thesis statement.

Why Should Your Essay Contain a Thesis Statement?

• to test your ideas by distilling them into a sentence or two
• to better organize and develop your argument
• to provide your reader with a “guide” to your argument

In general, your thesis statement will accomplish these goals if you think of the thesis as the answer to the question your paper explores.

How Can You Write a Good Thesis Statement?

Here are some helpful hints to get you started. You can either scroll down or select a link to a specific topic.

How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is Assigned How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is not Assigned How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement from a Weak One

How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is Assigned

Almost all assignments, no matter how complicated, can be reduced to a single question. Your first step, then, is to distill the assignment into a specific question. For example, if your assignment is, “Write a report to the local school board explaining the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class,” turn the request into a question like, “What are the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class?” After you’ve chosen the question your essay will answer, compose one or two complete sentences answering that question.

Q: “What are the potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class?” A: “The potential benefits of using computers in a fourth-grade class are . . .”

A: “Using computers in a fourth-grade class promises to improve . . .”

The answer to the question is the thesis statement for the essay.

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How to Generate a Thesis Statement if the Topic is not Assigned

Even if your assignment doesn’t ask a specific question, your thesis statement still needs to answer a question about the issue you’d like to explore. In this situation, your job is to figure out what question you’d like to write about.

A good thesis statement will usually include the following four attributes:

• take on a subject upon which reasonable people could disagree
• deal with a subject that can be adequately treated given the nature of the assignment
• express one main idea
• assert your conclusions about a subject

Let’s see how to generate a thesis statement for a social policy paper.

Brainstorm the topic . Let’s say that your class focuses upon the problems posed by changes in the dietary habits of Americans. You find that you are interested in the amount of sugar Americans consume.

You start out with a thesis statement like this:

Sugar consumption.

This fragment isn’t a thesis statement. Instead, it simply indicates a general subject. Furthermore, your reader doesn’t know what you want to say about sugar consumption.

Narrow the topic . Your readings about the topic, however, have led you to the conclusion that elementary school children are consuming far more sugar than is healthy.

You change your thesis to look like this:

Reducing sugar consumption by elementary school children.

This fragment not only announces your subject, but it focuses on one segment of the population: elementary school children. Furthermore, it raises a subject upon which reasonable people could disagree, because while most people might agree that children consume more sugar than they used to, not everyone would agree on what should be done or who should do it. You should note that this fragment is not a thesis statement because your reader doesn’t know your conclusions on the topic.

Take a position on the topic. After reflecting on the topic a little while longer, you decide that what you really want to say about this topic is that something should be done to reduce the amount of sugar these children consume.

You revise your thesis statement to look like this:

More attention should be paid to the food and beverage choices available to elementary school children.

This statement asserts your position, but the terms more attention and food and beverage choices are vague.

Use specific language . You decide to explain what you mean about food and beverage choices , so you write:

Experts estimate that half of elementary school children consume nine times the recommended daily allowance of sugar.

This statement is specific, but it isn’t a thesis. It merely reports a statistic instead of making an assertion.

Make an assertion based on clearly stated support. You finally revise your thesis statement one more time to look like this:

Because half of all American elementary school children consume nine times the recommended daily allowance of sugar, schools should be required to replace the beverages in soda machines with healthy alternatives.

Notice how the thesis answers the question, “What should be done to reduce sugar consumption by children, and who should do it?” When you started thinking about the paper, you may not have had a specific question in mind, but as you became more involved in the topic, your ideas became more specific. Your thesis changed to reflect your new insights.

How to Tell a Strong Thesis Statement from a Weak One

1. a strong thesis statement takes some sort of stand..

Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:

There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.

This is a weak thesis statement. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase negative and positive aspects is vague.

Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.

This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand, and because it's specific.

2. A strong thesis statement justifies discussion.

Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you might come up with either of these two thesis statements:

My family is an extended family.

This is a weak thesis because it merely states an observation. Your reader won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.

While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.

This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.

3. A strong thesis statement expresses one main idea.

Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis statement expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:

Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and Web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.

This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or Web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:

Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using Web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.

This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like because , since , so , although , unless , and however .

4. A strong thesis statement is specific.

A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you're writing a seven-to-ten page paper on hunger, you might say:

World hunger has many causes and effects.

This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, world hunger can’t be discussed thoroughly in seven to ten pages. Second, many causes and effects is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. A revised thesis might look like this:

Hunger persists in Glandelinia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.

This is a strong thesis statement because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic, and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of hunger.

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Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements

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Tips for Writing Your Thesis Statement

1. Determine what kind of paper you are writing:

• An analytical paper breaks down an issue or an idea into its component parts, evaluates the issue or idea, and presents this breakdown and evaluation to the audience.
• An expository (explanatory) paper explains something to the audience.
• An argumentative paper makes a claim about a topic and justifies this claim with specific evidence. The claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. The goal of the argumentative paper is to convince the audience that the claim is true based on the evidence provided.

If you are writing a text that does not fall under these three categories (e.g., a narrative), a thesis statement somewhere in the first paragraph could still be helpful to your reader.

2. Your thesis statement should be specific—it should cover only what you will discuss in your paper and should be supported with specific evidence.

3. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper.

4. Your topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis statement to reflect exactly what you have discussed in the paper.

Thesis Statement Examples

Example of an analytical thesis statement:

The paper that follows should:

• Explain the analysis of the college admission process
• Explain the challenge facing admissions counselors

Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement:

• Explain how students spend their time studying, attending class, and socializing with peers

Example of an argumentative thesis statement:

• Present an argument and give evidence to support the claim that students should pursue community projects before entering college

Mastering the Thesis Statement: Examples and Tips for Academic Success

What is the thesis statement? When it comes to writing an essay , there are many things that we must take into consideration in order to create a well-written and respected piece of work. One such thing is the thesis statement. Every good essay should have one and it needs to be well-written and well-thought-out. In this article, we are going to be looking at exactly what a thesis statement is and what it is used for as well as looking at some examples of the thesis statement as a way to gain a greater understanding of what its function is.

A thesis statement plays a crucial role in any well-crafted essay, as it helps both the writer and the reader establish the central point of the paper. Typically found near the end of the introduction, this sentence succinctly conveys the main idea the writer intends to communicate throughout the essay. Crafting a strong thesis statement increases the likelihood that the resulting essay will be cohesive, persuasive, and engaging for the audience.

Creating an effective thesis statement can, at times, be a challenging process. One useful method is to begin by exploring examples that illustrate the various ways in which thesis statements can be constructed, depending on the type of essay or paper being written. Studying these examples can help budding writers grasp the principles behind crafting compelling thesis statements, and serve as inspiration for their own work.

What Is A Thesis Statement?

Definition and purpose.

In the most simple terms, a thesis statement is a short statement that provides insight into what the essay is going to be about. They are used to enlighten the audience on a variety of things, including:

• The main argument or point to be discussed.
• The purpose of the essay.
• The point of view of the author on a specific topic.

A thesis statement is a sentence that encapsulates the central point or main idea of a paper or essay. It is typically found near the end of the introduction and serves as a guide to the reader, outlining the writer’s stance on the topic. The thesis statement not only answers the question asked but also acts as a roadmap for the paper, indicating what the reader can expect throughout the rest of the paper.

The purpose of a thesis statement is two-fold:

• To convey a clear and concise argument or position on the topic.
• To inspire further discussion and responses from the audience.

It’s crucial for a thesis statement to be focused, specific, and arguable. A strong thesis is easy to understand and provides a solid foundation for supporting evidence within the paper.

Types of Thesis Statements

Argumentative thesis statement.

An argumentative thesis statement is a claim that takes a strong position on an issue. This type of thesis statement aims to persuade the reader to accept the writer’s viewpoint by presenting logical reasoning and supporting evidence. It is essential to have a clear and concise argumentative thesis statement to guide the rest of the essay.

For example: “ Public transportation should be free in metropolitan areas to reduce carbon emissions and economic inequalities.”

Expository Essay Thesis Statement

An expository essay thesis statement highlights a specific issue or fact that the writer will explain or analyze throughout the essay. This type of thesis should be informative and objective, without taking a strong stance on the issue.

For example: “ High-level competitive athletes face numerous physical, mental, and emotional challenges throughout their careers. ”

Persuasive Thesis Statement

A persuasive thesis statement is similar to an argumentative thesis statement, but it aims to convince the reader to take action or adopt the writer’s viewpoint through emotional appeal and relatable examples. The persuasive thesis statement should be thought-provoking and debatable.

For example: “ Animal shelters should require background checks and home visits to ensure responsible pet adoption and prevent animal abuse. ”

Compare and Contrast Thesis Statement

A compare-and-contrast thesis statement sets the stage for an essay comparing or contrasting two or more subjects. This type of thesis statement may highlight similarities, differences, or a mix of both. It is crucial to establish a basis for comparison to provide a clear focus for the essay.

For example: “ While both public and private universities offer a variety of educational opportunities, the differences in cost, class size, and campus environment directly impact a student’s experience .”

By understanding and applying these types of thesis statements, writers can effectively tailor their essays’ tone and focus to suit their specific purpose and audience.

How Is A Thesis Statement Used?

As we mentioned a thesis statement is used to point out the main argument of the essay. There are certain rules that should be followed by the thesis statement. Let’s take a look at these in a little more detail.

• A thesis statement should appear in the introduction of the essay to layout the main topic and the author’s stance on it. It should also appear in the conclusion of the essay, where the author can refer back to it.
• A thesis statement should be a short statement of only one or two sentences that delivers clear and concise information.
• The thesis statement will directly answer the main question posed by the essay, for example, if the essay question were ‘What is the biggest tourist attraction in France?’ The thesis statement might directly reply to this with ‘With over 6 million visitors each year, the Eiffel Tower is clearly the biggest tourist attraction in France.’ If the essay topic doesn’t contain a question, you can fashion one yourself.
• Many people use the ‘so what?’ technique when writing a thesis statement. If a reader is likely to think ‘so what?’ when starting your essay, you can use the thesis statement to form a relationship and a connection to the issue that will engage the reader and make them care about what is going to be talked about.
• Similarly to the above point, a thesis statement should answer why or how questions that the reader may have. Look again at the example of the Eiffel Tower, the statement clearly shows the reader why the tower is the biggest tourist attraction in France using real statistics that cannot be ignored. But in the same breath, gives the reader the chance to dispute the information. This is another key point to the thesis statement. A reader should be able to look at the thesis statement and disagree with it, this might encourage them to research the topic themselves.
• A thesis statement should agree with the body of the essay. If it does not, then it should be amended. Using the example of the French tourist attraction once again, the body of that essay would need to go into further detail about the tourist attractions in France and further prove why the Eiffel Tower is the most popular.

Creating a Strong Thesis Statement

Identifying your topic and scope.

When creating a strong thesis statement, it is essential to first identify your topic and the scope of your paper. You should consider the central idea you want to communicate and its impact on your field of study, whether it’s art, education, or environmental studies. A solid thesis statement should focus on a single aspect of your research, avoiding general terms or abstractions. Keep it clear and specific to ensure it effectively guides both you and the reader through your argument.

Forming a Debatable Claim

An argumentative thesis statement should present a debatable claim, one that reasonable people could disagree with. This means that it should not merely be a statement of fact, but rather an assertion that invites different opinions. For example, a debatable claim on nationalism could be, “Nationalism contributed to the rise of populism in the 21st century.” This claim allows for various arguments, opinions, and contextual interpretations.

Providing Evidence

A strong thesis statement should also set the stage for presenting evidence supporting your claim. In a research paper, this means providing an overview of the key elements and sources you will use to build your argument. For an argumentative essay, be prepared to provide well-researched and detailed evidence to back up your claim, whether it’s regarding renewable energy sources, the history of race and gender, or the role of nationalism in shaping global politics.

Here are some tips to help you write a strong thesis statement:

• Make sure it’s clear and concise, typically consisting of one or two sentences.
• Ensure that it’s focused and specific enough to be “proven” within the boundaries of your paper.
• Position it near the end of your essay’s introduction or within the first paragraph.

By following these guidelines and being mindful of your topic, scope, and evidence, you will be able to craft a powerful thesis statement that engages your audience and sets the stage for a successful research or argumentative paper.

Explore more: How To Write A Thesis Statement

Thesis Statement Examples

Argumentative thesis examples.

An argumentative thesis aims to establish a position and persuade the reader with evidence and reasoning. Examples include:

• Though populism may fundamentally challenge traditional political structures, its effects on social and economic policies are necessary for a more equitable society.
• Social media platforms are responsible for the increasing polarization of opinions and must adopt measures to limit the spread of misinformation.

Expository Essay Thesis Examples

An expository essay thesis presents facts, evidence, or an explanation without taking a persuasive stance. Examples include:

• The process of photosynthesis is fundamental to the survival of plants and the ecosystems they support, providing energy for growth and reproduction.
• Urbanization has led to numerous social, economic, and environmental consequences, including increased housing demand, traffic congestion, and pollution.

Persuasive Thesis Examples

A persuasive thesis seeks to convince the reader of a particular argument or opinion. Examples include:

• The benefits of implementing a universal basic income outweigh the potential drawbacks, as it can alleviate poverty and provide residents with more financial security.
• Investing in renewable energy sources is essential for combating climate change and ensuring a sustainable future for subsequent generations.

Compare and Contrast Thesis Examples

A compare and contrast thesis highlights the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. Examples include:

• While both traditional and online education offer unique advantages and challenges, the flexibility and accessibility of online learning make it a more suitable option for students juggling work and personal responsibilities.
• Despite similarities in their genre and themes, the novels “Pride and Prejudice” and “Wuthering Heights” differ significantly in their narrative styles and characterization.

Using these examples, you can create strong thesis statements tailored to your essay’s specific topic and goals. Remember to provide a clear and concise thesis that effectively showcases your argument, opinion, or comparison in a confident, knowledgeable, and neutral tone.

Thesis Statement Examples: Issues to Consider

Impact on society.

When creating a thesis statement, it’s essential to consider the potential impacts on society. The chosen topic may address issues such as education, war, and nationalism. For example, the thesis statement might analyze the effects of changing educational policies on different classes of society. This could include exploring access to education for low-income households or the impact of privatization on public schools. It is crucial to examine how the thesis topic relates to societal issues and incorporates them into the statement.

Related: Social Issues

Race, Gender, and Class

It is important to address issues related to race, gender, and class when developing thesis statements. For instance, research papers might examine inequalities in the workplace or disparities in access to resources. Such studies should think about context and historical background, comparing and contrasting the experiences of different groups. Here are some examples.

• Gender : An examination of the gender pay gap across various industries
• Race : A comparison of racial profiling incidents in law enforcement across different communities
• Class : Exploring the impact of socio-economic status on healthcare access and outcomes

Consider using tables and bullet points to help present data and findings more effectively.

Environmental Concerns

Lastly, incorporating environmental concerns into thesis statements is essential, especially in today’s world, where sustainability and environmental protection are vital. Research papers might address issues such as pollution, waste management, or the effects of climate change on marginalized communities. For example, a thesis statement could focus on exploring the consequences of a specific eco-friendly initiative in a local community, or how environmental policies have evolved over time.

Keep in mind to maintain a confident, knowledgeable, neutral, and clear tone of voice throughout the section, focusing on accurate information and avoiding exaggerated or false claims.

Examples of Thesis Statements in Different Essay Types

In a narrative essay , the thesis statement revolves around the story being told. It is typically centered on a specific event, person, or experience that had a significant impact on the writer. The thesis statement in a narrative essay serves as a brief preview of what the reader can expect. It should provide some insight into the writer’s personal connection to the topic and help set the stage for the narrative to unfold.

For example:

The moment she won the lottery, Mary’s life changed forever, teaching her the importance of cherishing every moment with her loved ones.

An analytical essay breaks down a topic into its main components and presents an evaluation or interpretation of the topic based on those components. The thesis statement in an analytical essay should clearly state the issue or idea that will be analyzed and its essential elements. This type of statement should provide enough information to guide the reader through the essay and highlight the central points of analysis.

By examining the symbolism, characterization, and theme of “The Great Gatsby,” it becomes evident that Fitzgerald uses these techniques to criticize the American Dream’s materialism and superficiality.

Argumentative

In an argumentative essay , the thesis statement takes a clear, definitive stance on a specific issue or question. This type of thesis statement aims to persuade readers of the writer’s viewpoint and provide logical and supporting evidence to back up the claim. The thesis should be concise, specific, and controversial enough to encourage debate from various perspectives.

Although some people argue that video games can be beneficial, this essay will demonstrate that excessive video gaming is linked to increased violent behavior, addiction, and social isolation, and therefore requires stricter regulation.

Cause and Effect

A cause-and-effect essay explores the relationship between certain events, actions, or conditions and their respective outcomes. The thesis statement in a cause-and-effect essay should establish the connection between the cause and the effect, asserting a causal connection between the two. This type of thesis statement should present a clear, coherent structure to guide the reader through the essay and should establish the relationship between the cause and the effect.

The widespread use of smartphones has led to increased incidents of sleep deprivation among teenagers, resulting in declining academic performance, mood disorders, and health issues.

These are examples of how thesis statements can vary based on the type of essay and showcase the importance of tailoring the thesis statement to fit the specific requirements of each essay style.

More Thesis Statement Examples

Now that we are clear on what a thesis statement is and how it can be used, we are going to take a look at some examples of strong and effective thesis statements. This will give you a better idea on what they should contain and how they function within an essay.

American Education

The American education system has been evolving, and it is essential to have a clear thesis statement when discussing the topic. Here’s an example:

The integration of technology in American schools has significantly enhanced the learning experience of students, resulting in improved academic performance.

In this example, it highlights the positive impact of technology on the education system. It also provides a concise view that can be explored and supported through research and relevant statistics.

Internet and Society

The internet has changed the way society functions in various capacities. Here is a thesis statement example that can be used to discuss the relationship between the internet and society:

The widespread use of the internet has drastically altered societal interactions, affecting the population’s ability to communicate, access information, and maintain personal privacy.

This statement outlines the primary effects of the internet on society and can be further developed through specific examples and analysis. This statement can be supported through studies, data, and real-life cases that demonstrate the impact of the internet on communication, information access, and privacy concerns.

List of Thesis Statement Examples

• Owing to the fact that many children are not being vaccinated because of illness, it is now imperative that we make it a requirement that healthy children are vaccinated in order to stop the spread of disease.
• For families on a low income, schools should provide basic equipment such as pens, calculators and laptops.
• Whilst school uniforms are expensive, they do provide security and a sense of belonging to students and for this reason, are an integral part of the school system.
• Many public libraries are closing down due to lack of interest but these are important resources within the community and we should fight to keep them open.
• With the internet becoming ever more popular and accessible to teenagers, cyber bullying is massively on the rise. A large number of cyber bullying cases end in suicide and it is down to parents and schools to tackle this growing problem.
• Cannabis is not legal in many countries and states and this is for good reason. The drug is known to diminish the brain cells and regardless of how it might relax pain and anxiety, it should not be legalised.
• Too many people are taking time of work for stress-related reasons and so it is more important than ever for workplaces to provide internal activities to combat this problem.
• Many parents do not like the idea of their children being taught sex education at an early age but unfortunately in this day and age, it is a necessity if we want to keep children safe.

Avoiding Common Mistakes

When writing a thesis statement, it is essential to avoid common mistakes that may weaken your argument or confuse your reader. In this section, we will discuss two main pitfalls to avoid: Overgeneralizing and Using Weak or Vague Language.

Overgeneralizing

Overgeneralizing refers to making broad, sweeping claims in your thesis statement without providing specific, concrete evidence to support them. To avoid overgeneralization, focus on providing a clear and concise argument, grounded in solid research and evidence. Brainstorm specific examples or points you will address in your paper that support your thesis. For example, if your thesis is about a controversial topic, make sure your argument is based on valid research and takes a clear direction, rather than making generalized statements.

To prevent overgeneralization in your thesis statement:

• Narrow the focus of your argument.
• Ensure your claim is specific and backed up by evidence.
• Be consistent with the goals and direction outlined in your paper.

Using Weak or Vague Language

Using weak or vague language in your thesis statement can result in a lack of clarity and create confusion for your reader. To maintain a strong, clear, and convincing thesis, avoid using weak or unclear terms, such as “interesting” or “might.” Instead, use assertive and definitive language that demonstrates your confidence and knowledge of the subject matter. For instance, if you are writing about a potential solution to a problem, make sure to express your stance in a strong, clear way to entice your reader and promise valuable insights.

To strengthen the language of your thesis statement:

• Avoid using vague or ambiguous terms.
• Use clear, specific language that directly communicates your argument.
• Stay focused on your main points and the direction of your paper.

Keeping these tips in mind and utilizing clear language will contribute to a stronger, more effective thesis statement.

Crafting Engaging Introductions and Conclusions

Writing a hook.

A successful introduction begins with an attention-grabbing hook. A hook is an opening statement that piques the reader’s interest and encourages them to continue reading. There are various types of hooks, such as using a quote, posing a question, or stating an intriguing fact. The hook should be relevant to the topic and set the tone for the rest of the article.

Connecting Thesis Statement to Conclusion

The conclusion of an academic paper should restate the thesis statement and summarize the main points discussed in the body paragraphs. However, it’s important to do this in a way that doesn’t merely repeat the same information, but instead provides a sense of closure and emphasizes the significance of the topic.

One way to achieve this is by connecting the thesis statement to the conclusion through the use of topic sentences and counterarguments. A well-crafted topic sentence should introduce the main idea of a body paragraph, while a counterargument addresses potential objections to the thesis statement. Utilizing these elements effectively throughout the paper creates a sense of cohesion and allows for a smooth transition from the introduction to the conclusion.

By incorporating engaging hooks and thoughtfully connecting the thesis statement to the conclusion, the reader is more likely to be drawn into the article and appreciate the depth of the content presented.

Thesis Statement Infographic

A thesis statement is made up of one or two sentences and gives the author the chance to tell the reader what the essay is going to be about as well as their stance on the topic. It should be clear and concise and should always tie in with the body paragraphs of the essay .

Whilst there are many points to consider when writing a thesis statement, a well-written one can answer a question and engage the reader in the essay. Sticking with the ‘rules’ of the thesis statement will allow the author to craft a well-written and relevant essay.

FAQs on Thesis Statement

What is a thesis statement.

A thesis statement is a sentence or two in an essay or research paper that presents the main argument or central idea of the paper. It tells the reader what to expect, guides the structure of the paper, and directly answers the question or topic being discussed.

How do I write a thesis statement?

There are four simple steps to write a thesis statement:

• Start with a question : Identify the topic or question your paper will explore.
• Write your initial answer : This should be a concise statement that provides a preliminary answer to the question.
• Develop your answer : Expand on your initial answer by considering its implications, context, and evidence.
• Refine your thesis statement : Revise and refine your statement to make it clear, specific, and arguable.

Where should the thesis statement be placed?

The placement of the thesis statement varies depending on the type of paper or essay. However, a common place for the thesis statement is at the end of the introduction paragraph, making it easier for the reader to identify the main argument early in the text.

What makes a good thesis statement?

A good thesis statement should be:

• Clear : It should communicate your main point without confusion.
• Specific : It should focus on a single topic or argument.
• Arguable : It should present a claim that people can reasonably disagree on.
• Relevant : It should relate to the purpose of the paper and contribute to its overall message.

What are the different types of thesis statements?

There are two main types of thesis statements:

• Analytical : An analytical thesis breaks down an issue or idea into its component parts, evaluates the issue or idea, and presents the breakdown and evaluation to the audience.
• Expository (explanatory) : An expository thesis explains something to the audience.

Remember, as you work on your thesis statement, keep the rest of your paper in mind to ensure that it aligns with the paper’s overall content and objective.

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Developing a Thesis Statement

Many papers you write require developing a thesis statement. In this section you’ll learn what a thesis statement is and how to write one.

Keep in mind that not all papers require thesis statements . If in doubt, please consult your instructor for assistance.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement . . .

• Makes an argumentative assertion about a topic; it states the conclusions that you have reached about your topic.
• Makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose, and direction of your paper.
• Is focused and specific enough to be “proven” within the boundaries of your paper.
• Is generally located near the end of the introduction ; sometimes, in a long paper, the thesis will be expressed in several sentences or in an entire paragraph.
• Identifies the relationships between the pieces of evidence that you are using to support your argument.

Not all papers require thesis statements! Ask your instructor if you’re in doubt whether you need one.

Identify a topic

Your topic is the subject about which you will write. Your assignment may suggest several ways of looking at a topic; or it may name a fairly general concept that you will explore or analyze in your paper.

Consider what your assignment asks you to do

Inform yourself about your topic, focus on one aspect of your topic, ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts, generate a topic from an assignment.

Below are some possible topics based on sample assignments.

Sample assignment 1

Analyze Spain’s neutrality in World War II.

Identified topic

Franco’s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the Axis

This topic avoids generalities such as “Spain” and “World War II,” addressing instead on Franco’s role (a specific aspect of “Spain”) and the diplomatic relations between the Allies and Axis (a specific aspect of World War II).

Sample assignment 2

Analyze one of Homer’s epic similes in the Iliad.

The relationship between the portrayal of warfare and the epic simile about Simoisius at 4.547-64.

This topic focuses on a single simile and relates it to a single aspect of the Iliad ( warfare being a major theme in that work).

Developing a Thesis Statement–Additional information

Your assignment may suggest several ways of looking at a topic, or it may name a fairly general concept that you will explore or analyze in your paper. You’ll want to read your assignment carefully, looking for key terms that you can use to focus your topic.

Sample assignment: Analyze Spain’s neutrality in World War II Key terms: analyze, Spain’s neutrality, World War II

After you’ve identified the key words in your topic, the next step is to read about them in several sources, or generate as much information as possible through an analysis of your topic. Obviously, the more material or knowledge you have, the more possibilities will be available for a strong argument. For the sample assignment above, you’ll want to look at books and articles on World War II in general, and Spain’s neutrality in particular.

As you consider your options, you must decide to focus on one aspect of your topic. This means that you cannot include everything you’ve learned about your topic, nor should you go off in several directions. If you end up covering too many different aspects of a topic, your paper will sprawl and be unconvincing in its argument, and it most likely will not fulfull the assignment requirements.

For the sample assignment above, both Spain’s neutrality and World War II are topics far too broad to explore in a paper. You may instead decide to focus on Franco’s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the Axis , which narrows down what aspects of Spain’s neutrality and World War II you want to discuss, as well as establishes a specific link between those two aspects.

Before you go too far, however, ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts. Try to avoid topics that already have too much written about them (i.e., “eating disorders and body image among adolescent women”) or that simply are not important (i.e. “why I like ice cream”). These topics may lead to a thesis that is either dry fact or a weird claim that cannot be supported. A good thesis falls somewhere between the two extremes. To arrive at this point, ask yourself what is new, interesting, contestable, or controversial about your topic.

As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times . Sometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a different approach to your topic.

Derive a main point from topic

Once you have a topic, you will have to decide what the main point of your paper will be. This point, the “controlling idea,” becomes the core of your argument (thesis statement) and it is the unifying idea to which you will relate all your sub-theses. You can then turn this “controlling idea” into a purpose statement about what you intend to do in your paper.

Look for patterns in your evidence

Compose a purpose statement.

Consult the examples below for suggestions on how to look for patterns in your evidence and construct a purpose statement.

• Franco first tried to negotiate with the Axis
• Franco turned to the Allies when he couldn’t get some concessions that he wanted from the Axis

Possible conclusion:

Spain’s neutrality in WWII occurred for an entirely personal reason: Franco’s desire to preserve his own (and Spain’s) power.

Purpose statement

This paper will analyze Franco’s diplomacy during World War II to see how it contributed to Spain’s neutrality.

• The simile compares Simoisius to a tree, which is a peaceful, natural image.
• The tree in the simile is chopped down to make wheels for a chariot, which is an object used in warfare.

At first, the simile seems to take the reader away from the world of warfare, but we end up back in that world by the end.

This paper will analyze the way the simile about Simoisius at 4.547-64 moves in and out of the world of warfare.

Derive purpose statement from topic

To find out what your “controlling idea” is, you have to examine and evaluate your evidence . As you consider your evidence, you may notice patterns emerging, data repeated in more than one source, or facts that favor one view more than another. These patterns or data may then lead you to some conclusions about your topic and suggest that you can successfully argue for one idea better than another.

For instance, you might find out that Franco first tried to negotiate with the Axis, but when he couldn’t get some concessions that he wanted from them, he turned to the Allies. As you read more about Franco’s decisions, you may conclude that Spain’s neutrality in WWII occurred for an entirely personal reason: his desire to preserve his own (and Spain’s) power. Based on this conclusion, you can then write a trial thesis statement to help you decide what material belongs in your paper.

Sometimes you won’t be able to find a focus or identify your “spin” or specific argument immediately. Like some writers, you might begin with a purpose statement just to get yourself going. A purpose statement is one or more sentences that announce your topic and indicate the structure of the paper but do not state the conclusions you have drawn . Thus, you might begin with something like this:

• This paper will look at modern language to see if it reflects male dominance or female oppression.
• I plan to analyze anger and derision in offensive language to see if they represent a challenge of society’s authority.

At some point, you can turn a purpose statement into a thesis statement. As you think and write about your topic, you can restrict, clarify, and refine your argument, crafting your thesis statement to reflect your thinking.

As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times. Sometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a different approach to your topic.

Compose a draft thesis statement

If you are writing a paper that will have an argumentative thesis and are having trouble getting started, the techniques in the table below may help you develop a temporary or “working” thesis statement.

Begin with a purpose statement that you will later turn into a thesis statement.

Assignment: Discuss the history of the Reform Party and explain its influence on the 1990 presidential and Congressional election.

Purpose Statement: This paper briefly sketches the history of the grassroots, conservative, Perot-led Reform Party and analyzes how it influenced the economic and social ideologies of the two mainstream parties.

Question-to-Assertion

If your assignment asks a specific question(s), turn the question(s) into an assertion and give reasons why it is true or reasons for your opinion.

Assignment : What do Aylmer and Rappaccini have to be proud of? Why aren’t they satisfied with these things? How does pride, as demonstrated in “The Birthmark” and “Rappaccini’s Daughter,” lead to unexpected problems?

Beginning thesis statement: Alymer and Rappaccinni are proud of their great knowledge; however, they are also very greedy and are driven to use their knowledge to alter some aspect of nature as a test of their ability. Evil results when they try to “play God.”

Write a sentence that summarizes the main idea of the essay you plan to write.

Main idea: The reason some toys succeed in the market is that they appeal to the consumers’ sense of the ridiculous and their basic desire to laugh at themselves.

Make a list of the ideas that you want to include; consider the ideas and try to group them.

• nature = peaceful
• war matériel = violent (competes with 1?)
• need for time and space to mourn the dead
• war is inescapable (competes with 3?)

Use a formula to arrive at a working thesis statement (you will revise this later).

• although most readers of _______ have argued that _______, closer examination shows that _______.
• _______ uses _______ and _____ to prove that ________.
• phenomenon x is a result of the combination of __________, __________, and _________.

What to keep in mind as you draft an initial thesis statement

Beginning statements obtained through the methods illustrated above can serve as a framework for planning or drafting your paper, but remember they’re not yet the specific, argumentative thesis you want for the final version of your paper. In fact, in its first stages, a thesis statement usually is ill-formed or rough and serves only as a planning tool.

As you write, you may discover evidence that does not fit your temporary or “working” thesis. Or you may reach deeper insights about your topic as you do more research, and you will find that your thesis statement has to be more complicated to match the evidence that you want to use.

You must be willing to reject or omit some evidence in order to keep your paper cohesive and your reader focused. Or you may have to revise your thesis to match the evidence and insights that you want to discuss. Read your draft carefully, noting the conclusions you have drawn and the major ideas which support or prove those conclusions. These will be the elements of your final thesis statement.

Sometimes you will not be able to identify these elements in your early drafts, but as you consider how your argument is developing and how your evidence supports your main idea, ask yourself, “ What is the main point that I want to prove/discuss? ” and “ How will I convince the reader that this is true? ” When you can answer these questions, then you can begin to refine the thesis statement.

Refine and polish the thesis statement

To get to your final thesis, you’ll need to refine your draft thesis so that it’s specific and arguable.

• Ask if your draft thesis addresses the assignment
• Question each part of your draft thesis
• Clarify vague phrases and assertions
• Investigate alternatives to your draft thesis

Consult the example below for suggestions on how to refine your draft thesis statement.

Sample Assignment

Choose an activity and define it as a symbol of American culture. Your essay should cause the reader to think critically about the society which produces and enjoys that activity.

• Ask The phenomenon of drive-in facilities is an interesting symbol of american culture, and these facilities demonstrate significant characteristics of our society.This statement does not fulfill the assignment because it does not require the reader to think critically about society.

Drive-ins are an interesting symbol of American culture because they represent Americans’ significant creativity and business ingenuity.

Among the types of drive-in facilities familiar during the twentieth century, drive-in movie theaters best represent American creativity, not merely because they were the forerunner of later drive-ins and drive-throughs, but because of their impact on our culture: they changed our relationship to the automobile, changed the way people experienced movies, and changed movie-going into a family activity.

While drive-in facilities such as those at fast-food establishments, banks, pharmacies, and dry cleaners symbolize America’s economic ingenuity, they also have affected our personal standards.

While drive-in facilities such as those at fast- food restaurants, banks, pharmacies, and dry cleaners symbolize (1) Americans’ business ingenuity, they also have contributed (2) to an increasing homogenization of our culture, (3) a willingness to depersonalize relationships with others, and (4) a tendency to sacrifice quality for convenience.

This statement is now specific and fulfills all parts of the assignment. This version, like any good thesis, is not self-evident; its points, 1-4, will have to be proven with evidence in the body of the paper. The numbers in this statement indicate the order in which the points will be presented. Depending on the length of the paper, there could be one paragraph for each numbered item or there could be blocks of paragraph for even pages for each one.

Complete the final thesis statement

The bottom line.

As you move through the process of crafting a thesis, you’ll need to remember four things:

• Context matters! Think about your course materials and lectures. Try to relate your thesis to the ideas your instructor is discussing.
• As you go through the process described in this section, always keep your assignment in mind . You will be more successful when your thesis (and paper) responds to the assignment than if it argues a semi-related idea.
• Your thesis statement should be precise, focused, and contestable ; it should predict the sub-theses or blocks of information that you will use to prove your argument.
• Make sure that you keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times. Change your thesis as your paper evolves, because you do not want your thesis to promise more than your paper actually delivers.

In the beginning, the thesis statement was a tool to help you sharpen your focus, limit material and establish the paper’s purpose. When your paper is finished, however, the thesis statement becomes a tool for your reader. It tells the reader what you have learned about your topic and what evidence led you to your conclusion. It keeps the reader on track–well able to understand and appreciate your argument.

Writing Process and Structure

This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels.

Getting Started with Your Paper

Interpreting Writing Assignments from Your Courses

Generating Ideas for

Creating an Argument

Thesis vs. Purpose Statements

Architecture of Arguments

Working with Sources

Quoting and Paraphrasing Sources

Using Literary Quotations

Citing Sources in Your Paper

Drafting Your Paper

Generating Ideas for Your Paper

Introductions

Paragraphing

Developing Strategic Transitions

Conclusions

Revising Your Paper

Peer Reviews

Reverse Outlines

Revising an Argumentative Paper

Revision Strategies for Longer Projects

Finishing Your Paper

Twelve Common Errors: An Editing Checklist

How to Proofread your Paper

Writing Collaboratively

Collaborative and Group Writing

• Translators
• Graphic Designers

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25 Thesis Statement Examples That Will Make Writing a Breeze

Understanding what makes a good thesis statement is one of the major keys to writing a great research paper or argumentative essay. The thesis statement is where you make a claim that will guide you through your entire paper. If you find yourself struggling to make sense of your paper or your topic, then it's likely due to a weak thesis statement.

Let's take a minute to first understand what makes a solid thesis statement, and what key components you need to write one of your own.

A thesis statement always goes at the beginning of the paper. It will typically be in the first couple of paragraphs of the paper so that it can introduce the body paragraphs, which are the supporting evidence for your thesis statement.

Your thesis statement should clearly identify an argument. You need to have a statement that is not only easy to understand, but one that is debatable. What that means is that you can't just put any statement of fact and have it be your thesis. For example, everyone knows that puppies are cute . An ineffective thesis statement would be, "Puppies are adorable and everyone knows it." This isn't really something that's a debatable topic.

Something that would be more debatable would be, "A puppy's cuteness is derived from its floppy ears, small body, and playfulness." These are three things that can be debated on. Some people might think that the cutest thing about puppies is the fact that they follow you around or that they're really soft and fuzzy.

All cuteness aside, you want to make sure that your thesis statement is not only debatable, but that it also actually thoroughly answers the research question that was posed. You always want to make sure that your evidence is supporting a claim that you made (and not the other way around). This is why it's crucial to read and research about a topic first and come to a conclusion later. If you try to get your research to fit your thesis statement, then it may not work out as neatly as you think. As you learn more, you discover more (and the outcome may not be what you originally thought).

Additionally, your thesis statement shouldn't be too big or too grand. It'll be hard to cover everything in a thesis statement like, "The federal government should act now on climate change." The topic is just too large to actually say something new and meaningful. Instead, a more effective thesis statement might be, "Local governments can combat climate change by providing citizens with larger recycling bins and offering local classes about composting and conservation." This is easier to work with because it's a smaller idea, but you can also discuss the overall topic that you might be interested in, which is climate change.

So, now that we know what makes a good, solid thesis statement, you can start to write your own. If you find that you're getting stuck or you are the type of person who needs to look at examples before you start something, then check out our list of thesis statement examples below.

Thesis statement examples

A quick note that these thesis statements have not been fully researched. These are merely examples to show you what a thesis statement might look like and how you can implement your own ideas into one that you think of independently. As such, you should not use these thesis statements for your own research paper purposes. They are meant to be used as examples only.

• Vaccinations Because many children are unable to vaccinate due to illness, we must require that all healthy and able children be vaccinated in order to have herd immunity.
• Educational Resources for Low-Income Students Schools should provide educational resources for low-income students during the summers so that they don't forget what they've learned throughout the school year.
• School Uniforms School uniforms may be an upfront cost for families, but they eradicate the visual differences in income between students and provide a more egalitarian atmosphere at school.
• Populism The rise in populism on the 2016 political stage was in reaction to increasing globalization, the decline of manufacturing jobs, and the Syrian refugee crisis.
• Public Libraries Libraries are essential resources for communities and should be funded more heavily by local municipalities.
• Cyber Bullying With more and more teens using smartphones and social media, cyber bullying is on the rise. Cyber bullying puts a lot of stress on many teens, and can cause depression, anxiety, and even suicidal thoughts. Parents should limit the usage of smart phones, monitor their children's online activity, and report any cyber bullying to school officials in order to combat this problem.
• Medical Marijuana for Veterans Studies have shown that the use of medicinal marijuana has been helpful to veterans who suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Medicinal marijuana prescriptions should be legal in all states and provided to these veterans. Additional medical or therapy services should also be researched and implemented in order to help them re-integrate back into civilian life.
• Work-Life Balance Corporations should provide more work from home opportunities and six-hour workdays so that office workers have a better work-life balance and are more likely to be productive when they are in the office.
• Teaching Youths about Consensual Sex Although sex education that includes a discussion of consensual sex would likely lead to less sexual assault, parents need to teach their children the meaning of consent from a young age with age appropriate lessons.
• Whether or Not to Attend University A degree from a university provides invaluable lessons on life and a future career, but not every high school student should be encouraged to attend a university directly after graduation. Some students may benefit from a trade school or a "gap year" where they can think more intensely about what it is they want to do for a career and how they can accomplish this.
• Studying Abroad Studying abroad is one of the most culturally valuable experiences you can have in college. It is the only way to get completely immersed in another language and learn how other cultures and countries are different from your own.
• Women's Body Image Magazines have done a lot in the last five years to include a more diverse group of models, but there is still a long way to go to promote a healthy woman's body image collectively as a culture.
• Cigarette Tax Heavily taxing and increasing the price of cigarettes is essentially a tax on the poorest Americans, and it doesn't deter them from purchasing. Instead, the state and federal governments should target those economically disenfranchised with early education about the dangers of smoking.
• Veganism A vegan diet, while a healthy and ethical way to consume food, indicates a position of privilege. It also limits you to other cultural food experiences if you travel around the world.
• University Athletes Should be Compensated University athletes should be compensated for their service to the university, as it is difficult for these students to procure and hold a job with busy academic and athletic schedules. Many student athletes on scholarship also come from low-income neighborhoods and it is a struggle to make ends meet when they are participating in athletics.
• Women in the Workforce Sheryl Sandberg makes a lot of interesting points in her best-selling book, Lean In , but she only addressed the very privileged working woman and failed to speak to those in lower-skilled, lower-wage jobs.
• Assisted Suicide Assisted suicide should be legal and doctors should have the ability to make sure their patients have the end-of-life care that they want to receive.
• Celebrity and Political Activism Although Taylor Swift's lyrics are indicative of a feminist perspective, she should be more politically active and vocal to use her position of power for the betterment of society.
• The Civil War The insistence from many Southerners that the South seceded from the Union for states' rights versus the fact that they seceded for the purposes of continuing slavery is a harmful myth that still affects race relations today.
• Blue Collar Workers Coal miners and other blue-collar workers whose jobs are slowly disappearing from the workforce should be re-trained in jobs in the technology sector or in renewable energy. A program to re-train these workers would not only improve local economies where jobs have been displaced, but would also lead to lower unemployment nationally.
• Diversity in the Workforce Having a diverse group of people in an office setting leads to richer ideas, more cooperation, and more empathy between people with different skin colors or backgrounds.
• Re-Imagining the Nuclear Family The nuclear family was traditionally defined as one mother, one father, and 2.5 children. This outdated depiction of family life doesn't quite fit with modern society. The definition of normal family life shouldn't be limited to two-parent households.
• Digital Literacy Skills With more information readily available than ever before, it's crucial that students are prepared to examine the material they're reading and determine whether or not it's a good source or if it has misleading information. Teaching students digital literacy and helping them to understand the difference between opinion or propaganda from legitimate, real information is integral.
• Beauty Pageants Beauty pageants are presented with the angle that they empower women. However, putting women in a swimsuit on a stage while simultaneously judging them on how well they answer an impossible question in a short period of time is cruel and purely for the amusement of men. Therefore, we should stop televising beauty pageants.
• Supporting More Women to Run for a Political Position In order to get more women into political positions, more women must run for office. There must be a grassroots effort to educate women on how to run for office, who among them should run, and support for a future candidate for getting started on a political career.

Still stuck? Need some help with your thesis statement?

If you are still uncertain about how to write a thesis statement or what a good thesis statement is, be sure to consult with your teacher or professor to make sure you're on the right track. It's always a good idea to check in and make sure that your thesis statement is making a solid argument and that it can be supported by your research.

After you're done writing, it's important to have someone take a second look at your paper so that you can ensure there are no mistakes or errors. It's difficult to spot your own mistakes, which is why it's always recommended to have someone help you with the revision process, whether that's a teacher, the writing center at school, or a professional editor such as one from ServiceScape .

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9.1 Developing a Strong, Clear Thesis Statement

Learning objectives.

• Develop a strong, clear thesis statement with the proper elements.
• Revise your thesis statement.

Have you ever known a person who was not very good at telling stories? You probably had trouble following his train of thought as he jumped around from point to point, either being too brief in places that needed further explanation or providing too many details on a meaningless element. Maybe he told the end of the story first, then moved to the beginning and later added details to the middle. His ideas were probably scattered, and the story did not flow very well. When the story was over, you probably had many questions.

Just as a personal anecdote can be a disorganized mess, an essay can fall into the same trap of being out of order and confusing. That is why writers need a thesis statement to provide a specific focus for their essay and to organize what they are about to discuss in the body.

Just like a topic sentence summarizes a single paragraph, the thesis statement summarizes an entire essay. It tells the reader the point you want to make in your essay, while the essay itself supports that point. It is like a signpost that signals the essay’s destination. You should form your thesis before you begin to organize an essay, but you may find that it needs revision as the essay develops.

Elements of a Thesis Statement

For every essay you write, you must focus on a central idea. This idea stems from a topic you have chosen or been assigned or from a question your teacher has asked. It is not enough merely to discuss a general topic or simply answer a question with a yes or no. You have to form a specific opinion, and then articulate that into a controlling idea —the main idea upon which you build your thesis.

Remember that a thesis is not the topic itself, but rather your interpretation of the question or subject. For whatever topic your professor gives you, you must ask yourself, “What do I want to say about it?” Asking and then answering this question is vital to forming a thesis that is precise, forceful and confident.

A thesis is one sentence long and appears toward the end of your introduction. It is specific and focuses on one to three points of a single idea—points that are able to be demonstrated in the body. It forecasts the content of the essay and suggests how you will organize your information. Remember that a thesis statement does not summarize an issue but rather dissects it.

A Strong Thesis Statement

A strong thesis statement contains the following qualities.

Specificity. A thesis statement must concentrate on a specific area of a general topic. As you may recall, the creation of a thesis statement begins when you choose a broad subject and then narrow down its parts until you pinpoint a specific aspect of that topic. For example, health care is a broad topic, but a proper thesis statement would focus on a specific area of that topic, such as options for individuals without health care coverage.

Precision. A strong thesis statement must be precise enough to allow for a coherent argument and to remain focused on the topic. If the specific topic is options for individuals without health care coverage, then your precise thesis statement must make an exact claim about it, such as that limited options exist for those who are uninsured by their employers. You must further pinpoint what you are going to discuss regarding these limited effects, such as whom they affect and what the cause is.

Ability to be argued. A thesis statement must present a relevant and specific argument. A factual statement often is not considered arguable. Be sure your thesis statement contains a point of view that can be supported with evidence.

Ability to be demonstrated. For any claim you make in your thesis, you must be able to provide reasons and examples for your opinion. You can rely on personal observations in order to do this, or you can consult outside sources to demonstrate that what you assert is valid. A worthy argument is backed by examples and details.

Forcefulness. A thesis statement that is forceful shows readers that you are, in fact, making an argument. The tone is assertive and takes a stance that others might oppose.

Confidence. In addition to using force in your thesis statement, you must also use confidence in your claim. Phrases such as I feel or I believe actually weaken the readers’ sense of your confidence because these phrases imply that you are the only person who feels the way you do. In other words, your stance has insufficient backing. Taking an authoritative stance on the matter persuades your readers to have faith in your argument and open their minds to what you have to say.

Even in a personal essay that allows the use of first person, your thesis should not contain phrases such as in my opinion or I believe . These statements reduce your credibility and weaken your argument. Your opinion is more convincing when you use a firm attitude.

On a separate sheet of paper, write a thesis statement for each of the following topics. Remember to make each statement specific, precise, demonstrable, forceful and confident.

• Texting while driving
• The legal drinking age in the United States
• Steroid use among professional athletes

Examples of Appropriate Thesis Statements

Each of the following thesis statements meets several of the following requirements:

• Specificity
• Ability to be argued
• Ability to be demonstrated
• Forcefulness
• The societal and personal struggles of Troy Maxon in the play Fences symbolize the challenge of black males who lived through segregation and integration in the United States.
• Closing all American borders for a period of five years is one solution that will tackle illegal immigration.
• Shakespeare’s use of dramatic irony in Romeo and Juliet spoils the outcome for the audience and weakens the plot.
• J. D. Salinger’s character in Catcher in the Rye , Holden Caulfield, is a confused rebel who voices his disgust with phonies, yet in an effort to protect himself, he acts like a phony on many occasions.
• Compared to an absolute divorce, no-fault divorce is less expensive, promotes fairer settlements, and reflects a more realistic view of the causes for marital breakdown.
• Exposing children from an early age to the dangers of drug abuse is a sure method of preventing future drug addicts.
• In today’s crumbling job market, a high school diploma is not significant enough education to land a stable, lucrative job.

You can find thesis statements in many places, such as in the news; in the opinions of friends, coworkers or teachers; and even in songs you hear on the radio. Become aware of thesis statements in everyday life by paying attention to people’s opinions and their reasons for those opinions. Pay attention to your own everyday thesis statements as well, as these can become material for future essays.

Now that you have read about the contents of a good thesis statement and have seen examples, take a look at the pitfalls to avoid when composing your own thesis:

A thesis is weak when it is simply a declaration of your subject or a description of what you will discuss in your essay.

Weak thesis statement: My paper will explain why imagination is more important than knowledge.

A thesis is weak when it makes an unreasonable or outrageous claim or insults the opposing side.

Weak thesis statement: Religious radicals across America are trying to legislate their Puritanical beliefs by banning required high school books.

A thesis is weak when it contains an obvious fact or something that no one can disagree with or provides a dead end.

Weak thesis statement: Advertising companies use sex to sell their products.

A thesis is weak when the statement is too broad.

Weak thesis statement: The life of Abraham Lincoln was long and challenging.

Read the following thesis statements. On a separate piece of paper, identify each as weak or strong. For those that are weak, list the reasons why. Then revise the weak statements so that they conform to the requirements of a strong thesis.

• The subject of this paper is my experience with ferrets as pets.
• The government must expand its funding for research on renewable energy resources in order to prepare for the impending end of oil.
• Edgar Allan Poe was a poet who lived in Baltimore during the nineteenth century.
• In this essay, I will give you lots of reasons why slot machines should not be legalized in Baltimore.
• Despite his promises during his campaign, President Kennedy took few executive measures to support civil rights legislation.
• Because many children’s toys have potential safety hazards that could lead to injury, it is clear that not all children’s toys are safe.
• My experience with young children has taught me that I want to be a disciplinary parent because I believe that a child without discipline can be a parent’s worst nightmare.

Writing at Work

Often in your career, you will need to ask your boss for something through an e-mail. Just as a thesis statement organizes an essay, it can also organize your e-mail request. While your e-mail will be shorter than an essay, using a thesis statement in your first paragraph quickly lets your boss know what you are asking for, why it is necessary, and what the benefits are. In short body paragraphs, you can provide the essential information needed to expand upon your request.

Thesis Statement Revision

Your thesis will probably change as you write, so you will need to modify it to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your essay. Remember from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” that your thesis statement begins as a working thesis statement , an indefinite statement that you make about your topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning and guiding your writing.

Working thesis statements often become stronger as you gather information and form new opinions and reasons for those opinions. Revision helps you strengthen your thesis so that it matches what you have expressed in the body of the paper.

The best way to revise your thesis statement is to ask questions about it and then examine the answers to those questions. By challenging your own ideas and forming definite reasons for those ideas, you grow closer to a more precise point of view, which you can then incorporate into your thesis statement.

Ways to Revise Your Thesis

You can cut down on irrelevant aspects and revise your thesis by taking the following steps:

1. Pinpoint and replace all nonspecific words, such as people , everything , society , or life , with more precise words in order to reduce any vagueness.

Working thesis: Young people have to work hard to succeed in life.

Revised thesis: Recent college graduates must have discipline and persistence in order to find and maintain a stable job in which they can use and be appreciated for their talents.

The revised thesis makes a more specific statement about success and what it means to work hard. The original includes too broad a range of people and does not define exactly what success entails. By replacing those general words like people and work hard , the writer can better focus his or her research and gain more direction in his or her writing.

2. Clarify ideas that need explanation by asking yourself questions that narrow your thesis.

Working thesis: The welfare system is a joke.

Revised thesis: The welfare system keeps a socioeconomic class from gaining employment by alluring members of that class with unearned income, instead of programs to improve their education and skill sets.

A joke means many things to many people. Readers bring all sorts of backgrounds and perspectives to the reading process and would need clarification for a word so vague. This expression may also be too informal for the selected audience. By asking questions, the writer can devise a more precise and appropriate explanation for joke . The writer should ask himself or herself questions similar to the 5WH questions. (See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information on the 5WH questions.) By incorporating the answers to these questions into a thesis statement, the writer more accurately defines his or her stance, which will better guide the writing of the essay.

3. Replace any linking verbs with action verbs. Linking verbs are forms of the verb to be , a verb that simply states that a situation exists.

Working thesis: Kansas City schoolteachers are not paid enough.

Revised thesis: The Kansas City legislature cannot afford to pay its educators, resulting in job cuts and resignations in a district that sorely needs highly qualified and dedicated teachers.

The linking verb in this working thesis statement is the word are . Linking verbs often make thesis statements weak because they do not express action. Rather, they connect words and phrases to the second half of the sentence. Readers might wonder, “Why are they not paid enough?” But this statement does not compel them to ask many more questions. The writer should ask himself or herself questions in order to replace the linking verb with an action verb, thus forming a stronger thesis statement, one that takes a more definitive stance on the issue:

• Who is not paying the teachers enough?
• What is considered “enough”?
• What is the problem?
• What are the results

4. Omit any general claims that are hard to support.

Working thesis: Today’s teenage girls are too sexualized.

Revised thesis: Teenage girls who are captivated by the sexual images on MTV are conditioned to believe that a woman’s worth depends on her sensuality, a feeling that harms their self-esteem and behavior.

It is true that some young women in today’s society are more sexualized than in the past, but that is not true for all girls. Many girls have strict parents, dress appropriately, and do not engage in sexual activity while in middle school and high school. The writer of this thesis should ask the following questions:

• Which teenage girls?
• What constitutes “too” sexualized?
• Why are they behaving that way?
• Where does this behavior show up?
• What are the repercussions?

In the first section of Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , you determined your purpose for writing and your audience. You then completed a freewriting exercise about an event you recently experienced and chose a general topic to write about. Using that general topic, you then narrowed it down by answering the 5WH questions. After you answered these questions, you chose one of the three methods of prewriting and gathered possible supporting points for your working thesis statement.

Now, on a separate sheet of paper, write down your working thesis statement. Identify any weaknesses in this sentence and revise the statement to reflect the elements of a strong thesis statement. Make sure it is specific, precise, arguable, demonstrable, forceful, and confident.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

In your career you may have to write a project proposal that focuses on a particular problem in your company, such as reinforcing the tardiness policy. The proposal would aim to fix the problem; using a thesis statement would clearly state the boundaries of the problem and tell the goals of the project. After writing the proposal, you may find that the thesis needs revision to reflect exactly what is expressed in the body. Using the techniques from this chapter would apply to revising that thesis.

Key Takeaways

• Proper essays require a thesis statement to provide a specific focus and suggest how the essay will be organized.
• A thesis statement is your interpretation of the subject, not the topic itself.
• A strong thesis is specific, precise, forceful, confident, and is able to be demonstrated.
• A strong thesis challenges readers with a point of view that can be debated and can be supported with evidence.
• A weak thesis is simply a declaration of your topic or contains an obvious fact that cannot be argued.
• Depending on your topic, it may or may not be appropriate to use first person point of view.
• Revise your thesis by ensuring all words are specific, all ideas are exact, and all verbs express action.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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50 The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks Essay Topics

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These essay examples and topics on The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

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I’m the Republican Governor of Ohio. Here Is the Truth About Springfield.

By Mike DeWine

Mr. DeWine, a Republican, is the governor of Ohio.

I was born in Springfield, Ohio. My wife, Fran, and I have lived our entire lives less than 10 miles from this city.

When we were dating in high school, we would go there to see movies at the Regent or State Theater or to eat fried clams at Howard Johnson’s. I remember Fran taking the bus about eight miles from our hometown, Yellow Springs, to Springfield to shop at Wren’s Department Store. Over the years, we’ve eaten countless doughnuts from Schuler’s Bakery, worshiped at St. Raphael Catholic Church and we logged many work hours there when I represented Springfield in the U.S. House and Senate.

Springfield has a rich history of providing refuge for the oppressed and being a place of opportunity. As a stop on the Underground Railroad, the Gammon House, which still stands, was a safe haven for escaped slaves seeking freedom. And, as a stop on the Old National Road, America’s first east/west federal highway, Springfield attracted many settlers both before and after the Civil War. Immigrants from Ireland, Greece, Germany, Italy and other countries helped build the city into what it is today.

For a long time, commerce and manufacturing flourished in Springfield, which earned the title “Champion City” after the founding there of the agriculture implement giant Champion Machine Company.

But the city hit tough times in the 1980s and 1990s, falling into serious economic decline as manufacturing, rail commerce and good-paying jobs dwindled. Now, however, Springfield is having a resurgence in manufacturing and job creation. Some of that is thanks to the dramatic influx of Haitian migrants who have arrived in the city over the past three years to fill jobs.

They are there legally. They are there to work.

It is disappointing to me that Springfield has become the epicenter of vitriol over America’s immigration policy, because it has long been a community of great diversity. Fran and I were reminded of this when we attended Mass at St. Raphael this past Sunday and stopped at the nearby Groceryland on our way home. We talked with community members from many backgrounds who are understandably concerned about the negative things being said about their city in news reports and on social media.

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• Knowledge Base
• How to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples

How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay . It sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.

The main goals of an introduction are to:

• Catch your reader’s attention.
• Give background on your topic.
• Present your thesis statement —the central point of your essay.

This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

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Table of contents

Step 1: hook your reader, step 2: give background information, step 3: present your thesis statement, step 4: map your essay’s structure, step 5: check and revise, more examples of essay introductions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective hook.

Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.

• Braille was an extremely important invention.
• The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about exactly  why the topic is important.

• The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities.”
• The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.

• Mary Shelley’s  Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.
• Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

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Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:

• Historical, geographical, or social context
• An outline of the debate you’re addressing
• A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
• Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument. Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.

How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is your thesis statement —a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument.

This is the most important part of your introduction. A  good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.

The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more.

For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write.

When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion , you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.

It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you actually say.

To polish your writing, you can use something like a paraphrasing tool .

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

My first sentence is engaging and relevant.

I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.

I have defined any important terms.

My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.

Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.

You have a strong introduction - now make sure the rest of your essay is just as good.

• Argumentative
• Literary analysis

This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue for.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

This introduction to a short expository essay leads into the topic (the invention of the printing press) and states the main point the essay will explain (the effect of this invention on European society).

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

This introduction to a literary analysis essay , about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein , starts by describing a simplistic popular view of the story, and then states how the author will give a more complex analysis of the text’s literary devices.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale. Arguably the first science fiction novel, its plot can be read as a warning about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, and in popular culture representations of the character as a “mad scientist”, Victor Frankenstein represents the callous, arrogant ambition of modern science. However, far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to gradually transform our impression of Frankenstein, portraying him in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

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Reflections About Ludwine Messiaen: A Pioneer Who Advanced NF and Other Women in NF

Personal reflections from four of her female mentees.

Discover more articles in the Women in NF series by clicking here.

Introduction

Ludwine Messiaen, PhD

When Dr. Meena Upadhyaya contacted Dr. Ludwine Messiaen and asked her to provide her reflections on NF, she was no longer in a health condition that would have allowed her to provide an essay to this series. After her passing, it was clear to the organizers of this series that the essay series should be dedicated to her to pay tribute to her outstanding contributions to the field. Now her warm and colorful smile heads the essay series, but visitors from outside the NF community would not know what enormous impact Ludwine’s work had on the progress of the NF field. Ludwine has been a role model as a female researcher and mentor of several female researchers, including the four authors of this essay. Hence, we, Kathleen Claes, Alicia Gomes, Magdalena Koczkowska, and Katharina Wimmer, would like to express our gratitude to have the opportunity to become mentees and over the years good friends of Ludwine with personal statements on the impact she had on our careers. We also hope to provide an earnest and appropriate essay summarizing Ludwine’s main contributions to NF and give some insight into her career and personality.

Essay on Luwine Messiaen’s Main Contributions to the NF Field

Even those who collaborated with Dr. Ludwine Messiaen over many years, may not know that Ludwine began her career in social work after receiving a bachelor’s degree in social work. This background speaks to the empathy and compassion that Ludwine continued to carry into her future genetics pursuits. She then moved on to study molecular biology and cancer genetics at Ghent University in Belgium. In her PhD thesis, which she completed in 1990, she studied oncogenic transformation. Thereafter, Ludwine joined the Center for Medical Genetics at Ghent University Hospital where she set up the first laboratory for molecular diagnostics.

At that time, the NF1 gene had just been identified. With her innovative spirit, Ludwine decided to establish diagnostics for this gene because she considered it an intriguing challenge to develop and offer testing for a ‘new gene’ that was complex with an array of mutations. The early 1990s were still the time of pre-screening assays. Transcript analysis using the protein truncation test (PTT) was probably an effective way to circumvent the multiple non-processed NF1 pseudogenes and identify truncating mutations in the NF1 gene. (1) Ludwine understood that she should use this assay and immediately found interesting splice variants with this assay. (2, 3) However, as a meticulous perfectionist, she aspired to identify the underlying variant for all patients. She noticed the obstacles inherent to any mutation analysis protocol that is based on mRNA analysis, i.e. nonsense-mediated decay and illegitimate splicing, and the limitations of the protein truncation test in detecting missense and other non-truncating mutations. Therefore, she developed a comprehensive testing algorithm applying a cascade of complementary assays, with the core assay of the PTT using RNA from puromycin-treated EBV cells. In 2000, she published a hallmark paper showing that with this comprehensive approach, pathogenic NF1 variants were found in 95% of all familial NF1 cases.(4) This was by far the highest mutation detection rate published so far. With all 64 pathogenic variants characterized both at DNA and RNA level, this study also showed that the rate of splice mutations in this gene is 30%, and 2/3 of these mutations are located outside the canonical GT-AG dinucleotides at the 5’ and 3’ splice site, respectively. This still held true 21 years later, when Ludwine retired and her Medical Genomics Laboratory (MGL) at the University of Alabama at Birmingham had identified pathogenic variants in over 10,000 NF1 patients. With this publication, cited 391 times in August 2024, Ludwine set the foundation to further direct not only her future career, but set a compass for many researchers and clinicians to continue to advance the field. It was clear for many researchers and clinicians that her lab needs to be contacted to identify a mutation in any challenging case. Such cases were for instance two large families with familial spinal NF1 in whom her lab identified the underlying NF1 pathogenic variants and, hence, showed that the spectrum of NF1 pathogenic variants causing familial spinal NF1 is diverse.(5)

With her PhD student Ina Vandenbroucke, Ludwine continued to characterize the spectrum of naturally (not mutation induced) NF1 splice variants and found that NF1 exon 52 (historically exon 43) is alternatively spliced and contains a nuclear localisation signal. Interestingly, until now no pathogenic missense variant has been identified in this exon.(6-9)

Performing NF1 molecular diagnostics, Ludwine inevitably got confronted with mosaic NF1, another diagnostic challenge she eagerly started to tackle. For one of her first cases she developed direct cDNA sequencing from three ultra-long RT-PCR products, which at that time allowed to identify a multi-exon intragenic NF1 deletion in an EBV culture from blood leukocytes of a mosaic NF1 patient.(10)  This assay remained for many years the corner-stone of the comprehensive NF1 diagnostics program.(11) However, it became clear that in many mosaic patients, in particular those with segmental NF1, the underlying postzygotic pathogenic NF1 variant could only be uncovered in affected tissues and, in these, probably only in specific cell types. From a seminal finding published in the year 2000, by Drs. Eduard Serra, Thorsten Rosenbaum and Conxi Lázaro -Ludwine had always acknowledged their ground-breaking finding in her presentations- it was known that in neurofibromas, which consist of different cell types, Schwann cells are the true neoplastic cells.(12) This finding was facilitated by the development of specific cultivation conditions that enrich for NF1 -/- Schwann cells, which harbour the first and the second NF1 hit, in agreement with Knudson’s two hit hypothesis. Ludwine understood that cultivation of these cells should be an effective way to identify the postzygotic NF1 pathogenic variants underlying mosaic NF1 patients. She also wanted to better understand the pathoetiology of café au lait spots in NF1 patients. Since mosaic NF1 patients may have only café au lait macules, the aim was also to understand which cells are the cells-of-origin that need to be cultivated from café au lait macules to identify the underlying postzygotic NF1 pathogenic variants of mosaic patients with this manifestation only. Therefore, she set up a collaboration with the dermatology department at the Ghent University Hospital and co-promoted the PhD theses of Jo Lambert and Sofie De Schepper, who are now both professors at this Department.

These efforts started around the time when Ludwine was recruited by Prof. Bruce Korf, chairing at that time the Department of Genetics at the University of Alabama in Birmingham (UAB), to build up and direct the Medical Genomics Laboratory (MGL) and join the faculty of UAB as full professor. Together with her husband, she decided to move with the entire family of three young children from small Belgium to the USA. This was not only an enormous change and challenge for the entire family, but also for her co-workers and students in Ghent. Whilst her long-term technician, Tom Callens, decided to move to Alabama and continue to work with her in the MGL, her PhD student at the time, Ophelia Maertens, stayed in Ghent, but a close collaboration was set up with the laboratory of Prof.  Eric Legius at the Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium, who co-supervised her with Ludwine. This was also the starting point of a long and extraordinarily successful collaboration between Ludwine and Eric Legius and the installation of the “Leuven meetings”. In addition to Ludwine’s and Eric’s students, a growing number of additional collaboration partners were invited to these meetings supported by a “Scientific Research Networks” grant from Flander’s research council (FWO) and initially awarded for 5 years. Due to the open, friendly, and scientifically highly stimulating atmosphere created by the organizers, Eric Legius and Hilde Brems, the scientific outcomes were so impressive that they were able to renew this grant twice, allowing them to organise these special and memorable scientific meetings for 15 years.

Two findings with enormous impact ensued from the collaborative efforts lead by Ludwine. First, the molecular dissection of isolated disease features in mosaic NF1, as the title of the manuscript reads, proved that comprehensive NF1 testing in phenotype–related cell types, i.e. Schwann cells cultivated under specific conditions from neurofibromas and melanocytes cultivated from café au lait spots, facilitates clinical diagnosis and further genetic follow-up in mosaic patients.(13) Her new laboratory at UAB subsequently offered this approach as a diagnostic service, the only one in the U.S. Hence, many mosaic NF1 patients from different continents profited from this finding. Secondly, the analysis of different café au lait macules derived cell types showed that melanocytes, but not keratinocytes or fibroblasts, have biallelic NF1 gene inactivation due to second hit-mutations as seen in neoplastic cells of NF1-associated tumours.(14)  This finding lead to a paradigm shift, because previously, it was thought that “non-neoplastic” features of NF1, such as café au lait macules, result from neurofibromin haploinsuficiency. Hence, this finding fostered genetic studies aimed at identifying the cells-of-origin having second hit NF1 mutations also on other “non-neoplastic” NF1 manifestations, such as pseudarthrosis.(15)

Coming to a country with a large and diverse population, Ludwine as an innovative and meticulous planner had the clear vision from the beginning to develop a large database with as many patients as possible, comprehensively and thoroughly characterized both at the genetic and phenotypic levels. Therefore, the MGL at UAB offered comprehensive and individualized NF1 diagnostics from the start at a fair price. In addition, unflinchingly and adamantly Ludwine insisted on including a well thought-out questionnaire for the clinical phenotype of the patients, which became the foundation for several important findings.

In June 2007, Hilde Brems and Eric Legius identified  SPRED1 as a gene that caused an NF1-like syndrome, which we now know as Legius syndrome.(16) Ludwine had already contributed to this work and the MGL at UAB offered SPRED1 testing from August 2007. Most importantly, with nearly 2500 phenotypically well-characterized patients in their database, Ludwine’s lab could now test all patients in whom no pathogenic NF1 variant was identified after comprehensive testing for this possible alternative diagnosis. This seminal study not only swiftly delineated the clinical and mutational spectrum of Legius syndrome in 40 individuals from 22 families carrying a pathogenic SPRED1 loss-of-function (LOF) variant, but also defined the NF1 and SPRED1 mutation detection rates in different phenotypic patient cohorts.(17) Hence, the paper still is the reference paper for diagnostic labs offering NF1 diagnostics.

Ludwine was undoubtedly recognized as a worldwide leader in NF1 genotype-phenotype studies. NF1 is known for its clinical variability, both inter- and intra-familial, its age dependency, and the enormous NF1 allelic heterogeneity, making it challenging to establish new genotype-phenotype correlations. Ludwine understood that to identify mutation-specific , clinically significant genotype-phenotype correlations in NF1, it is pivotal to collect a large datasets of patients, preferably postpubertal, with the same constitutional pathogenic variant, and to record the associated phenotype in a standardized way. Although she initially identified several genotype-phenotype correlations using her extensive UAB database, which at that time included more than 8,000 unrelated individuals molecularly diagnosed with NF1, she sought collaboration with numerous clinicians and molecular geneticists worldwide to enhance the statistical significance of her findings. Her meticulous work style and commitment to having referring physicians carefully collect and verify detailed phenotypic data upon submission of samples for NF1 genetic analysis in her lab, along with her openness to international collaboration, led to the identification of several clinically significant genotype-phenotype correlations.(18-21) This substantial effort was recognized by the Children’s Tumor Foundation, which awarded her the Isaac and Sadie Fuchs Genotype-Phenotype Study grant to support her promising research.

In 2015, research led by Ludwine on a large cohort of 136 NF1-affected patients from 98 unrelated families, each carrying one of five different missense pathogenic variants at the NF1 p.Arg1809 codon, showed that these individuals typically presented with mild phenotype, including the presence of café au lait macules, skinfold freckling and/or Lisch nodules, but without externally visible neurofibromas. However, a high incidence of Noonan syndrome features was observed in these individuals.(21) As Ludwine used to say, “ surface has only been scratched ”, and indeed, a few years later, together with her postdoctoral fellow Dr. Magdalena Koczkowska, Ludwine published another significant genotype-phenotype correlation in NF1. They discovered that heterozygous missense variants in one of the five neighbouring codons 844-848 in the NF1 gene, located in the cysteine serine rich domain (CSRD) of neurofibromin, were associated with a severe phenotype. This included a higher likelihood of developing malignancies, particularly with the NF1 p.Leu847 missense variants, compared with the general NF1 population.(20) Through this specific genotype-phenotype correlation study, Ludwine also paved the way for other research teams. The specific function of the NF1 codons 844-848 remained unknown until 2023 when it has been shown that dimerization with wild-type neurofibromin might explain why the 844-848 missense variants act as dominant negative mutants and result in a severe phenotype.(22) Ludwine did not stop there. Her subsequent work, published a year later, provided an extended clinical update on a large cohort of NF1-affected patients with the in-frame deletion p.Met992del in the NF1 gene, which had been originally reported in 2007 by Upadhyaya et al (23).(19) Finally, in 2021, she demonstrated that variants at codon positions p.Met1149, p.Arg1276 and p.Leu1423 were associated with an increased chance of Noonan-syndrome clinical features, especially developing pulmonic stenosis, similar to p.Arg1809. Additionally, p.Arg1276 pathogenic variants were found to be frequently associated with spinal neurofibromas. (18)

In addition to her work on NF1, Ludwine also contributed to the field of schwannomatosis. Together with Dr. Arkadiusz (Arek) Piotrowski from the Medical University of Gdansk and Dr. Jing Xie from UAB, Ludwine aimed at identifying the underlying genetic alterations in familial and sporadic, well-characterised patients with schwannomatosis not attributable to (mosaic) pathogenic variants in the known schwannomatosis genes at the time, NF2 and SMARCB1. Given that the schwannomas of these patients show loss of the long arm of chromosome 22, the research hypothesis was that other gene(s) involved in the molecular pathogenesis of schwannomatosis might be located on chromosome 22. Using therefore next-generation-sequencing of evolutionarily highly conserved sequences specifically on chromosome 22, they identified pathogenic variants in LZTR1 in 6/6 familiar and 8/11 sporadic unrelated schwannomatosis patients, demonstrating that LZTR1 is a novel tumor suppressor gene that when having a pathogenic alterations predisposes individuals to multiple schwannomas.(24)

With her large data set of phenotypically and genetically well-characterized patients with NF1 and SPRED1 mutations Ludwine also supported the contributions to the field of many other researchers. Here we can mention only some of these. She continued to support the work of Drs. Akito Yoshimura, Hilde Brems and Eric Legius in defining the functional domains of the SPRED1 protein.(25) Furthermore, she contributed to the efforts of Dr. Hildegard Kehrer-Sawatzki who was the leading person in delineating the spectrum of NF1 microdeletions.(26-34) Dr. Katharina Wimmer will describe in her personal statement below how Ludwine supported her work in characterizing the pathogenetic mechanisms of splice mutations (35-38), developing tools for CNV detection by NGS data (39), characterising functional PMS2 “hybrid” alleles (40), and assessing the prevalence of constitutional mismatch repair deficiency (CMMRD) syndrome in suspected sporadic NF1/LGSS patients without malignancy and without identifiable NF1 / SPRED1 pathogenic variants (41).

When CTF decided to support the effort to revise the diagnostic criteria defined in 1987 for NF1 and NF2 by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Ludwine was one of the main drivers in this huge effort which took several years and included over 90 experts from around the globe. It is not least to her enormous knowledge and expertise as well as her accuracy and endurance that we have now up-to-date diagnostic criteria for NF1 and Legius syndrome and the schwannomatoses.(42, 43) Equally, her expertise and accuracy, as well as her open, fair, considerate, and enjoying personality, contributed much to the success of the first ”Joint Global NF Conference” held in November 2018 in Paris, France, for which she served as one of the chairs in the organization committee. During this conference, she was awarded with the CTF Friedrich Von Recklinghausen award, the highest honour in NF research.

In July 2021, Ludwine retired from her position as head of the MGL at UAB and moved back to Belgium. As a fully dedicated member of the NF community, even in retirement and during burdensome treatment, she provided together with her former mentees, Doctors Magdalena Koczkowska, Yunjia Chen, and Jing Xie, a state-of-the-art summary of the currently 75 unique deep intronic NF1 variants that have a well-documented effect on splicing and account for 2.5% of the pathogenic variants in patients with NF1.(44) They also found that the exonization of intron 31 (formally 23a) sequences due to the recurrent deep intronic variants predominantly affects the NF1 isoform II, not isoform I, and still results in a classic NF1 phenotype. These observations may provide further insights into the alternative splicing and the DNA sequences that are essential to this process.

That was her last published paper. Unfortunately, her disease and much too early passing in February 2024 prevented her from publishing her full data set of NF1 pathogenic variants characterized both at RNA and DNA levels and found in over 8,000 index patients in a reference database. She intended to leave this database as her legacy to the NF family. Even with this last piece missing, her pioneering work enormously contributed to the progress the NF community has witnessed over the past three decades, and her lab, founded on dedication and passion, was the diagnostic epicentre for the NF community. She was an inspiring mentor, colleague, and true friend whose legacy continues to shape the future of NF research. We will undoubtedly miss her, but her memory will forever stay with those of us who had the privilege of working with her. Please see below the personal statements of four of her former mentees: Doctors Kathleen Claes, Alicia Gomes, Magdalena Koczkowska, and Katharina Wimmer.

Personal Statement of Kathleen Claes

I met Ludwine for the first time in November 1996 – I remember her appearance like it happened yesterday: green velvet dress, red lips. I applied for a position as PhD student in her lab to work on hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. I was young and nervous. She made a lasting impression.

I was very proud to be recruited and to start working in her lab. A whole new world opened up to me.

I came from another faculty (bio-engineering) and switched from plant cells to human DNA. Ludwine trained me in human molecular genetics, the protein truncation test, and the difference between RNA and DNA based testing.

I learned from her how important it is to work hard, and to dig deep to find causal mutations. She introduced us, the first generation PhD students, to the concept of multi-omics ‘avant la lettre’, combining the transcript and genomic level of NF1, before this turned out to be a very powerful approach to shorten diagnostic odysseys in rare diseases, now, more than 20 years later.

I learned from her how important it is to be a creative thinker and a problem solver. And that was needed when she announced her departure to the States. I was appointed to take over the supervision of the genetic test for NF1, which she had set up in Gent. Big shoes to fill.

Leaving Belgium with three growing children and a husband, illustrates her sense for adventure and her courage to pursue her dreams. But we stayed in touch and our contacts remained very warm. She was always open to give her expert advice on specific cases, variants, etc.

I am very grateful to her for also inviting her European colleagues to contribute to the extensive genotype-phenotype studies. Our referring clinicians were always very willing to fill in the extensive checklist as they knew they would be recognized for their efforts. Ludwine’s respect and recognition for colleagues’ expertise and input fueled a vast international network, to which she also introduced me and for which I am very thankful.

When she returned to Belgium in fall 2021, our contacts intensified. We shared great moments with lunches, dinners, wine, gossips, etc. Fantastic memories! And Ludwine kept surprising us by her immense creativity, authenticity, passion, and dedication not only for genetics but also for artistic work. Her unconventional angle, which made her such an excellent scientist, also allowed her to discover hidden things in art or nature.

Ludwine did her best in everything, also in the way she dealt with her fate. Colorful, positive, combative, dignified, empathetic. I highly value her mentorship, her (genetic) legacy in the field of neurofibromates and related disorders, her work ethics and her courage to never give up. And I strongly believe that this sentiment is shared by her beloved family, her international colleagues, and many patients for whom she made the difference. A lab technician who worked with Ludwine for several years in the Ghent period put it this way: ‘ Ludwine was a remarkable person full of energy who established a fantastic career. At as same time she was a wonderful “boss” from whom I learned a lot. ’

We received her irreversible epigenetic imprint, for which we are very grateful.

October 7, 2023 in Leuven at the emeritation of Eric Legius: Great Reunion of the first generation PhD students of Ludwine (from left to right: Kathleen Claes, Ludwine Messiaen, Elfride De Baere, Ophelia Maertens).

Personal Statement of Alicia Gomes

As a new genetic counselor, looking to find my place in the world of clinical genetics, I was privileged with the opportunity to find a role in Ludwine’s laboratory. I remember my first interview with her; she was sitting in front of a large world map that had pins scattered all over the world. “Are these pins for places you have visited?” I asked. “No, these are all of the places that have sent samples to our laboratory over the years.” From this first interview, I got an immediate sense that each sample was not a business transaction for this laboratory; but a mission to help and serve the individuals behind every tube. Working with Ludwine each day, I learned so many scientific lessons. From the need to not just double check, but quadruple check any data that you plan to stand behind to ensuring that you provide the due credit to each person who has been as committed as you have been in advancing science. Beginning my career with Ludwine also provided me with the mind-set that conformity does not ensure success; sometimes you have to think outside of the box. Instead of accepting limitations as a rule, I would watch Ludwine ask her iconic question of “How comes?” and through polite negotiation, the MGL continues to try to move the needle on the types of tests that could be offered within the constraints of an academic setting. Lastly, of all of the lessons learned from Ludwine, I learned the importance of being a mother first and a scientist second. From “snow” storms to sick children, Ludwine ensured that all of our employees were able to meet the needs of their families first while still ensuring that the lab was able to provide the amazing testing everyone was used to. During our career together in the MGL, 13 babies were born to our employees and each one was celebrated and made a priority. In her legacy, I will continue to remember and share with other women considering a role in science that you do not have to decide between being an engaged mother or having an accomplished career. Instead, you continue to think outside the box, triple check everything you do, and don’t be afraid to ask “how comes.”

September 2022, Alicia Gomes and Ludwine Messiaen continuing to connect and mentor even after retirement.

Personal Statement of Magdalena Koczkowska

I first met Ludwine in spring 2015, when Arek Piotrowski, with whom I had briefly collaborated during my doctoral studies and who had worked closely with Ludwine, recommended me for a postdoc position in her lab. Initially, I approached the opportunity with some skepticism, as I hadn’t even dreamt of moving to the United States, but I decided to give it a try. At that time, Ludwine was giving a guest lecture at our university, the Medical University of Gdansk, so we arranged to conduct a preliminary interview with me during her visit. Even though we had access to Arek’s office, Ludwine suggested that we should take advantage of the beautiful spring weather and hold the interview in the university’s botanical garden. Immediately after the interview, which felt more like a pleasant conversation than a formal interview, Ludwine informed me that was interested in having me in her research team. I was surprised by how quickly she made her decision, but in the following years, I came to realize that Ludwine had an incredible instinct for recognizing potential in people. That’s how one of the best years of my professional career began.

I was privileged to spend three years in Ludwine’s lab. During that time, I not only gained significant scientific knowledge and experience – we co-authored three research papers focused on genotype-phenotype correlations in NF1 – but I also grew as a researcher, with Ludwine standing by my side as a true mentor. I will always cherish our meetings in her office, where before diving into research discussions, she gradually welcomed me into her private world with stories about her family, children, and passions. She made a point to know each of her team members as more than just employees. Ludwine was incredibly supportive, participating actively in both the good and challenging moments of each team member’s life. When I became a mother, I learned even more from her, as she inspired me with her ability to balance her duties as a loving mom (always putting family first) and as a dedicated researcher. What I also learned from her was the importance of celebrating small things every day.

She was that person who introduced me to the NF community, a world I knew very little about eight years ago. Thanks to her, I now have the privilege of calling myself a part of this world and have met many fantastic people, some of whom I actively collaborate with. She was my ethical role model, and ‘gratitude’ is the word that comes to my mind when I think of her. I am grateful that she trusted me enough to invite me into her circle of close team members. I am grateful to have had the privilege of meeting her on my professional way and working closely with her for almost eight years.

August 2018, Ludwine Messiaen and Magdalena Koczkowska in Ludwine Messiean’s office at UAB after the acceptance of one of the genotype-phenotype studies for online publication.

Personal Statement of Katharina Wimmer

I met Ludwine for the first time in September 1999 at the 8. European NF meeting in Ulm, Germany. Having started exactly a year earlier to set up NF1 diagnostics for Austrian patients, this was the first international NF meeting I attended. My start in NF diagnostics was similar to that of Ludwine several years earlier. Trained during my post-doctoral studies at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor in cancer genetics, I was asked (in turn of receiving a research assistant position) to set up a molecular diagnostics laboratory at the Institute of Medical Biology at the University Vienna, which is now the Institute of Medical Genetics of the Medical University Vienna. However, in contrast to Ludwine it was not my decision to start with the NF1 gene, but that of the Institute’s head, Prof. Christa Fonatsch, who thought I should start with this more challenging gene. So I began also to use the protein truncation test according to the “Heim protocol”. (1)

Stimulated by a reported splice effect of a recurrent mutation which I could not observe to this extent in the patient of my cohort with this pathogenic variant, I started contemplating on the reasons for this and other splice alterations that I observed in several patients and that seemed not to be related to genomic variants. I noticed that they occurred preferentially in patient samples that were shipped to our department from other parts of Austria and less so in samples collected at our Institute in Vienna. So I reasoned that this “illegitimate splicing” is related to “aging” of the blood sample which was several days on its way until RNA was extracted in our lab. (45, 46) I made this observation just before the meeting in Ulm and was very keen to discuss it with others. However, I found nobody who was interested to talk about it until I approached Ludwine. When I told her about my findings, she immediately took my forearm with her small hand and she said “Let’s sit down and talk.” This was the start of our friendship that lasted almost 25 years until her much too early passing.

November 2022, Ludwine Messiaen and Katharina Wimmer enjoying together bright weather in Jardin du Luxembourg, Paris, France.

In the beginning I was just happy to have someone to exchange thoughts and whom I could ask for competent and always well-considered advice also on general questions of variant interpretation and reporting in a diagnostic setting. Our closer collaboration started in 2002, when Ludwine invited me to come to her lab in Gent to learn direct cDNA sequencing of NF1 transcripts, which she had developed in her lab. Still today, we use essentially the same protocol.(11) To further intensify our collaboration, I joined the MGL at UAB as visiting professor for the first half year of 2005. During this stay Ludwine and I evaluated the -at that time- novel method of MLPA to effectively identify copy number variations in the NF1 gene.(47) In our Austrian laboratory, direct cDNA sequencing supplemented with MLPA was then the protocol in use until we switched to NGS and we could confirm that this comprehensive approach reaches detection rates of >95%.(36)

As anyone who performed RNA-based mutation analysis of the NF1 gene, I got caught by the amount and the diversity of pathogenic NF1 variants affecting splicing and the possibility to use them to elucidate basic mechanisms of splice site definition and disruption, which in turn helps to develop more general rules to predict which variants have a splice effect.  However, analysing in our lab first in Vienna and then in Innsbruck essentially only Austrian patients, the number of variants in our Austrian cohort were too small to substantiate any hypothesis that seemed to emerge from the limited data set. Hence, our conclusions from the analysis of pathogenic NF1 splice variants would not have a solid basis without Ludwine’s support, who was always willing to share data of pathogenic variants from her data set, and the close collaborations between our laboratories.(35-38)

A suspected NF1 patient with multiple café au lait macules and glioblastoma referred to our laboratory in 2003 lead to a shift of my research focus from NF1 to constitutional mismatch repair deficiency (CMMRD). This recessively inherited childhood cancer syndrome firstly described in 1999 is caused by bi-allelic pathogenic variants in one of the four MMR genes. Patients with CMMRD often show features of NF1 and there is clinical overlap.(48, 49) However, the risk for and the spectrum of associated malignancies is different in CMMRD and NF1, although some overlap exists. When we could not identify a causative pathogenic NF1 variant in this patient, I was sure that our patient aged 10 years had CMMRD. His phenotype and family history resembled the few CMMRD patients described at the time. But, it took several years until we could confirm this. It was key to identify in this and several subsequent CMMRD patients the underlying pathogenic variants that we developed direct cDNA sequencing also for the MMR genes based on our experience with NF1 transcript analysis. This approach allows to identify non-canonical splice mutations and, for the PMS2 gene, it circumvents the pitfalls resulting from the presence of the highly homologous PMS2 pseudogene, PMS2CL .(50) Sequence exchange between PMS2 and PMS2CL results in PMS2 “hybrid” alleles that are functional but compromise gDNA-based PMS2 mutation analysis. Ludwine’s support made it possible to assess the frequency and nature of PMS2 “hybrid” alleles in individuals of different ethnic backgrounds and show that they are very frequent.(40) It was also Ludwine who encouraged and supported me in different ways to consider it my task to make the NF community aware of CMMRD being a rare but relevant differential diagnosis of NF1. Being at the time associate editor of Clinical Genetics , Ludwine invited me to write a review on the connection between CMMRD and NF1 which has implications for patient care and, retrospectively, challenges reported associations of NF1 with childhood malignancies associated also with CMMRD. As it was the case for any article I wrote together with Ludwine, I also could rely here on her so valuable critical questions.(51) She also made sure that this topic was discussed at the first ”Joint Global NF Conference” held in November 2018 in Paris, France. Ludwine’s huge with a vision collect patient cohort was then again one of the cornerstones that made a study possible in which we determined that CMMRD is the diagnosis in only a small proportion (0.41%) of children suspected to have sporadic NF1/Legius syndrome in whom this diagnosis cannot be genetically confirmed.(41) These empirical data provide now reliable numbers for genetic counselling. They also confirm previous prevalence estimations, on which guidelines of the European Care for CMMRD consortium are based that advocate CMMRD testing of preselected patients rather than offering reflex testing to all suspected sporadic NF1 children lacking NF1/SPRED1 PVs. Ludwine’s critical voice and always constructive advice was also important to develop these guidelines.(52)

I am grateful for Ludwine’s support over 25 years which was pivotal to the small contribution I could make to the NF field.  I am also thankful that she introduced me to her international network of close collaborators and to the wonderful “Leuven meetings” which were each year a possibility to meet her at least once in person. Ludwine is a true role model as female researcher for me, who never gave the quick answers or went for the fast success, but was thoroughly considering with a vision where she could contribute to long-lasting progress of NF patient care. She critically scrutinized all results before they were delivered – be it to a patient and their doctor in a genetic report or to the public in a scientific paper. This required tenacity in many respects, but working with her was always pleasurable as she showed great respect for the patients, the subject and the colleagues whose contributions she would always fairly acknowledge in her talks and papers. Most importantly, working and being together with Ludwine was full of fun as she was colourful and cheerful person, who had many interests.

January 2024, Ludwine Messiaen working on her big vase.

For many years Ludwine was a passionate and talented ceramicist. At my last visit three weeks before her passing, she showed me a big vase that she had been working on over the last months. This vase tells so much about Ludwine – why and how she pursued a project. She wanted this vase to be a legacy to her daughters. In a very nice booklet she had planned the technically demanding two-bellied construction. She explained to me that it needed multiple steps in-between the clay needed to dry to make this construction stable. In the booklet, she had also sketched the decoration of the vase, which was a floral design made in sgraffito technique. The flowers consisted of matroyshka/babushka nesting dolls and mitochondria symbolizing the pure maternal heritage from one generation to the next. Ludwine told me with so much enthusiasm and joy about one day on which her condition allowed her to work for several hours on the vase and on which she could accomplish a lot of this decoration. The decoration was not full completed when I saw it, one of her daughters finalized this work for her. Having written this essay together with three other mentees of Ludwine, I strongly feel that Ludwine para-genetically passed on some of her mitochondrial DNA also to some matroyshkas outside the family and for this we are very grateful.

Ludwin Messiaen's Literature

Authored works.

• Heim RA, Kam-Morgan LN, Binnie CG, Corns DD, Cayouette MC, Farber RA, et al. Distribution of 13 truncating mutations in the neurofibromatosis 1 gene. Hum Mol Genet. 1995;4(6):975-81.
• Messiaen L, Callens T, De Paepe A, Craen M, Mortier G. Characterisation of two different nonsense mutations, C6792A and C6792G, causing skipping of exon 37 in the NF1 gene. Hum Genet. 1997;101(1):75-80.
• Messiaen LM, Callens T, Roux KJ, Mortier GR, De Paepe A, Abramowicz M, et al. Exon 10b of the NF1 gene represents a mutational hotspot and harbors a recurrent missense mutation Y489C associated with aberrant splicing. Genet Med. 1999;1(6):248-53.
• Messiaen LM, Callens T, Mortier G, Beysen D, Vandenbroucke I, Van Roy N, et al. Exhaustive mutation analysis of the NF1 gene allows identification of 95% of mutations and reveals a high frequency of unusual splicing defects. Hum Mutat. 2000;15(6):541-55.
• Messiaen L, Riccardi V, Peltonen J, Maertens O, Callens T, Karvonen SL, et al. Independent NF1 mutations in two large families with spinal neurofibromatosis. J Med Genet. 2003;40(2):122-6.
• Vandenbroucke, II, Vandesompele J, Paepe AD, Messiaen L. Quantification of splice variants using real-time PCR. Nucleic Acids Res. 2001;29(13):E68-8.
• Vandenbroucke I, Callens T, De Paepe A, Messiaen L. Complex splicing pattern generates great diversity in human NF1 transcripts. BMC Genomics. 2002;3:13.
• Vandenbroucke I, Van Oostveldt P, Coene E, De Paepe A, Messiaen L. Neurofibromin is actively transported to the nucleus. FEBS Lett. 2004;560(1-3):98-102.
• Vandenbroucke I, Vandesompele J, De Paepe A, Messiaen L. Quantification of NF1 transcripts reveals novel highly expressed splice variants. FEBS Lett. 2002;522(1-3):71-6.
• Vandenbroucke I, van Doorn R, Callens T, Cobben JM, Starink TM, Messiaen L. Genetic and clinical mosaicism in a patient with neurofibromatosis type 1. Hum Genet. 2004;114(3):284-90.
• Messiaen L, Wimmer K. Mutation analysis of the NF1 gene by cDNA-based sequencing of the coding region. In: Cunha KSG, Geller M, editors. Advances in Neurofibromatosis Research. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.; 2012.
• Serra E, Rosenbaum T, Winner U, Aledo R, Ars E, Estivill X, et al. Schwann cells harbor the somatic NF1 mutation in neurofibromas: evidence of two different Schwann cell subpopulations. Hum Mol Genet. 2000;9(20):3055-64.
• Maertens O, De Schepper S, Vandesompele J, Brems H, Heyns I, Janssens S, et al. Molecular dissection of isolated disease features in mosaic neurofibromatosis type 1. Am J Hum Genet. 2007;81(2):243-51.
• De Schepper S, Maertens O, Callens T, Naeyaert JM, Lambert J, Messiaen L. Somatic mutation analysis in NF1 cafe au lait spots reveals two NF1 hits in the melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol. 2008;128(4):1050-3.
• Stevenson DA, Zhou H, Ashrafi S, Messiaen LM, Carey JC, D’Astous JL, et al. Double inactivation of NF1 in tibial pseudarthrosis. Am J Hum Genet. 2006;79(1):143-8.
• Brems H, Chmara M, Sahbatou M, Denayer E, Taniguchi K, Kato R, et al. Germline loss-of-function mutations in SPRED1 cause a neurofibromatosis 1-like phenotype. Nat Genet. 2007;39(9):1120-6.
• Messiaen L, Yao S, Brems H, Callens T, Sathienkijkanchai A, Denayer E, et al. Clinical and mutational spectrum of neurofibromatosis type 1-like syndrome. JAMA. 2009;302(19):2111-8.
• Koczkowska M, Callens T, Chen Y, Gomes A, Hicks AD, Sharp A, et al. Clinical spectrum of individuals with pathogenic NF1 missense variants affecting p.Met1149, p.Arg1276, and p.Lys1423: genotype-phenotype study in neurofibromatosis type 1. Hum Mutat. 2020;41(1):299-315.
• Koczkowska M, Callens T, Gomes A, Sharp A, Chen Y, Hicks AD, et al. Expanding the clinical phenotype of individuals with a 3-bp in-frame deletion of the NF1 gene (c.2970_2972del): an update of genotype-phenotype correlation. Genet Med. 2019;21(4):867-76.
• Koczkowska M, Chen Y, Callens T, Gomes A, Sharp A, Johnson S, et al. Genotype-Phenotype Correlation in NF1: Evidence for a More Severe Phenotype Associated with Missense Mutations Affecting NF1 Codons 844-848. Am J Hum Genet. 2018;102(1):69-87.
• Rojnueangnit K, Xie J, Gomes A, Sharp A, Callens T, Chen Y, et al. High Incidence of Noonan Syndrome Features Including Short Stature and Pulmonic Stenosis in Patients carrying NF1 Missense Mutations Affecting p.Arg1809: Genotype-Phenotype Correlation. Hum Mutat. 2015;36(11):1052-63.
• Young LC, Goldstein de Salazar R, Han SW, Huang ZYS, Merk A, Drew M, et al. Destabilizing NF1 variants act in a dominant negative manner through neurofibromin dimerization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2023;120(5):e2208960120.
• Upadhyaya M, Huson SM, Davies M, Thomas N, Chuzhanova N, Giovannini S, et al. An absence of cutaneous neurofibromas associated with a 3-bp inframe deletion in exon 17 of the NF1 gene (c.2970-2972 delAAT): evidence of a clinically significant NF1 genotype-phenotype correlation. Am J Hum Genet. 2007;80(1):140-51.
• Piotrowski A, Xie J, Liu YF, Poplawski AB, Gomes AR, Madanecki P, et al. Germline loss-of-function mutations in LZTR1 predispose to an inherited disorder of multiple schwannomas. Nat Genet. 2014;46(2):182-7.
• Hirata Y, Brems H, Suzuki M, Kanamori M, Okada M, Morita R, et al. Interaction between a Domain of the Negative Regulator of the Ras-ERK Pathway, SPRED1 Protein, and the GTPase-activating Protein-related Domain of Neurofibromin Is Implicated in Legius Syndrome and Neurofibromatosis Type 1. J Biol Chem. 2016;291(7):3124-34.
• Summerer A, Schafer E, Mautner VF, Messiaen L, Cooper DN, Kehrer-Sawatzki H. Ultra-deep amplicon sequencing indicates absence of low-grade mosaicism with normal cells in patients with type-1 NF1 deletions. Hum Genet. 2019;138(1):73-81.
• Summerer A, Mautner VF, Upadhyaya M, Claes KBM, Hogel J, Cooper DN, et al. Extreme clustering of type-1 NF1 deletion breakpoints co-locating with G-quadruplex forming sequences. Hum Genet. 2018;137(6-7):511-20.
• Hillmer M, Wagner D, Summerer A, Daiber M, Mautner VF, Messiaen L, et al. Fine mapping of meiotic NAHR-associated crossovers causing large NF1 deletions. Hum Mol Genet. 2016;25(3):484-96.
• Kehrer-Sawatzki H, Bengesser K, Callens T, Mikhail F, Fu C, Hillmer M, et al. Identification of large NF1 duplications reciprocal to NAHR-mediated type-1 NF1 deletions. Hum Mutat. 2014;35(12):1469-75.
• Vogt J, Bengesser K, Claes KB, Wimmer K, Mautner VF, van Minkelen R, et al. SVA retrotransposon insertion-associated deletion represents a novel mutational mechanism underlying large genomic copy number changes with non-recurrent breakpoints. Genome Biol. 2014;15(6):R80.
• Bengesser K, Vogt J, Mussotter T, Mautner VF, Messiaen L, Cooper DN, et al. Analysis of crossover breakpoints yields new insights into the nature of the gene conversion events associated with large NF1 deletions mediated by nonallelic homologous recombination. Hum Mutat. 2014;35(2):215-26.
• Vogt J, Mussotter T, Bengesser K, Claes K, Hogel J, Chuzhanova N, et al. Identification of recurrent type-2 NF1 microdeletions reveals a mitotic nonallelic homologous recombination hotspot underlying a human genomic disorder. Hum Mutat. 2012;33(11):1599-609.
• Zickler AM, Hampp S, Messiaen L, Bengesser K, Mussotter T, Roehl AC, et al. Characterization of the nonallelic homologous recombination hotspot PRS3 associated with type-3 NF1 deletions. Hum Mutat. 2012;33(2):372-83.
• Messiaen L, Vogt J, Bengesser K, Fu C, Mikhail F, Serra E, et al. Mosaic type-1 NF1 microdeletions as a cause of both generalized and segmental neurofibromatosis type-1 (NF1). Hum Mutat. 2011;32(2):213-9.
• Wimmer K, Callens T, Wernstedt A, Messiaen L. The NF1 gene contains hotspots for L1 endonuclease-dependent de novo insertion. PLoS Genet. 2011;7(11):e1002371.
• Wimmer K, Roca X, Beiglbock H, Callens T, Etzler J, Rao AR, et al. Extensive in silico analysis of NF1 splicing defects uncovers determinants for splicing outcome upon 5′ splice-site disruption. Hum Mutat. 2007;28(6):599-612.
• Wimmer K, Schamschula E, Wernstedt A, Traunfellner P, Amberger A, Zschocke J, et al. AG-exclusion zone revisited: Lessons to learn from 91 intronic NF1 3′ splice site mutations outside the canonical AG-dinucleotides. Hum Mutat. 2020;41(6):1145-56.
• Zatkova A, Messiaen L, Vandenbroucke I, Wieser R, Fonatsch C, Krainer AR, et al. Disruption of exonic splicing enhancer elements is the principal cause of exon skipping associated with seven nonsense or missense alleles of NF1. Hum Mutat. 2004;24(6):491-501.
• Povysil G, Tzika A, Vogt J, Haunschmid V, Messiaen L, Zschocke J, et al. panelcn.MOPS: Copy-number detection in targeted NGS panel data for clinical diagnostics. Hum Mutat. 2017;38(7):889-97.
• Ganster C, Wernstedt A, Kehrer-Sawatzki H, Messiaen L, Schmidt K, Rahner N, et al. Functional PMS2 hybrid alleles containing a pseudogene-specific missense variant trace back to a single ancient intrachromosomal recombination event. Hum Mutat. 2010;31(5):552-60.
• Perez-Valencia JA, Gallon R, Chen Y, Koch J, Keller M, Oberhuber K, et al. Constitutional mismatch repair deficiency is the diagnosis in 0.41% of pathogenic NF1/SPRED1 variant negative children suspected of sporadic neurofibromatosis type 1. Genet Med. 2020;22(12):2081-8.
• Plotkin SR, Messiaen L, Legius E, Pancza P, Avery RA, Blakeley JO, et al. Updated diagnostic criteria and nomenclature for neurofibromatosis type 2 and schwannomatosis: An international consensus recommendation. Genet Med. 2022;24(9):1967-77.
• Legius E, Messiaen L, Wolkenstein P, Pancza P, Avery RA, Berman Y, et al. Revised diagnostic criteria for neurofibromatosis type 1 and Legius syndrome: an international consensus recommendation. Genet Med. 2021;23(8):1506-13.
• Koczkowska M, Chen Y, Xie J, Callens T, Gomes A, Wimmer K, et al. Analysis of 200 unrelated individuals with a constitutional NF1 deep intronic pathogenic variant reveals that variants flanking the alternatively spliced NF1 exon 31 [23a] cause a classical neurofibromatosis type 1 phenotype while altering predominantly NF1 isoform type II. Hum Genet. 2023;142(7):849-61.
• Wimmer K, Eckart M, Rehder H, Fonatsch C. Illegitimate splicing of the NF1 gene in healthy individuals mimics mutation-induced splicing alterations in NF1 patients. Hum Genet. 2000;106(3):311-3.
• Wimmer K, Eckart M, Stadler PF, Rehder H, Fonatsch C. Three different premature stop codons lead to skipping of exon 7 in neurofibromatosis type I patients. Hum Mutat. 2000;16(1):90-1.
• Wimmer K, Yao S, Claes K, Kehrer-Sawatzki H, Tinschert S, De Raedt T, et al. Spectrum of single- and multiexon NF1 copy number changes in a cohort of 1,100 unselected NF1 patients. Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2006;45(3):265-76.
• Ricciardone MD, Ozcelik T, Cevher B, Ozdag H, Tuncer M, Gurgey A, et al. Human MLH1 deficiency predisposes to hematological malignancy and neurofibromatosis type 1. Cancer Res. 1999;59(2):290-3.
• Wang Q, Lasset C, Desseigne F, Frappaz D, Bergeron C, Navarro C, et al. Neurofibromatosis and early onset of cancers in hMLH1-deficient children. Cancer Res. 1999;59(2):294-7.
• Etzler J, Peyrl A, Zatkova A, Schildhaus HU, Ficek A, Merkelbach-Bruse S, et al. RNA-based mutation analysis identifies an unusual MSH6 splicing defect and circumvents PMS2 pseudogene interference. Hum Mutat. 2008;29(2):299-305.
• Wimmer K, Rosenbaum T, Messiaen L. Connections between constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome and neurofibromatosis type 1. Clin Genet. 2017;91(4):507-19.
• Suerink M, Ripperger T, Messiaen L, Menko FH, Bourdeaut F, Colas C, et al. Constitutional mismatch repair deficiency as a differential diagnosis of neurofibromatosis type 1: consensus guidelines for testing a child without malignancy. J Med Genet. 2019;56(2):53-62.

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