hrm research topics related to covid 19

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Research Roundup: How the Pandemic Changed Management

• Mark C. Bolino,
• Jacob M. Whitney,
• Sarah E. Henry

Lessons from 69 articles published in top management and applied psychology journals.

Researchers recently reviewed 69 articles focused on the management implications of the Covid-19 pandemic that were published between March 2020 and July 2023 in top journals in management and applied psychology. The review highlights the numerous ways in which employees, teams, leaders, organizations, and societies were impacted and offers lessons for managing through future pandemics or other events of mass disruption.

The recent pandemic disrupted life as we know it, including for employees and organizations around the world. To understand such changes, we recently reviewed 69 articles focused on the management implications of the Covid-19 pandemic. These papers were published between March 2020 and July 2023 in top journals in management and applied psychology.

• Mark C. Bolino is the David L. Boren Professor and the Michael F. Price Chair in International Business at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business. His research focuses on understanding how an organization can inspire its employees to go the extra mile without compromising their personal well-being.
• JW Jacob M. Whitney is a doctoral candidate in management at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business and an incoming assistant professor at Kennesaw State University. His research interests include leadership, teams, and organizational citizenship behavior.
• SH Sarah E. Henry is a doctoral candidate in management at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business and an incoming assistant professor at the University of South Florida. Her research interests include organizational citizenship behaviors, workplace interpersonal dynamics, and international management.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Covid-19 outbreak: how do human resource management practices affect employee well-being.

• 1 Faculty of Economics and Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
• 2 Faculty of Management, Education and Humanities, University College MAIWP International, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
• 3 Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perlis, Malaysia
• 4 Arshad Ayub Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

The study examines the effect of human resource practices (HRPs), including ability, motivation, and opportunity practices, on employee well-being (EWB) in the Malaysian environment during the COVID-19 pandemic. This research surveyed 154 service sector employees at Klang Valley, Malaysia. The data were analysed using structural equation modelling. Based on the ability, motivation and opportunity (AMO) theory, the results indicate that motivation and opportunity practices have a significant positive effect on EWB, whereas ability enhancing practices have an insignificant effect. Human resource policies and practices must foster a conducive yet contented work environment, and leaders must provide opportunities and motivation for employees to participate actively in the workplace. By doing so, the organisation’s value of human resources can be significantly increased, and the organisation’s goals can be achieved while employees’ overall well-being is enhanced, resulting in a win-win situation. This study uncovers the important roles of AMO practices that can effectively increase EWB.

Introduction

The world witnessed an unprecedented event at the start of the year 2020. Nobody ever imagined that the entire world would enter a state of total lockdown, with people losing social, economic, and political ties and worse yet, no one was ever prepared for this to happen. It was a result of a sudden pandemic outbreak that people worldwide, particularly employees, were forced to adopt a new norm known as “working from home” (WFH), which was the most widely used term at the time. Fear of the COVID-19 virus, a lack of readiness to fully utilise technology, and adaptation to a new life norm have resulted in a slew of issues, most notably mental health issues. Numerous people have been laid off as a result of many businesses being forced to close due to the pandemic’s lockdown. Likewise, the COVID-19 pandemic has put a lot of attention into research calling especially the one that look into the effect on people’s behaviour ( Islam et al., 2020 ; Ahmed et al., 2021 ; Malik et al., 2021 ). Therefore, the topic of employee well-being should be examined more closely during this challenging time.

The concept of well-being has been widely acknowledged as a national measure of productivity in both developed and developing countries ( Ip, 2009 ; Caicedo et al., 2010 ; Miller, 2016 ). In keeping with Malaysia’s development objective for enhancing well-being outlined in the Eleventh Malaysia Plan 11MP (2016–2020), the government is dedicated to ensuring Malaysians’ sustained well-being through national social indicators. This is further emphasised in the Twelfth Malaysia Plan 12MP (2021–2025), which places a premium on social well-being as part of the Shared Prosperity Vision (SPV) 2030’s strategic thrust five ( Loheswar and Jun, 2019 ). The SPV’s main objective is to ensure a decent standard of living for all Malaysians by 2030, making sure economic wealth and well-being for all Malaysians. Additionally, Malaysia, along with 192 other world leaders, adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030 Agenda) on 25 September 2015 at the United Nations General Assembly in New York. This is a worldwide commitment to more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive development, comprised of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets. Malaysia recognises that achieving the SDGs comprehensively will require mobilising resources, such as manpower, capacity building, and physical space, as well as funding. Due to the fact that Malaysia’s national development plan has always prioritised economic, social, and environmental goals, the SDGs are being implemented in accordance with the 12MP. Five clusters are involved: inclusivity, well-being, human capital, environment and natural resources, and economic growth. The cluster of well-being includes Goal 3 of the SDGs, which is improved health and well-being ( Economic Planning Unit Prime Minister’s Department Malaysia, 2021 ). When the COVID-19 pandemic spread through country, many people may not have noticed that employees’ health and well-being were given as much attention as they had been in the past.

The health and well-being of an employee, whether physical, mental or emotional, has a significant impact on the quality and success of a company ( The Edge Market, 2020 ). The latest findings from the AIA Vitality 2019 Malaysia’s Healthiest Workplace study found a growing culture of overworking within Malaysian organisations could lead to the issues such as mental wellness, clinical health, work environment, and sleep. The survey findings also revealed that mental health issues are on the increase, with 22% of employees indicating that they are now dealing with a lot of financial difficulties. Furthermore, 20% of employees are still subjected to workplace bullying, which contributes to their stress at work ( AIA Bhd, 2021 ). Furthermore, as according to Employment Hero’s (2021) report, “The Impact of COVID-19 on Mental Health in the Workplace”, which was focused on an analysis of over 1,000 Malaysian employers and employees. It was reported that 71% of Malaysian employees are concerned about their financial well-being, 66% about their physical health, and 62% about their psychological disorders. Moreover, according to the same report, the mental health concerns among Malaysian employees are (62%) as compared to other employees in countries such as Singaporeans (50%), the United Kingdom (49%), New Zealand (46%) and Australians (46%). About 70% of Malaysian employees hope they can have a healthy work-life balance. The survey also indicated the significance of well-managed communications and transitions to WFH. Prior to the pandemic, 59% of individuals who had been working remotely claimed being stressed. As a result of the pandemic, many have been obliged to WFH, where 64% reported being frustrated with the arrangement ( Employment Hero, 2021 ). According to numerous reports, emotional, financial and physical health, or simply the well-being of employees, is still the most common concern encountered by employees in general. As workers transition into the new normal of working remotely, adequate human resource practices (HRPs) should be in place to address employee well-being problems.

Following the suggestion by Guest (2017) and the urgency to develop more study on employee well-being, this study had contributed to the literature by providing the resonate behind the implementation of AMO enhancing practices that help to strengthen the well-being of employee particularly in the pandemic situation. This study also verified that the right application of human resource practices is important and must be aligned with the current needs and wants of the employees. The practices that might useful before the pandemic started might not be well accepted in the present situation. As such, training practices in this study revealed that it was not applicable due to the new working norm of WFH and there was lack of training available or if there was training available online, employees were not in favour of it. Moreover, the majority of empirical studies to date have examined employee well-being as a mediator ( Khoreva and Wechtler, 2018 ; Sivapragasam and Raya, 2018 ; Salas-Vallina et al., 2020 , 2021 ) and have used multiple dimensions of well-being as the dependent variable ( Zhang et al., 2020 ; Guerci et al., 2022 ) rather than unidimensional.

Hence, the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which AMO practices impact the well-being of Malaysian employees, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. A study was done among 154 employees in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The exact research question to be answered in order to fulfil this research aim is: RQ1: Do AMO practices have an impact on employee well-being? The following sections outline the structure of this paper. It begins by emphasizing the organisation’s importance of employee well-being. It then discusses the probable utility of AMO practices in enhancing employee well-being, implying the importance of conducting empirical research on the relationship between AMO practices and employee well-being. Following that, hypotheses regarding the relationship between AMO practices and employee well-being are developed. This is followed by an explanation of the methodology and results. Following that, the study findings are examined, as are the contributions to the literature on employee well-being and AMO practices, as well as additional contributions. Finally, the limitations of the study, research implications, and practice implications are discussed.

Literature review

Employee well-being.

In the literature, there are conflicting notions and definitions of employee well-being. Scholars use the phrase “well-being” equally with other ideas or terms such as “satisfaction”, “pleasure”, and “quality of life” ( Kianto et al., 2016 ; Achour et al., 2017 ). Employee well-being is also referred to as workplace well-being or quality of working life ( Chan and Wyatt, 2007 ). The term for what constitutes organisational well-being has evolved and widened over time. Miller (2016) defines well-being succinctly as “the point of equilibrium between an individual’s resource pool and the obstacles confronted”. Well-being has been extensively discussed by psychologists’ researchers, and psychologists have divided well-being into two distinct but related forms, such as hedonism and eudemonism ( Chumg et al., 2015 ; Lomas et al., 2017 ). Hedonism, also known as subjective well-being, is concerned with personal well-being, which includes a desire to be accomplished, a good way to avoid pain, and a desire to be happy. Eudemonism-focused psychologists believe that an individual’s well-being is more contextual, nuanced, and important in life. Unlike hedonism, eudemonism is measured by psychological well-being ( Chumg et al., 2016 ). Salanova et al. (2014) emphasise that psychological well-being refers to individuals’ assessments of their lives, both affective and cognitive. According to ( Kooij et al., 2013 ), psychological well-being “is concerned with an individual’s subjective experience”. Additionally, Lomas et al. (2017) suggest that an individual’s well-being should encompass both subjective and psychological well-being, sometimes referred to as quality of life.

Employee well-being is emphasised, which may be defined as “individual life fulfilment and enjoyment” is the key to improving organisational performance ( Huang et al., 2016 ). Employee well-being is characterised as a positive assessment of one’s life satisfaction and happiness, as defined by Chumg et al. (2015) , Hills and Argyle (2002) , and Mellor et al. (2016) , who believe that well-being is concerned with people’s point of view on their life experiences, individual satisfaction, and emotional characteristics. In Malaysia, a study on manufacturing employees conducted by Wahab et al. (2021) discovered that well-being and work-life balance are not a major concern, particularly among young and low-skilled manufacturing workers who are only concerned with making more money and are ready to work long hours for overtime allowances. Individually, a study performed in a Malaysian higher education institution during the COVID-19 pandemic by Daud et al. (2020) discovered that a combination of emotional wellness, family interaction, organisational psychosocial support, and WFH affects employee well-being. Nevertheless, only mental health shows a non-significant link, possibly because employees are accustomed to working under difficult situations and possess the ability to multitask.

Additionally, employee well-being, according to Lin et al. (2014) has an impact on employees’ job performance. Employee work performance may be increased when people’s well-being is developed. Individuals with a low sense of well-being, on the other hand, will lack job focus, resulting in poor work performance. It has been demonstrated that there is a favourable correlation between employee well-being and organisational performance ( Taris and Schreurs, 2009 ; Van den Bosch and Taris, 2014 ). Van den Bosch and Taris (2014) suggested that a higher degree of well-being among employees results in an increase in individual performance, which in turn results in improved organisational performance. Poor employee well-being can reveal negative attitudes and behaviours, such as decreased work performance, non-appearance, extended sick leave, and disloyalty to the organisation ( Lin et al., 2014 ).

Besides that, employee well-being is also a critical component of individual and organisational success, and it is viewed as a significant result by policymakers and HR practitioners alike ( Lin et al., 2014 ; Chumg et al., 2015 ; Kianto et al., 2016 ; Guerci et al., 2022 ). Cañibano (2013) examines the effects of applying an innovative, three-dimensional human resource management (HRM) strategy on employee well-being, including physical, psychological and social well-being. A qualitative study was undertaken, and the results revealed that innovative HRM practices can result in both positive and negative well-being outcomes. Aside from that, Huang et al. (2016) recognised high-performance work systems as one of the main management practices for promoting employee well-being.

Human resources management practices

Historically, HRM has defined practises as a collection of practices instead of the more common process of strategically integrating human resource decisions ( Duberley and Walley, 1995 ). Noe et al. (2010) define HRM as a philosophy, policy, system, and practices that are concerned with an employee’s behaviour, attitude, and performance. Indeed, certain practices serve as the foundation for the multiple practices proposed by numerous prior HRM scholars, as there is no consensus on what constitutes an HRM practice.

Ability, motivation and opportunity (AMO) enhancing practices

Earlier research has looked at the “black box” of HRM’s link to performance, and one well-known factor is the AMO framework, which consists of three components that improve employee performance: individual ability (A), motivation (M) and opportunity to participate (O) ( Appelbaum et al., 2000 ). In accordance with some authors, this model incorporates the basic psychological concept of (1) motivation as the driving force for behaviour; (2) ability as the skills and capabilities needed for behavioural performance; and (3) opportunity as a context and situational limitation relevant to behavioural performance ( Maclnnis and Jaworski, 1989 ; Hughes, 2007 ; Kroon et al., 2013 ).

Accordingly, Boxall and Purcell (2011) observe that once they are able to accomplish the task (A), they are doing their job (M), and their workplace offers the essential support and outlets for expression (O). As a consequence, ability can be defined as a person’s ability to assist them in doing specific activities ( Kim et al., 2015 ). Employee recruiting, formal training, and performance assessment are all examples of practices ( Raidén et al., 2006 ; Kroon et al., 2013 ; Marin-garcia and Tomas, 2016 ). Training and development procedures assist in increasing the likelihood of acquiring new abilities, comprehending the problem, and identifying new viewpoints. Moreover, ability practices also assist in recruiting and selecting individuals who suit the profile of the organisation ( Bos-Nehles et al., 2013 ; Schimansky, 2014 ; Marin-garcia and Tomas, 2016 ). On the other side, motivation practices refer to an employee’s desire to perform, which can be heightened by extrinsic or intrinsic motivation ( Kim et al., 2015 ; Marin-garcia and Tomas, 2016 ). Motivation is frequently related with money or non-monetary incentives and the practices include incentives, career prospects, or performance evaluation ( Raidén et al., 2006 ; Demortier et al., 2014 ; Munteanu, 2014 ). Accordingly, motivation practices if designed and implemented properly can make the employees feel valued by their organisation, and resulting in increased well-being. Furthermore, the opportunity is a collection of circumstances that take into account not just individual characteristics, but also the work environment that enables something to be accomplished ( Marin-garcia and Tomas, 2016 ). As such, decision-making involvement, knowledge exchange, horizontal communication, and job development are all incorporated ( Appelbaum et al., 2000 ; Schimansky, 2014 ).

AMO practices and employee well-being

Zhang et al. (2020) demonstrated that three aspects of human resource management practises (HRMPs), namely (ability, motivation, and opportunity practices), had a beneficial effect on the three dimensions of EWB (life, job, psychological well-being). Additionally, their study merged hedonic and eudemonic perspectives and examined EWB in three dimensions: job, life, and psychological well-being. It was discovered that effective HRMPs not only benefit a certain type of employee well-being, but also can result in increased overall employee well-being.

Additionally, Salas-Vallina et al. (2021) discovered a relationship between AMO practices and well-being, where well-being was used as a mediator between AMO practices and organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB). Employee well-being acts as a moderator between AMO HRM practices and the OCB relationship. AMO HRM methods improve engagement and trust and reduce tiredness, indicating that they play a critical role in boosting OCBs.

The most recent study Guerci et al. (2022) compares AMO-enhanced high performance work practices (HPWPs) to three categories of employee well-being: health, happiness, and relational well-being. According to them, certain HPWPs initiate loss and gain cycles on distinct sorts of main resources, resulting in disparate correlations with relevant dimensions of employee well-being. Thus, HR practitioners concerned in enhancing employee well-being should direct investments toward activities that are genuinely related with employee well-being, and more specifically toward those dimensions of well-being that are of interest to the organisation.

Hypotheses development and theory justification

Previous research has sought to explain the positive association between HRPs and EWB using behavioural theory ( Peccei, 2004 ) and social exchange theory ( Van de Voorde et al., 2012 ). This study took on a different strategy in this study, one that is based on the AMO theory. As per AMO theory, HR practices can be classified into three groups: ability-enhancing, motivation-enhancing, and opportunity-enhancing practices ( Appelbaum et al., 2000 ). AMO theory contains three systems that outline individual characteristics in confirming that employees have the right skills, motivating employees to develop discretionary behaviours and empowering them towards organisational outcomes ( Harney and Jordan, 2008 ; Abubakar Tabiu et al., 2016 ). The AMO framework in particular provides a comprehensive description of how HR practices can influence corporate performance through employees determination (e.g., formal staffing and training), motivation (e.g., formal performance evaluation and appropriate reimbursement), and participation opportunity (e.g., use of attitude investigations; Obeidat et al., 2016 ).

As such, this study was based on the relationship between HRPs, specifically AMO-enhancing practices and EWB. These practices were selected in light of two points made by Guerci et al. (2022) : first, a significant drawback of the strategic HRM literature is that there is still no agreement on which HRM practices should be classified as HPWPs or under the ability-motivation-opportunity (AMO) framework, which is progressively used to categorise HPWPs ( Lepak et al., 2006 ). According to this paradigm, each employee’s performance is determined by his or her abilities, motivation, and opportunity to perform ( Appelbaum et al., 2000 ). Thus, companies should use HRM methods to guarantee that employees possess the essential skills, are highly motivated, and have numerous possibilities for engagement. Second, there is a continuing discussion in contemporary HRM literature over the source of data to be used for HPWPs. A recent review of the literature on that subject revealed that over the last two decades, HRM studies have increasingly relied on employees (rather than managers) as respondents ( Beijer et al., 2019 ). Employee (rather than manager) data are deemed more appropriate for researching the impacts of HPWPs on employee attitudes and behaviours, as employees’ perceptions of HPWPs are temporary closer to, and thus more predictive of, their attitude and behaviour results ( Kehoe and Wright, 2013 ). Additionally, the utilisation of employee data (rather than manager data) is consistent with the ethical imperative to place people at the centre of HRM research ( Guest, 1999 ). As a result of these considerations, the hypotheses were created by focusing on AMO procedures as viewed by the individual employee and doing the empirical study utilising employee data. Therefore, this current study intends to fulfil the highlighted gap in the literature by proposing four hypotheses.

Ability-enhancing practices and EWB

Ability-enhancing practices are aimed at enhancing employees’ knowledge and abilities to perform their jobs as expected, thereby contributing to the organisation’s success ( Tharenou et al., 2007 ). These practices include hiring, training, and professional development. Ability practices may provide employees with necessary resources to achieve critical career outcomes for EWB. Hence, it is hypothesised that:

H1 : Ability-enhancing practices have a positive effect on employees’ well-being.

Motivation-enhancing practices and EWB

Motivation-enhancing practices are intended to increase employees’ extrinsic or intrinsic motivation to perform to expectations ( Jiang et al., 2012 ). Extrinsic motivation refers to the external benefits an employee associates with engaging in their job while intrinsic motivation is the feeling of internal satisfaction and enjoyment of a person when engaging in their job. These include performance management procedures, compensation, bonuses, and incentives policies, and so on. If designed and implemented properly, employees will feel valued by their organisation, resulting in increased well-being. Thus, it is hypothesised that:

H2 : Extrinsic motivation-enhancing HRMPs have a positive effect on employees’ well-being.

H3 : Intrinsic motivation-enhancing HRMPs have a positive effect on employees’ well-being.

Opportunity-enhancing practices and EWB

The term “opportunity practices” refers to those that enable employees to communicate their ideas, take ownership of creating goals, and completing assigned duties ( Mathieu et al., 2006 ). These practices include employee participation and involvement in critical decision-making processes such as job design and goal planning, as well as decentralisation and increasing job autonomy ( Jiang et al., 2012 ). By applying these HR enhancing practices, employees may be able to meet their self-achievement needs, resulting in increased EWB. Therefore, it is hypothesised that:

H4 : Opportunity-enhancing HRMPs have a positive effect on employees’ well-being

In general, the relationship indicated above can be seen in Figure 1 , our theoretical framework.

Figure 1 . Theoretical framework.

Methodology

Research setting and participants.

The data were obtained in the second quarter of 2021 via an online survey of employees in the service sector in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Malaysia’s services sector accounts for more than half of the country’s GDP, making it a significant contributor to economic growth, efficiency, and earnings. The services market is open and well-regulated, facilitating access to information, expertise, technology, and financing while also facilitating the cross-border mobility of skilled labour ( Malaysian Investment Development Authority, 2021 ). Accordingly, 8.352 million jobs were generated in the second quarter of 2021 across all economic sectors, with the service industry alone creating 4.312 million positions and 4.285 million paid employees. Klang Valley, Malaysia was selected as the population for this study because it had labour force participation rates above the national average of 74.9% ( Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2021 ). Employees of various levels of classification were used as respondents in this study, and they are still actively employed at the moment. As a result, the unit of analysis for this study was the individual employee. Similarly, because there was no sampling frame of all service employees in the population, the convenience sampling approach was adopted in this study. The online survey questionnaires were distributed to the intended respondents via the social media platform. Respondents were also asked to forward the survey to other contacts in the various organisations. The G*Power sampling size determinant was used in this survey to determine sample size using research predictors (variables). This study’s model had four predictors. The minimum sample size required was only 85 when using G*Power with an effect size of 0.15, alpha of 0.05, and power of 0.8. Therefore, a total number of 300 questionnaires were disseminated, in which was more than the minimum sample size required and also to deal with the issue of non-response of the respondents. As a result, the study managed to get 52% of response rate. Hence, the sample size of 154 is deemed sufficient and exceeds the minimum sample size requirement.

The demographic analysis confirmed that the majority of respondents (64.3%) were females between the ages of 26 and 35 (51.3%). More than half of the respondents (56.5%) were married, 72.0% held executive or higher-level positions, and worked from home during the movement control order (MCO) (88.3%).

Ability, motivation and opportunity enhancing HR practices

The AMO practices scale was developed from Andreeva and Sergeeva (2016) study on knowledge sharing among school teachers and adjusted for this study’s context. Sample items were: “my job specifically rewards my skills with monetary incentives” (extrinsic motivation enhancing HR practices); “to what extent is your job characterised by the following: the freedom to carry out my job the way I want to” (intrinsic motivation enhancing HR practices); “in our company there are trainings to develop interpersonal communication skills” (ability enhancing HR practices); and “the company invites high-performance employees to share their knowledge with others in meetings” (opportunity enhancing HR practices). The scale had 13 items that were scored on a 7-point Likert scale with answers ranged from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”).

The employee well-being scale from the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) formed by Hills and Argyle (2002) was used in this study as suggested by Chumg et al. (2016) . The OHQ was originated from the Oxford Happiness Inventory ( Argyle et al., 1989 ) which has received widespread praise for its strong construct validity and reliability ( Hills and Argyle, 2002 ; Robbins et al., 2010 ). This scale had eight questions on it. The respondents were asked to rate their level of agreement on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”).

Table 1 displays the statements used for all the research questionnaire’s selected items. As previously stated, the literature validated all the selected items.

Table 1 . Constructs/items used in the research’s questionnaire.

Data analysis and results

Due to the survey nature of the data, multivariate normality was determined using the web-based software 1 as suggested by Cain et al. (2017) . The Mardia coefficient of multivariate skewness was 4.401 and the kurtosis was 41.608 (with cut-off values of ± 1 and ± 20, respectively, DeCarlo, 1997 ), indicating that the data were not multivariate normal. As a result, SmartPLS 3.3.7, a second-generation structural equation modelling (SEM) software, was chosen to perform bootstrapping on the model. Over the last 20 years, many researchers have increasingly turned to second-generation techniques and this method is referred to as SEM, which enables researchers to incorporate unobservable variables measured indirectly by indicator variables ( Hair et al., 2017 ). In addition, SEM also facilitates the accounting of the error of measurement in the observed variables ( Chin, 1998 ). The measurement model was evaluated first, followed by the structural model, as suggested by Ramayah et al. (2018) and Hair et al. (2019) .

Due to the fact that data were gathered from a single source, a full collinearity analysis was conducted to determine whether common method bias was a concern in our study, as suggested by Kock and Lynn (2012) . Firstly, a dummy variable was established in Excel using the random function; subsequently, all of the constructs (such as the dependent variable) were regressed in the research model against this common variable. The results in Table 2 indicate that there was no cause for serious concern, as all VIFs were less than the 3.3 threshold.

Table 2 . Full collinearity estimates.

Additionally, we used the marker variable technique to address the issue of method variance. This study included three elements from workplace family-supportive programmes by Frone and Yardley (1996) that were gathered in the same survey but not included in the model under examination: (1) “After work, I come home too tired to do some of the things I’d like to do”, (2) “My job takes up time that I’d like to spend with family/friends”, and (3) “My job interferes with my responsibilities at home, such as cooking, cleaning, shopping etc”. These were used as indicator markers. This study utilised the partial correlation method with a theoretically unrelated marker variable, as recommended by Podsakoff et al. (2003) , in order to examine the study’s common method bias. Despite the fact that Podsakoff et al. (2003) provided two methods to partial correlation methods: partialling out of social desirability items and partialling out of unrelated marker variables. Since unrelated marker variables can also include social desirability items, both approaches are similar. Partialling a “marker” variable is analogous to partialling a general factor. The only distinction is that the partial extraction of latent marker variables occurs in place of the general factor. The study used Smart PLS software to create a hypothesised model and then measured the R 2 value of an endogenous construct. The study then partially removed the marker variable from the endogenous construct and calculated its R 2 value again. The difference between the R 2 values of the endogenous construct before and after the marker variable was then compared (e.g., 0.476–0.425 = 0.051). Thus, the difference in the R 2 value of the endogenous construct after partial exclusion of the marker variable was 0.051, which is not statistically significant. This finding adds to the evidence that there was no significant common method bias in this study.

Measurement model

To ensure that the measurement items were valid and reliable, the loadings from the results, as well as the average variance extracted and composite reliability, were evaluated. In order to meet the threshold of all the assessments involved, all the criteria for measurement model had to be established in this study. The evaluations begin by examining the reliability of internal consistency. After establishing the reliability of the construct, the research study had to assess the convergent validity. Lastly, in order to evaluate the structural model, the establishment of discriminant validity had to be succeeded.

The first criterion assessed in this study was the reliability of internal consistency. Composite reliability takes into account the different outer loadings of the indicator variables. Composite reliability varies from 0 to 1 and the higher values describe higher levels of reliability in the research study. The threshold for composite reliability is 0.7. Composite reliability values below 0.6 indicate a lack of internal consistency in reliability ( Drolet and Morrison, 2001 ; Rossiter, 2002 ; Hayduk and Littvay, 2012 ).

For the next stage of the assessment of the measurement model, the research had to analyse the convergent validity of all indicators in the construct. As stated in Hair et al. (2017) , the convergent validity is the extent to which the measure is positively correlated with the alternative measure of the same constructs. Convergent validity had to be assessed for the outer loading of the indicators and the average variance extracted (AVE). The outer loading size is also known as the reliability of the indicator. The thumb rule for reliability of the indicator should be 0.7 or higher. The square of the standard indicator’s outer loading represents how much of the variation in an items is explained by the construct, and this is also described as the variance extracted from the item. Indicators below the external load value of 0.7 should be eliminated; however, the effect of their removal should be carefully examined. Indicators with an outer loading of 0.4–0.7 should be considered for removal from the scale, only when it is lead to higher AVE according to the threshold indicated above. However, the indicators with an outer loading below 0.4 are always removed from the construct ( Bagozzi et al., 1991 ; Hair et al., 2011 ). As for AVE, this criterion is defined as the grand mean value of the squared loading of the indicators associated with the constructs. The threshold for AVE is 0.5 or higher. The value means that the construct has explained more than half of the variance of its indicators. As shown in Table 3 , all of the loadings were greater than 0.708, all of the AVEs were greater than 0.5, and all of the CRs were greater than 0.7, indicating that all of the measurements are valid and reliable ( Ramayah et al., 2018 ; Hair et al., 2019 ).

Table 3 . Measurement model.

After both the reliability of the indicators and the AVE met the threshold requirement, the research study then proceeds to the next assessment, which is discriminant validity. As explained by Hair et al. (2017) , discriminant validity is the extent to which empirical standards make a construct truly different from other constructs. Establishing of discriminant validity indicated that the construct is unique and captures phenomena not represented by other constructs in the model. There have been a few approaches to the treatment of discriminant validity in the research study, such as cross-loading, the Fornell-Larcker criterion and the hetero-train-monotrait ratio (HTMT). As an overview of the first approach, cross-loading is basically an indicator’s outer loading on the associated construct and should be greater than any of its cross-loading on other constructs. Fornell-Larcker criterion is the second approach to the assessment of the discriminant validity of the model. Generally, the Fornell-Larcker criterion compares the square root of the AVE values to the latent variable correlations. The square root of each AVE construct should be greater than its highest correlation with any other construct. If this threshold is met in the model that has been examined, the discriminant validity has been established. Over the last few years, both approaches, cross-loading performance and the Fornell-Larcker criterion have been found untrustworthy in identifying discriminating issues of validity ( Henseler et al., 2015 ). In order to address the related issue, Henseler et al. (2015) proposed the assessment of the heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) of the correlations. HTMT is the mean of all correlations of indicators across constructs that measure different construct relative to the mean of the average correlation of indicators that measure the same constructs.

For this research study, the HTMT approach was used to assess the validity of discriminant. The threshold value for HTMT is 0.9 if the path model includes constructs, which are conceptually very similar. The HTMT value above 0.9 indicates that the constructs lack discriminant validity. As Henseler et al. (2015) pointed out, a conservative threshold value of 0.85 appears to be warranted. In order to establish the discriminant validity, all the constructs involved in the research study had to comply with the threshold value requirement. In order to further evaluate the HTMT, the research study had to examine the HTMT ratio using the bootstrapping procedure to determine the distribution of the HTMT statistic. By doing so, the confidence interval for bootstrapping can be derived and the confidence interval containing the value 1 indicates that the constructs lack the discriminant validity. When the HTMT ratio inspection met the requirement for a confidence interval, the constructs were established and the structural model assessing assessment proceeded. Following that, the discriminant validity was determined using the HTMT criterion proposed by Henseler et al. (2015 ). If the ratios were less than HTMT 0.85 , it could be concluded that all measures were discriminant. Additionally, Franke and Sarstedt (2019) stated that if the upper limit of the HTMT bootstrapping value is not equal to 1, the measures are discriminant. As showed in Table 4 , all ratios were less than 0.85; thus, the measures are distinct.

Table 4 . Discriminant validity (HTMT ratios).

Structural model

The data analysis of this study continues with the analysis and focuses on the structural model that represent the underlying structural theory of the path model in the research study. Once the research study has confirmed and verified that all the constructs previously measured are reliable and valid, the next stage to be assessed is the results of the structural model. Essentially, the assessment of the structural model involved examining the model’s predictive capabilities and the relationships between the constructs in the path model. Hair et al. (2017) , pointed out that, before describing the result of the structural model, there is a need for a few examinations, such as the assessment of collinearity, the assessment of the coefficient of determination and the size of the effect. Following the assessment of the collinearity, the coefficient of determination and the size of the effect of the constructs, the research study proceeded to determine the significance and relevance of the structural model relationship by analysing the results of the path coefficients based on the objectives and hypotheses of the research study.

Collinearity assessment is an evaluation of the correlation in the structural model between two constructs or predictive ( Hair et al., 2017 ). For each subpart of the structural model, the research study had to examine each set of predictor constructs separately. It is very important to check the critical levels of collinearity between each set of predictive variables: ability, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and opportunity as predictors of employee well-being. A related measure of collinearity is the variance inflation factor (VIF), which was defined as the reciprocal of the tolerance (i.e., VIF = 1/TOL). TOL is represented as tolerance, the amount of variance of one formative indicator not explained by the other indicators. The threshold value for collinearity is VIF above 0.2 and below 5. In the context of PLS-SEM, a tolerance value below 0.2 and above 5 would indicate a potential collinearity problem ( Hair et al., 2011 ). If the collinearity of the predictive construct did not meet the threshold value, consideration should be given to eliminating the construct, merging the predictive into a single construct, or creating higher-order constructs to treat the critical level of collinearity in the research study ( Hair et al., 2017 ).

The next stage in the assessment of the structural model was to evaluate the coefficient of determination or, in other words, the R 2 value. Hair et al. (2017) indicated that the determination coefficient is a measure of predictive power of the model and that it is the square correlation between the actual and predicted value of the particular endogenous construct. In addition, the coefficient also represents the combined effects of the exogenous latent variables on the endogenous latent variables. This can be explained by the fact that the coefficient is the amount of variance in the endogenous constructs explained by all the exogenous constructs associated with it ( Hair et al., 2017 ). In this research, the endogenous constructs were the employee well-being, otherwise the independent variables (ability, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and opportunity) were the exogenous constructs. The reason for using R 2 value is because it is the squared correlation between actual and forecast values and includes all of the data used for model estimation to assess the predictive power of the research model ( Rigdon, 2012 ; Sarstedt et al., 2014 ). As indicated by Hair et al. (2017) , R 2 values range from 0 to 1, with higher values to 1 indicating a higher level of predictive power. The threshold for this assessment was 0.75, 0.50 and 0.25, respectively, which were explained as substantial, moderate and weak ( Henseler et al., 2009 ; Hair et al., 2011 ).

The effect size is commonly and increasingly encouraged to be evaluated in the research study. As explained by Hair et al. (2017) , the effect size ( f 2 ) is a change in the R 2 value when the specified exogenous construct is omitted from the model. This can be used to assess whether the omitted construct has a substantive impact on the endogenous constructs (dependent variables). The thumb rule for evaluating the effect size, f 2 , is 0.02, 0.15 and 0.35, respectively, representing the small, medium and large effect of the latent endogenous variable (employee well-being; Cohen, 1988 ). The effect size, f 2 , values less than 0.02 can be described as having no effect on exogenous latent variable.

Thus, Table 5 illustrates that, the VIF values for all the predictive variables are clearly below the threshold of 5, the R 2 values of employee well-being (0.4250) is considered as moderate and the effect size of ability showed no effect with the value of 0.003 on employee well-being, extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation showed small effect with the value of 0.028 and 0.073 on employee well-being, respectively, while opportunity also showed small effect on employee commitment with the value of 0.088.

Table 5 . Coefficient of determination ( R 2 ), collinearity assessment (VIF) and effect size ( f 2 ).

To estimate the structural model, a bootstrapping procedure with 5,000 resamples was run to generate the path coefficient, t -values, value of ps, and standard errors. Moreover, Hahn and Ang (2017) argued that value of ps are insufficient as a criterion for determining the significance of a hypothesis and recommended combining value of ps, confidence intervals, and effect sizes. Table 6 summarises the criteria used to test the developed hypotheses. First, this study looked at the factors that link to employee well-being which is ability, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation and opportunity. The extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation and opportunity have a direct relationship with employee well-being ( Table 6 ). This is because the t value is higher than the critical value, 1.645 at 5% significance level, the value of p of this relationship is lower than the significance level of 0.05, and the confidence interval for the relationship also shows a similar result, which does not include zero. Thus, the hypotheses H2, H3 and H4 are supported. On the other hand, ability show insignificant direct relationship towards employee well-being. Hence, the hypothesis H1 is not supported. To sum, ability ( R 2  = 0.425, β  = 0.062, p  = 0.271), extrinsic motivation ( R 2  = 0.425, β  = 0.151, p  = 0.028), intrinsic motivation ( R 2  = 0.425, β  = 0.266, p  = 0.002), and opportunity ( R 2  = 0.425, β  = 0.318, p  = 0.001) were all positively related to employee well-being. As a result, the findings indicate that HRM practices explained approximately 42.5% of the variance in employee well-being.

Table 6 . Hypotheses testing.

To assess the overall model fit, this study used the bootstrap-based test for exact overall model fit. The results displayed in Table 7 show that the values of the discrepancy measures which is, geodesic distance ( d G), SRMR, and squared Euclidean distance ( d ULS), are below the corresponding critical value, namely the 95% quantile of the corresponding reference distribution. Hence, the results conclude that the specified model adequately fits the collected data. As such, the proposed model captures the available information in the data acceptably.

Table 7 . Model fit.

The purpose of this study was to learn more about how HRPs namely the AMO practices affect EWB. A conceptual model with hypotheses was developed on the basis of the AMO theory. The findings suggest that employees who have experienced good HRPs will have greater well-being and satisfaction at the job. Employees need more motivation at job especially during hard time such as the current pandemic of COVID-19 to stay happy and well. Hence, strong support and motivation in terms of intrinsic or extrinsic motivation from employer is vital. The proper set of HRPs offered to employees will lead to higher performance and satisfaction. On the same note, the suitable opportunity enhancing practices should be in place in order to foster well-being of employees. Therefore, employer should be encouraged to promote meetings and get together activities or sessions with all the employees to enhance communication among them. When they are given opportunity to take part on such activities, they will feel happy and content. The results are aligned with the theoretical arguments of previous studies that AMO practices positively impact on EWB ( Khoreva and Wechtler, 2018 ; Zhang et al., 2020 ; Guerci et al., 2022 ).

Nevertheless, ability practice has no effect on the relationship with EWB, in line with the study by Guerci et al. (2022) , who discovered that training was not related to any of the EWB dimensions. The result suggests that in the current situation of COVID-19 pandemic, employer offers less training to their employees might due to the lack of readiness to face this unprecedented event. Fear of employees’ tardiness and unreadiness of employees to WFH could also be the reason of such insignificant result. Lack of teamwork to share knowledge and skills as before the pandemic happens lead to this finding. Unlike before the pandemic, many researches in the past concluded that ability enhancing practices specifically training will lead to higher performance and EWB.

Additionally, the findings of this study also show that, under the AMO model, it is preferable to regard the various dimensions of HR practices as three distinct components of an HRP system rather than as an interchangeable unidimensional frame for forecasting employee well-being ( Zhang et al., 2020 ).

Theoretical implications

This study makes two major theoretical contributions. First, we add to the literature by widening the evaluation of HRPs to include three dimensions: ability, motivation, and opportunity-enhancing practices, which were previously mostly used in HPWS research. Although the AMO framework was used in the vast majority of previous studies to understand the effect of HRPs on performance, empirical studies on the relationship between AMO dimensions of HRPs and EWB were scarce. Our findings indicate that the motivation and opportunity dimensions of HRPs have a significant impact on EWB, whereas the ability dimension has an insignificant impact. The findings support Pawar (2016) contention that HRMPs may be beneficial to employees’ well-being.

Second, our study contributes to the field of study by taking an integrative approach to EWB research. To be more precise, we combined hedonic and eudemonic perspectives and examined EWB as a dimension. By contrast, many previous studies have presented a fragmented picture of EWB by examining its dimensions separately, such as job satisfaction, physical well-being, and psychological well-being ( Pawar, 2016 ; Khoreva and Wechtler, 2018 ). These studies fall short of providing a comprehensive picture of the antecedents of EWB. This current study affirmed the integrative perspective of EWB research by demonstrating that effective HRPs not only benefit a specific type of EWB, but also can result in increased overall employee well-being.

Thirdly, this study extends the People and Performance framework by Purcell et al. (2003) , that used AMO framework as a mediating component between HRPs and HR related outcomes which includes organisational commitment, motivation and job satisfaction. By incorporating the AMO elements in the HRPs, this study looking into its relationship towards job satisfaction which is the employee well-being in this case. Thus, this study revealed that AMO enhancing practices can boost the well-being of the employees.

Practical implications

This study’s findings have a number of practical implications. To begin, organisations must develop well-structured and meticulous HRM policies and ensure the implementation of effective practices. Organisational leaders can facilitate more effective and efficient human resource policies by viewing employees as assets rather than liabilities, investing in them, and focusing on their growth, survival and personal development. Meanwhile, leaders could provide opportunities and motivation for employees to actively participate in the workplace, increasing the value of human resources for the organisation, allowing the organisation to achieve its goals while also ensuring employees’ overall well-being, resulting in a win-win situation.

Second, organisations should reconsider the implementation of employee training, as the findings show no support for EWB, particularly when employees work from home. This could serve as a wake-up call to management, as they need to upgrade the training modules to meet the industry most recent and up-to-date skill requirements, especially in this industrial revolution and digitalisation era. Failure to keep up with the latest updates to employee knowledge and skill requirements will eventually result in employee dissatisfaction and low motivation to attend training. The training provided should also be appropriate for employees who work from home in order to avoid burnout and fatigue. Additionally, the insignificant result could be due to a lack of training provided during the pandemic and the need to take into account standard operating procedures (SOPs).

Thirdly, organisations must place a greater emphasis on motivational and opportunity-enhancing practices, as working conditions have evolved into the new norm. Working from home is a novel concept in some countries, and it was implemented for the first time in certain organisations. As a result, organisations should carefully structure their HRPs to align with the new norm, particularly in terms of employee motivation and opportunities to participate in organisational activities. Physical meetings and face-to-face interaction have now taken on a virtual form, which may result in a lack of personal communication and support among colleagues. This may not be apparent if employees have family at home, but what about employees who live alone and rely solely on workplace social interaction ( Carnevale and Hatak, 2020 ). Finally, when organisations do not pay close attention to this issue, it is possible that it will affect the employees’ well-being.

The study has added to the existing body of knowledge in order to achieve a higher level of employee well-being during Malaysia’s unimaginable pandemic. The importance of motivation and opportunity enhancement practices in helping employees improve their well-being was discovered. This type of assistance is critical in connecting HRPs to well-being and enhancing the quality of working life ( Guest, 2017 ). Nevertheless, ability enhancing practices did not support employee well-being in this study, which could be a result of the new norm of working from home and also a lack of training provided during the pandemic due to the large number of SOPs to be followed. Additionally, rather than using unidimensional practices to measure employee well-being, AMO-enhancing practices can be used to represent multiple dimensions of HRPs. Previously, a substantial amount of research has examined the AMO model in conjunction with HPWPs and its relationship to organisational performance. Thus, this study established that AMO-enhancing practices have a significant impact on employee well-being, even in light of the current global economic downturn.

Limitation and future directions

Although the findings revealed two strong relationships for achieving employee well-being, this study has several limitations. First, the study had a small sample size, though it was statistically significant. A larger sample size may be considered in future studies to improve generalisability. Second, the study was cross-sectional; future studies should include longitudinal settings or use current data collection methods, such as daily diary method. Furthermore, future studies could test the current model in other industries and countries, as well as conduct cross-country comparisons, to improve the generalisability of the results as the world faces the same unprecedented pandemic situation. Furthermore, future studies are suggested to advance the literature of the AMO model and employee well-being. Future studies may expand on this research by looking into the mediating or moderating effect of the relationships ( Nielsen et al., 2017 ) as well examining other relative impact of AMO such as commitment and retention of employees.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

EJ and SK designed the research. SK and NN collected the data. EJ conducted the data analysis. NR and SS wrote the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: human resource management, employee well-being, AMO model, COVID-19, structural equation modelling

Citation: Johar ER, Rosli N, Mat Khairi SM, Shahruddin S and Mat Nor N (2022) COVID-19 outbreak: How do human resource management practices affect employee well-being? Front. Psychol . 13:923994. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923994

Received: 20 April 2022; Accepted: 05 July 2022; Published: 22 July 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Johar, Rosli, Mat Khairi, Shahruddin and Mat Nor. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Elaina Rose Johar, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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COVID-19 and the workplace: Implications, issues, and insights for future research and action

Affiliations.

• 1 Dyson School of Applied Economics and Management, S. C. Johnson College of Business, Cornell University.
• 2 Department of Management and Organizations, National University of Singapore.
• 3 Business School, University of New South Wales Sydney.
• 4 Department of Organizational Behavior, University of Lausanne.
• 5 Stephen M. Ross School of Business, University of Michigan.
• 6 Center of Excellence for Positive Organizational Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam.
• 7 Coller School of Management, Tel Aviv University.
• 8 Department of Management and Marketing, University of Melbourne.
• 9 Department of Organizational Behaviour and Human Resources, Singapore Management University.
• 10 Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park.
• 11 The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania.
• 12 Department of Industrial Engineering and Innovation Sciences, Eindhoven University of Technology.
• 13 Graduate School of Business, Stanford University.
• 14 John Molson School of Business, Concordia University.
• 15 Department of Organizational Behaviour, London Business School.
• 16 Hankamer School of Business, Baylor University.
• 17 School of Management, University College London.
• 18 College of Business Administration, California State University, Sacramento.
• 20 Department of Psychology, Saint Louis University.
• 21 Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technology University.
• 22 Lee Kong Chian School of Business, Singapore Management University.
• 23 Department of Work and Organizations, University of Minnesota.
• 24 Harvard Business School, Harvard University.
• 25 Sam M. Walton College of Business, University of Arkansas.
• 26 Department of Organizational Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.
• PMID: 32772537
• DOI: 10.1037/amp0000716

The impacts of COVID-19 on workers and workplaces across the globe have been dramatic. This broad review of prior research rooted in work and organizational psychology, and related fields, is intended to make sense of the implications for employees, teams, and work organizations. This review and preview of relevant literatures focuses on (a) emergent changes in work practices (e.g., working from home, virtual teamwork) and (b) emergent changes for workers (e.g., social distancing, stress, and unemployment). In addition, potential moderating factors (demographic characteristics, individual differences, and organizational norms) are examined given the likelihood that COVID-19 will generate disparate effects. This broad-scope overview provides an integrative approach for considering the implications of COVID-19 for work, workers, and organizations while also identifying issues for future research and insights to inform solutions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

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COVID-19 and human resources for health: analysis of planning, policy responses and actions in Latin American and Caribbean countries

• Juana Paola Bustamante Izquierdo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1665-8486 1 ,
• E. Benjamín Puertas 2 ,
• Diana Hernández Hernández 3 &
• Hernán Sepúlveda 4  

Human Resources for Health volume  21 , Article number:  21 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The COVID-19 pandemic led to worldwide health service disruptions, due mainly to insufficient staff availability. To gain insight into policy responses and engage with policy-makers, the World Health Organization (WHO) developed a global approach to assess and measure the impact of COVID-19 on the health workforce. As part of this, WHO, together with the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), supported an impact analysis of COVID-19 on health workers and policy responses, through country case studies in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC).

We sought to identify lessons learned from policies on human resources for health (HRH) during health emergencies, to improve HRH readiness. First, we performed a rapid literature review for information-gathering. Second, we used the WHO interim guidance and impact measurement framework for COVID-19 and HRH to systematically organize that information. Finally, we used the Health Labour Market Framework to guide the content analysis on COVID-19 response in eight LAC countries and identify lessons learned to improve HRH readiness.

Planning and implementing the COVID-19 response required strengthening HRH governance and HRH data and information systems. The results suggest two main aspects for HRH governance crucial to enabling an agile response: (1) aligning objectives among ministries to define and produce regulation and policy actions; and (2) agreeing on the strategy for HRH management between the public and private sectors, and between central and local governments. We identified three areas for improvement: (a) HRH information systems; (b) methodologies to estimate HRH needs; and (c) teams to analyse information for decision-making. Three key actions were identified during countries monitored, reviewed, and updated their response stages: (i) strengthening response through primary health care; (ii); planning HRH needs to implement the vaccination plan; and (iii) securing long-term HRH availability.

Countries coordinated and articulated with different stakeholders to align objectives, allocate resources, and agree on policy actions to implement the COVID-19 response. Data and information for HRH preparedness and implementation were key in enabling an agile COVID-19 response and are key areas to explore for improved pandemic preparedness.

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Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has strongly impacted population health and put pressure on the entire health system Footnote 1 [ 1 ]. It led to health service disruptions around the world, due mainly to insufficient staff availability Footnote 2 [ 2 ]. COVID-19 has exposed health workers to infection, fatigue, occupational burnout, stress, harassment and physical and psychological violence. Efforts have been made to assess the pandemic’s direct impact on human resources for health (HRH). However, global estimates of COVID-19 infections and deaths among HRH tend to suggest that official reporting mechanisms do not capture the full scale of this impact [ 3 ]. Footnote 3

The pandemic has emphasized such HRH concerns as shortage and maldistribution as well as inadequate payment and decent working conditions, e.g., lack of contract stability. This added strain to the health system deepened any existing staff unavailability, affecting both teamwork and health workers’ mental health. Footnote 4 Additionally, it has highlighted insufficiencies vis-à-vis data and information systems, while demonstrating the importance of data science in planning and reviewing the COVID-19 response related to HRH issues. However, the COVID-19 pandemic also has led to identifying ways to rapidly recruit, train, and protect the health workforce. This has led countries to use various mechanisms to plan and respond to COVID-19 from the HRH perspective [ 4 , 5 , 6 ] .

To address HRH-related COVID-19 challenges, the World Health Organization (WHO) developed a global approach to better assess and measure the impact of COVID-19 on HRH, to gain insight into management and policy responses as well as engagement with policy-makers. Thus, WHO developed an interim guidance on HRH policy and management in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic response [ 7 ] as well as a standardized impact measurement framework [ 8 ]. Additionally, living systematic reviews were undertaken, aimed at gathering information and analytics on health and care workers in the context of COVID-19. Alongside this process, health workforce intelligence related to COVID-19 was collected from open sources to complement the reviews. All the information collected on COVID-19 and HRH resulted in a World Health Assembly resolution, namely the Global health and care worker compact [ 9 ], which provides recommendations on how to protect health workers, safeguard their rights, and promote and ensure decent work. The overall aim was to support policy dialogue and advocacy opportunities.

This paper constitutes an effort to build on the International Year of Health and Care Workers (2021) and the strategic objectives of the Global strategy on human resources for health [ 10 ], aiming to strengthen support to countries as they design and implement strategies addressing health workers’ problems during COVID-19. Thus, WHO—together with two of its Regional Offices, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and the WHO Regional Office for Africa (AFRO)—have supported COVID-19 impact analyses regarding health workers and policy responses by developing case studies from selected countries. These use a standardized methodology based on WHO interim guidance [ 7 ], the standardized impact measurement framework [ 8 ], and the Health Labour Market Framework [ 10 , 11 ].

Gaining better insight into the policy response to COVID-19 is crucial for addressing the challenges ensuing from COVID-19. Nonetheless, as countries attempt to do so, there remains a lack of systematic knowledge on mechanisms and policies adopted by countries from different geographic areas and institutional governance to address HRH challenges. This paper is aimed at identifying lessons learned on HRH to better address health emergencies and build improved post-pandemic health systems. We do this through a secondary analysis of findings from the two sub-regional reports on eight countries of Latin America and the Caribbean.

The paper is organized as follows: the first section summarizes the methods used to develop the analysis. The second presents the mechanisms and policy responses adopted during the COVID-19 pandemic response, as analysed across the preparedness, implementation, and monitoring/updating phases. The final section presents lessons learned and concluding remarks.

We adopted a multi-pronged approach for this paper. First, we conducted a rapid literature review on the background material for the case studies. Second, to systematically organize that information, we used the WHO interim guidance [ 7 ] and impact measurement framework for COVID-19 and HRH [ 8 ]. Finally, we used the HLM framework to analyse the information [ 11 ].

We carried out our literature review in 2020 and 2021, focusing on reports, grey literature and desk review of policies adopted during the pandemic, obtained from ministries of health (MoHs) and service delivery agencies; review of health information systems (HIS) and national human resource information systems (HRISs); and surveillance databases for data on HRH infections. The details have been published in the The impact of COVID-19 on human resources for health and policy response: the case of Plurinational State of Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru [ 12 ]. Footnote 5 The present study adds three Caribbean countries (Belize, Grenada and Jamaica) [ 13 ]. Footnote 6 The data and information reported spans the period between March 2020 and April 2021. In this study, we focused on countries from the PAHO Region (i.e. the Americas) where the reports and background material on the selected countries Footnote 7 systematically followed the WHO interim guidance [ 7 ]. Additionally, the countries participating in the reports are grouped into sub-regions developing common HRH-related policies where they are also part of sub-regional organizations like the Andean Health Agency/Hipólito Unanue Agreement (Organismo Andino de Salud–Acuerdo Hipólito Unanue) (ORAS-CONHU) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).

We used the domains listed in the guidelines from the WHO interim guidance [ 7 ], as well as the multidimensional factors affecting HRH listed in the standardized impact measurement framework [ 8 ]. This enabled us to organize the information on HRH policy response during COVID-19 in the eight Latin American and Caribbean countries around the three response pillars supporting health emergencies [ 14 ]: 1 workforce readiness in preparedness, 2 implementation; and 3 monitoring/updating the response.

We used the HLM framework to carry out the content analysis of the background documents and information on HRH response. This enabled us to understand mismatches and market failures in the health labour market (HLM) and thus identify and define policies and actions to build HRH readiness that currently guide the discussion on policy dialogue. For the Caribbean subregion, we achieved this in the HRH task force sessions; and for the Andean countries, through meetings and webinars held between 2021 and 2022. The outcome of these discussions led to policy briefs and identification of key elements strengthening HRH. We integrated the information into this paper in the form of challenges and actions identified to improve HRH in different areas of the three pillars to support improved response during health emergencies.

HRH in the context of the response to health emergencies

In this section, we discuss key HRH strategies used by countries during the COVID-19 policy response and connect them to each pillar supporting health emergencies:

Workforce readiness for initial response: We discuss the importance of having and analysing HRH data to identify both the need for and availability of HRH to support response.

Implementation while strengthening HRH: We highlight the importance of HRH governance during the pandemic for implementing measures to increase, maintain and protect health workers. We also summarize these measures.

Continually monitoring, reviewing and updating the response to keep responding to new waves of COVID-19 and the challenge of vaccination.

Workforce readiness for initial response

Data on HRH and information analysis are key elements in planning preparedness to respond to a health emergency. We identify three mechanisms for improving real-time, comprehensive and detailed information for dialogue and decision-making when preparing for health emergencies: (a) HRH information systems (HRIS); (b) methodologies to estimate HRH needs; and (c) teams to analyse information for decision-making. Table 1 shows the eight countries of the case studies classified under this schema.

HRH information differed in the countries studied, both by frequency of collection and by occupational groups. Data reported in WHO’s National Health Workforce Accounts (NHWA), Footnote 8 such as stock or density by occupation [ 15 ], show that in Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Jamaica, information on HRH is collected regularly on an annual basis. Belize, however, has data series only on medical doctors and nursing personnel. In contrast, Bolivia and Grenada have data for specific years only on medical doctors, nursing personnel, dentists, and pharmacists [ 15 ]. Thus, challenges remain, such as standardizing indicators on HRH and improving HRIS interoperability.

Table 2 outlines the HRIS in six LAC countries, both before and after the COVID-19 pandemic, to track confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths among HRH. The data published vary in terms of access of information and whether publicly available or not; frequency of publication (regular or non-regular basis); and disaggregation of data by occupational group, sub-national level, sex, age and source of infection. Collecting and analysing information on total HRH and COVID-19 confirmed cases and deaths therein contributed to strengthening existing HRH data and information analysis.

In the five Latin American countries studied, estimations were done on HRH shortages, in order to plan their response to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, we did not find evidence of these calculations in the three Caribbean countries studied. In all five Latin American countries, an initial deficit was projected of 34 261 additional health workers, which represented between 0.54% and 4.17% of total HRH [ 12 ]. By occupational group, all five countries had a shortage of doctors and nurses. These shortages led the countries to develop regulations facilitating the hiring and deployment of additional personnel, as well as redeployment of existing personnel. Apart from Colombia, these estimates only applied to the public health sector [ 12 ]. Estimating and analysing HRH needs and demand during COVID-19 was useful for identifying total HRH availability in the countries. Doing so also provided evidence to plan the COVID-19 response, in terms of addressing HRH gaps at national and sub-national levels, planning the vaccination strategy and identifying potential financial needs related to HRH (Table 3 ).

These projections used methodologies already in place, with additional assumptions in the case of Chile and Colombia. Bolivia used the PAHO model. Peru and Ecuador implemented new methodologies. Teams dedicated to HRH analysis and planning within the ministries of health (MOHs) were key in carrying out analyses to aid in informed decision-making [ 12 ] (Table 3 ).

Through the process of planning the response, countries have identified the importance of both HRH data and information analysis in understanding HRH dynamics and issues, and as well as in identifying policy actions. Policy dialogues in the Region help countries share and discuss their experiences, including ways to improve HRIS interoperability and use evidence to support decision-making vis-à-vis HRH. In the countries studied, this has been key to initiating and/or strengthening the policy-making process addressing workforce readiness.

Implementation of the pandemic response plan by strengthening HRH

Countries faced the COVID-19 pandemic with pre-existing HRH shortages in key occupational groups, gaps in skills and competencies and/or sub-national HRH imbalances. We identified two aspects of governance Footnote 9 crucial to preparedness and response during the pandemic: (a) aligning HRH objectives among ministries to define and produce regulation and policy actions; and (b) agreeing on the strategy for HRH management between the public and private sectors as well as central and local governments.

Caribbean countries coordinated between the ministries of health and finance to find ways to hire additional HRH [ 13 ]. The Latin American countries adopted a coordinated approach among ministries of health, education, labour, and finance to implement mechanisms aimed at increasing HRH availability, as well as their protection and training [ 12 ].

Coordination between central and local governments was needed to agree on HRH strategies at sub-national level and to share information. For example, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia and Ecuador fostered central–local relations to implement coordinated mechanisms addressing the HRH deficit [ 12 ].

Funding the additional cost of the COVID-19 response was a challenge faced by every country in the study. Aligning the objectives and coordinating subsequent measures were key factors to facilitate the implementation of policy actions and the shifting and/or allocation of financial resources. Belize, Chile, Colombia, Grenada, Jamaica and Peru mainly used existing resources from the general government budget. Ecuador supplemented them with grants and loans from multilateral organizations. In Bolivia, the main funding source was a World Bank loan that had been made available before the pandemic and was repurposed. All countries additionally received donations from other countries and international agencies like PAHO, as well as PAHO technical cooperation. The three Caribbean countries received training, logistics and financial support from PAHO [ 12 , 13 ].

The eight countries used different mechanisms for coordinating actions with the private sector. In the Caribbean, the private sector was mainly involved through donations to protect and support HRH [ 13 ]. In Latin America, there were agreements between the private sector and the government to increase HRH availability (i.e. universities), to provide training and to protect HRH mental health. These involved input and assistance from academic and research entities as well as professional organizations (i.e. licensing boards). Ecuador and Bolivia obtained loans from multilateral organizations to help fund their COVID-19 response [ 12 ].

All countries adopted measures to increase or maintain HRH and to protect and support them. These we shall summarize in the next section.

Securing and increasing HRH availability

In the Caribbean countries, HRH shortages existed as a direct result of HRH migration [ 18 , 19 ], especially of nurses. An additional cause was limited HRH production within the countries analysed, thus impacting the quality of care delivery [ 16 ]. In line with the WHO global code of practice on the international recruitment of health personnel (WHO, 2010), in view of the private sector actively recruiting health workers from countries facing critical health worker shortages, there is a need for enhanced technical, financial and other support to the countries of origin of migrant health workers. Indeed, in order to prevent this from happening, there must be a push to avoid and prevent this practice.

In the Latin American countries, HRH availability dropped when workers had to go into isolation, became ill or died from COVID-19. In countries like Bolivia and Ecuador, health workers refused to attend COVID-19 cases due to lack of PPE and unstable contracts [ 12 ]. Table 4 presents eight mechanisms identified across the countries studied to maintain and increase HRH availability during the COVID-19 response. Table 5 presents the strengths and challenges of said mechanisms.

Protecting and safeguarding HRH

The health emergency acts ratified in the countries allowed for adopting integrated, multidimensional measures to reduce the risk of infection among HRH, thus preventing and mitigating mental health disorders and reinforcing training. These measures were accompanied by specific economic incentives in some of the countries in both sub-regions, such as extra or regular bonuses (see Table 6 ) and higher remuneration levels. Some countries in South America implemented non-financial measures, such as life insurance or the recognition of COVID-19 as an occupational disease for HRH [ 12 , 13 ].

Factors related to occupational safety also limited the supply of health workers [ 24 ]. These included a lack or improper use of personal protective equipment (PPE), non-compliance with infection prevention and control (IPC) protocols [ 25 ], mental health disorders [ 26 , 27 , 28 ] and insufficient training. Other employment-related factors include work contracts with inadequate and/or late payment without insurance coverage to mitigate the risk of infection or death. Addressing these factors has been a fundamental component of the pandemic response in all the countries studied. Table 6 summarizes these measures, as well as the lessons learned.

Monitoring, reviewing, and updating the response

Countries moved towards three goals in the process of monitoring, reviewing, and updating the response: (i) strengthening response through primary health care; (ii) planning the workforce needed to implement the vaccination plan; and (iii) securing long-term HRH availability.

In the face of the second wave, countries updated their COVID-19 response plan, placing greater emphasis on care for suspected, probable and confirmed cases through the primary health care system. Moreover, designing the national vaccination plans required reviewing the HRH teams needed to implement it. Chile had the necessary HRH because nursing personnel had already been involved in the national immunization plan, which had approved midwives and dentists to administer vaccines. All other countries needed to utilize mechanisms that would ensure a sufficient supply of vaccinators: in Latin America, this was done through training; and in the Caribbean, through volunteers and retired nurses.

The pandemic has demonstrated the importance of ensuring improved working conditions in the health sector. Balancing decent work with flexibility in hiring and working conditions seems to be the main challenge to the continued use of the hiring mechanisms implemented. Some countries are finding ways to absorb new HRH in a permanent manner and/or to improve contract stability [ 29 ]. For example, Ecuador enacted a law through which HRH involved in COVID-19 care under short-term contracts would be hired under a regular contract.

In some countries, HRH were showing hesitancy to COVID-19 vaccination. A study conducted by PAHO in 14 countries of the Caribbean identified that 23% of respondents displayed some level of vaccine hesitancy, chiefly nurses (34%) [ 30 ]. There were significant differences among health workers by age (with younger age groups being more hesitant), as well as by categories and specialties. Findings from the study guided interventions to promote vaccine acceptance among health workers, including communication strategies targeting specific HRH categories and age groups. These findings contributed to informed policy development through the HRH Action Task Force and the ministers of health from the CARICOM countries.

A 2022 survey among health workers in 16 countries of Latin America indicated vaccine hesitancy among approximately 3% of all health workers (PAHO, [ 13 ]. In 2021, Bolivia conducted a survey among HRH while developing their vaccination plan. It reported that 55% of the health workers surveyed expressed willingness to accept vaccination if the vaccine were available, and 57% would recommend it to a family member. These low acceptance rates for the COVID-19 vaccine put the vaccination plan at risk and provided evidence for the government to implement training sessions to mitigate vaccine hesitancy [ 31 ]. A year later, PAHO identified vaccine hesitancy among health workers in Bolivia to have dropped to 2% [ 13 ].

Lessons learned and challenges for future actions and preparedness policies

A key lesson learned in this study is that health workforce readiness is a critical element for preparedness during any health emergency, and that investing in the primary health care workforce is an investment in health security. This paper has identified the importance of HRH data and information analysis, HRH governance and the need to improve the design of effective retention mechanisms through improved working conditions.

Preparing and implementing the COVID-19 response required data and information on HRH, which helped strengthen existing HRH data for information analysis or created mechanisms to collect it. Based on the case studies, we identified three main areas for improving HRH information and its use in decision-making: (1) HRIS; (2) methodologies to estimate HRH needs; and (3) analysis teams to analyse information for informed decision-making.

Through policy dialogue, we identified various opportunities to improve HRIS. The first was the need to adopt standard definitions. The second was to integrate HRIS to combine HRH information from both the public and private sectors, along with national and regional information. For example, policy dialogue in the Caribbean through the HRH Action Task Force identified and chose WHO’s NHWA mechanism for integrating HRH data. Some 34 core HRH indicators were identified and classified into three levels of complexity. This shows how the countries made efforts to identify HRH needs. Some countries used methodologies that they adapted to their own needs, while others used the PAHO model or produced new methodologies. Defining adequate variables and assumptions was important for modelling. An outcome of the policy dialogues is that both the Caribbean and Latin America countries need to develop technology platforms to reinforce the analysis capabilities of their multidisciplinary teams.

Countries coordinated with different stakeholders to align objectives, allocate resources and agree on policy actions. In the Caribbean, ministries of health from the CARICOM countries adopted policy actions to strengthen HRH response and increase vaccine acceptance among health workers there [ 13 ]. In Latin America, some countries created a different wage scale for the sub-regions to address the uneven distribution of HRH at the sub-national level. However, this policy proved insufficient to incentivize HRH mobility [ 12 ].

The policy dialogues have spurred further evidence being collected for analysis of effective incentives to mobilize HRH. WHO developed the Working for health 2022–2030 action plan [ 32 ] to strengthen health systems for universal health coverage, while particularly focusing on essential public health functions including emergency preparedness and response. The plan provides a set of strategic actions and a platform for enabling domestic, multisectoral and international cooperation and coordination. Moreover, it proposes concerted actions across three areas: (a) planning and financing, (b) education and employment, and (c) protection and performance.

Policy dialogues that use information and lessons learned contribute to aligning policy priorities and objectives regarding the protection and care of HRH throughout the region. This process can be guided by the Global health and care worker compact to rapidly assess, review and monitor good practices.

The pandemic highlighted the importance of protecting HRH’s mental health, with actions centred on prevention. However, policy dialogues have stated a further need to measure the effects of these preventive strategies and move on to developing routine treatment mechanisms for health workers. Additionally, the World Innovation Summit for Health reaffirms the obligation to protect and safeguard HRH, by ensuring decent work and a safe, enabling work environment [ 21 ]. The lessons we have learned from the Latin American countries suggest the need to update competencies at both the individual and team level, through continuous health education plans within the framework of new technologies.

The pandemic has emphasized the need for countries to be more proactive in their approach to HRH. Challenges ahead include developing legal structures to provide permanent support for the mechanisms created and strengthening those already institutionalized, as well as absorbing the newly recruited HRH to reduce pre-pandemic gaps and improve working conditions. Increasing HRH absorption capacity depends on identifying funding sources and finding ways to accelerate hiring processes.

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Availability of data and materials

The data that support the findings of this study are available from “Source included in the case studies” section (mainly the sources included in the case studies: though not cited in this paper, they still function as sources of information).

First, an acute demand on the health system’s capacity and workforce. Second, volume demand for acute care services. Third, attrition in the supply of health workers due to illness, exposure/quarantine, family illness, lack of childcare, and fear, as well as related effects on mental health.

Out of 112 countries, 66% reported this as a reason.

Mixed analytical methods were used in this working paper to estimate the global probable ranges of HRH deaths due to COVID-19.

This also makes them prone to such develop such disorders as burnout or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [ 33 ].

These countries are members of the PAHO Sub-regional Programme for the Andean Sub-region and the Andean Health Organisation.

These countries are Member States of the PAHO’s Caribbean subregion and CARICOM.

These countries expressed both an interest in documenting their COVID-19 response and a willingness to review and discuss it in the context of HRH [ 12 , 16 ]

The NHWA is a mechanism to collate and use a set of standardized indicators to generate reliable HRH information and evidence.

WHO has recently defined governance roles. The conceptual framework adopted expresses the idea that governance includes a legal framework. This is supported by a strong stakeholders’ coalition upheld by policy dialogue processes, thus providing a strategic direction to the health system as well as the necessary means to implement policies and capacities to keep governments accountable [ 34 ].

Abbreviations

Regional Office for Africa of the World Health Organization

Caribbean Community

Corona Virus Disease 2019 (SARS-COV-2)

Epidemiologic Surveillance System, Chile

• Health Labour Market

Health information system

Human resources for health (meaning health workers or the health workforce)

Health resources for health information system, also known as HRHIS or Human Resources Information System

Intensive care unit

National Registry of Health Personnel Application, Peru

National Health Institute of Colombia

Infection prevention and control

Intensive treatment unit

Latin America and the Caribbean

Ministry of health

Ministry of Health and Wellness of Belize

Ministry of Health and Sports of the Plurinational State of Bolivia

Ministry of Health of Chile

Ministry of Health and Social Protection of Colombia

Ministry of Public Health of Ecuador

Ministry of Health, Social Security and International Business of Grenada

Ministry of Health and Wellness of Jamaica

Ministry of Health of Peru

WHO’s National Health Workforce Accounts

Andean Health Organism – Hipólito Unanue Agreement (Organismo Andino de Salud/Acuerdo Hipólito Unanue)

Pan American Health Organization

Personal protective equipment

Statistical Registry of Health Resources and Activities, Ecuador

National Registry of Healthcare Talent, Colombia

Single Registry of Health Establishments, Bolivia

Professional Registration System, Bolivia

Human Resources Information System, Chile

Public Health Surveillance System, Colombia

Epidemiological Surveillance System Ecuador

World Health Organization

Workload Indicators of Staffing Need

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge valuable comments from team members of the Health Workforce Department at WHO Headquarters. The authors are grateful to the PAHO Country Offices and to focal points from the ministries of health for participating in the policy discussions in the Caribbean and in Latin America.

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Health Labour Market Unit, Health Workforce Department, Universal Health Coverage Cluster, World Health Organisation (WHO/UHC/HWF), 1211, Geneva, Switzerland

Juana Paola Bustamante Izquierdo

Human Resources for Health for the Sub-Regional Programme for the Caribbean, Human Resources for Health Unit, Health Systems and Services Area, Office of the Assistant Director (PAHO/AD/HSS/HR), Pan American Health (PAHO/WHO), Washington, United States of America

E. Benjamín Puertas

Health Labour Market Unit, WHO (WHO/UHC/HWF), Geneva, Switzerland

Diana Hernández Hernández

Human Resources for Health for the Sub-Regional Programme for South America, Human Resources for Health Unit (PAHO/AD/HSS/HR), Washington, United States of America

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All authors contributed to writing the manuscript. JPB and DHH were the major contributors. BP and HS contributed to the regional perspective. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Authors' information

Juana Paola Bustamante Izquierdo, Labour economist, Health Labour Market Unit, Universal Health Coverage Cluster, World Health Organization (WHO/UHC/HWF); WHO Headquarters, Avenue Appia 20, CH-1211, Geneva 27, Switzerland.

E. Benjamín Puertas, DrPh, Advisor on Human Resources for Health under the Sub-regional Programme for the Caribbean; Human Resources for Health Unit, Health Systems and Services Area, Office of the Assistant Director, Pan American Health Organization/Regional Office of the World Health Organization (PAHO/WHO); PAHO Headquarters, 525 23rd St. NW, Washington, DC, 20037-2895, USA.

Diana Hernández Hernández, Economist, Consultant; Health Labour Market Unit, Universal Health Coverage Cluster, World Health Organization (WHO/UHC/HWF); WHO Headquarters, Avenue Appia 20, Geneva 27, CH-1211, Switzerland.

Hernán Sepúlveda, Advisor, Human Resources for Health under the Sub-regional Programme for South America; Human Resources for Health Unit, Health Systems and Services Area, Office of the Assistant Director, Pan American Health Organization/Regional Office of the World Health Organization (PAHO/WHO); PAHO Headquarters, 525 23rd St. NW, Washington, DC, 20037-2895, USA.

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Correspondence to Juana Paola Bustamante Izquierdo .

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Bustamante Izquierdo, J.P., Puertas, E.B., Hernández Hernández, D. et al. COVID-19 and human resources for health: analysis of planning, policy responses and actions in Latin American and Caribbean countries. Hum Resour Health 21 , 21 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-023-00795-8

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SHRM Research: COVID-19 Takes a Toll on Employees' Mental Well-Being

​Are you feeling emotionally drained, having trouble concentrating or losing interest in activities you once enjoyed? If so, you're not alone.

Between 22 percent and 35 percent of U.S. employees often experience these symptoms of depression as they live through the COVID-19 pandemic, according to new research by the Society for Human Resource Management.

The survey of 1,099 employees found that women, younger workers and people living with at least one person who is a member of a vulnerable population—such as a health care worker or someone with a compromised immune system—were affected the most. Nearly two-thirds of respondents who said they felt like a failure lived with someone who is vulnerable.

"COVID-19 is taking a toll on our minds and emotions in a million little ways," said SHRM President and CEO Johnny C. Taylor, Jr., SHRM-SCP. "Now, more than ever, employers should double down against stigmas and guarantee employees know of the resources, benefits and accommodations available."   

Symptoms of depression the survey asked about included difficulty concentrating, feelings of failure or letting the family down, hopelessness, little interest or pleasure in pursuing activities, and feeling tired.

[ SHRM members-only toolkit: Managing Employee Assistance Programs ]

Work-related concerns left more than 40 percent of employees feeling hopeless, burned out or exhausted as they grapple with lives altered by COVID-19. Among the findings:

• 38 percent of service-based workers report feeling tired versus 31 percent of knowledge-based workers and 26 percent of physical-based industry workers. People working in the service sector were slightly more likely to report little interest in doing things than those in knowledge-based industries (45 percent versus 43 percent).
• 37 percent of workers who do not or cannot telecommute think their pay and benefits have been threatened to a great extent, versus 22 percent of workers who telecommute full time during the pandemic.
• 55 percent report often having little interest or pleasure in doing things since COVID-19 began.

"Unfortunately, many remote workers experience feeling 'out of sight, out of mind' or, even worse, feeling as if their work and dedication are being questioned since they are not physically in the office each day," said Olivia Curtis, wellness specialist for G&A partners, a professional employee organization based in Houston.

"These employees can feel as if they must work twice as hard to prove themselves and get recognized for the work they do," she said. "Employees in this situation often find that the lines between work and home become blurred. They put in more hours than the average office worker, and they experience higher levels of stress due to being 'on' all of the time."

The survey found that 41 percent of respondents felt "burned out."

A generation and gender breakdown showed that:

• 29 percent of Generation Z employees (the oldest are age 23 in 2020 ) said they often felt depressed or hopeless compared to 22 percent of Millennials (ages 23 to 38 in 2020) and Generation X workers (ages 40 to 55 in 2020) and nearly 16 percent of Baby Boomers (ages 56 to 74 in 2020).
• 51 percent of women reported often feeling depressed or hopeless versus 47 percent of men.

However, more than one-third of all respondents said they have not done anything to cope with their feelings; only 7 percent had contacted a mental health professional.

What Employers Can Do

1. Prioritize mental health in your benefits plan and remind employees of offerings that may be especially helpful.

Starbucks, for example, in April began offering 20 free sessions a year with a mental health therapist or coach to all of its U.S. front-line, hourly workers and eligible family members. A counselor is available in person or through video chat, the global coffee retailer announced March 16. It was planning the benefit before the COVID-19 outbreak, the company said. 

Employers can offer health coaching, health and wellness tips, online courses, and health challenges to help employees who are struggling with loneliness, anxiety or depression.

2. Use technology to offer mental health resources.  

Employees may not know that their company offers comprehensive mental health resources. 

Make them aware of a variety of mental health programs, such as licensed counselors on call, meditation platforms and virtual education for employees to learn coping mechanisms and stress management, advised Nancy Reardon, chief strategy and product officer at Maestro Health. Resources also may include employee assistance programs (EAPs), webinars and online assessments.

3. Stay in touch.

"Your employees should hear from you often, feel supported and cared for frequently," said Henry Albrecht, CEO and founder of  Limeade , an employee experience company based in Bellevue, Wash.

There are a variety of ways employers can stay in contact with their employees. Administer small surveys frequently to gauge how they are feeling and identify shifts in attitude so you can adjust communications plans accordingly. Reach out with regular video conferences, daily e-mail updates or a message communication app such as Slack.

"Staying in touch with your employees will help to keep them on task," said Rob Wilson, president of Employco USA, a provider of employer management and HR outsourcing based in Westmont, Ill . " It will also ensure that your employees feel as though they have job security and a role in your company."

4. Offer emotional support.

"Let your employees know that you recognize this is a time of great stress and uncertainty. Offer a list of resources for mental health support or community programs that may help to ease the burden on your staff during this time," Wilson said in a news release.

And just as people check on friends and neighbors to see if they need groceries or other assistance during the crisis, regularly make mental health checks of your employees as well, advised Rick Trimp, president of LivingWorks, a provider of suicide prevention solutions based in Calgary, Canada.

"This isn't something that can be left only to mental health professionals. Family, friends, co-workers, faith leaders—we can and we must help one another through this difficult time." 

Suicide is a leading cause of death in the U.S., and rates have been rising in recent decades , according to U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

"There are many factors that increase risk for suicide," Trimp said in a news release, "and with issues related to COVID-19—unemployment, social isolation and financial problems—it's difficult for any of us to cope. Those who may have been at risk before are more vulnerable than ever."

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Research Article

COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies influence on job and organizational performance through job-related attitudes

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Faculty of Management, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland

Roles Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft

* E-mail: [email protected]

• Agnieszka Bieńkowska, 
• Anna Koszela, 
• Anna Sałamacha, 
• Katarzyna Tworek

• Published: April 13, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364
• Reader Comments

The COVID-19 crisis forced many changes to occur within organizations, which were necessary to keep the continuance of the organization’s operations. Job performance seems to be an important factor determining such continuance, through its influence on the performance of entire organization. Shaping and keeping job performance in times of COVID-19 pandemic was a challenge for organizations, due to its negative impact on employees, causing their stress or lack of sense of security. There is a growing role of HRM specialists in appropriately shaping HRM strategies that can positively shape job-related attitudes, resulting in enhanced job performance during such difficult times. Therefore, this study aims to explain the role of COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies in shaping job performance through job-related attitudes such as work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment in a time of crisis occurring in the organization due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The study was conducted among 378 organizations operating in Poland during 2 nd wave of COVID-19 pandemic. To verify the hypotheses, descriptive statistics were calculated using IBM SPSS and path analysis was performed using IBM AMOS. The result shows that combined set of "hard" HRM strategies related to the financial aspects and "soft" HRM strategies related to keeping employees’ wellbeing during the crisis gives the best results in shaping job performance through job-related attitudes and consequently strengthening organizational performance. This study contributes to the knowledge concerning the development of COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies, which may also have practical application.

Citation: Bieńkowska A, Koszela A, Sałamacha A, Tworek K (2022) COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies influence on job and organizational performance through job-related attitudes. PLoS ONE 17(4): e0266364. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364

Editor: Prabhat Mittal, Satyawati College (Eve.), University of Delhi, INDIA

Received: November 5, 2021; Accepted: March 18, 2022; Published: April 13, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Bieńkowska et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1. Introduction

There is no doubt that employees are a key resource of contemporary organizations [ 1 ]. Employees, by implementing the tasks entrusted to them, support the implementation of the organization’s goals at the strategic, tactical and operational levels, which is translated into the performance of individual areas of the organization [ 2 ]. The global pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus (further called COVID-19 pandemic) had a profound impact on the management of employees [ 3 , 4 ]. Spread of the COVID-19 disease meant that organizations were forced to change the way of work, as it became necessary to increase the social distance and stop the mobility in order to reduce the odds of contamination [ 5 ]. Organizations had to rearrange their processes so that remote work was possible [ 6 ]. Employees faced the challenges related to working from home: necessity to prepare the workplace, adaptation of tools to those that are possible to work from a distance, transformation of business interactions to the Internet and finding themselves in virtual reality [ 7 ]. This completely changed the perception of the work as well as the approach to performance.

It is worth to underline that the changes caused by the COVID-19 pandemic are not entirely revealed. Previous studies do not clearly indicate the impact of changes that took place in the organization on the results of employees’ work and, consequently, on the results of the organization as a whole. On the one hand, there is research that shows negative impact. Uncertainty of employment, increased level of stress, shortage of tools for work, technical problems, longing for the working environment, difficulties in building relationships with colleagues, disturbed work-life balance may adversely affect the results of employees [ 8 – 10 ]. Organizations also predict the negative effects of the pandemic—46% of surveyed Chinese companies expect a reduction in performance due to COVID-19 [ 11 ]. On the other hand, there has been much evidence of a positive impact. Graves & Karabayeva [ 9 ] have shown in their research that the effects of remote work such as flexibility of working time, no need to travel or the possibility of recruiting employees from anywhere in the world increase employee performance. Narayanamurthy & Tortorella [ 11 ] also agree with this claim, concluding that remote work contributes to increasing productivity, job satisfaction and output quality, and this translates into better job performance. Moreover, the authors noticed that those aspects easily translate into organizational performance. Bearing in mind the above suggestions and inconsistencies in the results of the research, the research gap emerged.

In this context, the aim of the article is to explain how COVID-19 oriented Human Resource Management (HRM) strategies influence organizational performance. In particular, the dependencies between the implementation of COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies, job performance and organizational performance will be examined. In addition, the mediating effects of job-related attitudes such as work motivation, job satisfaction and organizational commitment will be considered. The proposed and empirically verified model will allow the researchers to fill in the identified research gap.

2. Theoretical background

2.1 job performance during covid-19.

The difficult conditions of the modern economy have placed organizational performance at the center of modern organizations’ attention [ 2 , 12 ], in particular as a vital part of monitoring organizations’ progress [ 13 ]. It is also worth noting that in the field of management sciences, it has become a construct which is receiving a lot of attention [ 14 – 17 ]. Organizational performance is defined as the ability to acquire and transform various types of resources (including human, financial or technical) in order to carry out tasks and achieve the goals of the organization [ 18 ]. This construct covers diverse domains of organizational outcomes, such as: financial performance, product market performance and shareholder return, therefore requires synergistic involvement of entire organization. Consequently, individual areas of the organization (e.g. marketing, operations, strategy) are assessed by their contribution to organizational performance [ 12 ]. HRM seems to be considered as extremely important in shaping such performance [ 19 ]. Many authors emphasize the role of factors related to HRM in shaping organizational performance, in particular, the impact of job performance is considered [ 13 , 20 ], usually as the crucial one [ 21 ].

Research performed by various authors, e.g. by Ramezan and colleagues [ 18 ] showed that there is a positive relation between job performance and organizational performance. The authors argue that various aspects of job performances can influence different aspects of an organization. Resource allocation decisions have a direct impact on employees’ productivity and organizational performance through reduced turnover, employees’ best behavior and the overall task performance of employees. All the above-mentioned aspects consequently influence organizational performance [ 18 ]. This is supported by Bieńkowska et al. [ 22 ], who emphasize that thanks to highly performing employees, an organization can carry out tasks and achieve goals much more efficiently [ 22 ]. Additionally, Teece [ 19 ] claims that the organization’s ability to create, implement, protect and use intangible knowledge assets allows achieving superior organizational performance [ 23 ].

It is equally common knowledge that modern organizations face the challenges of operating in the changing environment on a daily basis. Masa’deh et al. [ 24 ] argue that the job performance of individuals should be placed at the center of every organization’s interest, so they would be able to ensure business continuity and succeed in difficult conditions [ 24 ]. This was especially true during the COVID-19 pandemic. The crisis, that the whole world had to face, increased the uncertainty of the organization’s operation, and thus the turbulence of the environment. Employees’ behavior, manifested in job performance, supports organizations in resisting the negative consequences of the pandemic [ 25 ]. It is worth noting, however, that there are many reports that the COVID-19 pandemic decrease job performance.

One aspect caused by the spread of contamination is the need for social isolation. In quantitative research on salesperson Chaker et colleagues [ 26 ] found that there is indirect impact social isolation on job performance. They indicated that job-related knowledge, informal communications, and loyalty to the organization are mediators in this relation. In addition, the qualitative research confirmed the assumed impact, showing the significance of hindered development and learning, missed opportunities for informal conversations, and detached feelings from the organization [ 26 ].

Another negative consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic was layoffs in certain sectors of the economy, including the hospitality industry [ 27 ]. Tu et colleagues [ 10 ] found that layoffs due to the COVID-19 increase the level of stress among employees who remain in the organization, which translates into decrease their in—role and extra—role performance [ 10 ].

Also noteworthy are the results of the Shin et colleagues [ 28 ] study, who conducted a comparative analysis of the impact of customer incivility behavior on the service employees performance from the pre-pandemic and SARS-CoV-2 virus pandemic period. It was discovered that there is stronger, indirect effect of customer incivility on job performance through emotional exhaustion during pandemic [ 28 ].

On the other hand Vo-Thanh et colleagues [ 25 ] noted the important role of organization in improving job performance. Research results showed that there is a positive relation between satisfaction with organization COVID-19 responses and job perfomance. The authors explain that when employees are satisfied with the organization’s anti-crisis activities, they are more confident about their wellbeing, health, and job, and this translates into better results [ 25 ]. That is why it is important to analyze and identify any ways, in which the organization can support the employees in maintaining the proper level of job performance, or even increase it–as it should be considered as a main factor enabling the organizational survival.

2.2 COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies

Unexpected events causing a global scale crisis can have a dramatic impact on the employees’ wellbeing [ 29 , 30 ]. The situation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic is guaranteed to take a long-term effect on the psychological wellbeing of employees, causing cumulative stress for many of them, which will consequently affect performance, a key aspect for organizations.

Because employees are the most important resource of any organization, the organization needs to take care of their wellbeing as well [ 31 , 32 ]. Therefore, a health disaster such as a pandemic will pose a huge challenge to the HRM department to mitigate the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on employees [ 29 , 33 ]. As early as the 2008 crisis, there were voices from researchers arguing that HR professionals should be part of the crisis management team.

During a COVID-19 pandemic, employees often face problems not only at work but also at home. Therefore, HR specialists should be ready to manage any problems and issues caused by the COVID-19 pandemic [ 29 ]. The HR department gains importance in the organization and its main task during a pandemic is to mitigate the negative effects of a global pandemic among employees [ 29 ]. Therefore, it is necessary to involve the HR department in the planning and implementation of crisis management as the main representative of the highest capital of any organization [ 31 ].

Researchers have noted that modern approaches to HRM are more effective in turbulent times than traditional approaches that are considered edgy and unprecedented [ 34 ]. Therefore, it is important to recognize which HRM practices will most effectively mitigate the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, and also allow the use of emerging opportunities [ 29 ]. In turbulent times, two HRM approaches are distinguished from an organization’s perspective " soft"—in which employees are considered a valuable resource for the organization [ 35 ] and "hard". When considering "soft" HRM practices, they mainly focus on taking care of the employee’s wellbeing during the crisis to guarantee high performance.

Therefore, organizations focus on training employees to acquire new skills necessary to work in new conditions [ 36 ]. Additionally, they focus on appropriate communication processes, transfer and exchange of information [ 37 , 38 ]. They also try to provide activities such as mentoring, coaching, which positively, even in crisis situations, raise the wellbeing of employees [ 39 ].

The most common „hard” HRM practices include those related to the financial aspect—pay cuts and freezes [ 40 ], downsizing [ 41 , 42 ] or withholding recruitment, reducing training budgets, lowering individual performance goals and benefits [ 43 , 44 ].

In the literature, mixing of "soft" HRM style with "hard" HRM style seems to be the most effective way to mitigate the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the organization’s employees. The mixed model allows an organization to create maximum employee job performance and efficiency by taking care of employee motivation and engagement using "soft" HRM practices. On the other hand, it allows the organization to persevere in the difficult time of crisis by cutting operational costs related to recruitment or employees’ development and promotions, thus ensuring its high efficiency [ 45 ].

Considering all that and the importance of job performance maintenance during COVID-19 pandemic (to ensure organizational performance), it seems that there is an apparent need to indicate what detailed HRM strategies will be beneficial for the organizations operating in such conditions in order to maintain and boost the job performance. The above-mentioned detailed HRM strategies should relate to three areas: securing qualified staff, adapting the organization to the new reality, and ensuring the wellbeing of stakeholders. Hiring and employee development must be taken into account as part of the provision of qualified personnel. In addition, it is necessary to discuss the strategy of adapting the work organization to changes that have occurred in the environment. It is necessary to take into account the need to move to virtual reality (digitalization), change the existing processes organizing work (job redesing), equipping employees with tools allowing to adapt to these changes (COVID-19 training). It seems obvious that the above issues will not be possible without ensuring a good flow of information (communication). Moreover, in such difficult circumstances, the issues of providing support to entities within and outside the organization (employee wellbeing and corporate social responsibility) should be taken into account.

2.2.1 Hiring.

COVID-19 pandemic has significantly interrupted an organization’s operations, and the need to create an action plan in response to a rapid and unexpected event is riddled with extreme uncertainty. Among other things, it is very difficult to predict the financial impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, it is difficult to assess the severity of the pandemic on the organization’s finances. There are many strategies that an organization adopts to protect the financial aspects of the organization by choosing to freeze certain expenses, including freezing dedicated hiring expenses [ 46 ]. The employees’ staffing includes two basic HRM activities: recruitment and selection [ 47 ]. All activities aimed at recruiting employees reflect the general mood of the business and the opportunities the organization will have once the pandemic is over [ 47 ].

Unfortunately, due to its high instability, future organizations are not able to predict their staffing needs enough even in the short term [ 47 ]. The dynamics of the staffing needs depend on a large number of factors, such as market demand or political regulations [ 47 ]. It is therefore the responsibility of the HR department to adapt to current trends.

Therefore, it is recommended to be very careful during analyzing not only future needs of resources but also current one [ 47 ]. Many sources demonstrate that the most commonly adopted strategy is that of freezing the recruitment of new employees, either partially or completely [ 46 , 48 ]. Data obtained from the U.S. LinkUp portal in the shows that even with the onset of the spread of the coronavirus, there was an uncharacteristic drop in job advertisements for the period. More representative data will emerge in May 2020, where a 40% drop below the average level of ads for the same week in 2017–2019 was recorded [ 49 ]. That is due to the fact, that organizations as a result of the crisis predict a reduction in aggregate demand, and a reduction in employment or a complete freeze is a kind of response to the decline in demand [ 46 , 50 ].

In a situation of constantly changing socio-economic conditions, such actions are primarily aimed at protecting current employees and reducing disruption to the organization [ 46 ].

2.2.2 Employee development.

Employees as a key component of any organization significantly affect its productivity, success, and future. This is the main reason why organizations decide to invest significant amounts in employee development [ 51 ]. In practice, employees’ development means not only developing their skills but also the organization as a whole. More productive employees also mean that the organization will also prosper better [ 52 ]. Although employees’ development and promotions are considered one of the most effective ways to support employees’ performance. In times of crisis, when the need to survive in the market turns out to be crucial, organizations decide to take many radical steps that eliminate the flexibility of the organization [ 53 ]. The HR department also has a key role in dealing with the consequences of the crisis, which is responsible for reducing stress among the employees in the organization, still taking care to invest in human capital, but keeping in mind the minimization of strategic costs [ 54 ]. As it was mentioned, during a crisis, organizations very often decide to reduce many of the additional costs, which also result from the payment of additional benefits, promotions, and employees’ development [ 54 ]. Therefore, a crisis away opportunities related to employees’ development and promotions, despite rising employee expectations. Moreover, as has already been mentioned, organizations are also often forced to reduce or completely cut down on recruitment, therefore HR departments have to prepare tools that will smooth the situation and keep current employees in the organization, despite the growing risk of employee dissatisfaction associated with the need to reduce promotions and employees’ development [ 54 ].

Among these tools are modern methods of offering alternative jobs, part-time positions, or flexible working hours [ 55 ]. This provides employees with a certain sense of security, which in times of global crisis will have a more effective impact on employees, their performance, and their intention to stay in the organization. Thus, issues related to development and promotion opportunities will come to the background, so that their reduction during the crisis will not have a significant impact on employees and their performance [ 56 ].

2.2.3 Digitalization.

Despite the many often drastic changes needed to be made in an organization under COVID-19, there are some forms of restructuring, which can help overcome the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic [ 57 ]. Indeed, recently there has been an increased digitalization in organizations, the application of which often overcomes or significantly reduces the negative effects of the pandemic.

Organizations in a very short time have been forced to move their products online or to implement more information systems necessary for the continued functioning of the organization [ 57 ]. Digitalization is characterized by the combination of certain advanced technologies and the integration of physical and digital systems [ 58 ]. Digitalization is a process of transformation occurring in an organization through the adoption of digital technology [ 59 – 61 ] manifested as digital artifacts or digital platforms [ 62 – 66 ], but also in the form of a digital business model and management, including human resources [ 67 ].

Digital technology is considered as a potential that implemented in an organization on a large scale, will gain competitive advantage by improving organizational flexibility and resilience [ 66 ], as well as increasing dynamic capabilities. Therefore, digitization will be beneficial for dynamic changes in the organization, also caused by the dynamic environmental changes, because can helps to recognize and sense changes in the environment [ 60 , 68 , 69 ]. During the pandemic, it was noted how important digitization is in an organization.

The implementation of digitalization has helped to create many new opportunities and thus allowed organizations to survive the difficult time of the pandemic and provided new opportunities for growth [ 70 ]. Digitalization has identified innovative opportunities to utilize new technologies like the reconfiguration of an organization’s resources that effectively allows it to respond to crises [ 59 ]. Therefore, many organizations to maintain continuous growth and ensure the organization’s sustainability have also reconfigured HRM processes such as recruiting or onboarding new employees to ensure the safety of new and existing employees while providing the organization with adequate resources.

2.2.4 Job redesign.

Job design plays an important role in HRM processes because it considers, not only all structural and social aspects but also the workplace’s impact on the employees [ 71 ]. Furthermore, once a job design is made, it must be systematically reviewed and redesigned because many factors such as management style, working conditions, the technology used in the organization, and environmental dynamics influence how the job will look [ 71 ].

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused some changes in job design on organizations’ global level [ 72 ]. HRM professionals in organizations must ensure that they align the organization’s operations, and employees, with the changes. They also should support employees in adapting to these changes to ensure long-term benefits in improving job redesign [ 72 ].

Many organizations during the COVID-19, to avoid business downtime, quickly had to work under changed conditions: using new technologies, in entirely new spaces—most often at home or in hybrid mode, with reduced social and physical interaction, and with far less supervision and support from other colleagues [ 72 ]. Changes like work are not just about adapting to new technologies or automation, they often reflect changes in the way tasks are conceptualized and performed, such as treating patients online or providing customer service to restaurants online [ 73 ].

This is why job redesigning plays such a key role in the functioning of an organization. The current pandemic indicates that the changes implemented will persist for a long time and even remain in the organization even after the pandemic is over. Therefore, it is important for HRM professionals, to conduct a proactive review of job design, risk analysis, regulations, guidelines, and practices to protect the employees’ health in the future [ 72 ].

2.2.5 COVID-19 Training.

For many organizations, technical aspects, were not foreign even before the pandemic, due to the rapid development of automation and information technology. However, a much lower need for technology was observed before pandemic, especially among small organizations. The pandemic COVID-19 and the need to work from home has made pressure to implement technology at every organizational level. Therefore, a significant increase in the use of technology is being seen in all organizations, especially the small ones [ 74 ]. Such changes in the organization and working conditions, the increased need to use technology forced by the global COVID-19 pandemic causes stress, uncertainty and bitterness which can affect the employee’s work negatively [ 47 ].

The additional training organizing by the organization, providing support for employees in shaping new skills to help during this new mode of work and dealing with the new situation, could be very helpful. It would reduce employees’ stress and additionally give them a sense of development and acquisition of new knowledge and skills [ 75 ]. Accordingly, training that develops remote work skills will play an important role and organizations will need to quickly adapt their training policies to meet current requirements [ 74 ]. Moreover, for all organizations especially which operate in a global marketplace, seems to be useful to provide training about how to create a strong international culture and employees’ relationships online to ensure high employee engagement and wellbeing.

The ability to work remotely is becoming an increasingly desirable skill in the labor market, not only among managers but also among technical workers [ 76 ]. Therefore, these skills should be supported by organizing additional training that covering not only technical aspects but also experiential aspects of virtual work [ 75 , 77 , 78 ].

2.2.6 Communication.

An organization is considered a complex network of communication habits. However, the organization itself is only a structure, while the communication behaviors of employees build the organization as a whole [ 79 , 80 ]. It is considered in this way because the employees exchange information about the organization, the work, and the goals being achieved [ 81 , 82 ]. Communication in an organization takes different shapes depending on what type of messages employees are operating.

Communications can be vertical and horizontal, which means that communication will then be formal or informal [ 82 , 83 ]. Communication itself can also be differentiated according to the function it is supposed to perform, namely: directive communication, aimed at influencing the receiver [ 81 , 84 , 85 ], supportive communication aimed at conveying relevant and reassuring information [ 83 , 86 , 87 ] cultural communication aimed at providing the internal rules of the organization [ 88 , 89 ] and democratic communication involving employees in decision-making processes.

Indeed, communication is a crucial element in managing human resources by motivating them and keeping them engaged and committed to the organization [ 90 ]. Especially during the dynamic changes caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, appropriate communication will influence employees’ emotional commitment to organizational change, enhance their trust in the organization, and stimulate their commitment to the organization [ 90 – 94 ]. Researchers indicate that informal communication can reduce employees’ resistance to developing new skills and building new roles resulting from restructuring during COVID-19 [ 95 , 96 ]. Moreover, keeping employees informed about important aspects of the pandemic or the future of the organization allows them to engage themselves in the continued development of the organization, reduces feelings of discomfort, uncertainty, and other negative emotions that can disrupt feelings of job satisfaction or job performance [ 97 – 99 ].

2.2.7 Wellbeing.

The radical changes occurring during the COVID-19 pandemic and the need to fulfill the obligation of social isolation and also the financial uncertainty causing by the successive closure of other and other sectors by the states have a very strong impact on the physical as well as mental health of people [ 100 ]. All kinds of difficult situations affecting societies, cause a direct negative impact on people’s mental and physical health, as proven by the research conducted in China during the COVID-19 pandemic, confirming high rates of stress and depression among people [ 101 – 104 ].

From the organizational point of view, stress, anxiety, or depression among employees, even if not directly related to their daily work, negatively affect their engagement, willingness to work, and consequently reduce their effectiveness [ 105 , 106 ]. Organizations to help employees survive the difficult time of pandemics should especially focus on employee wellbeing.

The definition of wellbeing is not clear, as researchers view wellbeing as the ability to achieve goals [ 107 ]; happiness [ 108 ], and life satisfaction [ 109 , 110 ]. On the other hand, Shin and Johnson [ 111 ] considered wellbeing in terms of a global assessment of a person’s quality of life according to their chosen assessment criteria and this definition is also relevant today [ 112 – 114 ].

In essence, stable wellbeing is when an employee has the psychological, social, and physical resources necessary to meet specific psychological, social, and/or physical challenges [ 110 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly affected the psychological balance of workers, preventing them from at least realizing the need for social exchange, the reduction of which will affect the sense of isolation in the workplace, thus resulting in stress [ 115 ]. What employers in particular need to take care of is free, unrestricted access to technology, other workers, and more free communication with employees, imitating a sense of face-to-face communication. Those actions can help in avoiding the risks associated with remote working [ 116 ]. Therefore, the wellbeing of employees during a pandemic, especially those working remotely, will depend largely on interpersonal interactions and social aspects, which are particularly difficult to provide in this mode of work [ 115 ].

2.2.8 Corporate social responsibility.

Many definitions of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and organizational sustainability have emerged over the years, and the diversity of these definitions has big consisted of a focus on other stakeholder groups [ 117 , 118 ]. One of the oldest definition present CSR as the responsibility of organizations to pursue such strategies and make such decisions that are desired and valued by society [ 119 , 120 ].

Today, CSR pays attention to the fact that business and society are related in ways that go across the critical relationship between employees, customers, suppliers, and the community [ 117 , 121 ]. CSR is therefore considered a multidimensional construct. Its mechanisms, processes, and evolutions are driven by a set of complex external and internal, socio-cultural, and economic factors, making it a dynamic, constantly evolving practice [ 122 ].

Therefore, its contemporary definition presents CSR as a discretionary allocation of corporate resources to improve social wellbeing, serving as a way to strengthen relationships with key stakeholders [ 123 ]. This theory indicates how much alignment is needed between stakeholder expectations and social wellbeing [ 124 ].

In particular during a crisis, an organization has responsibilities and obligations to its stakeholders. Thus, there is a requirement for organizations to support society and their important stakeholders, namely employees and customers, by engaging in CSR activities. To meet these demands, many organizations have adopted CSR as a form of a completely new global governance that promotes the ability to make collective decisions on transnational issues [ 125 ].

In a way, some kind of an examination has been forced on CSR organizations by the COVID-19 pandemic, which verifies a commitment to ethical business conduct [ 125 , 126 ]. Indeed, during the pandemic, organizations have taken special responsibility for the safety of their employees. They try to provide for employees working in the home office the conditions similar to the conditions in the office, but for those who cannot take advantage of remote work, they provide maximum security in the workplace and full security equipment.

Organizations somehow felt the need to take care of the community by promoting public health, providing medical assistance, financial support, or helping other sectors that were particularly affected by the negative effects of the pandemic. This is because such actions bring a sense of stability and strengthen the organization’s community [ 127 ].

3. Hypotheses development

3.1 hrm strategies influence job and organizational performance through motivation.

In the context of the theoretical background described above, there seems to be a need to clarify the mechanism of HRM strategies influence on job performance while analyzing the mediating role of work motivation.

The truth is that properly selected HRM strategies themselves strengthen employees’ job performance [ 128 ]. However, given that work motivation, defined as the level of employee motivation to perform work effectively [ 129 ], can be stimulated by external factors such as the organization’s environment and culture (including HRM practices) it is assumed that it is necessary is to include work motivation in the consideration.

HRM strategies are composed of many practices that help an organization effectively manage employees from selection to exit [ 130 , 131 ]. HRM as a modern approach to personal management, characterized by a closer alignment with the business, involves line management to care of aspects such as organizational commitment and work motivation. Properly selected HRM practices are a kind of cure for motivating employees in terms of knowledge, attitudes, and way of acting.

Taking additional actions to give the employee a sense of security and satisfaction, such as: taking care of their comfort in the workplace or working from home, taking care of the wellbeing, their relationship with employees, appropriate use of new technologies, and properly adapted communication process will compensate anxiety caused by COVID-19 pandemic and contribute to increasing their work motivation [ 132 , 133 ]. In turn, employees’ positive work perceptions may motivate them to invest maximum effort in their work to achieve their personal goals, thereby maximizing their job performance [ 132 , 134 ]. The researchers recognized that HRM strategies directly affect employee motivation, behavior, and skill enhancement to increase their performance and increase organizational performance [ 130 ]. Therefore, taking care of the employees’ work motivation, as a result, provides a high level of employee performance with high-cost effectiveness through the full exploitation of employees’ potential [ 128 ].

Taking into account the above consideration, it is necessary to formulate a hypothesis:

• H1 : COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies influence job performance through work motivation .

3.2 HRM strategies influence job and organizational performance through satisfaction

Similar to the case of work motivation considered as a construct that strengthens the effect of HRM strategies on job performance, it seems important to verify the mechanism of the effect of HRM strategies on job performance, while including the mediating role of job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction is the result of many work-related experiences, both positive and negative. For employees, it represents the level of satisfaction and positive emotions towards the job [ 135 , 136 ].

Increasing stress among employees or a sense of uncertainty caused by the COVID-19 pandemic makes it significantly more difficult to positive strengthen job satisfaction [ 137 ]. Therefore, it seems to be especially important to choose the right HRM practices that will support the employee and provide a sense of fulfillment of their needs. HRM practices try to develop and locate human capital in such a way as to achieve long-term goals, providing them with multiple benefits, thus stimulating job satisfaction [ 138 ]. It is repeatedly indicated that job satisfaction consists of factors such as relationship with superiors pay, opportunities for advancement and development, and relationship with co-workers, all aspects that are somewhat shaped by HRM [ 139 ].

The fulfillment of the employees’ needs, in turn, provides incentives that can motivate them to optimize their daily work and increase their job performance [ 135 ]. Many researchers confirm the influence of HRM practices on job satisfaction and the positive impact of these factors on employees’ job performance [ 140 , 141 ].

It has been proven several times that job-satisfied employees are also high-performing employees [ 135 , 142 ]. Employees who have positive perceptions about the organization and their work tend to be more engaged in their tasks thereby exhibiting higher performance [ 143 ]. Therefore, maintaining a high level of job satisfaction among employees is critical to achieving employee quality and performance [ 137 , 144 , 145 ].

• H2 : COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies influence job performance through job satisfaction .

3.3 HRM strategies influence job and organizational performance through organizational commitment

It also seems important to verify the mechanism of influence of HRM strategies on job performance, while including the mediating role of organizational commitment.

Organizational commitment reflects employees’ positive sense of belonging to the organization. According to Meyer and Allen [ 146 ], organizational commitment is considered in the context of an employees’ emotional relationship with the organization, consisting of identification with it, a sense of responsibility for the organization’s success, a sense of fulfilling responsibilities to the organization, and avoiding the costs of leaving the organization [ 146 , 147 ].

This construct is most often considered in three categories: affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. Affective commitment refers to an employee’s involvement in social relationships inside the organization. Continuance commitment refers to an employee’s commitment to their social roles and their social position within the organization. Normative commitment focuses on the moral sense of obligation to stay in the organization, so employees decide to stay in the organization because of their values [ 146 ].

Reviewing the literature, one can find studies that support an increase in organizational commitment of employees through the use of appropriate HRM practices [ 148 , 149 ]. An increase in organizational commitment is expected primarily through the use of practices that increase employee trust in the organization and provide a sense of security, which is especially important in times of crisis [ 150 ].

Taking care to: effectively communicate, engaging in CSR activities, supporting the employees during difficult times, and caring for their wellbeing, gives the employees a sense that they are a key part of the organization [ 151 ]. Therefore, a positive perception of management’s intentions by employees strengthens the employees’ organizational commitment [ 152 ].

Organizational commitment is rooted in the desire to satisfy internal needs in the workplace, which significantly motivates employees to work [ 153 ]. The internal energy triggered by high levels of organizational commitment results in positive employee behavior toward the organization focused on achieving organizational goals [ 154 , 155 ].

Consequently, organizational commitment results in the quality of employees’ work [ 156 ], which can be closely related to employees’ job performance. Nevertheless, the direct positive effect of organizational commitment on job performance has also been repeatedly indicated by researchers [ 157 – 163 ].

• H3 : COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies influence job performance through organizational commitment .

3.4 Final model of hypotheses

Based on the above considerations, it seems important to validate a model that includes all the above considered job-related attitudes influencing the relationship between HRM strategies on the job and organizational performance. Therefore, this means that including into the model the three job-related attitudes that are relevant to the HRM strategies on the job and organizational performance relationship will be of significantly enhanced value in building job and organizational performance.

In the COVID-19 crisis, it seems that focusing on job-related attitudes such as work motivation, job satisfaction and organizational commitment at the same time will be very beneficial in building employees’ job performance and thus organizational performance. There is no doubt that well-chosen HRM strategies will enhance job and organizational performance through particular job-related attitudes. Considering employees’ comfort and relationships and supporting the employees in developing to the appropriate use of technology will enhance the employees’ motivation to perform tasks effectively [ 132 , 134 ]. Ensuring the employees’ positive perception towards the organization and reducing stress at work will positively affect their job satisfaction [ 138 , 143 , 148 ]. On the other hand, the use of HRM strategies that will positively influence the employees’ trust towards the organization and enhance the desire to belong to this work environment, will be de facto stimulate their organizational commitment [ 148 , 149 ].

Thus, researchers confirm that, in general, there is a set of HRM strategies that support job and organizational performance through work motivation, job satisfaction, or organizational commitment. Therefore, it seems important to verify whether the same HRM strategies were properly chosen to be mitigating the negative impact of the COVID-19 crisis on organizations, enhance job and organizational performance through both work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment in parallel.

Based on the above considerations, it is necessary to formulate a hypothesis:

• H4 : COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies influence job performance through job-related attitudes : work motivation , job satisfaction and organizational commitment .

The overview of hypotheses is presented in Fig 1 . The hypotheses will be verified using empirical research performed in a way, which allows to measure each variable and perform statistical reasoning allowing for identification of the relations between them.

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Source: own work.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364.g001

4. Research methodology

4.1 the process of collecting data and the characteristics of the research sample.

In order to achieve the goal of the article as well as to verify the hypotheses, a questionnaire study was conducted. The survey took place in the last quarter of 2020. There are two stages in which the research was carried out. The first stage is the pilot study aimed at determining the quality of the research tool. The pilot studies are treated as a prerequisite for using the questionnaire as a reliable research method [ 164 ]. They were conducted among 25 managers who played the role of competent judges. Their comments made it possible to improve the research tool used in the second stage of research and avoid any common method bias. The second, main stage of the research covered 378 organizations operating in Poland. The study was conducted using the CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview) method. The selection of the elements for the sample was purposive, the only limitation was the geographical scope of the activity. The non-response bias was eliminated by the use of professional respondents’ panel. Other characteristics of the organization—for example the size of the organization or the main source of income did not affect the decision to include it in the research sample, but they were also examined. Detailed information on the surveyed organizations are presented in Table 1 . Despite the fact that the selection of elements for the sample is not representative, it seems possible to formulate conclusions due to the diversity of the organization.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364.t001

4.2 Variables characteristic

To allow verification of hypotheses the following variables were used: Hiring, Employee Development, Digitalization, Job Redesign, COVID-19 Training, Communication, Wellbeing, Corporate Social Responsibility, Organizational Performance, Job Performance, Motivation, Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment ( Table 2 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364.t002

Hiring and Employee Development were described based on research of Aurelia and Momin [ 47 ]. The constructs contains 1 item, which is assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 47 ].

Digitalization was taken from the results of Minbaeva [ 165 ]. The construct contains 1 item, which is assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 165 ].

Job Redesign was measured based on research of Aurelia and Momin [ 47 ] and Vardarlıer [ 54 ]. The construct contains 2 items, which are assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 47 , 54 ].

COVID-19 Training measurement was build based on concept taken from Hackman and Oldham [ 166 ]. The construct contains 1 item, which is assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 166 ].

Communication was borrowed from Carnevale and Hatak [ 167 ]. The construct contains 1 item, which is assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 167 ].

Wellbeing was developed based on results of Agarwal [ 168 ] and Aurelia and Momin [ 47 ]. The construct contains 3 items, which are assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 47 , 168 ].

Corporate Social Responsibility was measured based on research Agarwal [ 168 ]. The construct contains 1 item, which is assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 168 ].

Organizational Performance was build based on the Balanced Scorecard concept and the assessment was determined in comparison to the main competitors. The construct contains 10 items, which are assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale (from “much worse than competitors” to “much better than competitors” with a middle point: “as competitors”) [ 169 ].

Job Performance was described based on the task proficiency, task meticulousness and work discipline. The construct contains 7 items, which are assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 170 – 172 ].

Motivation measurement was build based on concept taken from Hackman and Oldham [ 173 ]. The construct contains 3 items, which are assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 173 ].

Satisfaction was determined based on results of Fields [ 174 ]. The construct contains 2 items, which are assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 174 ].

Organizational commitment was measured based on research of Meyer and colleagues [ 175 ]. The construct contains 3 items, which are assessed based on a 5 points’ Likert scale [ 175 ].

All the above-mentioned 5 points’ Likert scales are described from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” with a middle point “neither agree nor disagree”. The exception is Organizational Performance, the measurement of which is included in the description of the construct.

4.3 Research results

In order to verify the proposed set of hypotheses, which are constructing a hypothetical model given in Fig 1 , the path analysis was used–a statistical reasoning based on structural equation modelling. It should be noted that path analysis is an analytic technique, which “enables to specify the proposed network among factors and then test the adequacy of the proposed network to explain relations among data collected” [ 176 ], it is a statistical reasoning method well-suited for the purpose of this study [ 177 ].

The path analysis was executed using IBM SPSS AMOS, using bootstrapping technique in order to obtain larger sample for the analysis.

4.2.1 Variables scales analysis.

In order to be able to assess whether the discussed scales can be used in the study, Cronbach’s α and Factor Analysis were implemented ( Table 3 ). This approach seems to be sufficient due to the fact that the scales used have been previously validated by the creators [ 178 ]. The calculations were not performed for Hiring, Employee Development, Digitalization, COVID-19 training, Communication Corporate Social Responsibility, as they are single—item constructs. The systematic method variance was controlled to ensure no common method bias. The obtained results allow to conclude that almost all measurement scales are well-fitted, reliable and coherent. Moreover, discriminant validity was tested to ensure that latent variables that represent different theoretical concepts are statistically different (all HTMT values were below 0,68, which allows to confirm that the chosen variables may be used for path analysis).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364.t003

4.3.1 Latent variable analysis.

As an initial step, the COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies latent variable was verified. Including set of those strategies as a latent variable in the model is fully justified, as any purposefully selected set of strategies will never explain in full the variability of entire strategy phenomenon and random factor should be always accounted for [ 179 ]. As shown in Table 4 , all indicated strategies are included in the model as factors statistically significantly shaping the latent variable.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364.t004

4.3.2 Path analysis.

Based on that, the path analysis was performed. The overview of the obtained model is presented in Table 5 (regression coefficients), Tables 6 and 7 (total and direct effects). The assessment of the model was performed. The fit of the model was measured at first and assessed with CFI (which should be above 0,8) and RMSEA (which should be below 0,2). The obtained model was statistically significant and well-fitted: Chi2 (63) = 173,420; p = 0,005; CFI = 0,942; RMSEA = 0,086. Hence, the conclusions can be formed based on the obtained results.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364.t005

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364.t006

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364.t007

The results based on the well-fitted model obtained with path analysis show that all relations within the model are statistically significant ( Table 5 showing p value less than 0,01 in all cases). Moreover, the results show that the influence of HR COVID-19 -related strategies is stronger in case of motivation and organizational commitment as mediators than in case of job satisfaction as a mediator in the model. It is confirmed by standardized indirect effects (calculated as total effect ( Table 6 )–direct effect ( Table 7 )), which are higher in case of organizational commitment and motivation, than in case of satisfaction. However, in all three cases the indirect effect occurs, confirming that HR COVID-19 -related strategies influence organizational performance through the entire set of variables included in the model.

Therefore, the obtained results of the path analysis confirmed that HR COVID-19 -related strategies influence organizational performance through job-related attitudes (work motivation, job satisfaction and organizational commitment) and job performance, which allows to accept H1-H4 hypotheses.

5. Discussion

The article examined the impact of COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies on the job and organizational performance through job-related attitudes. The proposed model of COVID-19—related HRM strategies influence organizational performance through job-related attitudes (work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment) and statistically significant job performance. As path analysis was used to validate the model, this means that the proposed network of connections between factors explains the relationship between the collected data [ 172 ]. The parameters for the constructed structural path model so the degree of fit of the model are in line with literature indications and they are as follow: Chi2 (63) = 173,420; p = 0,005; CFI = 0,942; RMSEA = 0,086, so it proves that the model is well-fitted.

In more detail, it means that a positive relation was established between proposed COVID-19 –related HRM strategies and job-related attitudes. All the HRM strategies identified in this research, forming one latent variable—HRM strategy (each of the HRM strategies maintaining statistical significance). The selected HRM strategies mitigate the negative effects of COVID-19 on job-related attitudes of employees and their job performance and organizational performance. It means that the theory that there is a combination of ’soft’ and ’hard’ COVID-19—related HRM strategies which maximally minimize the negative effects of COVID-19 pandemic in organizations is confirmed. Therefore, due to the changes in the mode of work, it is necessary to include in the HRM strategies taking care of the employees’ satisfaction. Therefore, it seems that it is important is to include the HRM strategies such as job redesign focusing on the hybrid or remote work conditions, and thus also digitalization enabling remote work. Necessarily is also to improve the communication skills from employer to employees especially regular informing about the important aspects of the pandemic to prevent the disorganization feeling. Another aspect is to retain the employees’ wellbeing focusing on keeping social relations between employees remotely, CSR to keep employees feeling safe about their health—called "soft" HR COVID-19—related strategies. Moreover, to ensure an appropriate level of employees’ job performance, it is necessary to support them also in adapting to new working conditions by providing training and development focusing on the acquire the new skills necessary to effectively work in the new condition. On the other hand, from a financial point of view, the best approach during the crisis is to reduce costs, which can guarantee financial stabilization and freezing the money necessary to remain the organization in case of reducing or declining demand [ 46 , 50 ]. Therefore, the identified COVID-19 –related HRM strategies should also include such practices as withholding hiring, reducing the training and development budget.

Analysis of the following model paths shows that there is a statistically significant effect of the latent COVID-19 –related HRM strategies variable on job-related attitudes, i.e.: work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. This means that the HR strategy used in organizations during COVID-19 has a direct, statistically significant impact on employees’ behavior by increasing their job motivation, job satisfaction, and their commitment to the organization. This, in turn, enhances their job performance, passing on to organizational performance. Indeed, there is no direct effect of HRM strategies on organizational performance, or a direct effect is weaker than the impact included the job-related attitudes.

HRM, as a modern approach to personnel management, sees the employee as the organization’s greatest capital. The appropriate choice of HRM strategies and the proper combination of them into a single strategy can be a kind of panacea for motivating employees and influencing their work attitudes and the way they work [ 132 , 133 ]. Taking actions to ensure the employees’ comfortable at work, including working from home, has an appropriate standard of communication with colleagues, and socializes even at a remote site, will help to reduce the fears caused by the difficult situation such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the necessary changes that followed it. Such actions to care for the employee, their wellbeing, and safety, especially in a difficult situation, will positively affect their perception towards the organization thus increasing employees’ job satisfaction [ 138 ]. Moreover, they will give a clear picture to the employees that they are a key resource for the organization. This will strengthen the employee’s sense of trust and confidence towards the employer, which plays a particularly significant role in building employees’ commitment to the organization [ 151 , 152 ].

Each of these job-related attitudes appropriately stimulated by HRM strategies that aim at mitigating the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic will bring measurable benefits to the organization by supporting employees’ job performance [ 130 , 131 ]. The employees’ positive perception of the job and the organization will have a motivating effect on the employees to put in maximum effort at work so that they can also achieve their personal goals [ 132 , 134 , 135 ]. In the aspiration to satisfy one’s own needs through work, commitment to the organization is also rooted, which by releasing the employees’ positive energy towards work, results in positive behavior of the employees in the workplace. Moreover, it also determines positive behavior regarding the organization by focusing on the realization and achievement of the organization’s goals [ 155 ].

Organizational commitment also affects the quality of work, which is closely related to employees’ job performance [ 156 ]. The results obtained provide a useful knowledge base for organizations on selecting personnel strategy in the context of the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, it provides information on how, by stimulating job-related attitudes, to achieve an appropriate level of employees’ job performance, which is necessary to achieve an optimum value of organizational performance and to keep the organization’s position on the market. It is clear that during the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced the numbers of changes inside the organizations, it was necessary also to adjust the HRM strategies. Unfortunately, the organizations focusing on keeping the market position in a difficult time very often forgot about the recognition of which HRM strategies and in which shape should be adapted to the organization to ensure the employees’ safety and their job performance. Thanks to the conducted research, organizations not only get the ready-to-use set of the HRM strategies mitigating the negative impact of COVID-19 on employees. Organizations also obtain knowledge of how the specific HRM strategies should be shaping to keep the employees’ job performance and organizational performance. From the organization’s point of view, this is very important because both: job performance and organizational performance are the key value, which, in times of crisis and uncertainty on the market, could determine the organization’s success.

6. Conclusions

The article explains the phenomenon of the COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies’ role in shaping job performance and organizational performance through job-related attitudes in times of crisis. Consider the pandemic caused by a sudden event like COVID-19, this topic is very important and current for organizations. This is because it provides information on how to shape HRM strategy to maintain employees’ job performance, positively influencing organizational performance, thus determining the organization’s continued existence on the market. In more detail, it has been shown that there is a set of HRM strategies that combination can ensure the strengthening of the employees’ job performance and organizational performance through work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Thus, also could have a positive indirect impact on job performance and finally on organizational performance. This set of HRM strategies can be divided into two groups. The first group, called “soft” HRM strategies are focusing on keeping employees’ satisfaction and wellbeing and also preparing employees for the new working conditions and taking care of their health and safety. The second group, called “hard” HRM strategies included such as strategies that have to save money in the organization by withholding hiring and reducing the budget for training and development. The combination of both groups causes that employee not only are comfortable with the new reality, feel that the organization cares about their health and safety. Moreover, due to the rational reduction of costs spent by the organization, they also feel the security of keeping their jobs despite difficult conditions. This sense of security increases the trust of the employer, which effectively maintains a satisfactory level of job performance, directly influencing organizational performance.

The obtained results allowed us to achieve the aim of this article–empirical verification of the indicated COVID-19 oriented HRM strategies in strengthening the job performance and organizational performance through job-related attitudes. Unfortunately, the topic of COVID-19 –related HRM strategies influence job and organizational performance through job-related attitudes is not fully exhausted in the article and has some limitations. First of all, the research was conducted in a limited group of organizations—378 entities were taken into account. Second of all, the chosen organizations were operating in Poland, where the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the organizations can be significantly different than in another countries. Third of all, the research was done during 2 nd wave of pandemic, and the characteristics of environmental features during upcoming waves have the potential to change. Fourth of all, the method of selecting elements for the sample was purposive, which is related to the limitations of the conclusions. Fifth of all, only selected characteristics of the organization have been taken into account—the size of the organization and the main source of income. Finally, the use of descriptive statistics has some methodological limitations.

It seems that despite the above limitations, the presented research is a solid step, which may be a starting point for further research. Certainly it is worth considering which of the other HRM strategies could also be valid for shaping the job performance and organizational performance in times of COVID-19 crisis. In addition, as it was mentioned, it seems to be necessary to expand research by referring to certain organizations in another country, for which the set of HRM strategies could be different. Also, worth considering is the inclusion of additional job-related attitudes, such as turnover intention or organizational trust. Subsequently, the scope can also be extended to include the issues of leadership, significantly influencing the shape of the organization’s activities, as well as the characteristics of employees. It seems advisable to use a qualitative approach to the studied phenomenon, to increase the number of examined entities and to select a different method of selecting elements for the sample.

Nevertheless, independently of scientific values, this article also has practical ones. It seems very important to define the set of COVID-19—related HRM strategies that have an impact on job performance, and consequently on organizational performance, which is crucial for the operation and survival of the organization. Entrepreneurs were provided with guidelines on how to manage these strategies. The necessity of shaping the employment assurance process was indicated, which should take into account the current and future demand for employees, with particular emphasis on turbulent environmental conditions. Methods of approaching employee development have been defined, especially when it may be necessary to reduce financial outlays for training. As a consequence of the spread of contamination is the need for social isolation, solutions concerning the transfer to remote work were proposed. The issues of digitalization, which is inseparable from working from home, were discussed, and a change in work processes was proposed to adapt to the new reality (job redesign). The above changes could not be introduced without adjusting communication in the organization to the needs caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, in order to avoid negative consequences in the emotional sphere of employees, the importance of ensuring wellbeing of stakeholders in and outside of the organization was emphasized. Therefore, the issues of wellbeing of employees were discussed, as well as corporate social responsibility, which has a broader scope. All the above-mentioned issues are the starting point for practical actions aimed at improving the operation of the organization during the coronavirus threat. It is also worth emphasizing that specific HRM strategies, which have a significant impact on job performance and organizational performance through the job-related attitudes: work motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment is valid besides the organization’s size and main source of income.

In summary, the COVID-19 pandemic is a phenomenon that has broken the previously known and relatively stabilized order in the management of contemporary organizations. The observable effects of the coronavirus outbreak have significantly influenced the approach to management, including Human Resource Management. The long-term consequences of these changes are neither known nor foreseeable. However, it seems necessary to diagnose the current situation and take into account the possibility of using the experience so far. Due to the predictions it will not be an immediate end of the pandemic, and also the indicate a high probability of similar phenomena in the future.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266364.s001

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Use of metformin in adults with diabetes linked to lower risk of long COVID

by National Institutes of Health

Adults who use the prescription drug metformin to treat their type 2 diabetes have a lower risk of developing long COVID or dying after a COVID-19 infection than people with diabetes who take other anti-diabetes medications, according to a recent large study. The findings, published in the journal Diabetes Care , were based on health data from millions of U.S. patients and could have broader implications for the use of metformin in long COVID prevention generally.

A clinical trial in 2023 showed that treatment with metformin, commonly used to help control blood sugar , reduced the risk of long COVID by as much as 40% in nearly 1,300 U.S. adults with overweight or obesity, most of whom did not have diabetes. To see whether the drug had a similar effect in people with diabetes, researchers examined electronic health record data for nearly 38 million Americans from two large U.S. databases.

The researchers compared health records from 75,996 adults taking metformin for their type 2 diabetes to 13,336 records from patients who were not taking metformin but were using other types of diabetes medicines. Researchers were specifically looking at how many patients either died or were diagnosed with long COVID within six months after infection. They found that patients taking metformin had a 13% to 21% lower incidence of long COVID or death than those in the non-metformin group.

Scientists are not clear how metformin may prevent long COVID, but they speculate about the possibility of several mechanisms that reduce inflammation, decrease viral levels, and suppress the formation of disease-related proteins.

Metformin can have side effects and should be used with caution in some conditions. For these and other reasons, people should not take the drug unless prescribed by a doctor.

Long COVID is marked by a wide range of symptoms—including chronic fatigue , brain fog, and chest pain —that vary from person to person and can last for weeks, months, or years after infection from SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. While rates of new cases have decreased since early in the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of people are still living with it.

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A systematic review on the impacts of Covid‐19 on work: Contributions and a path forward from the perspectives of ergonomics and psychodynamics of work

Tiago f. a. c. sigahi.

1 Department of Production Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Paulo SP, Brazil

Bruno C. Kawasaki

2 Department of Psychology, Federal University of Paraíba, Cidade Universitária, João Pessoa PB, Brazil

Sandra N. Morioka

3 Department of Production Engineering, Federal University of Paraíba, Cidade Universitária, João Pessoa PB, Brazil

Associated Data

The data that supports the findings of this study are available in the supplementary material of this article.

Work is a major issue in the discussions on the Covid‐19 pandemic, whose consequences impair the capacities of workers at all organizational levels and impose unexpected challenges on managers. Nevertheless, the scientific literature still lacks an overview of how researchers have been covering the issue. This article presents a systematic review to investigate the impact of Covid‐19 on work and workers of all occupations, reveal research gaps, and help managers to adapt to organizations amid the pandemic. This review is based on a sample of 258 papers from Web of Science and Scopus databases. Quantitative and qualitative analysis indicated a vast majority of studies focused on frontline healthcare workers and a lack of empirical investigation on managers' work. We show how literature has been addressing different aspects of work (e.g., workers' health, working conditions, procedures, protection equipment, remote working, etc.) in the various economic sectors. We discuss the results in light of ergonomics and psychodynamics of work, two disciplines that conceive work and organization as intimately connected, and that can assist managers in meeting the difficulties brought by the pandemic. We highlight that considering the construction of health, interindividual variability, subjective relation to work, supportive workplace environment, and organizational and individual capabilities can play a key role in successfully adapting and transforming organizations in the current scenario.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Covid‐19 pandemic has raised questions on how human life is and should be organized. Organizations and societies certainly have had their lives radically and rapidly transformed, whereas the effects of the pandemic crisis in the long term are uncertain. Studies in various fields of management have been trying to understand the impact of this crisis on organizations. The literature reveals diverse transformations in business models (Ritter & Pedersen, 2020 ), innovation strategies (Chesbrough, 2020 ), corporate social responsibility, marketing (He & Harris, 2020 ), value chains (Verbeke, 2020 ), supply chains (Ivanov, 2020 ), consumer behavior (Sheth, 2020 ), and management education (Beech & Anseel, 2020 ; Brammer & Clark, 2020 ).

One aspect that permeates the aforementioned transformations, but deserves more scholarly attention, is work—including managers' work. The centrality of work in the construction of workers' health, social relations, and organizations (Dejours & Deranty, 2010 ) points to the need to advance in the subject. The impact of Covid‐19 on work and workers is diverse. After its outbreak, some of the ongoing transformations, such as the digitalization of work and the growing prevalence of mental health disorders, have accelerated. Also, novel discussions emerged on topics, including changes in work procedures, personal protection equipment (PPE), infection control strategies, behavior, gender, and ethics. In the scholarly literature, however, there is still much to explore on the impact of Covid‐19 on work and workers, and the implications for management. In one of the few articles on this subject, Carnevale and Hatak ( 2020 ) explore both challenges and opportunities that the pandemic represents to human resources management (HRM), and claim that management scholars should coordinate research on it. In particular, the authors affirm the importance of integrating different disciplines so that HRM issues can be addressed in an integrative way. As Donthu and Gustafsson ( 2020 , p. 284) state, Covid‐19 is “a sharp reminder that pandemics, like other rarely occurring catastrophes, have happened in the past and will continue to happen in the future.”

This article, therefore, has the following objectives: (1) to review the current academic knowledge of the impact of Covid‐19 on work and workers, thus revealing research gaps and managerial challenges; and (2) to help organizations understand how to adapt work while remaining competitive. To achieve the objectives, we conducted a systematic literature review based on scientific databases and discussed our findings based on concepts of ergonomics and psychodynamics of work (PDW), thus complementing Carnevale and Hatak ( 2020 ). Both disciplines can contribute to the field of management by promoting organizational improvements that are less prescriptive (top‐down approach) and more communicative (bottom‐up approach), in line with the need to manage broad organizational changes imposed by the pandemic crisis.

On the one hand, ergonomics investigates the relationships between workers and other components of a system, such as tools, equipment, and technologies. Interventions in ergonomics aim to enhance human wellbeing and system performance as well (International Ergonomics Association [IEA], 2020 ). On the other hand, PDW investigates the relationship between work, worker's health, and suffering associated with work organization. In PDW, interventions afford spaces of discussion where workers can rely on each other to disclose and debate aspects of work that usually remain silenced, for example, fears, constraints, and difficulties (Dashtipour & Vidaillet, 2017 ; Dejours, 1992 , 2012 ). Both disciplines presume the centrality of work in organizations (Dejours & Deranty, 2010 ) and the importance of workers' involvement and participation (Bolis et al., 2012 ; Dejours, 2009 ) so that organizations can better deal with intrinsic and extrinsic variability in the production of goods or services (Falzon, 2004 ). In the context of drastic changes, such as the Covid‐19 pandemic, considering workers and their subjectivity can be decisive for organizations. Workers at all organizational levels can contribute with their knowledge, skills, and creativity to help organizations restructure and adapt to new realities. Also, by understanding how work is being affected by the pandemic, leaders can help their organizations respond more effectively in the short term and be better prepared in the long term.

Systematic literature reviews are based on objective, rigorous criteria that allow transparency and replicability by other researchers. In this sense, systematic reviews differ from literature reviews, which traditionally have author bias (Tranfield et al., 2003 ). Our systematic literature review thus comprised three main phases: definition of the sample of publications to be analyzed; descriptive and network analysis; and qualitative classification and analysis. Next, each phase is described.

2.1. Definition of the sample

The definition of the sample of the systematic literature review began with a search in ISI Web of Science and Scopus databases for publications fitting the following conditions: (i) directly related to Covid‐19: search for (covid‐19 OR coronavirus OR sars‐cov) in the title, abstract, or keywords; AND (ii) work‐related issues: search for (work* OR job OR labor OR labor) in the title or keywords. In addition, only documents written in English, published in 2020, and classified as “article” or “review” were selected. The search was conducted on July 23, 2020.

The selection process of articles was conducted in steps as recommended by the PRISMA protocol (Moher et al., 2015 ) (Figure ​ (Figure1). 1 ). After removing duplicate records, an initial screening based on article titles and abstracts was performed to eliminate articles in which Covid‐19 and work or workers were not the core topic.

Selection process of the articles

In the eligibility step, the following exclusion criteria were applied:

• articles in which work or workers were not the core topic;
• articles focused on minimizing the spread of Covid‐19 that do not result in organizational or work process changes (e.g., testing workers for infection);
• articles based on opinions on Covid‐19 that have no clear impact on work;
• articles with religious biases;
• articles focused on public policies or initiatives that have no clear impact on work;
• articles consisting of tributes to a particular professional category;
• articles analyzing specific procedures without mentioning the impact on work; and 
• research articles whose results were not submitted to a peer‐review process.

To reduce the risk of bias, screening and eligibility steps were conducted by two researchers, who independently evaluated the articles. In the screening step, only articles with both researchers' rejection were excluded. In case of divergence, the article was accepted for the following step. In the eligibility step, the two researchers diverged on 47 articles, which was solved by a discussion with a third researcher. The final sample consisted of 258 articles (see Supporting Information Appendix A).

2.2. Descriptive and network analysis

In the second phase, the sample was analyzed based on its metadata. The most frequent journals and the most cited papers were identified with MS Excel. Then, the journal co‐citation and keyword networks were generated with VOSviewer software (van Eck & Waltman, 2010 ).

Each type of information was analyzed to obtain an initial overview of the sample (see Section 3.1 ). The keyword network was particularly relevant to identify thematic clusters, which also concerns the next research phase dedicated to categorization and qualitative analysis of the articles.

2.3. Classification and qualitative content analysis

The third phase of the systematic review was performed to investigate the content of the articles. Two researchers read mainly the abstract and discussion sections and independently organized the articles on an MS Excel sheet. The content of each paper was thus extracted and categorized in two dimensions: economic sector and aspects of work addressed (e.g., effects on workers' health, working conditions, etc.). The definition of the aspects of work was based on keyword network analysis (developed in the previous phase) and qualitative analysis of the papers. Divergences on how to define them were solved by reaching a consensus among the researchers.

The classification in two dimensions allowed to identify groups of articles discussing similar topics. By extracting and gathering information from each group, it was possible to understand what has been published about the impact of Covid‐19 on work and workers (see Section 3.2 ). The results revealed research gaps and led to a discussion on how organizations can adapt work to protect workers amid the Covid‐19 pandemic.

3.1. Descriptive and network analysis

The main journals, that is, the ones with three or more articles in the sample, are listed in Table ​ Table1. 1 . Around 20% of the articles are concentrated in 6% (12 out of 189) of the journals. Journals in the field of health predominate, except for the Sustainability (Switzerland) journal, whose scope includes environmental, cultural, economic, and social sustainability. Furthermore, only nine articles from journals of business, administration, or economics are in the sample, indicating that the impact of Covid‐19 on work has been little explored in these fields.

Main journals of the sample

Table ​ Table2 2 lists the most cited articles in the sample. Since they were published in 2020, the high number of citations (according to the Scopus database) indicates that the topic is in evidence in the scientific literature. Only one of the articles in the list addresses the impact of Covid‐19 on the workforce in general (Zhang et al., 2020a); all others focus on healthcare workers (HCWs) concerning the following issues: mental health (Chew et al., 2020; Lai et al., 2020a; Lu et al, 2020; Shanafelt et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020b), changes in work organization (Forrester et al., 2020; Wong et al., 2020), respirators and PPE (Ranney et al., 2020; Bartoszko et al., 2020), contagion reduction strategies (Prem et al., 2020), and effects of school closure on workers' childcare obligations (Bayham & Fenichel, 2020).

Most cited articles in the sample

In the journal co‐citation network (Figure ​ (Figure2), 2 ), the nodes represent the journals cited by the articles in the sample. The strength of the connection between two nodes is proportional to how many times the two respective journals were co‐cited (i.e., cited together) by the articles in the sample, whereas the size of a node reflects how many times the respective journal was cited by the papers in the sample. Thus, the network highlights the main sources that have been consulted by researchers interested in work‐related issues in times of Covid‐19. The restriction to elaborate the network is that the journal has been cited at least 10 times, which resulted in a network with 36 nodes. Again, journals in the field of health predominate. Highlights include the New England Journal of Medicine , The Lancet , and JAMA ( Journal of American Medical Association ), but the network also shows journals with a wider scope, such as PLOS One , Nature , and Science . From an organizational point of view, it is worth mentioning the journal Sustainability ( Switzerland ). Journals on oncology are grouped in a separate yellow cluster (upper right region of Figure ​ Figure2), 2 ), thus suggesting this topic has been addressed rather separately from the others.

Journal co‐citation network

Figure ​ Figure3 3 shows the keyword network of the articles in the sample. Node sizes are proportional to how many times the respective keywords were cited by the articles. Two nodes are connected if the respective keywords were co‐cited, that is, mentioned by an article, and the strength of the connection between two nodes is proportional to how many times the respective keywords were co‐cited. The restriction to generate this network is that each keyword was cited at least twice, which resulted in 99 nodes. Since almost all articles of the sample cite Covid‐19 or its variations (e.g., pandemic, novel coronavirus) as keywords, these terms were excluded from the network to make it easier to visualize.

Keyword network

The network in Figure ​ Figure3 3 confirms the content of the most cited articles (Table ​ (Table2) 2 ) in the sense of showing a strong presence of studies on HCWs (node “hcw”), and mental health and related issues, for example, depression, stress, and anxiety (purple and yellow clusters, the lower left region of Figure ​ Figure3). 3 ). The topic, “changes in work procedures” (orange cluster, the upper region, including nodes “workflow” and “leadership”), seems to be linked to ethical issues at work. Respirators and PPE (nodes “ppe,” “masks,” “safety”) are represented by the pink and green clusters (right region). Contagion reduction strategies, previously identified in Table ​ Table2, 2 , are here verified in the red cluster (central right region, nodes “epidemiology,” and “infection control”) as well as in the brown cluster (bottom region, nodes linked to “knowledge” and “attitudes”). Effects on society and work are represented in the light blue and dark blue clusters (upper left region), which include remote working, telemedicine, academia, and flexible work. The keyword network analysis suggests that articles could be organized in two dimensions: economic sector (where the healthcare sector predominates) and aspects of work (e.g., mental health, work procedures, ethical issues, PPE).

3.2. Qualitative analysis: Literature content and gaps

The qualitative analysis of the sample allowed to categorize the articles in groups according to the dimensions “aspects of work” and “economic sector,” as shown in Table ​ Table3 3 .

Number of articles regarding the aspects of work and economic sectors addressed

Note : The same article can be classified in more than one aspect of work.

The groups of articles were analyzed with respect to content and literature gaps. Due to space limitation and size differences, some groups were analyzed separately and others together, as indicated by the boxes in Table ​ Table3. 3 . Only in the case of the health sector, the seven aspects of work were separately analyzed (Section 3.2.1 ). The education sector (Section 3.2.3 ) and other economic sectors (Section 3.2.3 ) were analyzed without explicit distinction between the aspects of work.

3.2.1. HCWs and healthcare organizations

In this section, we analyze the papers whose focus is HCWs. On the one hand, various professional categories have been considered by the literature, such as nurses (Duncan, 2020; Howarth et al., 2020), surgeons (Berardi et al., 2020; Ducournau et al., 2020), community health workers (Ballard et al., 2020; Bhaumik et al., 2020), psychologists (Geoffroy et al., 2020; McBride et al., 2020; Thompson & Kramer, 2020), etc. On the other hand, we have identified the opportunity for future research on other occupations existing in hospitals (e.g., attendants, security guards and cleaning professionals, administrators and executives, heads of teams or sectors); public servants and other professionals directly involved in public health crisis committees; and workers (including researchers) engaged in developing or producing drugs, vaccines, supplies, or equipment to fight Covid‐19. Next, the papers classified in the health sector are analyzed regarding different aspects of work.

Effects on workers' health

The effects on frontline HCWs' health, and especially mental health, have been widely addressed. Physical and emotional stress can compromise their performance during and after the pandemic, given the risk of posttraumatic stress disorder (Ornell et al., 2020).

In this group of articles, approximately half of them correspond to quantitative research related to epidemiological surveys. Editorials and expert commentaries represent about a third of the articles and have mainly addressed workers' mental health. The remaining articles are action research on the development of psychological support systems for HCWs, and qualitative empirical research on frontline work in hospitals.

The quantitative research papers concentrate on measuring the physical and psychological symptoms in frontline HCWs, thereby evidencing this category has been especially vulnerable. The symptoms include fatigue, headache, stress, irritability, anxiety, fear, depression, burnout, suicidal ideation, insomnia, and eating and mental disorders. Prolonged use of masks can compromise work performance as it contributes to headaches (Ong et al., 2020) and skin reactions (Hu et al., 2020).

While most literature on HCWs' health has been limited to describing their psychological symptoms, some studies have gone further, aiming to identify risk or protective factors too. The main mental health risk factors for HCWs are pre‐existing medical conditions; being younger; having less professional experience; having dependent children; having infected family members; being quarantined for a long period of time; suffering social stigma; being exposed to infected patients or colleagues; poor workplace infection control; lack of practical or organizational support; lack of PPE or not feeling safe with the one provided; and work overload (Kisely et al., 2020; Mhango et al., 2020; Sharif et al., 2020). Conversely, mental health protective factors include: having moderate rather than extreme concerns regarding family members; clear communication among hospital staff; practical and psychological support; adequate rest; and access to appropriate PPE (Kisely et al., 2020; Sharif et al., 2020). Hence, we note that among the risk and protective factors, there are aspects related to organizational support under the direct influence of healthcare managers.

Qualitative research in this group of articles is based on interviews and investigates the day‐to‐day and difficulties of frontline HCWs. In general, it corroborates that the risk and protective factors for the mental health of HCWs are directly associated with the level of organizational support. Other sources of anxiety identified by qualitative studies are: feeling helpless in the face of insufficient personnel, equipment, or materials; drastic changes in team composition and work organization, thus having to learn new tasks; social stigma due to daily contact with infected patients; and lack of reliable, clear, and updated information. Often there is insufficient information on the following issues: protocols to treat Covid‐19; leaders, command structure, and situation of patients in the hospital; and evolution of the pandemic in the local and national contexts (Fawaz & Samaha, 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Shanafelt et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020).

Among frontline HCWs, women are a group at risk for various reasons. Nurses are mostly women having to perform tasks that require a high level of contact with patients, which increases fear of contagion. Care work is often underpaid and women are generally paid less than men. In addition, more than men, women are expected to make sacrifices for the benefit of others (e.g., children, elderly, or diseased people) whom women are also supposed to care for at home. Consequently, women are at greater risk of being overburdened by domestic tasks (Bahn et al., 2020; López‐Atanes et al., 2020; McLaren et al., 2020).

Qualitative studies, as well as expert commentaries, have discussed aspects that can enhance HCWs' morale. For example, having their sacrifices recognized by patients, government officials, and the general population is a source of motivation, although it cannot be directly controlled. But other aspects are under higher control by HCWs and their leaders, and we can interpret them as strategies to mitigate health problems. These strategies can be classified into two interrelated types.

The first type of strategy provides symbolic recognition and emotional support, but without directly addressing objective working conditions. For example: disseminating messages of work recognition from senior colleagues, managers, and public authorities; creating dialogue channels with supervisors; strengthening social bonds and support among coworkers; training in individual skills for “resilience,” such as breathing and relaxation techniques, and activities to reduce stress and anxiety; and creating psychological support systems (Fawaz & Samaha, 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Shanafelt et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020). These systems rely on mental health professionals and provide HCWs with channels to externalize and treat their anguish, fears, and anxiety in individual or collective approaches. Support can occur either via videoconference or face‐to‐face meeting in spaces adapted to avoid contagion. Smartphone applications can aid in monitoring sleep, diet, and mood. Action research studies show the design and implementation of psychological support systems for frontline HCWs (Albott et al., 2020; Blake et al., 2020; Cole et al., 2020; Geoffroy et al., 2020).

The second type of strategy improves work organization, organizational support, and objective working conditions. For example, providing adequate PPE, updated protocols, Covid‐19 tests, as well as transportation, housing, and food aid for HCWs; creating physical spaces for workers to rest or relax; reserving the last minutes of the shift for discussions and reflections; and assuring adequate remuneration, workload, and dimensioning of the workforce (Fawaz & Samaha, 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Shanafelt et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020). By advancing in these concrete issues, leaders of health systems and organizations also show frontline HCWs respect and recognition.

We emphasize that workers' mental health is inseparable from adequate working conditions, which includes providing enough time to recover from fatigue. When working conditions deteriorate and workers feel exhausted, rest becomes a priority in the free time. Consequently, initiatives such as training in stress reduction techniques and implementing psychological support systems become ineffective and subject to low compliance (Chen et al., 2020 ). As noted by Belingheri et al. (2020), long work hours, additional shifts, sleep disorders, and stress can damage the immune system and make workers more vulnerable to illnesses and infections. Adequate sleep is therefore essential to preserve the health and performance of the workforce.

Although healthcare managers may face severe restrictions, thus becoming unable to provide ideal working conditions, their attitude toward subordinates has a major effect on the morale of frontline HCWs. Listening to their demands, creating spaces for discussion, and showing efforts to improve organizational support are examples of attitudes that demonstrate recognition and consideration, thereby positively affecting workers (Shanafelt et al., 2020). Conversely, when HCWs are not given a chance to verbalize their difficulties, omissions and absences tend to occur more frequently (Ornell et al., 2020).

Concerning research gaps, we have identified the following opportunities: (i) investigating the work, challenges, and limitations of healthcare team leaders and managers, whose jobs directly affect the level of organizational support for frontline HCWs; (ii) understanding the obstacles to improve working conditions of HCWs, which may include managerial, union, legal, and governmental issues; and (iii) advancing in qualitative empirical research. Since quantitative epidemiological studies have been predominant, expert commentaries based on scholarly literature and professional experience have helped to mitigate the lack of qualitative research.

Changes in work processes

In this group, the articles focus on providing guidelines or protocols to treat patients who are infected or suspected of being infected with Covid‐19. Research topics include patient treatment and management (Bettinelli et al., 2020; Calvo et al., 2020); use of materials and equipment (Dine et al., 2020); (re)organization of spaces (Ahmed et al., 2020); setting priorities (Davies, 2020; Li, 2020); and workforce management, as HCWs need to be tested and trained in view of the novel situation (Cabas et al., 2020). There are both general and specific recommendations for each type of task or health profession. The instructions are mainly based on medical literature, recommendations from health agencies, and the professional experience of frontline HCWs.

The articles of this group are essentially normative, in the sense of establishing what (ideally) should be done to treat patients and simultaneously protect HCWs. Thus, given the peak of hospitalizations and recurrent resources shortage, it is still to be elucidated how HCWs have been dealing with difficulties in complying with the ideal procedures. This gap is partly filled by articles focused on the protection of HCWs, which will be commented on next.

Protection equipment

The articles classified in this group focus on procedures, PPE, and other artifacts designed to reduce the risk of contagion by Covid‐19. The main topics are: (i) training and protocols for the use of masks and other PPE (Tan et al., 2020; Thomas et al., 2020); (ii) performance comparison of face masks (Bartoszko et al., 2020; Iannone et al., 2020); and (iii) protection strategies against the risk of contagion considering the scarcity of materials. The last topic includes low‐cost techniques, artifacts, and solutions for workforce protection (Chien et al., 2020; Cordier et al., 2020; Ibrahim et al., 2020), as well as procedures, heuristics, or decision‐making algorithms to optimize the use of PPE (Cetintepe & Ilhan, 2020; Forrester et al., 2020; Jones et al., 2020; Kampf et al., 2020). HCWs have thus mobilized their experience, intelligence, and creativity to mitigate the consequences of a shortage of PPE and other materials.

Protection strategies in the context of a shortage of materials have so far mostly referred to frontline HCWs' and their supervisors' responsibility. It is still unclear how hospital and health system managers of middle and top ranks should solve or work around this issue.

Working conditions

The articles classified in this group address different aspects of working conditions, such as availability of PPE (Almaghrabi et al, 2020; Felice et al., 2020), Covid‐19 infection control (Mhango et al., 2020), workload (Belingheri et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020), training, supervision (Ballard et al., 2020), financial support and protection for family members (Bayham & Fenichel, 2020), and labor rights (Ghilarducci & Farmand, 2020). The set of articles shows that, amid the pandemic, working conditions have suffered severe restrictions, thereby threatening workers' health.

Although working conditions are essential to fight the pandemic, we note that so far, literature has not clarified how the different levels of management in health organizations and systems can ensure adequate working conditions—or, at least, improve them.

Human resources: Knowledge, attitudes, and practices

Based on self‐reported surveys, the articles in this group evaluate knowledge, attitudes, and practices of HCWs regarding the following issues: general characteristics and forms of transmission of Covid‐19; protocols to treat infected patients; and protocols to protect the workforce, including the correct use of PPE (Asaad et al., 2020; Moro et al., 2020; Saqlain et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020).

The articles suggest that the level of knowledge of HCWs varies significantly across and within countries. Also, it tends to be higher among physicians and nurses (Asaad et al., 2020), and among professionals with higher experience or qualifications (Kamate et al., 2020; Olum et al., 2020).

Exposure of HCWs to excessive, contradictory, or unreliable information available in the media and social networks is a common problem, which should encourage healthcare managers to develop training and information strategies. Self‐administered questionnaires assessing workers' knowledge involve relatively low costs and can be part of these strategies (Huynh et al., 2020; Schwerdtl et al., 2020; Tran et al., 2020).

Remote working

Telemedicine health services (THS) have become critical given the restrictions caused by the pandemic. Even under lockdowns, THS enable advices on self‐care and several routine, nonurgent health problems.

THS have the following advantages: (i) reducing personal contact and displacement to healthcare units, thus reducing the risk of contamination; (ii) reducing fear and anxiety among the population; (iii) enabling HCWs in regions that are less affected by Covid‐19 to attend to patients living in severely affected regions, thereby alleviating work overload among HCWs. The last advantage, however, depends on managers of healthcare units and systems cooperating so as to elaborate common frameworks (Chauhan et al., 2020).

According to Chauhan et al. (2020), THS can be provided in the following modalities: real‐time videoconferencing; remote monitoring with instruments operated by patients (e.g., thermometer, blood pressure instrument, pulse oximetry), without HCWs' physical presence; and robotic carts, screens, or medical equipment controlled by HCWs (Celesti et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020).

Scholarly literature on THS has so far focused on real‐time videoconferencing, probably since the other modalities demand more investment and a higher level of preparedness, which many healthcare systems do not have. However, the other modalities could become more available if governments and healthcare managers invest in THS solutions in the long term.

The few empirical studies on patients' satisfaction with THS via videoconferencing have reported a high level of satisfaction (Green et al., 2020; Watts et al., 2020). HCWs are nevertheless aware of its risks and limitations, and they have been discussing how to make the best use of it (Thompson & Kramer, 2020; Waller et al., 2020). The resulting clinical recommendations shall be used by healthcare managers to provide adequate training and support for HCWs engaged in THS.

Ethics and other topics

The papers addressing ethical issues show that dilemmas play a major role in frontline HCWs' struggle against Covid‐19. These dilemmas represent contradictory, difficult demands under situations of enormous restrictions and uncertainties. Society's expectations and professional ethics push HCWs to expose themselves to considerable risk whenever necessary to treat patients; however, even rich countries have often suffered from scarce resources to handle the pandemic. This may result in HCWs facing traumatic situations in which neither are they able to properly treat patients nor protect themselves and their families. Feelings such as anxiety, guilt, and confusion may arise, consequently impairing mental health (Kalra et al., 2020; Pawlikowski, 2020).

Based on Menon and Padhy's (2020) classification and other papers addressing ethics in healthcare work, three types of dilemmas faced by frontline HCWs can be identified:

• 1. How should I allocate respirators and other resources when they are insufficient to provide all patients adequate treatment?
• 2. How can I balance the duty to treat patients, on the one hand; and the preoccupation with contracting Covid‐19, falling sick, and contaminating my family, on the other hand?
• 3. If I am feeling exhausted or if I have Covid‐19 symptoms, can I talk frankly to my co‐workers and stay home without being discriminated? Or should I keep working so as to avoid discrimination, at the cost of risking my and my co‐workers' health?

Medical literature has traditionally focused on the first dilemma (Kalra et al., 2020), while the papers of our sample actually focus more on the second than on the first dilemma (Culbertson, 2020; Iserson, 2020; McConnell, 2020; Solnica et al., 2020). Only one of the papers explicitly points to the third dilemma (Menon & Padhy, 2020), which may reflect the scarcity of qualitative research on HCWs fighting the pandemic. The second and third dilemmas are directly involved in HCWs' decision between attending or not to work, which is also a matter of workforce safety, wellbeing, and productivity that should concern healthcare managers too.

There are no straightforward, universal answers to the aforementioned dilemmas. Each HCW faces them uniquely since the risks and available symbolic and material resources vary along time and among individuals and organizations. Healthcare team leaders and managers can nevertheless use the existing literature on ethical dilemmas to improve training and encourage open discussions, thus alleviating the emotional burden of HCWs and showing them support. Managerial and political actions that improve working conditions and promote HCWs' health can also provide them more resources to handle ethical dilemmas (Menon & Padhy, 2020; Pawlikowski, 2020).

3.2.2. Education workers and higher education institutions (HEIs)

Academic work was the second most studied professional category. HEIs and academic community, that is, professors, researchers, students, and university staff, had to adapt work due to the pandemic.

Korbel and Stegle's (2020) survey was responded to by 881 participants, including professors, support staff, and trainees from several countries. Among the respondents, 77% affirmed that their institution had been almost totally closed down, with only essential services staff on site; 19% stated a partial closedown, with half or less of the activities being performed; and the others related an almost completely operational institution.

Studies on changes in academic work have raised interrelated issues that also constitute research opportunities. These issues regard:

• 1. Psychological and emotional support . Quarantine has undermined students' performance and made them feel detached from family, fellows, and friends (Meo et al., 2020). Moderate to extreme levels of anxiety, depression, and stress were reported by 50.43% of 2530 academic workers in Spain (Odriozola‐González et al., 2020). Scientists, especially young ones with short‐term contracts, are prone to become preoccupied with their careers (Korbel & Stegler, 2020). Their work as “someone whose job is to think, reflect and critique” may be seen as nonurgent and irrelevant amid the Covid‐19 outbreak (Hage, 2020, p. 1);
• 2. Workload . Educators and scholars need support to deal with the additional burden (Cleland et al., 2020). Educators have performed extra work and extra role tasks, such as providing emotional support and free extra help to students. They have felt constrained to do so, sometimes to the detriment of family time (Fagell, 2020), a problem that particularly affects women (Boncori, 2020; Gao & Sai, 2020; Korbel & Stegle, 2020). Other important issues are the virtual invasion of home space (Boncori, 2020) and the inaccurate expectations of productivity held by co‐workers and supervisors (Ryvasy & Michalak, 2020);
• 3. Resources and infrastructure . Both faculty members and students have had problems on this matter, which includes difficulties with Wi‐Fi connection (Reyes‐Chua et al., 2020), online teaching, software, and technical failures (Pather et al., 2020);
• 4. Skills . Educators lack training on technological tools for teaching and assessment (Reyes‐Chua et al., 2020), new pedagogies, effective communication strategies (Pather et al., 2020), and skills to succeed as a remote worker (Ryvasy & Michalak, 2020);
• 5. Research . Editors and reviewers can discuss how to adapt the peer‐review process given that publishing on topics related to Covid‐19 are strategic, but simultaneously academics have been facing work overload during the pandemic (Eisen et al., 2020).

Faced with so many challenges, HEIs should keep records of transformations in the field of research, training, and education (Cleland et al., 2020).

3.2.3. Other economic sectors

Although studies on workers of other economic sectors are few, they provide valuable contributions not only to understand the impact of Covid‐19 on specific sectors but also on management and organizations in general.

Research on manufacturing firms has revealed effects regarding flexible work arrangement (FWA), job satisfaction, and innovative work behavior. On the one hand, FWA can positively influence work‐life balance, psychological wellbeing, work motivation, and work effectiveness, especially among millennial employees. Work effectiveness, in particular, can benefit from adaptability (Sedaju et al., 2020). On the other hand, the fear of being replaced by digital technologies has increased. Manufacturing employees may be impelled to show more engagement and innovation since they face the threat of job loss amid the Covid‐19 crisis and the rapid advances in digital technologies and artificial intelligence. Younger employees seem to be more comfortable with and more capable of coping with organizational changes caused by the pandemic (Ren et al., 2020). These effects must be considered by managers in light of sociocultural and economic diversity (Sedaju et al., 2020; Tran et al., 2020).

The impact of the pandemic on information technology (IT) is addressed from two perspectives: cybersecurity and HRM. With much more staff working from home than many IT teams have likely ever prepared for, organizations are especially vulnerable, which affects both IT professionals and workers in general. As people lack cyber knowledge, IT professionals are urged to develop new methods of work control, measures, and policies to ensure digital security for teleworkers, who may be required to install security software (Chapman, 2020). This can result in increased pressure, permanent alertness, feeling of being watched, and fear of 24/7 reporting, thereby impairing internal communication, relationships, organizational climate, job satisfaction, and wellbeing (Prasad et al., 2020). In a post‐Covid‐19 world, HRM departments may be reoriented to broaden the recruitment approach and move away from traditional funnels, that is, seeking professionals with different backgrounds and not only graduates of top universities (Chapman, 2020).

In the food industry, specifically in meat and poultry processing facilities, effective prevention and control of Covid‐19 entail challenges in different dimensions: operations (e.g., maintaining physical distancing, including during breaks and when entering or exiting facilities), communication and culture (e.g., dealing with language and cultural barriers), and HRM (e.g., employees incentivized to work despite feeling sick, particularly when there are productivity bonuses) (Dyal et al., 2020). Despite the vital contribution of catering, retail, and other sectors of the food industry to societies, and the fact that many workers of these sectors cannot work remotely, the impact of Covid‐19 on them remains virtually unaddressed in the scientific literature.

In the airline industry, as travel restrictions increase, the most affected employees are the ones responsible for flight operations and handling passengers. Business models have been differently impacted: regional, lean airline companies have received more passengers, while major airlines have contracted routes out. Lean organizations benefit from lower costs and may substitute part of major airline capacity (Sobieralski, 2020).

Lastly, in the apparel industry retailers' shops are being closed with zero turnovers, which leads to ordering cancellation. Due to the relation with the fashion industry, entire seasons may be lost (Sen et al., 2020).

4. DISCUSSION: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM ERGONOMICS AND PDW

In the previous section, the analysis of the sample of articles allowed us to reach our first research objective, that is, to reveal the research gaps and managerial challenges concerning the impact of Covid‐19 on work and workers. To achieve the second objective, namely, helping organizations understand how to adapt work while remaining competitive, we will discuss the results based on concepts of ergonomics and PDW (Figure ​ (Figure4). 4 ). Both disciplines not only focus on workers' activities and challenges but also conceive work, organization, and management inseparably.

Impact on work and managerial challenges from ergonomics and psychodynamics of work (PDW) perspectives

4.1. Adapting work to workers

The pandemic has caused a major impact on work, impelling managers to change work organization and production systems. As advised by ergonomics, this should be done by adapting work to workers and seeking a balance between system performance and human wellbeing (IEA, 2020 ). This concept can be applied to all managerial challenges found in the systematic literature review and serve as a basis for our discussion. Nevertheless, the actual ability of companies to adapt work and promote safety in the specific context of the pandemic, and how this may depend on variables such as company size and type of employment contract, is a matter that deserves further empirical investigation.

4.2. Construction of health and centrality of work

Amid the health risks in the Covid‐19 pandemic scenario, we highlight that work plays a key role in the dynamic construction of health . In contrast to the classic view focused on reducing health risks, the perspectives of ergonomics and PDW argue that work can foster physical and mental health associated with social wellbeing. This relates to another concept of PDW, namely the centrality of work (Dejours & Deranty, 2010 ), according to which work is central to the lives of individuals and the construction of society. These two concepts can assist managers in dealing with the challenge of developing support systems for workers .

4.3. Multifaceted characteristic of health at work

Besides the fear of contamination by Covid‐19, managers should not forget various other aspects affecting workers' health. These aspects may be directly, indirectly, or even not connected to Covid‐19. Ergonomics can help to map them based on different domains of specialization: physical‐environmental, psychosocial‐cognitive, and organizational (Falzon, 2004 ). Regarding the physical‐environmental aspects, the risk of exposure to Covid‐19 should certainly be reduced. This has been studied in scholarly literature, especially in the context of hospital care, and can be associated with the managerial challenge of dealing with resource limitation and supply chain management , given the risk of a shortage of PPE, tests, drugs, and vaccines. However, managers must not neglect other physical and environmental risks, for example, those related to biomechanical issues—including when remote working is implemented. When working at home, uncomfortable equipment and furniture, long work hours, and inappropriate postures can damage workers' health (Davis et al., 2020 ).

Managers should also strive to minimize psychosocial‐cognitive risks. Literature is extensive on this subject, which can be associated with the managerial challenge of promoting psychological wellbeing . It should be reminded that workers under considerable risk of contamination by Covid‐19, for example, the ones in the frontline of manufacturing and service industries, are also vulnerable to emotional and ethical issues, which may generate stress, anxiety, depression, and burnout (Silva & Neto, 2021 ). The impact of the pandemic on people's personal and professional lives can make them feel isolated. Thus, strategies for physical distancing should be created, taking into account workers' mental health and support systems (Bentley et al., 2016 ).

Finally, organizational aspects—which particularly concerns macroergonomics (Brown, 1990 ; Hendrick & Kleiner, 2001 )—must be considered since the pandemic has imposed changes and limitations on production processes and work in organization. Two aspects that managers should particularly consider are job insecurity and work‐life balance. The first is inherent to the economic consequences of the pandemic, which results in managerial challenges linked to economic vulnerabilities , especially in developing countries (Khanna, 2020 ). The second aspect is strongly related to remote working . Other aspects can also be mentioned: increased work rhythm, greater cognitive effort, need for training, and rethinking professional development. Therefore, organizational aspects are not only related to human resources management  but also to the centrality of work to individuals' lives and society.

4.4. Task, activity, and variability

An important theoretical contribution of ergonomics is the distinction between task and activity (Wisner, 1995 ). Task is the work prescribed a priori by the organization, whereas activity is the work effectively carried out by the worker. An accurate view of work situations must take into account the difference between task and activity since tasks themselves are not enough to determine what workers should do. They have to deal with variability and unforeseen events in the inputs and processes of production, which can be intensified due to events that either cannot be or had not been accurately foreseen by managers, such as a pandemic. Among the challenges identified in the systematic literature review, adapting general recommendations for each organization , protective equipment , and strategies for physical distancing indicate that organizations must update procedures. Managers should consider the reality of and variability in activities so that new prescriptions are effective. For example, if the provided PPE greatly hinders the performance of activities, it is likely not to be used by workers; or if the new recommendations are perceived as too bureaucratic, they are likely not to be implemented. Prescriptions are thus more likely to be effective when based on a detailed analysis of work activities, which affords realistic expectations on what workers can actually achieve and endure (Daniellou et al., 2010 ).

4.5. Developing the manager–worker relationship and creating supportive workplace environments

Ergonomics defend that work should first be understood to be adequately transformed (Guérin et al., 2007 ). By developing a close and trustful relationship with workers, managers become more able to understand activities and how to successfully improve work organization. Also, workers should be allowed to be actively involved in (re)designing work, as argued by constructive ergonomics (Arnoud & Falzon, 2015 ). This participatory approach increases the chances of organizational changes to be actually embraced by workers, therefore avoiding waste of resources in solutions eventually rejected by workers. In this sense, we point to the managerial challenge of involving workers from all hierarchical levels .

PDW, in its turn, provides concepts that help to develop  supportive workplace environments . The subjective relationship with work is key in the construction or deterioration of health (Dejours, 2015 , p. 2), but managers' role in this process is often poorly discussed. From the point of view of PDW, work‐related pathogenic suffering typically begins when the relationship between individual and organization is blocked, and when the worker has done all he/she could to deal with difficulties and dissatisfactions, but eventually achieved no success. This means the worker has exploited all personal resources (e.g., knowledge, abilities, creativity, vigor, support from family) and is now unable to meet and vulnerable to the rigid demands of the organization, such as tasks, goals, and deadlines. Hence enabling workers to discuss tasks and organizational choices is essential to preserve workers' health (Dejours, 1992 , p. 52). Nevertheless, it depends on creating a supportive workplace environment, where workers can rely on their colleagues and supervisors to open up about their difficulties without fear of pejorative judgments (Brunoro et al., 2020 ). We stress managers' shared responsibility in this process. Regarding work‐related health issues, simply implementing solutions (e.g., providing external psychological support) without addressing work organization is unlikely to be successful.

Furthermore, we argue that supportive workplace environments contribute to enabling environments from the point of view of ergonomics. Enabling environments mean “debatable” organizations where workers can use their knowledge to adapt its characteristics (e.g., rules, goals, layout, equipment), thus developing both organizational and individual capabilities (Arnoud & Falzon, 2015 ). This can help managers, especially in the pandemic scenario, where many assumptions underlying previous organizational choices do not apply anymore. Managers are, therefore, impelled to collaborate with their subordinates to diagnose a complex, novel situation and reorganize work based on updated assumptions and realistic expectations.

With respect to the service industry, so far, it has not been investigated how to establish sanitary safety rules for clients (e.g., use of masks, physical distancing) and how to deal with clients that do not or refuse to comply with these rules. These issues are challenging, but they are also an opportunity for managers to express support for frontline service workers. According to the principles of ergonomics (Arnoud & Falzon, 2015 ; Guérin et al., 2007 ), the rules for clients should be designed together with frontline workers and consider the specificities of the work situation.

We can observe novel ways in which work is central to but also made invisible by individuals and societies. For example, many occupations officially recognized as “essential work,” such as the ones responsible for cleaning and delivery services, have so far received little scholarly attention. In various countries, these occupations have been subject to a downgrade in labor rights and working conditions, which means governments are failing in properly recognizing their contribution to society. Healthcare work also deserves to be discussed vis‐à‐vis effective labor rights and working conditions, and not only the “heroic” sacrifice societies expect from them. It is also a matter of social injustice that “essential workers” often work under poor working conditions, earn low wages, and cannot refuse unsafe work due to financial restrictions, thus risking their lives and their families. Concerning teleworking, middle and particularly top managers should be aware that, in general, women and workers of lower ranks have fewer chances to keep high productivity levels. Various factors are involved, for example, children or elderly to care for, support from family members, house size, availability and cost of office supplies, the comfort of office furniture, and quality of internet connection. Hence managers should investigate these factors, strive to provide organizational support and be careful in defining reasonable goals, thereby forestalling exhaustion of the workforce.

We add that, due to the vast impact of the pandemic, people may be induced to believe that all should make sacrifices to maintain social functioning, which can particularly affect workers of sectors such as health and education. The expectations on subordinates, colleagues, and even ourselves, are therefore prone to be unrealistic since individuals face different conditions. According to ergonomics, understanding interindividual variability among workers is key to designing sound and suitable work guidelines, processes, and goals (Guérin et al., 2007 ).

Lastly, although the healthcare sector has been predominant in the literature of Covid‐19 effects on work, it provides managers from all sectors important lessons:

• 1. Creating spaces for workers to express their difficulties without fear of retaliation or workplace discrimination is essential to understand what managers can do and how they can tailor solutions considering the specificities of each team and organization. Furthermore, it shows workers support and consideration, thus helping to alleviate their emotional burden and foster trust in the workplace.
• 2. Given the enormous restrictions imposed by the Covid‐19 pandemic and its consequences, managers' capacities are also expected to diminish. Thereby we stress that not only what managers can effectively do counts but also how they relate with their subordinates and communicate them their efforts and limitations in improving organizational support.

5. CONCLUSION

The scholarly literature on the impact of the Covid‐19 pandemic on work has so far focused on frontline HCWs. This unbalanced coverage is not only understandable but also points to many research opportunities. Literature is rapidly advancing and providing healthcare managers valuable ideas to reduce the negative impact of the pandemic on HCWs, for example, improving training, information, and communication strategies; adapting procedures to optimize the use of PPE; investing in solutions that increase the protection of HCWs and their families; and supporting HCWs engaged in telemedicine. Scholars can contribute by making analogous advances in other economic sectors, that is, investigating the specific challenges of each occupation—including those understood as “essential work”—and providing managers recommendations. Even in the health sector, though, it is still not clear how middle and top managers' work is being affected, nor how they can solve or resolve the challenges imposed by the pandemic. Additionally, given the need for physical distancing, researchers of work sciences can benefit from discussing and exploring new methods for field research, thereby becoming more able to investigate the impact of Covid‐19 on the various occupations.

Regarding the limitations of this study, we have not focused on how decisions by public authorities affect work, although this is an important issue to respond to the pandemic and also an opportunity for future research. Also, when selecting the papers of the sample, conference papers were not considered due to the reliability of information and the sample size.

The Covid‐19 pandemic implies numerous managerial challenges. In this article, we raised some concepts from the scientific disciplines of ergonomics and PDW that can assist managers in dealing with or overcoming these challenges. Specifically, we pointed to the construction of health, interindividual diversity and variability, subjective relationship with work, supportive workplace environment, and organizational and individual capabilities. More than before, increasing the flexibility and resilience of organizations through a communicational approach, and involving workers in decision‐making processes, can be critical success factors.

Supporting information

Supporting information.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was financed by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES, Brazil)—Grant nb.: 1808446, Finance Code 001. 

Sigahi, T. F. A. C. , Kawasaki, B. C. , Bolis, I. , &  Morioka, S. N. (2021). A systematic review on the impacts of Covid‐19 on work: Contributions and a path forward from the perspectives of ergonomics and psychodynamics of work . Hum. Factors Man . 31 , 375–388. 10.1002/hfm.20889 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

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