extended metaphor essay topics

Extended Metaphor

Extended Metaphor Definition

What is an extended metaphor? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

An extended metaphor is a metaphor that unfolds across multiple lines or even paragraphs of a text, making use of multiple interrelated metaphors within an overarching one. So while "life is a highway" is a simple metaphor, it becomes an extended metaphor when you say: "Life is a highway that takes us through green pastures, vast deserts, and rocky mountains. Sometimes your car breaks down or you run out of gas, and sometimes you get lost. Friends are the roadmaps that help you get where you're going." Now you've spread the idea of "life = highway" across multiple sentences and related ideas, and created an extended metaphor.

Some additional key details about extended metaphors:

• Extended metaphors are distinguished from regular metaphors by their complexity (or how many different metaphors they contain) as well as their length. Extended metaphors can span an entire story or poem, or just a few clauses of the same sentence.
• As in a regular metaphor, the comparisons created in an extended metaphor are not meant to be taken literally. For instance, nobody is suggesting that life is literally a highway when they use that common metaphor. Rather, extended metaphors are figurative —they create meaning beyond the literal meanings of their words.
• The terms "conceit" and "extended metaphor" can be used interchangeably, though "conceit" is also sometimes used in an even more specialized way than "extended metaphor" is.

Extended Metaphor Pronunciation

Here's how to pronounce extended metaphor: ex- tend -id met -uh-fore

Extended Metaphors in Depth

All metaphors can be broken down into two elements: a tenor and a vehicle.

• The tenor is the thing a metaphor describes.
• The vehicle is the thing to which the tenor is compared.

For instance, in the metaphor " Life is a highway ," life is the tenor because it's the thing being described, while "highway" is the vehicle because it's the thing life is being compared to. The metaphor operates by borrowing key attributes from the vehicle and attributing them to the tenor. The "Life is a highway" metaphor takes the attributes of a highway—including its association with journeys, adventures, speed, and the fact that we all travel them side-by-side—and connects them to life.

The Structure of Extended Metaphors

Extended metaphors have a main tenor and vehicle that make up the overarching or primary metaphor, but they also make use of other tenors and vehicles as the metaphor becomes more elaborate. Let's continue to use the example from above:

Life is a highway that takes us through green pastures, vast deserts, and rocky mountains. Sometimes your car breaks down or you run out of gas, and sometimes you get lost. Friends are the roadmaps that help you get where you're going.

Within the overarching metaphor of "life is a highway," several other metaphors make up the extended metaphor, and each one has its own tenor and vehicle : the various stages of life are like the varied landscapes of a large country; the challenges of life are like car troubles ; friends are like road maps .

Extended Metaphor and Related Terms

People often use the term extended metaphor to refer to things that aren't actually extended metaphors. Here are a couple things that people often—and understandably—confuse for extended metaphors:

• Recurring metaphors: An extended metaphor is not just a single metaphor that repeats throughout a text. For instance, in Shakespeare's Othello , the image of a monster is used several times throughout the book as a metaphor for jealousy. The repeated use of the same metaphor in multiple places throughout a text does not make it an example of an extended metaphor; an extended metaphor must contain different tenors and vehicles, that together fit into the metaphor of the overarching tenor and vehicle.
• Symbolism: Symbolism is a literary device in which a writer uses one thing—usually a physical object or phenomenon—to represent something more abstract. A famous example of a symbol in literature occurs in To Kill a Mockingbird , when Atticus tells his children Jem and Scout that it's a sin to kill a mockingbird because mockingbirds cause no harm to anyone; they just sing. Because of these traits, mockingbirds in the novel symbolize innocence and beauty, while killing a mockingbird symbolizes an act of senseless cruelty. Although it might seem like this constitutes an extended metaphor, it doesn't. The main reason is that the story about the mockingbird is supposed to be literally true—it's not a figurative use of language to illustrate or describe something else. Furthermore, in stories that use symbolism, writers don't clearly state what a symbol represents, whereas in metaphor they typically do, making it clear that the use of language is actually figurative.
• Allegories: An allegory is a story in which essentially every character and event have symbolic meanings. The main difference between an allegory and an extended metaphor is that, in allegories, writers don't clearly state what each character or event represents, whereas in a metaphor they typically would, making it clear that the use of language is figurative. Also, metaphors state or imply that one thing is another thing, while in allegories (as with symbolism more generally), one thing might stand for another thing, but it isn't said to actually be that other thing.

Extended Metaphor and Conceit

Conceit is a term that is similar to extended metaphor. In fact, conceit is often used as a synonym for metaphor—and to use it in that way is perfectly correct. However, conceit also has another, slightly more complicated definition. Here's a quick run-down of the two different ways the terms can be used:

• Conceit can be a synonym for extended metaphor: Most often, conceit is used interchangeably with extended metaphor to describe any metaphor or analogy that spans a longer passage in a work of literature.
• Conceit can refer to a particularly fanciful or even strained extended metaphor: However, for some people (and literary critics in particular) the word conceit carries the connotation of a fanciful or elaborate extended metaphor in which an unlikely, far-fetched, or strained comparison is made between two things. The term is most often used to refer to such metaphors in Renaissance literature and the poetry of the 17th century (such as "metaphysical poetry"). To learn more about this definition, take a look at our entry on conceit .

Extended Metaphor Examples

The following examples of extended metaphors are taken from literature, music, and speeches, showing just how prevalent extended metaphors are in all sorts of writing.

Extended Metaphor in Frost's "The Road Not Taken"

Robert Frost's famous poem is an example of an extended metaphor in which the tenor (or the thing being spoken about) is never stated explicitly—but it's clear that the poet is using the road less traveled as a metaphor for leading an unconventional way of life. The entire poem, then, is an extended metaphor.

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not travel both And be one traveler, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could To where it bent in the undergrowth; Then took the other, as just as fair, And having perhaps the better claim, Because it was grassy and wanted wear; Though as for that the passing there Had worn them really about the same, And both that morning equally lay In leaves no step had trodden black. Oh, I kept the first for another day! Yet knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted if I should ever come back. I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I— I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference.

Extended Metaphor in As You Like It

This passage, spoken by the character Jaques in Shakespeare's As You Like It , has become rather famous for its initial metaphor of "All the world's a stage." But not as many people know that the famous line is just the beginning of an extended metaphor, which contains several metaphors within it, using the language of scenes, actors, and parts. Over all, the lines develop an extended metaphor of remarkable breadth.

JAQUES: All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. At first, the infant, Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms.... ...Last scene of all, That ends this strange eventful history, Is second childishness and mere oblivion, Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.

To analyze just one part of this extended metaphor, in the final sentence Jaques speaks of the "last scene of all," referencing death—when each of us "plays the part" of someone who has regressed to a childlike state, having lost everything: teeth, vision, taste, and, finally, life.

Extended Metaphor in Romeo and Juliet

Romeo delivers this monologue in Act 2, Scene 2 of Romeo and Juliet , after sneaking into Juliet's garden and catching a glimpse of her on her balcony. Romeo compares Juliet to a radiant sun, and then extends the metaphor by entreating her to "kill the envious moon."

But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief, That thou her maid art far more fair than she: Be not her maid, since she is envious; Her vestal livery is but sick and green And none but fools do wear it; cast it off.

The moon is used here as a symbol of virginity, so when Romeo states that Juliet is the moon's maid, he means that she's still a virgin, and when he entreats her to "kill the moon" and "cast off" its vestal livery (a garment worn by virgins), he's suggesting that she should part with her virginity. The metaphor of the sun (Juliet) killing the moon (her virginity) works because the sun can be said to "kill the moon" each day—in the sense that its bright light drowns out the light of the moon in the sky, making it invisible.

Extended Metaphor in Katy Perry's "Firework"

In "Firework," Perry uses an extended metaphor to compare a firework to an inner "spark" of resilience which, in the context of the song, stands in opposition to the dreary experience of life and the difficulty of communicating with others. Here's an excerpt of the lyrics that captures the extended metaphor in action:

Do you know that there's still a chance for you? 'Cause there's a spark in you You just gotta ignite the light And let it shine Just own the night Like the Fourth of July 'Cause baby, you're a firework C'mon, show 'em what you're worth Make 'em go "Aah, aah, aah" As you shoot across the sky Baby, you're a firework C'mon, let your colors burst Make 'em go, "Aah, aah, aah" You're gonna leave them all in awe, awe, awe

Extended Metaphor in Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" Speech

The following quote from Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech is a clear example of extended metaphor, as MLK builds upon the initial metaphor of "cashing a check" in each successive sentence:

In a sense we’ve come to our nation’s capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the “unalienable Rights” of “Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice.

Why Do Writers Use Extended Metaphors?

Writers use extended metaphors for many of the same reasons they use metaphors in general:

• To explain or describe an abstract concept in vivid and memorable terms.
• To help the reader make a new, insightful connection between two different entities that might not have seemed related.
• To help communicate personal or imaginary experiences in terms to which readers can relate.
• To lead the reader to surprising and important discoveries by connecting different spheres of experience and language. The figurative meaning that metaphors create can help a reader to see the world or a concept in a new way.

Other Helpful Extended Metaphor Resources

• The Wikipedia Page on Extended Metaphor : An in-depth explanation of metaphor, its history, and how it relates to other figures of speech.
• The Dictionary Definition of Metaphor : A basic definition and etymology of the term—it comes from the Greek metaphora, meaning "a transfer."
• Extended Metaphors on YouTube : A video of Jaques' famous "seven ages" monologue, as delivered by Kevin Kline, in Kenneth Branagh's As You Like It .
• The Road Not Taken aloud : Audio of Robert Frost's poem "The Road Not Taken."

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Extended Metaphor: Definition, Meaning, and Examples in Literature

Hannah Yang

The extended metaphor is a powerful literary device for exploring complex ideas. We encounter extended metaphors in all forms of writing, from Shakespearean plays to fantasy novels to song lyrics in pop culture.

So what exactly is an extended metaphor, and what purpose does it serve? The short answer is that an extended metaphor is a metaphor that continues throughout multiple sentences, multiple paragraphs, or even an entire poem or story.

In this article, we’ll explain how this literary device works, give you five simple steps for building your own extended metaphor, and show you some famous examples of extended metaphors from literature.

Extended Metaphor Definition and Meaning: What Is It?

What’s the structure of an extended metaphor, when you should and shouldn’t use extended metaphors, how to use an extended metaphor in 5 steps, extended metaphor examples in literature, conclusion on the extended metaphor.

A metaphor is a type of figurative language that describes something using a comparison. Here are some common examples of simple metaphors that you might hear every day:

• “Time is money.”
• “I’m a diamond in the rough.”
• “Laughter is the best medicine.”

An extended metaphor refers to a metaphor that the author explores in more detail than a normal metaphor. It can go on for multiple sentences or paragraphs in a work of prose, or multiple lines or stanzas in a poem.

Sometimes, an extended metaphor can even be referenced repeatedly throughout the course of a story or novel, collecting new meaning as the story progresses.

Here’s a quick example of the difference between a metaphor and an extended metaphor.

• Metaphor: “Her fury was a hammer.”
• Extended metaphor: “Her fury was a hammer. Whenever she got angry, everyone around her looked like a nail. She wished she could wield her anger like a precision tool, but with a hammer there was no room for finesse, only blunt violence. Every time she got in an argument, out came the hammer, striking at not just the person she was arguing with but also her parents, her siblings, and even her pet dog.”

An extended metaphor takes a central comparison and expands it using more specific details.

Usually, an extended metaphor starts with a simple statement equating two things, such as “Her fury was a hammer.” Then, the author weaves in more details to explain what they mean by that comparison. Each detail should add more nuance to the initial statement, helping the reader understand what the author is trying to say.

A well-written extended metaphor can be very powerful, but an unnecessary or convoluted one can make your reader scratch their heads or even stop reading entirely.

So how do you know when you should and shouldn’t use extended metaphors?

The answer is simple: just remember that a good extended metaphor should explain a complex concept in a necessary, interesting, and clear way.

The three keywords in the sentence above are necessary , interesting , and clear . A successful extended metaphor needs to meet all three criteria.

Let’s look at each of these rules in more detail.

Rule 1: Make Sure It’s Necessary

Necessary means that the concept you’re explaining with your extended metaphor is truly important enough to warrant a detailed explanation. If the extended metaphor isn’t essential to the story, it will only waste your readers’ time.

Consider this example of an unnecessary extended metaphor: “My mosquito bites were an open flame, and I was a moth. They burned me every time I scratched them, but I just couldn’t stop.”

This metaphor makes sense, but unless the narrator’s mosquito bites are particularly important to the story, the reader doesn’t need to hear about them in so much detail.

You could just write, “I couldn’t stop scratching my mosquito bites,” and move on, rather than devoting an entire paragraph to explaining how itchy they are.

Rule 2: Make Sure It’s Interesting

Interesting means that the metaphor provides an original, funny, or thought-provoking insight. If your extended metaphor isn’t interesting, it will just bore your readers.

Consider this example of an uninteresting extended metaphor: “Her eyes were a blue ocean. I wanted to swim in them forever.”

This metaphor makes sense—we can all picture the color of the ocean—so the meaning is clear. Unfortunately, it’s not particularly interesting. Blue eyes are often compared to oceans, so this paragraph feels clichéd and unnecessary.

ProWritingAid’s Clichés Report highlights overused expressions in your writing so you can make sure your metaphors are original.

Rule 3: Make Sure It’s Clear

Finally, the third keyword, clear, means that the metaphor helps the reader understand the complex concept better. If your extended metaphor isn’t clear, it will baffle your readers and make them scratch their heads.

Consider this example of an unclear extended metaphor: “Human society is a trash can full of plastic water bottles that have been set on fire. It’s hot, smells bad, and releases a lot of fumes.”

This metaphor is interesting—we’ve certainly never heard the phrase “a trash can full of plastic water bottles that have been set on fire” before—but it isn’t clear.

It doesn’t help us understand human society any better than we did before we read it. If anything, it just made us feel more confused.

Remember those three keywords— necessary , interesting , and clear —and make sure all your extended metaphors fulfill all three. This way‌, your extended metaphors add to your writing, rather than detract from it.

Writing an extended metaphor might feel daunting at first, but you can break it down into simple steps. Here are five steps you can use to build an extended metaphor.

Step 1: Find a Concept You Need to Explain

The purpose of an extended metaphor is to explain a concept more clearly to the reader, so the first step is to identify a complex concept that you need to explain.

Here are some examples of things that you might want to describe using an extended metaphor:

• Abstract emotions (such as grief, anger, joy)
• Philosophical concepts (such as death, justice, human society)
• Characters’ personalities
• Unusual settings, situations, or environments

Step 2: Choose a Concrete Image to Explain That Concept

Now that you know the complex concept you need to explain, it’s time to choose a point of reference to help you describe it to the reader.

Think about concrete images, objects, or references that are already clear in your reader’s mind.

For example, you might come up with the following comparisons to use as your primary metaphor:

• Her grief was a wall she couldn’t cross.
• Justice is a boat sailing through stormy waters.
• My brother has the personality of a cactus.

In each of these cases, an abstract concept (grief, justice, and a character’s personality) is compared to a specific concrete image (a wall, a boat, and a cactus). The concrete images help the reader understand what the author is trying to say about the abstract concept.

Step 3: Check the Comparison Is Necessary, Interesting, and Clear

Remember those three rules we talked about earlier? Now’s the time to make sure your initial metaphor passes all three tests: necessary, interesting, and clear.

If your central comparison is unnecessary, uninteresting, or unclear, it will just bog down your writing. It’s common for amateur writers to include extended metaphors they don’t need as an attempt to sound profound or original.

Step 4: Expand on the Central Comparison

The central comparison on its own is just a normal metaphor. To make it an extended metaphor, you need to extend it over several lines or passages.

This extension often involves smaller metaphors that expound on the primary metaphor. It takes the central comparison and examines the question, “How are these two things alike?” and provides a more detailed and specific answer.

Let’s look at an example from Step 2: “My brother has the personality of a cactus.” How exactly is the brother’s personality similar to a cactus? Maybe he pricks everyone who gets too close because he prefers to be left alone. Or maybe he can survive in harsh conditions, subsisting with barely any sleep, water, or human contact.

Adding these specific details turns a normal metaphor into an extended metaphor.

Step 5: Repeat the Comparison Throughout the Piece

If you want to, you can revisit your extended metaphor multiple times throughout your book , poem , or story . That way, you can create a sustained metaphor that gathers meaning over time.

This final step is optional, but can be extremely powerful if used correctly. Just make sure each new repetition is also necessary, interesting, and clear.

Here are some extended metaphor examples from works of English literature: novels, plays, poetry, and nonfiction.

In each example, see if you can spot the main comparison and the ways the author expands on it throughout the passage.

Example 1: The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood

“I wait. I compose myself. My self is a thing I must now compose, as one composes a speech. What I must present is a made thing, not something born.”

Example 2: As You Like It by William Shakespeare

“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts.”

Example 3: The Magicians by Lev Grossman

“But walking along Fifth Avenue in Brooklyn, in his black overcoat and his gray interview suit, Quentin knew he wasn’t happy.

Why not? He had painstakingly assembled all the ingredients of happiness. He had performed all the necessary rituals, spoken the words, lit the candles, made the sacrifices. But happiness, like a disobedient spirit, refused to come. He couldn’t think what else to do.”

Example 4: The Fifth Season by N.K. Jemisin

“So you must stay Essun, and Essun will have to make do with the broken bits of herself that Jija has left behind. You’ll jigsaw them together however you can, caulk in the odd bits with willpower wherever they don’t quite fit, ignore the occasional sounds of grinding and cracking. As long as nothing important breaks, right? You’ll get by. You have no choice. Not as long as one of your children could be alive.”

Example 5: On Writing by Stephen King

“I did as she suggested, entering the College of Education at UMO and emerging four years later with a teacher’s certificate… sort of like a golden retriever emerging from a pond with a dead duck in its jaws. It was dead, all right. I couldn’t find a teaching job and so went to work at New Franklin Laundry for wages not much higher than those I had been making at Worumbo Mills and Weaving four years before.”

Example 6: “To a Young Poet” by Edna St. Vincent Millay

“Time cannot break the bird's wing from the bird. Bird and wing together Go down, one feather.

No thing that ever flew, Not the lark, not you, Can die as others do.”

Example 7: Palimpsest by Catherynne Valente

“The keeping of lists was for November an exercise kin to the repeating of a rosary. She considered it neither obsessive nor compulsive, but a ritual, an essential ordering of the world into tall, thin jars containing perfect nouns.”

There you have it—a complete guide to extended metaphors! I hope this article helped you learn more about this versatile literary device.

Don’t forget to run your writing through ProWritingAid to make sure you’re using figurative language as successfully as possible. Our tool can help you avoid clichés, strengthen your imagery, and more.

Can you think of any extended metaphors from your favorite books? Share them with us in the comments!

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Hannah Yang is a speculative fiction writer who writes about all things strange and surreal. Her work has appeared in Analog Science Fiction, Apex Magazine, The Dark, and elsewhere, and two of her stories have been finalists for the Locus Award. Her favorite hobbies include watercolor painting, playing guitar, and rock climbing. You can follow her work on hannahyang.com, or subscribe to her newsletter for publication updates.

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Literary Devices

Literary devices, terms, and elements, extended metaphor, definition of extended metaphor.

An extended metaphor, sometimes known as a conceit or sustained metaphor, is a metaphor that an author develops over the course of many lines or even an entire work of literature. An extended metaphor may act as a theme in the work of literature because it is repeated and changes forms as it reappears over and over again. Extended metaphors are complicated than a metaphor that an author only uses once in that extended metaphors more deeply explore the similarities between the original thing and the thing to which it is being compared.

Common Examples of Extended Metaphor

Extended metaphors can be found in famous speeches, such as in the following examples:

No man can fully grasp how far and how fast we have come, but condense, if you will, the 50,000 years of man’s recorded history in a time span of but a half-century. Stated in these terms, we know very little about the first 40 years, except at the end of them advanced man had learned to use the skins of animals to cover them. Then about 10 years ago, under this standard, man emerged from his caves to construct other kinds of shelter. Only five years ago man learned to write and use a cart with wheels. Christianity began less than two years ago. The printing press came this year, and then less than two months ago, during this whole 50-year span of human history, the steam engine provided a new source of power. Newton explored the meaning of gravity. Last month electric lights and telephones and automobiles and airplanes became available. Only last week did we develop penicillin and television and nuclear power, and now if America’s new spacecraft succeeds in reaching Venus, we will have literally reached the stars before midnight tonight.

—John F. Kennedy, “We Choose to go to the Moon” speech, 1962

Kennedy uses the extended metaphor of condensing human history to explore how far we’ve come in a short time and to show that space travel is only a short leap away.

In a sense we’ve come to our nation’s capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the “unalienable Rights” of “Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked “insufficient funds.”

—Martin Luther King, Jr. “I Have a Dream” speech, 1963

While this is not the most famous part of King’s speech, this is a good extended metaphor example in that he compares the promises to the American people to funds that all should inherit.

Significance of Extended Metaphor in Literature

Extended metaphors are most frequently found in poetry, as the author can develop the comparisons throughout the course of the entire poem. William Shakespeare also used many extended metaphors in his plays, treating with the same metaphorical base throughout an entire monologue. Extended metaphors can also sometimes be found in prose, though they often are not sustained for an entire work. There is one notable exception, however, which is the allegory, which has a very similar definition to the definition of extended metaphor. An allegory is considered to be a form of an extended metaphor used to convey a deeper spiritual or moral truth, or to illustrate a historical event or political situation.

Like metaphors, extended metaphors create new synaptic connections for the reader and broaden an audience’s understanding of the world. Extended metaphors can either help better explain the world or complicate it by comparing things that a reader previously had not thought of as alike.

Examples of Extended Metaphor in Literature

JAQUES: All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages.

( As You Like It by William Shakespeare)

In this example of extended metaphor, Shakespeare compares the world to a stage and people to actors. He goes on to develop this metaphor by exploring the seven different stages of life.

So was I once myself a swinger of birches. And so I dream of going back to be. It’s when I’m weary of considerations, And life is too much like a pathless wood Where your face burns and tickles with the cobwebs Broken across it, and one eye is weeping From a twig’s having lashed across it open. I’d like to get away from earth awhile And then come back to it and begin over.

(“Birches” by Robert Frost)

Robert Frost used many examples of extended metaphor in his poetry, and in “Birches” he compares the exhaustion of living to “a pathless wood” that torments the traveller with obstacles like cobwebs and twigs. He revisits this metaphor in his more famous poem “The Road Not Taken.”

I wanted to be sure to reach you; though my ship was on the way it got caught in some moorings. I am always tying up and then deciding to depart. In storms and at sunset, with the metallic coils of the tide around my fathomless arms, I am unable to understand the forms of my vanity or I am hard alee with my Polish rudder in my hand and the sun sinking. To you I offer my hull and the tattered cordage of my will. The terrible channels where the wind drives me against the brown lips of the reeds are not all behind me. Yet I trust the sanity of my vessel; and if it sinks, it may well be in answer to the reasoning of the eternal voices, the waves which have kept me from reaching you.

(“To The Harbormaster” by Frank O’Hara)

In this poem, Frank O’Hara sustains a metaphor from the beginning to end about a man who is like a seafarer attempting to reach his lover. O’Hara uses many words and images relating to this idea, from verbs like “tying up” and “depart” to nouns such as “moorings,” “tide,” “rudder,” “vessel,” and so on.

Historical fact: People stopped being people in 1913. That was the year Henry Ford put his cars on rollers and made his workers adopt the speed of the assembly line. At first, workers rebelled. They quit in droves, unable to accustom their bodies to the new pace of the age. Since then, however, the adaptation has been passed down: we’ve all inherited it to some degree, so that we plug right into joy-sticks and remotes, to repetitive motions of a hundred kinds. But in 1922 it was still a new thing to be a machine.

( Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides)

This example from Jeffrey Eugenides’s novel Middlesex compares humans to machines and shows how the metaphor was at first uncomfortable to human beings and yet has become pervasive in our culture. This is an interesting example of extended metaphor because Eugenides shows how it has affected us all, and how metaphor can become reality.

Test Your Knowledge of Extended Metaphor

1. Choose the correct extended metaphor definition from the following statements: A. A metaphor that an author develops throughout several lines or the entire work of literature. B. A metaphor that an author uses just once to illustrate a comparison. C. A literary device only used in poems that compares two things that are completely dissimilar. [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #1″]Answer: A is the correct answer. [/spoiler]

2. Consider the following passage from William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet :

ROMEO: But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Who is already sick and pale with grief, That thou her maid art far more fair than she: Be not her maid, since she is envious; Her vestal livery is but sick and green And none but fools do wear it; cast it off…. Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven, Having some business, do entreat her eyes To twinkle in their spheres till they return. What if her eyes were there, they in her head? The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars, As daylight doth a lamp; her eyes in heaven Would through the airy region stream so bright That birds would sing and think it were not night.

Is this excerpt an example of extended metaphor?

A. No; Romeo calls Juliet “the sun” just once and never repeats that comparison. B. Yes; Romeo compares Juliet to the sun and reinforces this metaphor by speaking of several other celestial bodies, include the “envious moon,” stars, and heaven. C. Yes; this is an example of an extended metaphor acting as an allegory because there is deeper moral truth in Romeo’s comparison of Juliet to the sun.

[spoiler title=”Answer to Question #2″]Answer: B is the correct answer.[/spoiler]

3. What extended metaphor does Robert Frost employ in his poem “The Road Not Taken”?

I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I— I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference.

A. Robert Frost traveled through a literal forest and reminisces about it fondly. B. Robert Frost regrets the life choices he has made and blames a long-ago journey through a forest for the poor outcome. C. Robert Frost compares the divergence of two paths in a wood to the choices he has made in life and explores the idea of choosing a less common life choice. [spoiler title=”Answer to Question #3″]Answer: C is the correct answer.[/spoiler]

Columns > Published on March 8th, 2012

Drag it Out: How to Use Extended Metaphors for Maximum Effect

I love metaphors, and I find them useful in all facets of my life as a way to understand new concepts by comparing them to familiar concepts. Take my work history, for instance. In my early post-college days, I worked as a nanny for a family with three young boys. My days were spent running around making sure everyone was where they were supposed to be, had what they needed, and was doing what they were supposed to be doing. My next job had me working as an administrative assistant at a shipyard, supporting an office of 40 men. My days were spent running around making sure everyone was where they were supposed to be, had what they needed, and was doing what they were supposed to be doing. I often told people I went from babysitting three little boys to babysitting forty big boys.  The environments were entirely different (for one, I never had to wear a hard hat while I was a nanny) but overall, my role as caretaker to the people I worked with wasn’t much different.

In literature, metaphors are used much the same way. Writers employ metaphors to draw comparisons between two disparate concepts, using one to make a point about another. As you probably remember from your school days, a metaphor is most simply expressed as a simile. Similes are marked by the use of the words “like” or “as” to compare two (or more) elements For example:

Her eyes are bright like the sun.

Her eyes are bright as the sun.

In the examples above, “like” and “as” are used to link the concepts of “her eyes” with the properties of “the sun”—brightness, in particular. Metaphors eliminate the need for a specific word to make the comparison. Instead, metaphors link two ideas directly without the intermediary. On the most basic level, the sentence above could be written as a metaphor like this:

Her eyes are the sun.

The connection between her eyes and the sun (and all its properties) is here made direct and, in a sense, stronger. The sentence and the image it conveys are much stronger without the “like” or “as” to weaken it.

Extended Metaphors

Extended metaphors (also known as a conceit ) take two (sometimes more) concepts and evaluate them over a series of sentences to create a more intricate picture of how one thing is like the other. Extended metaphors use complex logic such as the following to flesh out the argument:

• Compare (how one is like the other)
• Contrast (how one in unlike the other)
• Juxtaposition (placing both ideas together)
• Analogy (the relationship of one to the other)
• Extrapolation (inferring or hypothesizing the unknown about one using the known of the other)

There are no particular parameters defined for how long or short an extended metaphor can be, but in typical use, an extended metaphor is more than one sentence that draws the comparison and can go as long as a whole paragraph, poem, story, novel, etc.

A Master at Work

Anne Bradstreet was born in England in 1612 and emigrated to New England in 1630. She was the daughter of English nobility, and her father and husband were both involved in the government of the Boston settlement. Though Anne came from an educated family, and enjoyed reading and learning, she lived the life of any wife in those early, difficult days in the new world—she dealt with illness, food shortages, terrible weather, eight children, and long absences from her husband.  For solace, she wrote, but she didn’t share it beyond her tight circle of friends and family because the Puritan society she lived in didn’t value the opinions of woman, and certainly would have shunned her for making her thoughts public.

However, Anne had some fans. In 1650, her brother-in-law secretly copied some of her poems and had them published in England without her knowledge or permission. The following poem summarizes some of Anne’s thoughts on the event.

The Author to Her Book

Thou ill-formed offspring of my feeble brain, Who after birth did'st by my side remain, Till snatcht from thence by friends, less wise than true, Who thee abroad exposed to public view, Made thee in rags, halting to th' press to trudge, Where errors were not lessened (all may judge). At thy return my blushing was not small, My rambling brat (in print) should mother call. I cast thee by as one unfit for light, The visage was so irksome in my sight, Yet being mine own, at length affection would Thy blemishes amend, if so I could. I washed thy face, but more defects I saw, And rubbing off a spot, still made a flaw. I stretcht thy joints to make thee even feet, Yet still thou run'st more hobbling than is meet. In better dress to trim thee was my mind, But nought save home-spun cloth, i' th' house I find. In this array, 'mongst vulgars may'st thou roam. In critic's hands, beware thou dost not come, And take thy way where yet thou art not known. If for thy father askt, say, thou hadst none; And for thy mother, she alas is poor, Which caused her thus to send thee out of door.

Note how she weaves her experience of motherhood into a discussion of her book as a child snatched from her before she was ready. Riddled, of course, with what would have been then considered appropriate feminine submission and self-deprecation (“blushing”), we modern readers can nonetheless infer that she may actually be a little proud of her “rambling brat (in print)” for after attempting to “cast [it] by as once unfit for light” she ultimately notes that “affection” caused her to attempt revision of her work. Note also how she uses terminology that can apply to both a child and book or piece of writing.

• “Feet” – can be physical feet (the things at the end of legs) or poetic feet (the metrical unit that determines how syllables are accented in a poem, e.g. iambic pentameter which means five feet/line of poetry that use the iambic meter)
• “Rags” – clothing or the fabric cover of a book
• “Rubbing off a spot” – wiping dirt from a child’s face or rubbing out a word or letter on a page

Despite just being an excellent example of extended metaphor, there is much to find exceptional about this poem. For one, any writer or artist can relate to her attitude of apprehension about how her art will be received by “the critics”. I personally share her desire to continuously revise, even if it doesn’t do any real good. Pair this nearly universal notion for artists of any medium in any generation with the knowledge of the kind of culture Anne wrote her poems in, and it’s hard not to be in awe of this woman.

Metaphor as Rhetoric

Sure, every author from Shakespeare to Jim Goad has used extended metaphor and finding an example is easy as G-o-o-g-l-e. Off the page, too, there are plenty of places where extended metaphor is used heavily. In fact, I would argue that the extended metaphor is the go-to device for most rhetoric, whether written, spoken, sung, or even presented visually.

A few years back when I lived in Seattle, I sometimes passed street protesters with signs depicting Obama with a Hitler mustache. When I stopped to learn what the heck they were protesting in that way, I found out they were handing out written materials that likened the Obama healthcare reform bill to the medical experimentation performed on inmates of the concentration camps during the Second World War. The Obama as Hitler image paired with the literature and the talking points the protesters had prepared to created a dynamic rhetoric that included extended metaphor in a variety of mediums. While I thought their method was inflammatory and their message untrue, I understood why they used strongest possible metaphorical comparison to make their point—it attracted a crowd. Had they just passed out a brochure detailing their objections to the proposed policy, likely no one would have paid attention. As it was, scores of people stopped to curse the crew or give a high five or take a picture.

Using the audiences’ experience, prejudices, assumptions, and connotations about one element to make a statement about another is a very strong way to make a point because it affects both the logical and the emotional centers of the audiences’ brain. The protesters hijacked the notion of Hitler and all the negative emotions that surround the man, his policies, and his actions to make a statement about an entirely different man with different policies, and decidedly different actions. However, using only one or two lines of comparison between the two, they were able to connect the entire negative image of Hitler with Obama.

Best Practices

 When building an extended metaphor—whether for the purpose of rhetoric or just plain storytelling—there are some practices to keep in mind.

• Juxtapose known concepts with unknown or lesser known concepts. Take a cue from Anne Bradstreet and combine something you (or your audience) know well with something that is new to you (or your audience). Anne gave birth to 8 children in her lifetime, so the anxieties of motherhood were known to her. On the contrary, becoming a published (and relatively well-received) author was entirely new to her. To conceptualize her experience, she wrote about in terms of a mother too soon separated from a child.
• Be consistent. Ensure the language you choose equally applies to both situations. A great way to keep this in check is to follow the rules of the grammatical concept of parallelism . In a parallel structured sentence, all parts of the sentence should be grammatically equal. For instance, verbs should be in the same tense (though they can be differently conjugated according to the subject), nouns should be the same number (either singular or plural), and the subject/verb structure should be equal. An example of a parallel sentence:

Before Sarah took a shower, she fed the dog and the cat, she woke the baby and the husband, she made the bed and the breakfast.

Note how the verbs fed/woke/made are all in the same tense (past perfect) and each verb applies equally to each element: fed – dog/cat, woke – baby/husband, made – bed/breakfast. Also the structure of each of the independent clauses includes the same order of elements; subject (she), verb (fed/woke/made), object (dog/baby/bed) and object (cat/husband/breakfast). Each element parallels the other two elements in structure and tense thus creating a balanced sentence.

Extended metaphors can also benefits from this sort of balance. Like the parallel structure, verbs and other word choices should apply equally to either element. As I noted above, Bradstreet’s use of “feet”, “rags” and “rubbing off a spot” were all terms that applied to either a child or a book.

• Avoid clichés. Pretty please don’t compare relearning an old skill to “riding a bike” or conquering an old fear to “getting back in the saddle.” Maybe mentioning it is cliché in itself, but the most successful metaphors are the most unexpected. It could be said that comparing one iconic political figure to another (Hitler and Obama) is not unexpected, and it could even be said that parenthood and creating art have been compared before—there is NOTHING new under the sun, right?—but previous examples aside, there are some great unexpected metaphors yet to explore. Unexpected doesn't have to mean complex, either, just unique but believable. Here’s a recent example from the "Shouts and Murmurs" section of the New Yorker that compares breaking up with a baseball trade.

“Trade” by Simon Rich

Josh always knew, on some level, that it was possible for him to get traded. He’d seen it happen to dozens of guys over the years, including some of his closest friends. It was part of the game. Still, he had never been traded himself, and he was having some trouble accepting it. He kept expecting someone to tap him on the shoulder and tell him the whole thing was a joke. “Here’s your stuff,” Kate said, dropping a duffelbag at his feet. “Goodbye.” Josh stared at her for a moment, expecting some kind of encouragement or sympathy. But Kate just stood there, her eyelids fluttering with impatience. “So that’s it, then,” Josh said. “After three and a half years.” “What do you want me to say?” Kate snapped. He picked up the bag and slung it wearily over his shoulder. There was nothing he could do. When your girlfriend decides to trade you, you’re through. “I just don’t get it!” Josh shouted, over the din of the jukebox. “I thought things were going really well.” “They weren’t,” his brother Craig said. “The writing was on the wall.” “Really?” “Oh, yeah. Your record’s been sinking all year. You told me yourself you had a five-argument losing streak. And then there were all those errors.” Josh nodded ruefully. There had been a lot of errors this year. Forty-five Missed Compliments, three Forgotten Events, twelve Accidental Insults—he’d been playing like a rookie. Craig squeezed his little brother’s shoulder. “I’m sorry, Josh,” he said. “Believe me, I know what you’re going through. Remember in ’04-’05? When Zoe traded me?” Josh nodded. They’d come to the same bar then. “I was devastated,” Craig said. “I’d just taken her to Henry’s Inn for her birthday—you know, that fancy place with all the candles? Got her a steak, gave her a necklace, took her to a show, massaged her feet . . .” “You hit for the cycle?” “Uh-huh. Then I wake up the next day and she’s giving me my marching orders. Tells me she needs to ‘shake things up’ if she wants to remain a contender.” “Unbelievable.” “It was right before Valentine’s Day.” “Of course,” Josh said. “The Trade Deadline.” “Exactly. You know what the worst part is? I know the guy she traded me for. And he’s garbage.” “Really?” “Yeah, he’s some kind of banker. Always looking at himself in the mirror and fixing his goddam tie. It’s, like, ‘Come on, you traded me for this guy?’ I mean, O.K., his stats are pretty good. He’s got me beat in Money, and his Sex Numbers are impressive. But what about intangibles? What about Attitude? Intelligence? Effort? Those things have got to count for something!” He ate some potato chips and wiped the grease on his jeans. “Who am I kidding?” he muttered. “These days? The only thing they care about is the bottom line.” When Kate had offered Josh his contract, he was so excited that he barely bothered to read it. He realized now that he should have perused the fine print. According to the trade clause, he had seventy-two hours to get his stuff out of her apartment. His Sexual Privileges were completely revoked, along with Hugging Rights and Injury Sympathy. It was insane. Why had he given her so much power in the first place? He was struggling to get through the clause on Mutual Friends—the footnotes alone were five pages—when he heard a knock on the door. He took a long, slow breath and opened it. Kate’s new boyfriend smirked down at him. He had tattoos on his neck and was wearing a scarf and shades, even though it was summer and he was indoors. “ ’Sup,” he said. Josh forced a smile. There was no reason to be impolite. It was an awkward situation, but what could he do about it? “ ’Sup,” he responded. The two men shook hands, reached into their pockets, and exchanged keys. “This one’s for Kate’s lobby,” Josh explained. “And this one’s for her door. You have to kind of push it in and then turn.” The man nodded. “Lisa likes it from behind,” he offered. Josh nodded awkwardly. “O.K.,” he said. “I guess that’s it, then.” “Good luck.” “You, too.” “What do you mean, ‘an artist’?” Craig asked. “Like, in advertising or something?” Josh swallowed. It was taking him a tremendous amount of effort to get the words out. It was as if his tongue were coated with clay. “He does performance art,” he mumbled. “Based on Camus . . . and Sartre.” “Jesus,” Craig said. “She traded you for that?” He ordered another round of drinks. “Is it all finalized?” he asked. Josh nodded. “We both passed our physicals. He’s probably at her place by now.” He banged his fist on the bar. “Damn it!” he said. “I know I’m not an all-star, all right? My job is boring, I don’t understand art, and I like bad TV! I just . . . I thought I was worth something.” He shook his head. “She must have really wanted to get rid of me.”

Now You Try

Below is a list of concepts and objects. Pick two and use one as a metaphor for the other. Write at least five sentences or lines of poetry.

• Dancing with the Stars
• Soap/cleanliness
• Immigration
• Scotch tape (or similar)
• Horror movies

*Photo via Meet A Meaningless Metaphor

About the author

Taylor Houston is a genuine Word Nerd living in Portland, OR where she works as a technical writer for an engineering firm and volunteers on the planning committee for Wordstock, a local organization dedicated to writing education.

She holds a degree in Creative Writing and Spanish from Hamilton College in Clinton, NY. In the English graduate program at Penn State , she taught college composition courses and hosted a poetry club for a group of high school writers.

While living in Seattle, Taylor started and taught a free writing class called Writer’s Cramp (see the website). She has also taught middle school Language Arts & Spanish, tutored college students, and mentored at several Seattle writing establishments such as Richard Hugo House. She’s presented on panels at Associated Writing Programs Conference and the Pennsylvania College English Conference and led writing groups in New York, Pennsylvania, and Colorado for writers of all ages & abilities. She loves to read, write, teach & debate the Oxford Comma with anyone who will stand still long enough.

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Writing about Writing: An Extended Metaphor Assignment

• Resources & Preparation
• Instructional Plan
• Related Resources

Useful at key points in a term, such as the beginning or end of the term, this lesson asks students to reflect on their writing process, and helps the teacher learn more about students' habits and techniques as writers. Students begin by reading and analyzing the poem "The Writer" by Richard Wilbur, particularly discussing the use of extended metaphor. Students then reflect on their own writing habits, compare themselves as writers to the writer in the poem, and brainstorm possible metaphors for themselves as writers. Finally, students complete one of several recommended projects to extend the metaphor describing themselves as writers. Throughout the process, students share their work in small groups.

Featured Resources

"The Writer" by Richard Wilbur : Analysis of this poem sets the stage for students' work with extended metaphor.

Writing Habits Journal Questions : Use these questions to help students reflect on their own habits as writers.

Writing Metaphor Assignment : This assignment offers several projects that students can choose to extend a metaphor describing themselves as writers, including creating a scrapbook, designing a CD cover, writing a paper, or writing a short story.

From Theory to Practice

This project asks students to think deeply about their writing and how they work as writers. This process of deep reflection helps students improve as writers. Dawn Swartzendruber-Putnam explains:

"Reflection is a form of metacognition-thinking about thinking. It means looking back with new eyes in order to discover-in this case, looking back on writing. As Pianko states, ‘The ability to reflect on what is begin written seems to be the essence of the difference between able and not so able writers from their initial writing experience onward' (qtd. in Yancey 4)" (88).

Rather than reflecting on a single piece of writing, this activity asks students to analyze the trends and patterns in their own writing. By exploring their work, they identify the habits that work well and those that need rethought.

Further Reading

Common Core Standards

This resource has been aligned to the Common Core State Standards for states in which they have been adopted. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, CCSS alignments are forthcoming.

State Standards

This lesson has been aligned to standards in the following states. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, standard alignments are not currently available for that state.

NCTE/IRA National Standards for the English Language Arts

• 3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics).
• 4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes.
• 5. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes.
• 11. Students participate as knowledgeable, reflective, creative, and critical members of a variety of literacy communities.
• 12. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information).
• Writing Habits Journal Questions
• Writing Metaphor Assignment
• Writing Metaphor Rubric
• "The Writer" by Richard Wilbur

Preparation

• Make copies of the Writing Habits Journal Questions , Writing Metaphor Assignment , and Writing Metaphor Rubric . If the poem is not available in your class text, either make an overhead or copies of "The Writer" by Richard Wilbur .
• Decide how to position this activity in your curriculum. Students may compose multimodal projects, polished papers, informal papers, or even journal entries. The Writing Metaphor Assignment lists a range of options for more formal projects. To narrow the focus, you might choose only a few of the options rather than giving out the entire list. Just keep in mind that the important goal is for students to discover more about themselves as writers and to share their discoveries with others in the classroom writing community.
• Review the Writing Habits Journal Questions , and decide whether to use the entire sheet or a shortened version. If you narrow the list, it's important for the full activity for students to consider questions 6, 9, and 10 at a minimum.
• Acrostic Poems
• Letter Generator
• Plot Diagram
• Literary Elements Map
• ReadWriteThink Printing Press
• Be sure to test the student materials on your computers to familiarize yourself with the tools and ensure that you have the Flash plug-in installed. You can download the plug-in from the technical support page.

Student Objectives

Students will

• analyze a poem, in particular paying attention to metaphor.
• reflect on their writing process.
• build community by sharing their writing habits with others.
• compose a text based on a metaphor they have chosen for themselves as writers.

Session One

• Pass out copies of "The Writer" by Richard Wilbur , and introduce the poem to the class.
• Read through the poem completely one time.
• Ask students to share any immediate reactions.
• Read through the poem more slowly, pausing to define any unfamiliar words for the class. Because they are important to the poem's imagery be sure that students understand the meaning of the key words that relate to nautical imagery—prow, gunwale, cargo, and passage.
• Who is the speaker? Who is telling the story in this poem?
• Where is the speaker when the events in the poem take place?
• Which parts are from the present, and which are from memories?
• What are the speaker's emotions?
• How do the speaker's feelings influence the message?
• What is the speaker talking about?
• What is the message in the poem?
• What is the speaker trying to communicate?
• Read through the poem again, asking students to listen for comparisons in the poem (e.g., places where one object is compared to another).
• Have students share their observations, recording their comments on the board or on white paper.
• What words and ideas in the poem have to do with ships and boats?
• How do the words that describe sounds in the poem work (e.g., "commotion," "stillness," "silent")? What comparisons do they suggest?
• How is the starling in the poem a comparison?
• Read through the list, and ask students to identify comparisons that relate to the subject of the poem.
• Once the list has been narrowed, ask students to discuss how accurate the comparisons are and what they tell readers about the speaker and the subject of the poem. Introduce the concept of metaphors, using this simple explanation or the information in OWL's Using Metaphors in Creative Writing .
• To ensure connections between the poem and the writing activities that students will complete, ask them to explain what the poem communicates about writers and writing in general, as well as in the particular situation that the poem describes.
• Pass out copies of the Writing Habits Journal Questions , and ask students to answer the questions for homework. Read through the questions as a group, and make any adjustments or add any suggestions. If desired, students can create their informal outlines (for question 6 on the journal questions handout) using the ReadWriteThink Notetaker .
• If time allows, provide answers to the questions based on your own writing experience, or discuss one of the questions as a class.

Session Two

• Arrange students in small groups, and ask them to share their answers to the Writing Habits Journal Questions with one another.
• Ask groups to choose answers to three questions to share with the rest of the class.
• Monitor student progress, and provide feedback and support as they discuss their writing processes.
• Once the groups are ready, gather the class and work through the questions one-by-one. Students can share any observations in general, and groups should be prepared to share the answers that they have chosen.
• After sharing their responses, focus the class's attention on noticing the many varied ways that writers work while at the same time listening for practices that many writers use. Have students recall stories and details from the class discussion that show variety as well as those that demonstrate similarities.
• Return discussion to "The Writer" by Richard Wilbur . Based on the class discussion, ask students to compare themselves as writers to the writer in the poem. Encourage students to point to details in the poem and to connect to specific information about their own writing.
• Pass out the Writing Metaphor Assignment (or the options that you have chosen), and read through the assignment with the class. Be sure to draw clear connections to the poem that the class has explored in the previous session. Students might also find OWL's  Using Metaphors in Creative Writing helpful as they begin thinking about creating metaphors for themselves as writers.
• Ask students to review the responses that they wrote to the Writing Habits Journal Questions and brainstorm a list of possible metaphors that they can use to describe themselves as writers. Encourage students to identify at least three to five ideas.
• Once students have a list of possibilities, have them freewrite on connections for each possible metaphor. Remind students to use their journal responses as a resource as they work.
• With ten to fifteen minutes left in the class, arrange students in small groups, and have them share their metaphors with one another. Students can provide feedback and support.
• For homework, ask students to write a brief description (in their journals or on a separate piece of paper) of the metaphor they have chosen and the project that they will complete.

Sessions Three to Five

• Either collect students' descriptions of their plans for the project or ask them to share their ideas with the class or in small groups. Provide feedback as appropriate.
• Pass out the Writing Metaphor Rubric and discuss the criteria for the projects. You may add criteria depending on the projects that students choose.
• If students have not done so earlier, you might have them create their more complete outlines of their general composing process, using the ReadWriteThink Notetaker .
• Answer any questions that students have about the project; then, have students spend the period working on their assignment.
• Acrostic Poems : Gather students working on acrostics. Ensure that they understand the format, and then work through an example metaphor using the tool.
• Letter Generator : Discuss the difference between business and friendly letters with students who choose to write a letter to the class about their process. Using the online tool, review the parts of a letter (e.g., salutation, greeting). Use the tool to work through the process of publishing a letter.
• Plot Diagram and Literary Elements Map : Review literary elements with students who choose to write a short story or silent movie script. You can use the Elements of Fiction Overview to shape the discussion. Demonstrate the two tools, and discuss how students can use the tools to gather ideas for the projects and plan their structure.
• ReadWriteThink Printing Press : Demonstrate the Printing Press for students completing the tabloid exposé option. Students can use the newspaper layouts to publish their pieces.
• Be sure to demonstrate PowerPoint as well, if students can use the software for the projects they have chosen.
• As students work, encourage sharing and feedback. Cultivate a writing workshop atmosphere, where students share drafts and solve problems together.
• At the end of the fifth session, ask students to submit their projects for your review. Alternatively, ask students to share their metaphor projects with the class or small groups during an optional sixth session.
• If students complete this activity early in a term, retain a copy. At the end of the term, pass the copies back out and ask students to revisit their metaphors, focusing on how they would revise or change their metaphors based on the experience over the course of the term. Students might submit revised projects as a final examination.
• Have students explore Modern American Poetry: Richard Wilbur to learn more about the poet. This University of Illinois site includes a brief biography and background information on Wilbur as well as the poet's commentary on his poems. The site also includes a transcript of a 1995 interview.

Student Assessment / Reflections

Observe students for their participation during the exploration and discussion of their writing process and their metaphors. In class discussions and conferences, watch for evidence that students are able to describe specific details about their writing and prompt them to reflect on why they write as they do. Monitor students’ progress and process as they work on their writing metaphor projects. For formal assessment, use the Writing Metaphor Rubric .

• Calendar Activities
• Student Interactives

Students focus on the figurative language in Heaney's poem, "Digging," and discuss the speaker's attitude, and how metaphor, simile, and image contribute to the poem.

Useful for a wide variety of reading and writing activities, this outlining tool allows students to organize up to five levels of information.

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• Kindergarten K

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

“desire is like a dreadful monster”: analysis of extended metaphors in l2 argumentative essays by chinese learners of english.

• 1 School of Foreign Studies, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
• 2 School of Education, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom

This article explores the use, function, and understanding of extended metaphors in L2 argumentative essays by Chinese learners of English. The analysis starts with the identification of linguistic metaphors and extended metaphors in 72 argumentative texts produced by 37 intermediate Chinese English majors. The function of extended metaphors is then analyzed by adopting the bottom-up approach of establishing systematic metaphors from those identified extended metaphors, to draw learners’ communicative intentions in producing extended metaphors. To understand learners’ thinking processes behind using extended metaphors while writing, four of nine writers were interviewed about the process of writing extended metaphors in their texts in the stimulated recall interviews. It is found that extended metaphors, expressed through similes or direct metaphors at strategic stages in L2 argumentative essays, are often the result of learners’ conscious manipulation of L1 in producing L2 for various communicative purposes, such as the desire for vividness, coherence, comprehensibility, when there is a knowledge gap between L1 and L2, and for evaluative and persuasive power. These communicative functions are consistent with the ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions of language, which also coincide and interact with the rhetorical goals of moves and stages in L2 argumentative essays. Metaphoric thinking, L1 influence, and struggling to express meaning and persuade, cited in learners’ thought reports, are major factors triggering extended metaphors. The findings of this article can contribute to the knowledge of learners’ metaphoric competence in L2, which can, in turn, enrich teachers’ metaphor knowledge and draw teachers’ attention to learners’ creative ways of using metaphors and then raise metaphor awareness in L2 writing, teaching, and learning.

Introduction

Metaphor is understood as a tool of describing or viewing something abstract, i.e., topic domain, in terms of something more concrete, i.e., vehicle domain, in the applied linguistic tradition ( Cameron, 2003 ; Low et al., 2008 ; Deignan, 2017 ). Metaphor has been demonstrated to be pervasive in language generally, as well as in academic writing specifically ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1980 ; Power and Carmichael, 2007 ; Herrmann, 2013 ; Littlemore et al., 2014 ; Hoang, 2015 ; Hoang and Boers, 2018 ; Nacey, 2020 ). Researchers find that metaphor can be described as opportunities of achieving more expressive or pervasive power in argumentative writing for L2 learners with different language backgrounds at different language levels, e.g., Spanish ( MacArthur, 2010 ), Norwegian ( Nacey, 2013 ), German and Greek ( Littlemore et al., 2014 ), and Thai ( Hoang, 2015 ; Hoang and Boers, 2018 ). For instance, MacArthur writes, “there are no ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ metaphors for among all the forces that drive semantic extension, the most powerful is metaphor…” ( MacArthur, 2010 , p. 159). Littlemore et al. (2014 , p. 120) suggest that “one might expect development in the production of metaphor clusters in learners’ writing at the different levels.” An example of metaphor clustering in Littlemore et al.’s (2014) research is produced by an advanced German speaker of English (hereafter, linguistic metaphors are underlined):

[…] your heath [health] will suffer when you reath [reach] a higher age. An old car doesn’t run as smooth as a new one . This will sooner or later reduce your quality of life.

Littlemore et al. (2014 , p. 136) argue that “the learner is able to use a creative direct metaphor for humorous effect, which makes their writing even more persuasive, by comparing an old person with an old car.” With the ethical approval granted by the ESSL, Environment and LUBS Faculty Research Ethics Committee, University of Leeds (AREA 16-160), creative metaphor uses were observed which were produced by an intermediate Chinese learner of English in their writing assignment:

It’s our duty to purify our standard language and maintain our culture purity . We should not use Internet buzzwords without limit and make our language lose its own original appearance (Chen, a second-year Chinese university student studying in English language).

In this example, an extended analogy between the Chinese language and human beings is summarized in a personification metaphor: LANGUAGE IS A PERSON . The learner draws multiple parallels between language and human beings, such as the metaphorically used words of “purity” and “appearance.” Creative direct metaphors or personification metaphors like these show learners’ ability to “express themselves and to create meaning in a second language by means of metaphor” ( Postma, 2015 , p. 49), or learners’ metaphoric competence in L2 ( Birdsell, 2018 ).

The tendency for metaphors to extend or cluster at certain points in texts or discourse has been noted by some metaphor researchers ( Corts and Pollio, 1999 ; Corts and Meyers, 2002 ; Cameron, 2003 ; Koller, 2003 ; Cameron and Stelma, 2004 ; Corts, 2006 ; Semino, 2008 ; Kathpalia and Carmel, 2011 ; Krennmayr, 2011 ; Littlemore et al., 2014 ; Dorst, 2017 ; Sun and Chen, 2018 ). The widespread and intriguing phenomenon where speakers or writers suddenly produce multiple metaphors in close proximity in texts or discourses has been defined as the pattern of metaphor clustering or metaphor clusters ( Cameron and Stelma, 2004 ; Semino, 2008 ). Investigations on functions of metaphor clusters in spoken and written contexts, such as lectures ( Corts and Pollio, 1999 ), sermons ( Corts and Meyers, 2002 ), political speeches ( Semino, 2008 ), news articles ( Krennmayr, 2011 ), and business magazines ( Koller, 2003 ), find that metaphor clusters occur at particularly significant points in texts or discourses and relate to a range of communicative functions. “Metaphor clusters are often used in strategic positions for rhetorical purposes” ( Semino, 2008 , p. 24). Kimmel summarizes three functions of metaphor clusters by reviewing prior studies on metaphor clusters in written texts: “(1) metaphor clusters are attention-grabbing and thus a relevance-producing device; (2) clusters seem to occur ‘where the action is;’ and (3) metaphor clusters connect and dynamize discourse” ( Kimmel, 2010 , p. 98).

This article focuses on one type of metaphor cluster—extended metaphors, from which systematic relationships among related vehicle terms of linguistic metaphors can be identified out ( Semino, 2008 ; Maslen, 2017 ). The extension of linguistic metaphors often involves “a single metaphoric idea over a long stretch of language” ( Denroche, 2018 , p. 7), or systematic metaphors by establishing related vehicle terms ( Cameron et al., 2010 ), such as the metaphoric idea LANGUAGE IS A PERSON 1 , established from the clustering of connected linguistic metaphors produced by Chen above. Discussions on the role of extended metaphors in texts and discourses have involved some metaphor scholars (e.g., Darian, 2000 ; Semino, 2008 ; Carter and Pitcher, 2010 ; Goatly, 2011 ; Naciscione, 2016 ; Thibodeau, 2017 ; Denroche, 2018 ). Semino (2008) , Goatly (2011) , and Thibodeau (2017) put the emphasis on the “text structuring” or organizing role of extended metaphors in texts and discuss the pervasive power of extended metaphors. Naciscione regards extended metaphors as a structure/pattern of figurative thought, which “helps to form new creative instantiations in use” ( Naciscione, 2016 , p. 243). Denroche (2018) also suggests that extended metaphors are likely to involve novel or creative metaphorical ideas. The link between metaphoric thinking, creativity, and extended metaphors has been discussed in these studies. In the context of language teaching and learning, Darian (2000) argues that the use of extended figurative language is a way of metaphoric thinking, which is productive for students to discuss ideas in writing; and the use of direct metaphors is helpful to students in understanding complex ideas in science, such as those easy-to-understand direct analogies, simile forms, personifications, and animations in science texts. For instance, students could “think of electricity as analogous to the flow of water” ( Darian, 2000 , p. 183). Carter and Pitcher (2010) , inspired by the role of extended metaphors in the scaffolding learning in electronic subjects, explore how to use metaphors as a pedagogical aid in helping students in thesis writing, by finding similarities and differences between the vehicle domain and the target domain.

As noted above, prior researchers tend to choose topic-based (argumentative) writing texts to investigate metaphor production in L2 ( Chapetón, 2010 ; MacArthur, 2010 ; Nacey, 2013 , 2017 ; Littlemore et al., 2014 ; Hoang, 2015 ; Gao, 2016 ), and to compare metaphor uses in native and non-native writing ( Chapetón-Castro and Verdaguer-Clavera, 2012 ). Possible reasons are: first, argumentative writing topics are often abstract and reflective, which can “involve a substantial amount of metaphor” ( Littlemore et al., 2014 , p. 121), and “some topics may also trigger more metaphor than others” ( Nacey, 2020 , p. 296); second, “metaphors have been important argumentative and rhetorical devices such as creating vivid images and function as examples or organizing ideas behind a series of examples” ( Klebanov and Flor, 2013 , p. 11). Research on metaphor and L2 topic-based writing has shown that learners have the need to use figurative language to express complex and abstract ideas and will do so to fulfill communicative needs in L2 argumentative writing, such as the persuasive argument constructed by the German English learner’s comparison between “an old person” and “an old car” ( Littlemore et al., 2014 ), and the Chinese English learner’s metaphorical comparison between “a short-sighted person” and “a frog in the well” when arguing about the importance of being knowledgeable and broad-minded ( Xu and Tian, 2012 ). Following the literature, it seems safe to conclude that as in many English as a Second Language (ESL) contexts, argumentative writing is crucial for Chinese university students to succeed in high-stakes examinations ( Liu and Stapleton, 2014 ; Abdollahzadeh et al., 2017 ) and extended metaphors are productive in driving semantic extension and organizing ideas when students are under communication pressure ( Darian, 2000 ; MacArthur, 2010 ).

This article explored the use of extended metaphors in L2 argumentative essays by Chinese university students and students’ thought reports behind some of their extended metaphor uses, given the fact that relatively little is known about the use and function of extended metaphors in non-native English learners’ argumentative writing; and about “whether or not a writer has deliberately used metaphor in this way or whether they have done so subconsciously” ( Littlemore et al., 2014 , p. 137). The term “extended metaphor” was used “when at least two metaphorically used words belonging to different phrases describe the same topic domain in terms of the same vehicle domain” ( Semino, 2008 , p. 25). Here, terms of “topic” and “vehicle” are used for basic descriptive reporting ( Low et al., 2008 ; Maslen, 2017 ). Hyland’s (1990) model of describing the rhetorical structure of an ESL argumentative essay was adopted which divides an ESL argumentative essay into three stages, with both obligatory and optional moves. Querol and Madrunio (2020 , p. 65) write, “in most of the argumentative essays, the three stages with the obligatory moves were followed although some new moves were also identified.” The three stages and moves at each stage are ( Hyland, 1990 , p. 69):

(1) Thesis stage: introduces the proposition to be argued Moves: (Gambit), (Information), Proposition, (Evaluation), (Marker)

(2) Argument stage: discusses grounds for thesis Moves: (Marker), (Restatement), Claim, Support

(3) Conclusion stage: synthesizes discussion and affirms the validity of the thesis Moves: (Marker), Consolidation, (Affirmation), (Close)

The moves in brackets show that these moves are optional instead of being obligatory to be found in an L2 argumentative essay. The rationale is that Hyland (1990)’s model offers detailed explanations of the structural units and corresponding functions (e.g., introduces the proposition to be argued) in an L2 argumentative essay, which can function as a backup in locating the identified extended metaphors in an L2 argumentative essay and then analyzing the intended rhetorical functions of extended metaphors. In line with the research on communicative functions of metaphors in academic texts or discourses (e.g., Goatly, 2011 ; Herrmann, 2013 ), the investigation on what rhetorical functions that extended metaphors can serve in different stages of an L2 argumentative essay, as well as in relation to each other, is also summarized by using Halliday and Matthiessen’s (2004) framework of three metafunctions of language: ideational, interpersonal and textual. The focus of this current investigation is on identifying extended metaphors in Chinese English learners’ argumentative texts, analyzing the communicative functions, and exploring learners’ thinking processes behind their production of extended metaphors during the writing processes. This article may hopefully contribute to the growing body of knowledge about learners’ metaphoric competence in L2 by recognizing L2 learners’ awareness and ability to create new and figurative meanings via extended metaphors, and to generate pedagogical implications in helping “students create their own, as opposed to text- or teacher-made, metaphors” ( Darian, 2000 , p. 184). While some researchers have used both text data and learner interviews to explore the influence of L1 and metaphoric thinking in L2 learners’ metaphor production processes (e.g., Xu and Tian, 2012 ; Hoang, 2015 ; Wang and Wang, 2019 ), none has shifted the focus for the use of extended metaphors in L2 writing and has had access to the writers talking about their thinking processes, or intentions, behind extended metaphor uses, so no possibility of eliciting their understandings and awareness of using extended metaphors during the writing processes. This gap was attempted to be filled.

Three research questions are addressed in this article:

(1) In what ways do Chinese learners of English use extended metaphors in their L2 argumentative essays?

(2) What are the communicative functions of extended metaphors when intertwined with the strategic moves and stages of an L2 argumentative essay?

(3) How do Chinese learners of English report their thinking processes behind extended metaphor uses during their writing processes?

Materials and Methods

Identifying extended metaphors and establishing systematic metaphors.

To answer the first two research questions, 72 argumentative writing samples were collected which were produced by 37 intermediate Chinese English majors in March and April 2018, on the abstract writing themes of Spend and Save and Campus Love . The second semester of each academic year in Chinese universities usually starts in March. In this semester, the learning objective of the writing module studied by the participants was argumentative writing. The participants also needed to practice argumentative writing as part of the preparation for their TEM-4 test (a national English language proficiency test for second-year English majors on the third Saturday of April every year in mainland China). This enabled a collection of authentic writing samples in a natural and principled way, without imposing additional work on both teachers and students. The linguistic metaphors were identified out by following the MIP (“metaphor identification procedure”) ( Pragglejaz Group., 2007 ). The core principle of MIP is to compare the more abstract contextual meaning of a lexical unit with a more “basic” or concrete meaning in other contexts and look for a relation of comparison. Online versions of Macmillan Dictionary (Macmillan Education, London) and Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford English Press, University of Oxford) were consulted to establish the basic meaning and contextual meaning of each lexical unit and to minimize subjectivity in doing so. Following MIP, metaphor, metonymy, and simile were included as metaphorical when there were metaphor-related meanings. Then, the focus was turned to the identification of extended metaphors. As noted above, the extension of linguistic metaphors involves “at least two metaphorically used words belonging to different phrases describe the same target (topic) domain in terms of the same source (vehicle) domain ( Semino, 2008 , p. 25).

An example of extended metaphor is given in Extract 1 , which is taken from one of the participants’ writing samples on the topic “The Reasons for College Students to Learn to Budget Their Money”:

Extract 1 Once we want to waste money, the beasts of desire in our chests are awakened , they yell and stamp their feet , trying to control our mind.

(Deng, writing assignment submitted on 21/03/2018)

The linguistic metaphors were underlined which were identified by following the MIP ( Pragglejaz Group., 2007 ). The participant (Deng) used the clustering of connected linguistic metaphors and directly compared the desire to waste money as a horrible beast that can be awakened and cause a physical fight, violently threatening life. To avoid overgeneralization about writers’ conceptualization and intention in argumentative writing, Cameron and Maslen’s (2010) applied linguistic approach was followed to identify groupings that they term “systematic metaphors” by establishing “vehicle groupings” from collected linguistic metaphors in the discourse activity. The bottom-up approach of establishing systematic metaphors from extended metaphors is not the same as the generalization of conceptual metaphors in the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT). The latter has been problematic for metaphor research focusing on naturally occurring data in context because of its use of invented linguistic evidence and its top-down approach of apparently preselecting conceptual metaphors then tracking for evidence of their realizations at the linguistic level ( Cameron, 2010 ; Deignan, 2010 ). From finding systematic metaphors from semantically connected metaphor vehicles, researchers aim to “draw inferences about their [participants’] thoughts and feelings, their [participants’] conceptualizations and communicative intentions, from the language they [participants] used then” ( Maslen, 2017 , p. 89). The “systematic metaphors” termed by Cameron et al. (2010) resemble the conceptual metaphors suggested by the CMT, “but they should not be seen as equivalent” ( Deignan et al., 2013 , p. 9). In this article, systematic metaphors were then established by following Cameron et al. (2010) practice of grouping metaphor vehicles by using the Excel software (Microsoft, United States). The semantics of the basic meaning of the metaphor vehicles were used as the starting point to generalize grouping labels (see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1. Possible groupings of metaphor vehicles in Extract 1 .

In Figure 1 , “linguistic metaphors were gathered together in a list and then were grouped and organized according to the basic meanings of the vehicle terms” ( Cameron, 2010 , p. 12). The grouping labeled BODILY ACTION included the linguistic metaphors “awakened,” “yell” and “stamp” in Extract 1 . The grouping labeled BEAST was first generalized from the explicit metaphorical expression “the beasts of desire” and then was further grouped into DANGEROUS ANIMAL in terms of the basic meaning of “beast”: “an animal, especially a dangerous or strange one,” according to online Macmillan Dictionary. So, at the very beginning, the “labels for groupings were often taken from the actual words that appear in the written data” ( Cameron et al., 2010 , p. 119) and the words that appear in the basic meanings of metaphor vehicles. This process “contracts with Conceptual Metaphor Theory which aims to generalize labels as much as possible in order to posit universals in human conceptualizing” ( Cameron et al., 2010 , p. 119). The second possible grouping labeled VIOLENT ACTION was one of the two subdivisions of the PHYSICAL ACTION grouping. The PHYSICAL ACTION metaphor vehicles can be further divided into PHYSICAL ACTION and VIOLENT ACTION in terms of “those actions which are neutral and those which express an element of violence” ( Cameron et al., 2010 , p. 123). Based on the immediate text context in Extract 1 , and the basic meanings of collected metaphor vehicles — “beasts,” “yell” and “stamp,” the grouping labeled CONTROL was further generalized as VIOLENT ACTION . The grouping PARTS OF THE BODY was quickly built by referring to both the basic meaning of “feet” and the grouping PARTS OF THE BODY in Cameron and Maslen’s (2010) work. “A systematic metaphor is a set of linguistic metaphors in which connected vehicle words are used metaphorically about a particular topic” ( Cameron et al., 2010 , p. 127). It was easy to find the topics based on the immediate writing contexts and the writing themes in collected text data. For example, in the DANGEROUS ANIMAL grouping in Figure 1 , a subset of metaphor vehicles that were used to talk about the desire of wasting money were connected and grouped together as the systematic metaphor: DESIRE OF WASTING MONEY IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL WITH VIOLENT BODILY ACTION.

The bottom-up procedure of finding systematic metaphors from vehicle groupings generalized in extended stretches of written texts focuses on what the communicative intentions or goals are when the participants used extended metaphors at some strategic moves and stages in L2 argumentative texts ( Deignan et al., 2013 ; Deignan, 2017 ). Systematic metaphors established from the extended metaphors identified in writing samples serve both as evidence for ideas, attitudes, and values which may not be directly expressed in the texts, and as a starting point for the further exploration of functions of metaphor clusters ( Cameron et al., 2010 , p. 116). As mentioned above, Hyland’s (1990) model of describing the rhetorical structure of an ESL argumentative essay and Halliday and Matthiessen’s (2004) framework of three metafunctions of language: ideational, interpersonal, and textual, are the theoretical guide. In the example analysis of Extract 1 , the textual function of extended metaphors, such as “creating internal coherence” ( Koller, 2003 , p. 120), can be realized by the connected metaphor vehicles that can be summarized by the metaphorical idea—“beasts of desire” at the argument stage of the writing sample ( Cameron and Low, 2004 ). The new representations of the desire of wasting money in terms of a dangerous animal are evidence of the ideational functions of extended metaphors ( Corts and Pollio, 1999 ; Goatly, 2011 ; Kathpalia and Carmel, 2011 ) in the move of making a claim. The systematic metaphor DESIRE OF WASTING MONEY IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL WITH VIOLENT BODILY ACTION not only contributes to building a coherent argument (textual function) but also a persuasive one (interpersonal function) at the argument stage of Deng’s writing sample. The BEAST metaphor is used to describe crime in Thibodeau and Boroditsky’s (2011) research, and the participant creatively extends the BEAST metaphor when arguing about the reasons and importance of saving money. In Extract 1 , the systematic metaphor highlights the negative elements and deemphasize the positive ones contained in the topic domain DESIRE OF WASTING MONEY ( Thibodeau, 2017 ), to affect readers’ concerns and beliefs and to persuade them to take specific actions (interpersonal function) ( Hyland, 1990 ; Cameron and Maslen, 2010 ; Paquot, 2010 ; Goatly, 2011 ; Littlemore et al., 2014 ; Yang et al., 2014 ; Thibodeau, 2017 ).

Stimulated Recall Interviews

“Stimulated recall methodology can be viewed as a subset of introspective research methods which help the researchers to accesses, examine and understand participant’s reflections on mental processes” ( Gazdag et al., 2016 , p. 119; Fox-Turnbull, 2011 , p. 205). Prior research has demonstrated that “stimulated recall methodology can be used to prompt participants to recall thoughts they had while performing a task or participating in an event” ( Gass and Mackey, 2000 , p. 13; Mackey and Gass, 2005 ; Henderson et al., 2010 ; Fox-Turnbull, 2011 ; Ryan and Gass, 2012 ; Gazdag et al., 2016 ; Gass and Mackey, 2017 ). The application of stimulated recall methodology to L2 research has been extended from investigating classroom practices and interactions like videotaped lectures or discussions to exploring participants’ mental processes in events like reading and writing ( Gass and Mackey, 2017 ). Hoang (2015) used keystroke data generated by the Input-Log program together with the stimulated recall interviews to explore how Vietnam learners of English explained their metaphors used in their in-class compositions based on an elicitation writing task prepared by the researcher. Hoang (2015) used the stimulated recall interviews, with well-prepared interview protocol and instructions for both researcher and the students, to reveal the underlying factors that may directly link to the development of metaphorical units in students’ topic-based writing, by transcribing and categorizing the participants’ comments. The three outstanding categories in her participants’ comments on metaphor uses were “the use of images, background knowledge, and novel metaphors” ( Hoang, 2015 , pp. 97–98). As Wang and Cheng (2016) suggest, “probing factors behind learners’ metaphoric creativity can thus enrich teachers’ knowledge of how to develop learners’ ability to use L2 metaphorically, preparing them to participate in actual social communication” ( Wang and Cheng, 2016 , p. 205). Extended metaphors in texts or discourses are often linked with novel or creative metaphorical ideas and intended communicative purposes ( Denroche, 2018 ). By now, the investigation of extended metaphors and metaphoric creativity in Chinese English learners’ L2 argumentative writing, and the examination of possible factors underlying L2 learners’ metaphor use in writing still seems to be an under-researched area. To answer the third research question and to contribute knowledge of learners’ understanding of their writing process in terms of extended metaphor use, stimulated recall interviews were conducted. Each individual interview (around 30 min) was conducted within 2 days of the submission of the related writing sample to maximize the recall accuracy. The stimulated recall methodology was piloted with five of targeted participants at the very beginning of the data collection procedure. The aim of this was to decrease the amount of unnecessary information in the interviews and help the participants to focus on the recalling process. The audio-recorded interview data was manually transcribed and then translated from Chinese into English following strict conventions ( Richards, 2003 , pp. 80–81; Watanabe and Swain, 2007 , p. 140; Bailey, 2008 , p. 131). Supporting evidence of possible intended functions of learners’ extended metaphor uses is also hoping to be found in the stimulated recall interview data. Participants were asked two key interview questions: (1) When writing words or phrases like this, what were you thinking about or how did you perceive it? (2) Why did you use this/these particular word/words or phrases, what were you thinking about then?

An interview extract from the interview with Deng, the author of Extract 1 , is given below:

Researcher: Yeah, you used “Once we want to waste money,” you wrote, “the beasts of desire in our chest are awakened,” so why you expressed like this at that particular time?

Deng: I wanted to be more vivid. I just wanted to stress again that our desire, the importance of controlling that kind of desire. Because what I wanted to say was that desire was like a dreadful monster. If it were awakened, you would be out of control.

From Deng’s self-reports, her conscious reflection on her desire to make the writing more vivid and her metaphoric thinking of “desire” as “a dreadful monster” at the time of writing have been clearly and confidently verbalized. By emphasizing the negative effect of not controlling desire well, Deng’s metaphorical extension of the BEAST metaphor could support her viewpoint and argument and reinforce the persuasive nature of the argumentative essay. The stimulated recall method has been able to generate interesting insights when efforts have been made to ensure that the accurate recall has been taken place, which may support the function analysis of the systematic metaphors established from the extended metaphors involving single metaphorical ideas, e.g., the pervasive power of DESIRE OF WASTING MONEY IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL WITH VIOLENT ACTION metaphor established from Deng’s writing sample. The study hoped to draw teachers’ attention to learners’ conscious uses of extended metaphors in argumentative texts and to enrich teachers’ knowledge of metaphors in developing learners’ metaphoric competence in L2.

Extended Metaphors and Communicative Functions

In total, I identified 11 single extended stretches from the written texts produced by 9 writers, including Extract 1 illustrated above for demonstration purposes, from which 11 systematic metaphors were established (see Table 1 ). The underlined metaphor vehicles are linguistic metaphors extended in single metaphorical ideas.

Table 1. Examples of extended metaphors and systematic metaphors.

During the process of establishing systematic metaphors, there were situations where one metaphor vehicle could be grouped into different vehicle groupings. Collaborative decisions were made to group one metaphor vehicle into one most appropriate vehicle grouping for the ease of categorization ( Cameron et al., 2010 ). The metaphor vehicles “petrol” and “battery” in Extract 2 , on the topic “More Than Love,” for example:

Extract 2 Basically, love is the invisible power . It has the driving force which can encourage people to achieve some goals. […] love is like the petrol to a car , the battery to a player .

(Li Y., writing assignment submitted on 28/03/2018)

first were grouped as ENERGY because of the words like “fuel” and “electricity” in the basic meanings of metaphor vehicles, based on the online Macmillan Dictionary. After regular discussion with co-rater who has a professional background in metaphor research, the group was then recorded and broadened to VEHICLE by including metaphorically used words—“car” and “player” representing vehicles and machines in the physical world. As noted above, the metaphor vehicle “control” in Extract 1 was grouped as VIOLENT ACTION by following Cameron and Maslen’s (2010) two subdivisions of the PHYSICAL ACTION grouping. The rationale is that the context of the BEAST metaphor may convey a sense of violence. Borderline cases about the metaphor vehicle “control,” which can be grouped into VIOLENT ACTION or PHYSICAL ACTION depending on writing contexts were agreed upon after discussion. The bilingual background of the co-rater and the author, and their familiarity with Chinese intermediate English learners’ argumentative writing were helpful in capturing accurate generalizations of the metaphor vehicles and the corresponding topics to which participants had written. The trustworthiness of vehicle groupings can be maximized by “keeping with the ‘principled flexibility’ that has informed the process throughout” ( Cameron et al., 2010 , p. 126). By regular discussions with co-rater throughout the metaphor identification and metaphor analysis processes, the systematic metaphor proposed from the extended metaphorical stretch in Extract 2 is: LOVE IS PHYSICAL FORCE DRIVING VEHICLES/MACHINES .

Like the functional analysis of the BEAST metaphor noted above, the systematic metaphor LOVE IS PHYSICAL FORCE DRIVING VEHICLES AND MACHINES could contribute to building a coherent argument (textual function) but also a persuasive one (interpersonal function) at the argument stage of the writing text. The student creatively used novel metaphors to increase comprehensibility and to highlight the positive role of campus love as PHYSICAL FORCE/STRENGTH (ideational function), which were possible attempts made to persuade the readership to accept the writer’s viewpoint (interpersonal function). More examples of functional analysis of the identified extended metaphors listed in Table 1 are given (see Figures 2 – 5 ).

Figure 2. Extended metaphor contributing to the VEHICLE systematic metaphor.

Figure 3. Extended metaphor contributing to the SAVING MONEY IS RESERVING WEAPONS systematic metaphor.

Figure 4. Extended metaphor contributing to the FIRE systematic metaphor.

Figure 5. Extended metaphor contributing to the FOOD systematic metaphor.

In Figure 2 , spending (topic domain) is described as a vehicle (vehicle domain) via four metaphorically used words in the gambit move of the thesis stage and the closing move of the conclusion stage in Wang’s writing text. This extension coincides with the gambit move in an argumentative essay where the writer’s purpose is to “capture the readers’ attention, rather than inform” ( Hyland, 1990 , p. 70) by way of dramatic illustration at the very beginning of the writing text. These linguistic metaphors are related to a vehicle that can move forward. A systematic metaphor SPENDING IS A VEHICLE can be formulated, offering the topic of spending a new representation and the text’s internal coherence. SPENDING IS A VEHICLE used when introducing viewpoints on the positive side of spending can convey a writer’s positive attitude toward spending and then construct the evaluative function of metaphor ( Goatly, 2011 ). Attempts contained in this systematic metaphor, such as dramatic illustration, coherence construction, and evaluation, can be related to the three dimensions of functions of language: ideational, interpersonal, and textual.

In Figure 3 , linguistic metaphors “war,” “storage [store],” and “bullets” are used creatively to talk about the topic of money (topic domain) in terms of weapon (vehicle domain), at the conclusion stage of Zhang’s writing text. The words in square brackets are some grammatical mistakes corrected by the researcher with participants’ agreement. Bullets can be supplied or reserved and used for war. A creative systematic metaphor, therefore, is formulated: SAVING MONEY IS RESERVING WEAPONS . The ideational, interpersonal, and textual function of this systematic metaphor is intertwined with the rhetorical goal of the conclusion stage, which is to summarize the argument section persuasively, to provide a prospective focus for discussion, and to achieve vivid consolidation ( Hyland, 1990 ; Querol and Madrunio, 2020 ). It seems that the conventional metaphoric idea LIFE IS WAR is compatible with the creative systematic metaphor SAVING MONEY IS RESERVING WEAPONS concerning the connection between war and weapons.

In Figure 4 , the conventional systematic metaphor LOVE IS FIRE built from the metaphorical extension at the conclusion stage in Lou’s writing text also can help to realize the persuasive power in the writing text in a coherent and dramatic way.

In Figure 5 , love (topic domain) is described as food (vehicle domain) via three different linguistic metaphors (“hungry,” “food,” “dessert”) within the same text. The connection among these linguistic metaphors could be reflected in the metaphor flag “just like.” Here, this subset of metaphor vehicles, consisting of extended metaphor, is used to talk about love, and can be expressed through the systematic metaphor: LOVE IS FOOD BEARING PLEASANT FEELINGS . The conventional concepts LOVE IS FOOD or LOVE IS SWEET FOOD are lexicalized by the creative and possibly deliberate comparisons between “pursuing love” and “finding food,” and between “love” and “dessert.” The linguistic metaphors “hungry” and “food” at the thesis stage give a focus to Guo’s proposition, and “dessert,” “warm,” and “happy” at the argument stage reinforce his claim ( Hyland, 1990 ). So, clusters that include extended metaphors at different moves and stages could give internal coherence to an argumentative text, which is the textual function of extended metaphors. Guo’s creative use of these similes highlights the positive side of love, which conveys evaluative and persuasive power, i.e., interpersonal function.

The bottom-up analysis of systematic metaphors shows extended metaphors are often found to build coherent and persuasive arguments in learners’ written texts. Among the 11 instances of systematic metaphors, seven occurred at the argument stage, one at both thesis stage and argument stage, one at both thesis stage and conclusion stage, and two at the conclusion stage. The SPENDING IS A VEHICLE metaphor is found at both the thesis and conclusion stage in Wang’s writing sample, contributing to the textual structuring function and ideational function simultaneously. The two systematic metaphors built at the conclusion stage of the writing samples can be sensed as deliberate and creative because of similes. The systematic metaphor LOVE IS FIRE in the close move in Lou’s text reinforces the evaluative and persuasive power. The systematic metaphor SAVING MONEY IS RESERVING WEAPON at the conclusion stage in Zhang’s text conveys the writer’s strong emotions toward the importance of saving money, which might encourage a change of perspective. The DESIRE OF WASTING MONEY IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL WITH VIOLENT ACTION metaphor and LOVE IS PHYSICAL FORCE DRIVING VEHICLES/MACHINES metaphor established from the argument stages also contribute to the construction of coherent and persuasive arguments. The function analysis focusing on extension and systematicity generates insights on how Chinese learners of English use extended metaphors at strategic points in their argumentative essays, and for what communicative purposes. More supporting evidence on learners’ intentions and communicative purposes are obtained from the follow-up stimulated recall interviews.

Learners’ Thought Reports in Stimulated Recall Comments

Not all extended metaphors identified are able to be asked in the stimulated recall interviews because of the time limitation and ethical considerations. Due to the difficulty of finding a time to interview students within 2 days of the writing tasks, four extended stretches listed in Table 1 (including Extract 1 explained above for demonstration purpose), written by four different participants, were able to be asked in the stimulated recall interviews. The four participants were interviewed individually in a face-to-face manner during their free time. Two interviews were on Spend and Save and two on Campus Love . All interviews were voluntary and did not cause extra workload to both teachers and students involved in this present investigation. Table 2 presents participants’ thought reports cited in their recall comments.

Table 2. Extended stretches and corresponding recall comments.

At this stage, the focus was on what the participants said about their choice of metaphorical expressions that were identified as extended metaphors. The participants were not told whether a stretch of written texts had been classified as a metaphorical extension before or during the interview processes. Each student was interviewed no more than once. The opening coding approach, on a line-by-line basis ( Richards, 2003 ), enabled to constantly comparing the similarities and differences among learners’ comments on their metaphor use at the time of writing when coding recall data. Here, “a code ascribes meaning to the coded text” ( Jamieson, 2016 , p. 8). So, the explanations and thought reports that are similar at the conceptual level could be grouped into themes or categories by breaking down the interview data for the analytical purpose ( Corbin and Strauss, 1990 ; Chapman et al., 2015 ). As demonstrated above, it was observed that learners were willing to discuss their language uses with me. Learners also reported on their conscious or deliberate metaphor uses at the time of writing. Table 3 illustrates the four categories of reasons that were identified for learners’ extended metaphor uses.

Table 3. Grouping codes into themes.

Based on the interview data, the four reasons explaining when and why learners’ produce extended metaphors are: (1) learners’ metaphoric thinking; (2) communicative functions of metaphor in academic writing (ideational, interpersonal, and textual); (3) L1 influence; (4) learners’ limited L2 knowledge and desire for a better writing performance in L2. It seemed that more than one reason was cited concerning each of the extended metaphor use identified and asked in this present investigation, which shows participants’ ability, or efforts made, to think, write, and persuade metaphorically and creatively in English, i.e., learners’ metaphoric competence in L2. In the following section, the findings obtained from learners’ writing samples and stimulated recall interviews were discussed.

Discussion of Findings

Findings obtained from the written texts data indicate that extended metaphors can be found at different strategic points in Chinese English learners’ argumentative essays. Functions of extended metaphors are analyzed by taking the strategic moves and stages of an L2 argumentative essay ( Hyland, 1990 ) into consideration. Like what Koller (2003) has found by analyzing metaphor clusters in magazine texts on marketing, it has been found that extended metaphors in the mid-texts, i.e., the argument stages, often serve the interpersonal function, such as developing persuasive arguments. The extended metaphors at the thesis stages, and at the concluding stages of participants’ argumentative texts, often occur on smaller scales compared to those in the middle parts. The bottom-up analysis of systematic metaphors built from extended metaphors indicates that communicative functions of extended metaphors at the beginning of written texts often coincide with the rhetorical aims of the thesis stage, such as achieving a dramatic illustration and attracting the readership’s attention, which are the ideational and interpersonal function. Extended metaphors at the end of texts can help learners to reinforce the proposition by “providing a prospective focus and widening the context” ( Hyland, 1990 , p. 74). Learners can “drive the point home to the readership” ( Koller, 2003 , p. 120) and achieve persuasive power.

Some examples of extended metaphors which appear to be deliberate were also observed. More than one systematic and metaphoric idea can be found within the same text. For instance, in Lou’s writing sample, the systematic metaphor LOVE IS ILLNESS can be established from the extended metaphors used at the argument stage for presenting and supporting standpoints. The systematic metaphor LOVE IS FIRE can be built from the conclusion stage to reinforce the central viewpoint and widen the context for evaluation and persuasion. This indicates that Lou could deploy and develop different vehicle terms and metaphoric ideas to talk about the topic domain at different stages of the text, with stronger emotions and persuasive power. The LOVE IS FOOD metaphor across the thesis and argument stages of Guo’s writing sample could also show a degree of learners’ conceptual fluency and metaphoric competence in L2 English ( Danesi, 1992 ). Different systematic metaphors built from different extended texts show learners’ ability to facilitate change in perspectives on part of the readership, by directing the readership’s attention and understanding to a different area of experience ( Deignan et al., 2013 ). The function analysis of extended metaphors, by establishing systematic metaphors, provides more evidence about learners’ metaphoric competence in L2, at both conceptual and linguistic levels of metaphor ( Littlemore, 2010 ; Nacey, 2013 ).

The stimulated recall interviews enabled to talk to learners and know more about their intentions and purposes in terms of their choice of some metaphorical extensions. Learners’ thought reports cited in their recall comments suggest that they are confident about their word choices during their writing processes, no matter whether the words and expressions are deliberately used to be metaphorical or not. Learners are able to report clearly about the efforts they have made to express their meanings during the writing, such as directly applying the metaphorical comparison from L1 to L2 and consciously thinking metaphorically in L1. Learners also report their desire for vividness, better comprehensibility, and persuasive power, concerning some extended metaphor uses, which supports the function analysis of extended metaphors and learners’ metaphoric competence in L2. The stimulated recall methodology has its limitations, but it is believed to be enough for this present investigation to ask learners in a face-to-face manner to know more about their thinking processes behind their use of extended metaphors in L2 argumentative texts. Useful pedagogical implications can be obtained. For instance, there are situations where learners may consciously decide to use extended metaphors to persuade through metaphorical constructions. Now that evidence has shown that both conventional and creative extended metaphors are inevitable for learners to meet various communicative needs in writing, it is necessary for teachers to realize this, recognize this as not an arbitrary phenomenon but a way of thinking and communication, and offer corresponding feedback in developing learners’ metaphoric and communicative competence in L2. The interesting insights obtained from the analysis of stimulated recall interview data can offset the limitations of the stimulated recall methodology.

Learners’ thought reports cited in some recall comments may also provide supporting evidence to the possible presence of certain metaphorical ideas in L1 or L2, such as “desire was like a dreadful monster” (Deng) and “love is a strength that can move things forward” (Li Y.), in the writers’ minds when they wrote extended metaphors. This may contribute to, as Littlemore (2009) suggests, the implications of CMT in second language teaching and learning. L1 influence on L2 metaphor production is not “simply lexical interference from the L1, or as the result of a knowledge gap in the use of L2 idiomatic language” ( Danesi, 2016 ), but also may be the result of conceptual transfers from L1 to L2 ( Nacey, 2013 ).

This present investigation is a relatively small-scale study. The collected text data and interview data may not represent all Chinese university students’ use, function, and understanding of extended metaphors in L2 argumentative writing. However, limitations like these are less important compared to the findings and insights gained from the textual analysis and interview analysis. The findings from this present investigation show that Chinese learners of English have been able to refer to some metaphorical concepts in their L1 to produce conventional and creative extended metaphors in L2 argumentative texts for achieving various communicative purposes, such as the desire for vividness, for more comprehensible meaning, coherence, and for supporting viewpoints and persuading. Findings from the interview data also show that learners may develop metaphorical extensions deliberately, by consciously thinking metaphor in L1 and writing creative direct metaphors under certain communication pressure. But participants’ ability to write metaphorically in their targeted language, and sometimes to report metaphorically about their writing processes, are still not recognized as a crucial ability to be developed in their L2 classrooms. Littlemore and Low write, “control over metaphor is one of the essential tools for empowering learners to cope successfully with native speakers” ( Littlemore and Low, 2006b , p. 22). It is reasonable to constantly draw both teachers’, learners’, and policy makers’ attention to the exposure of metaphor knowledge in L2 classrooms at the tertiary level ( Shirazi and Talebinezhad, 2013 ), and pay more attention to learners’ metaphor production in L2 ( Hoang, 2015 ). The reinforcement of metaphor awareness, metaphoric/creative thinking, and cross-cultural awareness is essential in developing Chinese English learners’ metaphoric competence and overall communicative competence in L2.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the ESSL, Environment and LUBS Faculty Research Ethics Committee, University of Leeds (AREA 16-160). The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

QL contributed to the conception and design of the study, conducted data collection, performed the analysis and interpretation of both text and interview data, wrote the first draft, and made the revisions and approved the publication of this article.

This work was supported by the joint scholarship of the China Scholarship Council and the University of Leeds under Grant No. CSC201606290040 and the Research Start-Up Funding from the Yangtze University under Grant No. 8021002902.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to extend special gratitude to Alice Deignan and Lou Harvey from the School of Education, University of Leeds, for their valuable comments on the earlier drafts of Ph.D. thesis part of which developed into this article. The gratitude is also extended to Dongman Cai for the co-rating work in metaphor identification and vehicle coding.

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Keywords : extended metaphors, systematic metaphors, L2 argumentative essays, metaphoric competence in L2, stimulated recall comments, communicative functions

Citation: Lu Q (2021) “Desire Is Like a Dreadful Monster”: Analysis of Extended Metaphors in L2 Argumentative Essays by Chinese Learners of English. Front. Psychol. 12:803359. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.803359

Received: 27 October 2021; Accepted: 22 November 2021; Published: 20 December 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Lu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Qiuyun Lu, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

10 Best Examples of Extended Metaphors in Poetry

A metaphor is an imaginative reference that shows a comparison between one thing or an idea to another. In other words, metaphor is a hidden similarity that a writer reveals through descriptive comparison. The extended metaphor is a metaphorical consideration that is discussed in detail in the piece of writing. Especially in poetry, it can last in a line, phrase , or whole poem . Extended metaphor gives a new color and charm to the poem. The poet mentions it once in the poem, leaving an echo of comparison throughout the poem. Extended metaphors have a different level of imagination, and so layer after layer poem becomes deeper and sometimes more complex. Some examples of extended metaphors in poetry are given below.

hope is the thing with feathers by Emily Dickinson

hope is the thing with feathers That perches in the soul, And sings the tune – without words, And never stops at all, And the sweetest in the gale is heard; And sore must be the storm That could abash the little bird That kept so many warm. I’ve heard it in the chilliest land, And on the strangest sea; Yet, never, in extremity, It asked a crumb of me.

In the above example, Emily uses the metaphor of a bird for the concept of hope. She describes the bird that rests in the soul and continues singing and never stops. That sweet song is so gratifying and pleasant that it can warm the ‘cold heart’ is an extended metaphor for optimistic thoughts.

The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not travel both And be one traveler, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could To where it bent in the undergrowth; […] I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I – I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference.

The poet Robert Frost painted the picture of ‘yellow wood’ and the man who is confused before starting his journey in a deep forest. The forest and the pathways are used as an extended metaphor for life and decisions. Man must choose his path instead of copying others and facing losses in the world.

Poetry by Meghan Frey

 Poetry is music to your mind. It rhymes and flows. It settles you and comforts you. Poetry triggers thought. It flies through your mind. Poetry had a pattern to it. Poetry is music

Here, the music is used as an extended metaphor for peace through poetry. The poet wants to relate the effects or effects of poetry to the listener, reader, and poet himself.  The words ‘trigger’ and ‘flies’ and ‘comforts’ are wisely selected for their readiness.

Football Game by Richie Pelanek

A football game is war. It’s like going against your enemy. You don’t want to go down. It’s like you are protecting your base. You want to take them back. Your quarterback is a General. It’s your choice to win or lose You don’t give up until it is over. At the end the winner is who is standing. You make peace with the enemy then you go back home until another game.

The extended metaphor of war is a brilliant selection for the football match. The opponent team represents the enemy. Every team tries its best to let the other team down. Sportsmanship is well described in the line ’you make peace with the enemy’.

Snowboarding by Marisa cook and Rachel Covert

Snow is butter, smooth but rough. As I come down hills, I am a bullet. As I travel up, I’m a flowing stream. My board is my legs, as walking comes natural. Ready to go, I am free.

Butter is metaphorically used for snow in the first two lines. Next, the bullet is used for the snowboarding as the poet speedily comes down from the hill. The poet uses the extended metaphor of winter throughout the poem, describing the landing. He further explains his walk while descending the snowy mountain.

My Room by Michelle Krebs and Eve Elsing

 My room is heaven with its clouds on the walls that are lit with a luminous glow from the gentle morning sun. That light is the key that opens my eyes. The pillows on my bed are as fluffy as clouds and as soft as a baby’s bottom. The birds’ chirping is like angels singing in my ears I am a God in my room and nothing else matters.

Here the poem is an extended metaphor for luxury or authority as the whole room is brilliantly described as heaven and a blessed place for the speaker where only his or her orders have the top hand.

Children by Ali Ballweg

Children are flowers, Always growing Bright, Cheery Making people happy They are all different. Blooming at their own time when they are ready to show Eventually they will die. They need nurturing to thrive. Helpless Waiting for approval.

The Flowers are well said for the children in these lines. Their fresh and vibrant life witness their good nourishment.

Longing is a Sharp Knife by Gardel best Tango Singer Poetrix

Longing, is sharp knife equal an expert butcher carves meat perfectly

The poem is an extended metaphor for passion. Also, the sharp knife is used as an extended metaphor for longing. The craving or yearning is hard to bear.

A Little Bird I Am by Jeanne M.B. De La Mothe

A little bird I am, Shut from the fields of air, And in my cage I sit and sing To Him who placed me there; Well pleased a prisoner to be, Because, my God, it pleaseth Thee Nought have I else to do, I sing the whole day long; And He whom most I love to please Doth listen to my song; He caught and bound my wandering wing; But still He bends to hear me sing.

In the above example, the speaker identifies her personality as a bird locked up in a cage. The melancholy atmosphere , an extended metaphor prayer through tone , unveils the darker truth of being imprisoned.

Example #10

I Sit And Sew by Dunbar-Nelson

I sit and sew—a useless task it seems, My hands grown tired, my head weighed down with dreams — The panoply of war, the martial tred of men, Grim-faced, stern-eyed, gazing beyond the ken Of lesser souls, whose eyes have not seen Death, Nor learned to hold their lives but as a breath— But—I must sit and sew.

This poem is an extended metaphor for death or the last moments of life. The words ‘hands’ and ‘dreams’ also contain hidden messages of aging. The dark shadows of rigid society and the monotony of life are well expressed in these lines.

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Extended Metaphor

An extended metaphor is a literary device that extends a metaphorical comparison throughout a piece of writing, weaving it into the narrative, poem, or speech. Unlike a simple metaphor that draws a quick comparison, an extended metaphor continues to link two ideas, adding depth and dimension to the work. This artistic tool paints a vivid picture and builds a cohesive theme, allowing the writer to explore complex emotions or abstract concepts in an accessible way.

What is an Extended Metaphor?

An extended metaphor is a metaphor that unfolds across multiple lines, sentences, or even an entire work. It is a literary device used to draw a comparison between two unlike things, but instead of being a brief analogy, it continues throughout the piece. By developing the metaphor example over an extended passage, the writer can provide a multi-layered illustration that deepens the reader’s understanding and emotional engagement with the subject.

What is the Best Example of Extended Metaphor?

One of the most celebrated examples of an extended metaphor is found in William Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet.” In Act 2, Scene 2, the famous balcony scene, Juliet employs an extended metaphor comparing Romeo to a rose. She says, “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose / By any other name would smell as sweet.” Juliet extends this metaphor example in romeo and juliet , contemplating the nature of identity and love beyond mere names. This eloquent use of an extended metaphor has made it one of the most quoted and analyzed metaphor examples in English literature.

100 Extended Metaphor Examples

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1. Life as a Journey: A common metaphor where life’s stages are likened to stops along a trip. 2. The Ship of State: Comparing a country’s governance to the steering of a ship. 3. Time as a River: Describing time’s constant and unchangeable flow. 4. Mind as a Garden: Cultivating thoughts like plants in a garden. 5. Education as Construction: Building knowledge in stages, like a structure. 6. A Business as a Machine: Describing a business where all parts must function together. 7. Human Emotions as Weather: Describing feelings as sunny, stormy, etc. 8. War as a Game: The strategies and tactics likened to a chess game. 9. Love as a Battlefield: Conveying love as an ongoing struggle or conflict. 10. The Internet as an Information Superhighway: Linking information like roads and highways. 11. A Book as a Portal: Opening doors to new worlds or experiences. 12. The Heart as a Pump: Comparing the heart’s function to a mechanical pump. 13. The Mind as a Computer: Likening human cognition to computer processing. 14. Society as a Body: Different societal segments as body parts. 15. The Family as a Tree: Branching family connections from common roots. 16. Life as a Theatre: Life’s events as acts and scenes on a stage. 17. Consciousness as Light: Brightness and darkness symbolizing awareness and ignorance. 18. The Soul as a Fortress: Inner strength and integrity depicted as impenetrable walls. 19. Relationships as a Dance: Graceful, awkward, or dynamic movements mirroring relational dynamics. 20. Ideas as Seeds: Ideas growing and bearing fruit like seeds in soil. 21. Community as a Quilt: Different people and parts woven together. 22. Faith as a Mustard Seed: Small beginnings growing into substantial belief. 23. A Country as a Melting Pot: Different cultures blending together. 24. Grief as an Ocean: Overwhelming sorrow depicted as an endless, deep sea. 25. Life as a Tapestry: Interwoven events creating a full picture. 26. Democracy as a Ship: Navigating the complex waters of governance. 27. Wisdom as Light: Illuminating the path of understanding. 28. Youth as Springtime: New beginnings, freshness, and growth. 29. Knowledge as a Building: Constructing understanding layer by layer. 30. Aging as Autumn: The winding down and preparation for life’s winter. 31. A Novel as a Friend: Providing companionship, empathy, and understanding. 32. Death as Sleep: The peaceful transition from life. 33. Career as a Ladder: Climbing rungs representing advancement. 34. The Earth as a Mother: Nurturing and providing for its inhabitants. 35. Science as a Torch: Lighting the way to discovery. 36. Fear as a Monster: An overpowering, terrifying force. 37. Justice as Scales: Weighing evidence and rendering fair decisions. 38. Memory as a Library: Storing thoughts and experiences like books on shelves. 39. Progress as a Climb: A difficult ascent symbolizing struggle and achievement. 40. Peace as a River: Flowing smoothly and bringing life. 41. Education as a Key: Opening doors to opportunity. 42. A Child’s Mind as a Sponge: Absorbing knowledge effortlessly. 43. The Universe as a Symphony: Cosmic harmony and orchestrated movement. 44. A Team as a Well-oiled Machine: Coordination and efficiency in action. 45. Poverty as a Prison: Trapping individuals in a cycle of despair. 46. Equality as a Level Playing Field: Fair competition without advantage or hindrance. 47. Success as a Mountain Summit: The pinnacle of achievement after a hard climb. 48. Opportunity as a Door: An entry point to something new and promising. 49. Challenge as a Puzzle: A complex problem needing solving. 50. Creativity as a Fountain: A constant flow of fresh ideas and inspiration. 51. Language as a Bridge: Connecting cultures, individuals, and ideas. 52. Hope as a Beacon: Guiding through darkness and uncertainty. 53. Lies as Webs: Intricate, tangled, and trapping. 54. Argument as War: The adversarial clash of opinions and positions. 55. Technology as a Double-edged Sword: Offering both benefits and risks. 56. Courage as Armor: Protection against fear and doubt. 57. Words as Weapons: Cutting, defending, or attacking with language. 58. History as a Teacher: Offering lessons from the past. 59. The Market as an Ocean: Waves, currents, and unpredictable movements of economy. 60. Civilization as a Building: Constructing and maintaining social structures. 61. Global Economy as a Web: Interconnected and dependent on various strands. 62. Cities as Organisms: Growing, adapting, living, and sometimes dying. 63. Art as a Mirror: Reflecting society and individual experiences. 64. Emotions as Colors: Painting feelings with shades and hues. 65. Innocence as a White Dove: Pure, gentle, and untainted. 66. The Brain as an Orchestra: Different parts playing in harmony. 67. Reality as a Film: Viewing life through different lenses. 68. Freedom as a Bird: Soaring without restraint or confinement. 69. Humanity as a Body: Working together or suffering together. 70. Literature as a Window: Glimpses into different worlds and minds. 71. Culture as an Iceberg: Visible aspects with much hidden beneath. 72. Nations as Neighbors: Interaction, disputes, and common boundaries. 73. Dreams as Stars: Guiding lights or distant, untouchable goals. 74. Destiny as a Path: A predetermined route through life. 75. Tradition as a Chain: Linking generations and preserving values. 76. Ethics as Compass: Guiding moral decisions and behavior. 77. A Company as a Family: Interconnected relationships working toward common goals. 78. Economy as a Balloon: Inflating, deflating, and sensitive to conditions. 79. Marriage as a Partnership: Shared responsibilities and mutual support. 80. Addiction as a Pit: Difficult to escape and potentially destructive. 81. Character as a Diamond: Formed under pressure, hard, and valuable. 82. Suffering as a Furnace: Refining and purifying through hardship. 83. Leadership as a Shepherd: Guiding, protecting, and nurturing followers. 84. Reputation as a Shadow: Following, reflecting, and sometimes distorting. 85. Growth as Sunrise : A gradual increase or improvement. 86. Ideas as Flames: Spreading, warming, and sometimes consuming. 87. Work as Worship: Dedication and reverence in one’s profession. 88. Politics as Theater: Playing roles, scripting speeches, and performing for an audience. 89. Faith as a Shield: Protection against doubts and fears. 90. Beauty as a Flower: Fragile, appealing, and sometimes fleeting. 91. The Human Body as a Temple: Sacred and to be cared for. 92. Truth as a Light: Dispelling darkness and revealing reality. 93. Friendship as a Treasure: Valuable, rare, and to be cherished. 94. Music as a Universal Language: Speaking to all across cultural barriers. 95. Loss as a Void: An emptiness that can’t be filled. 96. Anger as Fire: Burning, destructive, but also purifying. 97. Patience as a Tree: Slow-growing, sturdy, and long-lasting. 98. Love as Water: Essential, nourishing, and taking many forms. 99. Change as Seasons: Natural, cyclical, and often expected. 100. Wisdom as a Tree: Deep-rooted, expansive, and providing shelter.

Extended metaphors are potent tools in literature and rhetoric, allowing complex ideas to be conveyed with creativity and depth. These examples represent various themes and subjects, illustrating the richness of metaphorical language.

Extended Metaphor Sentence Examples

• The office was a jungle, complete with its lions, snakes, and occasional tree to hide beneath: Here, a typical work environment is likened to the wild unpredictability of a jungle, illustrating various office personalities and dynamics.My heart’s engine roared to life, igniting every piston with fiery passion: This portrays the heart’s emotional responses as the workings of a mechanical engine.
• His thoughts were a never-ending labyrinth, always leading him to the same dead ends: The intricacies of the mind are compared to a maze, signifying confusion.
• Our relationship was a delicate dance, each step either in harmony or a dangerous misstep: This denotes the complexities and balance in a relationship.
• Childhood is an open field, slowly being filled with experiences and memories: Childhood’s vast potential is likened to a field awaiting cultivation.
• Life in the city was like an ever-spinning carousel, dizzying and full of ups and downs: The constant motion of urban life is portrayed as a carousel ride.
• Her voice was a soothing river, flowing with stories and lullabies from days long past: The voice’s calming nature is compared to the gentle flow of a river.
• Their friendship was like a sturdy bridge that weathered every storm and weight it bore: This highlights the strength and durability of a bond.
• The night was a thick book, filled with tales of stars and distant galaxies: Night’s mysteries are likened to a book of celestial stories.
• His ambitions were a towering skyscraper, reaching for the skies but with a risk of toppling: The height and potential dangers of unbridled ambition are portrayed.

Extended metaphor sentence examples are where a metaphor is extended throughout the entire sentence, or even a whole paragraph or passage. These metaphors help to draw a more in-depth comparison between two unlike things. For instance, comparing life to a journey or the human mind to a labyrinth. Extended metaphors can create powerful imagery and make abstract concepts more tangible and relatable.

Extended Metaphor About Life Examples

• Life is a tape measure, marking milestones and significant moments along its length: Life’s phases are compared to measurements on a tape.
• Life is an unpredictable ocean, with calm waves and tempestuous storms: The highs and lows of life are likened to oceanic conditions.
• Life is a train journey, with stations of joy, sorrow, and inevitable goodbyes: Life’s events are likened to train stops.
• Life is a mosaic, where every piece, no matter how broken, contributes to its beauty: The value of all life experiences, good or bad, is highlighted.
• Life is a marathon, not a sprint; the value lies in enduring, not just running: Persistence and long-term vision in life are emphasized.
• Life is a classroom, and every challenge is a lesson to be learned: Life’s challenges are seen as educational moments.
• Life is a novel, and every day writes a new page, whether of mystery, romance, or tragedy: The unpredictability and variety of life are showcased.
• Life is a bakery, filled with sweet moments and occasional burnt cookies: Pleasant and unfavorable experiences in life are highlighted.
• Life is a canvas, and our actions and choices are the strokes of paint: The idea that we shape and color our own lives is depicted.
• Life is a mountain, offering valleys of rest and peaks of triumph: Life’s ups and downs, challenges, and moments of reprieve are described.

Life offers endless experiences and emotions, and extended metaphors about life are a poetic way to describe the intricate and multi-layered aspects of existence. Comparing life to diverse things like a marathon, a mosaic, a bakery, or an ocean can unveil profound insights. Extended Life metaphors often serve as philosophical reflections, highlighting the essential lessons and values.

Extended Metaphor in Movies Examples

• “The Matrix” – life as a simulated reality, where the truth is hidden beneath layers of deception: This film uses the metaphor of a digital simulation to question reality.
• “Inception” – the mind as a multi-layered maze, where dreams blend with reality: The complexities of the subconscious are explored through dream levels.
• “The Lion King” – the circle of life, where every end leads to a new beginning: The natural flow and cycle of life are portrayed in Simba’s journey.
• “The Shawshank Redemption” – prison as a state of mind, and freedom as a state of being: The physical and mental aspects of captivity and liberation are explored.
• “Avatar” – the planet Pandora as a living, breathing entity interconnected with its inhabitants: The deep connection between nature and living beings is emphasized.
• “Wall-E” – Earth as a wasteland, depicting the consequences of unchecked consumerism: The movie serves as a warning about environmental neglect.
• “Up” – the house with balloons as a symbol of dreams, memories, and letting go: Personal attachments and the journey to move on are depicted.
• “Frozen” – Elsa’s powers as a metaphor for suppressed emotions and self-acceptance: Embracing one’s true self and managing emotions are key themes.
• “Inside Out” – the mind as a control center, manned by emotions: The intricate workings of emotions and their influence are depicted.
• “Moby Dick” (adapted from the novel) – the white whale as an obsession that can lead to ruin: The dangers of unchecked ambition and revenge are illustrated.

Movies frequently use extended metaphors to deepen themes, build characters, and create a more vivid cinematic universe. These metaphors for movies can range from symbolic objects or characters to entire plot structures that mirror real-world issues. By doing so, filmmakers are able to communicate complex ideas in an accessible and engaging way.

Short Extended Metaphor Examples

• My days became a bakery, always rising before the sun to create something fresh: The routine of early mornings and creation is likened to a baker’s life.
• Her words were a garden, always blooming with vibrant tales: The beauty and growth of her words are emphasized.
• Our love is a duet, always in tune, even when improvising: A harmonious relationship is described through music.
• Your mind is a treasure chest, filled with gems of ideas: Valuable thoughts and insights are highlighted.
• This town is a sleepy cat, basking in the afternoon sun: A laid-back, leisurely town is portrayed.
• The car’s engine was a grumbling bear, aching for some rest: Mechanical issues and noises likened to an animal’s growl.
• His career was a roller coaster, filled with thrilling highs and terrifying drops: A career’s unpredictability and excitement are depicted.
• The forest was a hidden palace of nature’s jewels, waiting to be explored: The beauty and mysteries of nature are likened to royal treasures.
• Her laugh was a merry carousel, infectious and full of joy: A lively and contagious laughter is illustrated.
• He was a weathered ship, still sailing despite the storms of time: Resilience and continued pursuit, despite age, are emphasized.

Short extended easy metaphors are concise yet profound comparisons that convey larger truths or themes. Even in a single sentence or a brief phrase, these metaphors can encapsulate complex ideas, emotions, or observations. By likening one thing to another—such as love to a duet or a town to a sleepy cat—a short extended metaphor can paint a vivid picture or evoke strong feelings.

Extended Metaphor in Literature

• “Animal Farm” by George Orwell – the farm as a microcosm of a corrupt political system: The novel illustrates the flaws of totalitarianism.
• “Harry Potter” series by J.K. Rowling – Hogwarts as a sanctuary, a place of growth and self-discovery: The magical school represents personal development.
• “Les Misérables” by Victor Hugo – society as a dark maze where the downtrodden are lost: Society’s failures and injustices are portrayed.
• “The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger – Holden’s red hunting hat as a symbol of his uniqueness: Themes of isolation and self-discovery are highlighted.
• “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee – the mockingbird as a symbol of innocence: Moral conscience and loss of innocence are central themes.
• “Moby Dick” by Herman Melville – the white whale as an obsession: Obsession and self-destruction are explored.
• “The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald – the green light as a symbol of unattainable dreams: The illusion of the American Dream is portrayed.
• “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte – the red room as a symbol of oppression: Themes of confinement, rebellion, and growth are developed.
• “Lord of the Flies” by William Golding – the island as a symbol of human society: The inherent evil in human nature is depicted.
• “One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel Garcia Marquez – the Buendía family as a symbol of Latin America’s history: Time, solitude, and magical realism are explored.

Literature often utilizes extended metaphors to weave deeper meaning, symbolism, and thematic resonance within a story. Classic and modern works alike employ these metaphors as a means to explore societal issues, human nature, relationships, and more. These extended literature metaphors serve to engage readers, prompting them to think beyond the surface of the narrative.

Extended Metaphor in Poems

• “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost – the diverging roads as choices in life: Decisions, paths, and reflections on life are explored.
• “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley – the ruined statue as the impermanence of power: The transient nature of power and the ravages of time are depicted.
• “Dover Beach” by Matthew Arnold – the tide as a metaphor for the ebbing faith in a tumultuous world: A sense of loss, despair, and longing for stability is conveyed.
• “Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare – the summer’s day as a comparison to the beloved’s beauty: The timelessness of love and beauty is celebrated.
• “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” by William Wordsworth – daffodils as a symbol of solitude and joy: Reflections on nature, joy, and the human connection are presented.
• “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot – the barren land as a symbol of cultural disillusionment: Desolation, fragmentation, and the search for redemption are depicted.
• “Hope is the thing with feathers” by Emily Dickinson – hope as a bird that perches in the soul: The resilient nature of hope and its comforting presence are described.
• “Mending Wall” by Robert Frost – the wall as a metaphor for boundaries and human separation: Barriers, relationships, and the paradox of isolation are explored.
• “A Poison Tree” by William Blake – the growing poison tree as a metaphor for anger and vengeance: The destructive nature of unchecked emotions and resentment is depicted.
• “Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou – rising above adversity as a symbol of resilience and empowerment: Themes of strength, pride, and defiance against oppression are highlighted.

Poetry frequently embraces extended metaphors in poems as a way to connect with readers on an emotional level. By drawing an extended comparison between two unrelated things, poets can evoke a wide range of feelings, thoughts, and images. Whether it’s the depiction of hope as a bird or the wasteland as a symbol of cultural disillusionment, extended metaphors enrich poetic expression and provoke deeper reflection.

How do you write an Extended Metaphor?

Writing an extended metaphor is an art that requires a bit of practice, creativity, and understanding of the subject matter you are trying to describe. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you create your own extended metaphor:

Step 1: Identify Your Core Concept

First, decide what you want to write about. It could be a theme, emotion, character, or a complex idea. Your metaphor will revolve around this core concept.

Step 2: Choose a Metaphorical Subject

Next, select something that can symbolize your core concept. This metaphorical subject should have characteristics or features that you can align with the attributes of your core concept. It may help to brainstorm a list and then choose the most fitting one.

Step 3: Map the Connections

Outline the specific parallels between the core concept and the metaphorical subject. List down how each characteristic or feature of the metaphorical subject relates to the core concept. The more detailed, the better.

Step 4: Build Your Extended Metaphor

Begin to weave these parallels into your writing. You can start with a clear statement of the metaphor and then extend it by using the connections you’ve mapped out. Use vivid and descriptive language to paint a clear picture.

Step 5: Maintain Consistency

An extended metaphor continues throughout a paragraph, stanza, or even an entire work. Be consistent with the metaphorical subject and its characteristics. Don’t mix different metaphors, as it might confuse the reader.

Step 6: Utilize Supporting Imagery

Add details, imagery, and examples that support the metaphor. Describe the metaphorical subject in a way that reinforces the similarities without repeating them unnecessarily.

Step 7: Check for Clarity

Read over your extended metaphor to ensure that the comparison is clear and the connections are logical. If possible, get feedback from someone else to ensure that your metaphor is effective and accessible to others.

Step 8: Revise and Refine

Take the time to revise and polish your extended metaphor. Remove any redundancy, and make sure every element of the metaphor contributes to the overall understanding of the core concept.

Step 9: Consider Tone and Style

Make sure your extended metaphor fits the tone and style of the piece. An extended metaphor in a scholarly article may look different from one in a poem or a novel.

Step 10: Conclude with Impact

If your extended metaphor has a beginning and an end (like in a poem or a specific passage), make sure to conclude it in a way that reinforces the main point and leaves a lasting impression.

If you were to write an extended metaphor about life being a journey, you might compare the different stages of life to parts of a trip, hardships to obstacles on the road, achievements to milestones, and so on.

By following these steps, you can create an engaging and thoughtful extended metaphor that adds depth and meaning to your writing. Whether in poetry, fiction, or non-fiction, extended metaphors can bring abstract ideas to life and make your work more resonant and memorable.

What is Extended Metaphor Also known as?

An extended metaphor is also known as a conceit or sustained metaphor. It is a literary device that extends a metaphor over several lines, paragraphs, or even an entire literary work. Unlike a simple implied metaphor , which often compares two unlike things in one concise statement, an extended metaphor continues the comparison throughout the piece, drawing multiple parallels between the subjects and exploring them in greater detail. By doing so, it allows the writer to delve more deeply into the nuances of the comparison, creating a richer and more layered understanding of the subject.

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60 Writing Topics for Extended Definitions

These essays go beyond dictionary entries using analysis and examples

• Writing Essays
• Writing Research Papers
• English Grammar
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Simply put, a definition is a statement of the meaning of a word or phrase. An extended definition goes beyond what can be found in a dictionary, offering an expanded analysis and illustration of a concept that might be abstract, controversial, unfamiliar, or frequently misunderstood. Take, for example, writings such as William James' "Pragmatic Theory of Truth" or John Berger's " The Meaning of Home ."

Approaching the Abstract

Abstract concepts, including many of the broad terms in the list that follows, need to be "brought to earth" with an example to relate what they mean to your reader and to get your point or opinion across. You could illustrate the concepts with anecdotes from your personal life or examples from the news or current events, or write an opinion piece. There's no single method for developing and organizing a paragraph or essay by extended definition. The 60 concepts listed here can be defined in various ways and from different points of view.

Brainstorming and Prewriting

Start with brainstorming your topic . If you work well with lists, write the word at the top of the paper and fill the rest of the page with all the things that the word makes you think of, feel, see, or even smell, without stopping. It's OK to go off on tangents, as you might find a surprising connection that could make a powerful, insightful, or even humorous essay. Alternatively, brainstorm by writing the word in the middle of your paper and connect other related words to it and each other.

As you develop your angle, think about the concept's background, features, characteristics, and parts. What is the concept's opposite? What are its effects on you or others? Something in your list or word map will spark a writing idea or theme to use to illustrate the abstract concept, and then it's off to the races. If you run into a dead end the first time, go back to your list and pick another idea. It's possible that your first draft turns out to be prewriting and leads to a better idea that can be developed further and can possibly even incorporate the prewriting exercise. Time spent writing is time spent exploring and is never wasted, as sometimes it takes a bit of pursuit to discover the perfect idea.

If seeing examples will help spark your essay, take a look at "Gifts," by Ralph Waldo Emerson, Gore Vidal's "Definition of Prettiness," or "A Definition of Pantomime," by Julian Barnes.

60 Topic Suggestions

Looking for a place to start? Here are 60 words and phrases so broad that writings on them could be infinite:

• Sportsmanship
• Self-assurance
• Sensitivity
• Peace of mind
• Right to privacy
• Common sense
• Team player
• Healthy appetite
• Frustration
• Sense of humor
• Conservative
• A good (or bad) teacher or professor
• Physical fitness
• A happy marriage
• True friendship
• Citizenship
• A good (or bad) coach
• Intelligence
• Personality
• A good (or bad) roommate
• Political correctness
• Peer pressure
• Persistence
• Responsibility
• Human rights
• Sophistication
• Self-respect
• A good (or bad) boss
• A good (or bad) parent
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• How to Write a Descriptive Paragraph

Extended Essay Topics: 285 IB Ideas for You

High school students typically undertake this research project as part of the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Programme. With a length of 3000-4000 words, it offers an opportunity for students to delve deeply into a topic of personal interest within one of the IB subject areas. Please follow the link to learn more about the International Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum .

If you want to learn how to write an extended essay, begin by selecting a well-defined research question that aligns with the subject's curriculum and your interests. Conduct thorough research using various reputable sources, analyze the gathered information critically, and develop a clear argument or thesis. Structuring the essay with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion, students should present their findings cohesively, supported by evidence and examples. Additionally, adhere to academic conventions, including proper citations and referencing, and ensure clarity and coherence in your writing.

Finally, students should engage in regular revisions and seek feedback from teachers or peers to refine their essays into a comprehensive and academically rigorous piece of work. You’ll be pleased to know that our online paper writing service provides IB essays, too!

How to Choose an Extended Essay Topic?

Choosing an EE topic is crucial as it sets the direction for your research and impacts your overall experience. Here's a concise guide to help you select suitable IB extended essay topic ideas:

• Identify Your Interests

Start by brainstorming subjects or topics that genuinely interest you. Consider your passions, hobbies, and subjects you excel in or find intriguing.

• Review IB Subject Areas

Explore the IB subject areas you're studying and consider how your interests intersect with these disciplines. Your EE topic should align with one of these subjects.

• Consider Feasibility

Assess the feasibility of potential extended essay ideas based on available resources, access to data, and your ability to conduct research within the given timeframe.

• Narrow Down Your Focus

Once you have a broad topic in mind, narrow it down to a specific research question or area of investigation. A focused, well-defined research question will make your EE more manageable and coherent.

• Consult with Teachers

Seek guidance from your teachers or EE supervisor. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential topics, and help you refine your research question.

• Evaluate Significance

Consider the significance and relevance of your chosen topic. Is it academically challenging? Does it offer opportunities for original research or critical analysis?

• Reflect on Personal Connection

Reflect on why this topic matters to you personally. Connecting with your topic on a deeper level can enhance your motivation and engagement throughout the research process. If you need a more hands-on approach, request our college essay writing help now.

• Pilot Research

Conduct some preliminary research to gauge the availability of sources and the depth of existing literature on your chosen topic. This will help you determine whether it's viable for your EE.

• Stay Flexible

Be open to adjusting your topic or research question as you delve deeper into the literature and gather more information. Flexibility is key to finding the right balance between academic rigor and personal interest.

• Finalize Your Topic

Once you've considered these factors, finalize your EE topic and research question. Ensure it meets the IB's requirements and aligns with your academic goals and interests. If you need a psychology essay writing service , you can easily obtain it on our website.

The Ultimate List of Extended Essay Ideas

Are you ready for a surge of inspiration that will leave you no choice but to start writing? Then, let’s do this! For your convenience, EssayService distributed the topics among nineteen areas, depending on what subject you’re going to choose. Alternatively, you can order essay online without having to spend hours on research, drafting, and proofreading.

Best Extended Essay Topics

• Social media's impact on teen mental health.
• Renewable energy policy effectiveness.
• Gender roles in contemporary literature.
• Ethics of gene editing technology.
• Diversity's effect on workplace productivity.
• Propaganda's role in wartime opinions.
• Music's influence on memory.
• Bilingual education's language benefits.
• Globalization's impact on indigenous cultures.
• Mindfulness for stress reduction.
• Socioeconomic status and academic success.
• Mental illness portrayal in media.
• Religion's role in politics.
• Climate change and biodiversity.
• Alternative medicine's efficacy in chronic illness.

Visual Arts Extended Essay Topics

• The portrayal of light in Impressionist paintings.
• Symbolism in Frida Kahlo's self-portraits.
• The evolution of cubism in Picasso's works.
• Cultural influences on Japanese woodblock prints.
• Surrealism's impact on contemporary photography.
• The use of color in Matisse's cut-outs.
• Female empowerment in contemporary street art.
• Environmental themes in Land Art installations.
• Religious symbolism in Renaissance masterpieces.
• The intersection of technology and art in digital animation.
• Abstract expressionism and emotional catharsis.
• Political commentary in Banksy's graffiti.
• Gender representation in classical sculpture.
• Art as a form of protest in the Civil Rights Movement.
• Nature as muse in the Hudson River School paintings.

Computer Science Extended Essay Topics

• Machine learning applications in predicting stock market trends.
• Encryption techniques for securing cloud-based data.
• Quantum computing's impact on cryptography.
• Cybersecurity measures against ransomware attacks.
• Artificial intelligence in personalized healthcare.
• Algorithm optimization for autonomous vehicle route planning.
• Ethical considerations in facial recognition technology.
• Blockchain in supply chain management efficiency.
• Natural language processing advancements in virtual assistants.
• The role of big data analytics in business intelligence.
• Cybersecurity challenges in the Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
• Exploring the potential of edge computing in IoT networks.
• Data privacy regulations and their impact on technology companies.
• The use of virtual reality in immersive learning experiences.
• Advancements in computer vision for image recognition tasks.

English Extended Essay Topics

• Identity exploration in contemporary literature.
• Gender dynamics in Shakespearean tragedies.
• Magical realism in Gabriel García Márquez's novels.
• Postcolonial themes in Chinua Achebe's "Things Fall Apart."
• Symbolism in George Orwell's "1984."
• Alienation in J.D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye."
• The hero archetype in epic literature.
• Eco-criticism in environmental literature.
• Satire in Jonathan Swift's "Gulliver's Travels."
• Mental illness in Sylvia Plath's poetry.
• Comparative dystopian literature analysis.
• Mythology's influence on modern fantasy.
• Power dynamics in Shakespeare's "Macbeth."
• Narrator roles in postmodernist literature.
• Social commentary in Octavia Butler's science fiction.

History Extended Essay Topics

• The impact of colonialism on indigenous cultures.
• Analyzing the causes and consequences of the Great Depression.
• Women's suffrage movements around the world.
• The role of Propaganda in shaping public opinion during wartime.
• Comparing the French and American Revolutions.
• The rise and fall of ancient civilizations: A comparative study.
• Investigating the origins and consequences of the Cold War.
• The effects of globalization on indigenous communities.
• The significance of religious reformations in shaping modern societies.
• Exploring the legacy of imperialism in Africa.
• The role of technology in shaping the course of World War II.
• Resistance movements during periods of oppression.
• The impact of the Renaissance on European society and culture.
• Analyzing the causes and consequences of the Civil Rights Movement.
• The role of nationalism in the dissolution of empires.

Extended Essay Topics Human Rights

• The impact and challenges of international human rights treaties.
• Social media's influence on human rights activism.
• Refugee rights: Navigating challenges in host nations.
• Transitional justice mechanisms in post-conflict societies.
• Environmental rights amidst the climate crisis.
• Indigenous land rights: Struggles and victories.
• Accountability and justice through international criminal tribunals.
• Technology's implications for privacy rights.
• Gender-based violence in conflict regions: Addressing root causes.
• Economic sanctions: Balancing human rights and political goals.
• Corporate responsibility in global supply chains: Progress and setbacks.
• Advocating for disability rights in diverse societies.
• Examining human rights impacts of mass incarceration.
• Protecting migrant workers from exploitation.
• Education's role in promoting human rights awareness.

Extended Essay Topics English Literature

• Symbolism in "To Kill a Mockingbird."
• Character development in "Pride and Prejudice."
• Conflict resolution in "Lord of the Flies."
• Themes of isolation in Emily Dickinson's poetry.
• Literary techniques in Edgar Allan Poe's short stories.
• Cultural identity in "The Joy Luck Club."
• Gender roles in Shakespearean comedies.
• Narrative structure in "The Great Gatsby."
• The theme of love in sonnets by Elizabeth Barrett Browning.
• Imagery in the poetry of Langston Hughes.
• Symbolism in "The Catcher in the Rye."
• Social commentary in George Orwell's "1984."
• Religious motifs in "The Canterbury Tales."
• Irony in Mark Twain's "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn."
• Allegory in William Golding's "Lord of the Flies."

Math Extended Essay Topics

• Fibonacci sequences in nature.
• Sorting algorithm efficiency.
• Music and mathematics.
• Game theory in economics.
• Mathematics of cryptography.
• Fractal patterns in geometry.
• Mathematics in sports analysis.
• Chaos theory: A mathematical view.
• Quantum computing fundamentals.
• Voting systems analysis.
• Symmetry: Exploring group theory.
• Population growth modeling.
• Origami mathematics.
• Neural networks: Math in AI.
• Network theory in social sciences.

Chemistry Extended Essay Topics

• pH's effect on enzyme activity.
• Chemical reaction kinetics.
• Food preservation chemistry.
• Temperature and reaction rate.
• Nanomaterials in chemistry.
• Catalysts in reactions.
• Water treatment chemistry.
• Natural vs. synthetic polymers.
• Photosynthesis and respiration.
• Equilibrium factors in chemistry.
• Chemical pollutants and remediation.
• Medicinal drugs chemistry.
• Green chemistry principles.
• Taste and aroma chemistry of foods.
• Alternative energy chemistry.

Extended Essay Business and Management Topics

• Corporate social responsibility's impact on consumer behavior.
• Effective supply chain management in global businesses.
• Leadership styles' role in organizational success.
• Marketing strategies' effectiveness in building brand loyalty.
• Culture's influence on international business negotiations.
• Entrepreneurship's challenges and opportunities in emerging markets.
• Employee motivation's relationship with performance.
• Globalization's effects on small and medium enterprises (SMEs).
• Digital technologies' role in transforming business operations.
• Diversity and inclusion policies' impact on organizational performance.
• Change management strategies in organizations.
• Factors influencing consumer buying behavior in the digital age.
• Ethics' role in business decision-making.
• E-commerce's impact on traditional retail businesses.
• International expansion's challenges and opportunities for businesses.

Good Extended Essay Topics for Economics

• Impact of government policies on income inequality.
• Effectiveness of monetary policy in achieving price stability.
• Role of human capital in economic development.
• Effects of globalization on labor markets.
• Relationship between economic growth and environmental sustainability.
• Impact of trade liberalization on developing economies.
• Causes and consequences of financial crises.
• Effects of technological innovation on economic growth.
• Role of foreign direct investment in economic development.
• Economics of healthcare systems and universal coverage.
• Impact of income taxation on economic behavior.
• Economics of climate change mitigation and adaptation.
• Role of government intervention in market failures.
• Economics of poverty alleviation programs.
• Impact of economic incentives on consumer behavior.

Physics Extended Essay Topics

• How different surfaces affect the bounce of a ball.
• Exploring the science behind a slingshot's launch.
• The relationship between temperature and the rate of a chemical reaction.
• Investigating the factors affecting the stretch of a rubber band.
• The physics of a simple electric circuit.
• Measuring the speed of sound in different materials.
• Analyzing the effect of magnetism on the direction of a compass.
• The behavior of light through different colored filters.
• How the length of a pendulum affects its swing time.
• Investigating the relationship between mass and acceleration.
• Exploring the physics of a falling object.
• The properties of static electricity: Attraction and repulsion.
• The impact of surface area on the rate of heat transfer.
• Understanding the basics of friction: Sliding vs. rolling.
• Analyzing the effect of temperature on the volume of a gas.

Psychology Extended Essay Topics

• How music affects mood.
• Social media's impact on self-esteem.
• Color and emotion perception.
• Family dynamics and adolescent behavior.
• Nature vs. nurture in personality.
• Decision-making under pressure.
• Mindfulness meditation for stress.
• Sleep deprivation and cognition.
• Exercise and mental health.
• Psychology of addiction.
• Childhood trauma and adult mental health.
• Peer pressure and behavior.
• Motivation in academics.
• Culture's effect on cognition.
• Attachment styles in relationships.

Racism Extended Essay Topics

• Effects of racial bias in education.
• Media's role in perpetuating racial stereotypes.
• Economic disparities due to racial inequality.
• Combating racial prejudice strategies.
• Implicit bias and decision-making.
• Intersectionality of race and gender.
• Racial segregation in urban communities.
• Privilege and systemic racism.
• Racialization of immigration policies.
• Colonialism's impact on contemporary racism.
• Racial profiling in law enforcement.
• Microaggressions and their impact on minorities.
• Health disparities among different racial groups.
• Historical roots of racial discrimination.
• Representation of race in popular culture.

Global Politics Extended Essay Topics

• International efforts in addressing climate change.
• The impact of social media on political movements.
• Nuclear proliferation and global security.
• Human rights violations in conflict zones.
• Gender equality in international politics.
• The role of diplomacy in resolving conflicts.
• Economic globalization and income inequality.
• Refugee crises and humanitarian responses.
• Cybersecurity threats in the digital age.
• The rise of populism and its impact on democracy.
• Global health governance and pandemic preparedness.
• Ethnic conflicts and peacebuilding efforts.
• Environmental policies and sustainable development goals.
• Arms trade and its impact on global peace.
• The role of non-governmental organizations in global governance.

Biology Extended Essay Topics

• Effects of temperature on enzyme activity.
• Plant growth responses to light intensity.
• Genetics of flower color inheritance in plants.
• Impacts of pollution on freshwater ecosystems.
• Antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
• The role of vitamins in human health.
• Photosynthesis rates in different light conditions.
• Investigating the biodiversity of a local ecosystem.
• Cellular respiration and its environmental factors.
• Effects of caffeine on heart rate in humans.
• Genetics of blood type inheritance.
• Investigating the effects of pH on aquatic life.
• Comparative study of animal adaptations in different environments.
• Impact of pesticides on bee populations.
• Investigating the factors influencing seed germination.

Extended Metaphor Essay Topics

• Life as a Rollercoaster: The ups and downs of life's journey.
• Love as a Battlefield: Navigating the challenges and victories of love.
• Education as a Garden: Cultivating knowledge and growth.
• Friendship as a Ship: Sailing through the waters of companionship.
• Time as a Thief: How time steals moments and memories.
• Success as a Puzzle: Fitting together the pieces of achievement.
• Dreams as Stars: Reaching for the stars in pursuit of our aspirations.
• Courage as a Beacon: Guiding us through dark times with bravery.
• Creativity as a River: Flowing with endless ideas and inspiration.
• Challenges as Mountains: Conquering obstacles like scaling peaks.
• Happiness as Sunshine: Brightening our lives with joy and warmth.
• Knowledge as a Key: Unlocking doors to understanding and wisdom.
• Emotions as Weather: Ever-changing like the skies above.
• Society as a Garden: Cultivating harmony and growth within communities.
• Ambition as a Flame: Burning bright with determination and drive.

Law IB Extended Essay Topics

• Human rights and national laws.
• Digital privacy regulations.
• International criminal accountability.
• Intellectual property and innovation.
• Law, technology, and challenges.
• Cultural influences on legal systems.
• Environmental laws for sustainability.
• Gender equality in legal contexts.
• International law effectiveness.
• Artificial intelligence and legal implications.
• Corporate responsibility in law.
• Reforming criminal justice systems.
• Family law in modern society.
• Legal ethics and dilemmas.
• Law's role in global inequality.

Extended Essay Topics Language and Literature

• The role of symbolism in a selected novel.
• Cultural stereotypes in contemporary literature.
• Comparing female characters in classic and modern literature.
• Metaphors in poetry: Analysis and interpretation.
• Historical context and its influence on literary themes.
• Translation's impact on understanding literature.
• Depiction of mental health in literary works.
• Folklore's influence on modern storytelling.
• Evolution of a literary genre.
• Narrative perspective and reader interpretation.
• Power dynamics in dystopian fiction.
• Trauma and resilience in postcolonial literature.
• Satire addressing social issues in literature.
• Interplay of language and identity in literature.
• Character development in a chosen play or novel.

Being a student of the International Baccalaureate (IB) program can be a mix of excitement and nerves. With a ton of subjects and exams on the horizon, learning the ropes of academic writing is key. Luckily, there’s a handy solution – writing services. They’re like your personal support team, ready to help you craft killer essays, ace your research, and nail those tricky citations. Think of them as your secret weapon, making your IB journey smoother and helping you shine bright as you buy an essay from professional authors.

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Strong Personal Statements, Part 3: Extended Metaphors Add Cohesion

• August 22, 2018

We’re sharing exceptional personal statements from last year’s applicants to illustrate that a good personal statement can be on a variety of topics, but ultimately, showcases the student’s character, curiosity, and voice. These statements, written by students now enrolled at Emory University, were selected for a multitude of reasons, and we asked our admission staff to share what made each statement stand out.

This is one of a 5-part series on application writing; read  Part 1 here ,  Part 2 here , Part 4 here , and Part 5 here .

Share an essay on any topic of your choice. It can be one you’ve already written, one that responds to a different prompt, or one of your own design.

“It’ll die.”

“No it won’t, I’ll be careful, I promise!”

“Let it go, Chul-Soo”

“But mom !”

Twelve years ago, my dad’s studies moved my family across the Pacific to a small university in the quiet New Jersey suburbs. That first night, my parents and I were exploring the campus grounds when I spotted lights sleepily blinking amidst the trees like stars. These stars I could run through, reach out and touch, gaze at up close, they were fireflies. Growing up in the hustle and bustle of the largest city in Korea, I’d never seen these luminous creatures before. Their beauty sparked curiosity and wonder in my five-year old imagination. One drifted near, and I tiptoed towards it, heart beating a little faster with giddy excitement. “Gotcha!” I breathlessly watched my cupped hands flicker. “Mom! Can I keep it?”

“Sorry honey, you can’t.”

“Please?”

I was devastated to let the lightning bug go. It had been my first companion in America, where everything and everyone was unknown to me. I’d wanted so badly for it to stay…

I hold a lightning bug in my palms again for the first time in a long while. A high school senior now, I understand the firefly’s chemical secret: bioluminescence. And yet I find the same old captivation with its beauty, its way of whispering “let there be light” into the darkness. I now comprehend why my mother had insisted I let the firefly go – to preserve its fragile beauty. To protect its gift of light, not in an empty plastic water bottle where I alone could sit entranced by it, but rather somewhere it was free to inspire the rest of the world.

I see myself in this small glowing beetle – so miniscule in a large world yet still striving to find my own light. But rather than a self-made product of reactions between oxygen, adenosine triphosphate and luciferin, my lights come from the people in my life.

I stare at a blank canvas during the entire 40 minutes of class. I’m afraid…of paint. Afraid to mess up. In moments of doubt, my high school art teacher provided me with more than instruction. She asked me questions about the things in my life that made me distinctive: how was my sports team doing? What goals did I have for the future? She reminded me that my work gained meaning not only by way of craft and composition but each weight of line and shade of color that spoke true to my individuality, my own unique light.

My fingers stiffly play through the Beethoven piano sonata once, twice… after the fifth time, I stop. I have completed my finger exercises. While I was merely reading notes, my piano teacher gently swayed my body, demonstrating how to lean into stormy moments of appassionato and recline back in delicate moments of espressivo. She gave my emotions a voice, one that transcended notes and allowed my light to illuminate the entire stage.

A long day of shy class introductions as the new kid. The phone rings- a familiar name from my old area code. Though the amount of time I spent with some were short and the distance between us now great, the friends I made in New Jersey, in Michigan, and finally in Ohio opened my eyes to the light we all have in common. I still smile at their homecoming social media posts, laugh over the phone at the new drama updates, and cry with them at their struggles with high school pressures. These lifelong friends taught me how to find happiness in the memories we still share.

Confidence, passion, love… As I encounter more people, I continue to add reactants to the secret equation for my own bioluminescence. As I share energy and curiosity with others, together we make our light stronger and the world a little bit brighter.

Feedback from Admission Staff

As we read applications, each student has a team of admission staff assigned to their file to review it and assess the student’s potential. The staff responsible for this student’s file had this to say about the personal statement:

This essay starts out as a simple encounter with a firefly and evolves into story of growth, reflection, and connection. This student writes about first noticing the beauty of the firefly, then as they get older, learning more about how and why the firefly glows. They compare themselves to the firefly and discuss the people and experiences in their life that explain how and why they shine. This essay is textured, authentic, and beautifully written.

Don’t hesitate to connect with us by posting a comment to this blog, tweeting us @emoryadmission , or emailing us at [email protected] . We look forward to hearing from you!

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• previous post: Strong Personal Statements, Part 2: Connect Literature with your Narrative
• next post: Strong Personal Statements, Part 4: Use Accomplishments to Convey your Interests

Essays That Worked

The essays are a place to show us who you are and who you’ll be in our community.

It’s a chance to add depth to something that is important to you and tell the admissions committee more about your background or goals. Below you’ll find selected examples of essays that “worked,” as nominated by our admissions committee. In each of these essays, students were able to share stories from their everyday lives to reveal something about their character, values, and life that aligned with the culture and values at Hopkins.

Read essays that worked from Transfer applicants .

Hear from the class of 2027.

These selections represent just a few examples of essays we found impressive and helpful during the past admissions cycle. We hope these essays inspire you as you prepare to compose your own personal statements. The most important thing to remember is to be original as you share your own story, thoughts, and ideas with us.

Ordering the Disorderly

Ellie’s essay skillfully uses the topic of entropy as an extended metaphor. Through it, we see reflections about who they are and who they aspire to be.

Pack Light, But Be Prepared

In Pablo’s essay, the act of packing for a pilgrimage becomes a metaphor for the way humans accumulate experiences in their life’s journey and what we can learn from them. As we join Pablo through the diverse phases of their life, we gain insights into their character and values.

Tikkun Olam

Julieta illustrates how the concept of Tikkun Olam, “a desire to help repair the world,” has shaped their passions and drives them to pursue experiences at Hopkins.

Kashvi’s essay encapsulates a heartfelt journey of self-discovery and the invaluable teachings of Rock, their 10-year-old dog. Through the lens of their companionship, Kashvi walked us through valuable lessons on responsibility, friendship, patience, and unconditional love.

Classical Reflections in Herstory

Maddie’s essay details their intellectual journey using their love of Greek classics. They incorporate details that reveal the roots of their academic interests: storytelling, literary devices, and translation. As their essay progresses, so do Maddie’s intellectual curiosities.

My Spotify Playlist

Alyssa’s essay reflects on special memories through the creative lens of Spotify playlists. They use three examples to highlight their experiences with their tennis team, finding a virtual community during the pandemic, and co-founding a nonprofit to help younger students learn about STEM.

More essays that worked

We share essays from previously admitted students—along with feedback from our admissions committee—so you can understand what made them effective and how to start crafting your own.

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