create a research model

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Methodology

Research Design | Step-by-Step Guide with Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 20 March 2023.

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall aims and approach
• The type of research design you’ll use
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, frequently asked questions.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities – start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types. Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships, while descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends, and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analysing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study – plants, animals, organisations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region, or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalise your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study, your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalise to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question.

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviours, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews.

Observation methods

Observations allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviours, or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected – for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are reliable and valid.

Operationalisation

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalisation means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in – for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced , while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method, you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample – by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method, it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method, how will you avoid bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organising and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymise and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well organised will save time when it comes to analysing them. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings.

On their own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyse the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarise your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarise your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analysing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

Operationalisation means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioural avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalise the variables that you want to measure.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, March 20). Research Design | Step-by-Step Guide with Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 26 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/research-design/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Introduction

The Creating a Research Space [C.A.R.S.] Model was developed by John Swales based upon his analysis of journal articles representing a variety of discipline-based writing practices. His model attempts to explain and describe the organizational pattern of writing the introduction to scholarly research studies. Following the C.A.R.S. Model can be useful approach because it can help you to: 1) begin the writing process [getting started is often the most difficult task]; 2) understand the way in which an introduction sets the stage for the rest of your paper; and, 3) assess how the introduction fits within the larger scope of your study. The model assumes that writers follow a general organizational pattern in response to two types of challenges [“competitions”] relating to establishing a presence within a particular domain of research: 1) the competition to create a rhetorical space and, 2) the competition to attract readers into that space. The model proposes three actions [Swales calls them “moves”], accompanied by specific steps, that reflect the development of an effective introduction for a research paper. These “moves” and steps can be used as a template for writing the introduction to your own social sciences research papers.

"Introductions." The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Coffin, Caroline and Rupert Wegerif. “How to Write a Standard Research Article.” Inspiring Academic Practice at the University of Exeter; Kayfetz, Janet. "Academic Writing Workshop." University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken. "The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model." Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks. 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004.

Creating a Research Space Move 1: Establishing a Territory [the situation] This is generally accomplished in two ways: by demonstrating that a general area of research is important, critical, interesting, problematic, relevant, or otherwise worthy of investigation and by introducing and reviewing key sources of prior research in that area to show where gaps exist or where prior research has been inadequate in addressing the research problem. The steps taken to achieve this would be:

• Step 1 -- Claiming importance of, and/or  [writing action = describing the research problem and providing evidence to support why the topic is important to study]
• Step 2 -- Making topic generalizations, and/or  [writing action = providing statements about the current state of knowledge, consensus, practice or description of phenomena]
• Step 3 -- Reviewing items of previous research  [writing action = synthesize prior research that further supports the need to study the research problem; this is not a literature review but more a reflection of key studies that have touched upon but perhaps not fully addressed the topic]

Move 2: Establishing a Niche [the problem] This action refers to making a clear and cogent argument that your particular piece of research is important and possesses value. This can be done by indicating a specific gap in previous research, by challenging a broadly accepted assumption, by raising a question, a hypothesis, or need, or by extending previous knowledge in some way. The steps taken to achieve this would be:

• Step 1a -- Counter-claiming, or  [writing action = introduce an opposing viewpoint or perspective or identify a gap in prior research that you believe has weakened or undermined the prevailing argument]
• Step 1b -- Indicating a gap, or  [writing action = develop the research problem around a gap or understudied area of the literature]
• Step 1c -- Question-raising, or  [writing action = similar to gap identification, this involves presenting key questions about the consequences of gaps in prior research that will be addressed by your study. For example, one could state, “Despite prior observations of voter behavior in local elections in urban Detroit, it remains unclear why do some single mothers choose to avoid....”]
• Step 1d -- Continuing a tradition  [writing action = extend prior research to expand upon or clarify a research problem. This is often signaled with logical connecting terminology, such as, “hence,” “therefore,” “consequently,” “thus” or language that indicates a need. For example, one could state, “Consequently, these factors need to examined in more detail....” or “Evidence suggests an interesting correlation, therefore, it is desirable to survey different respondents....”]

Move 3: Occupying the Niche [the solution] The final "move" is to announce the means by which your study will contribute new knowledge or new understanding in contrast to prior research on the topic. This is also where you describe the remaining organizational structure of the paper. The steps taken to achieve this would be:

• Step 1a -- Outlining purposes, or  [writing action = answering the “So What?” question. Explain in clear language the objectives of your study]
• Step 1b -- Announcing present research [writing action = describe the purpose of your study in terms of what the research is going to do or accomplish. In the social sciences, the “So What?” question still needs to addressed]
• Step 2 -- Announcing principle findings  [writing action = present a brief, general summary of key findings written, such as, “The findings indicate a need for...,” or “The research suggests four approaches to....”]
• Step 3 -- Indicating article structure  [writing action = state how the remainder of your paper is organized]

"Introductions." The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Atai, Mahmood Reza. “Exploring Subdisciplinary Variations and Generic Structure of Applied Linguistics Research Article Introductions Using CARS Model.” The Journal of Applied Linguistics 2 (Fall 2009): 26-51; Chanel, Dana. "Research Article Introductions in Cultural Studies: A Genre Analysis Explorationn of Rhetorical Structure." The Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes 2 (2014): 1-20; Coffin, Caroline and Rupert Wegerif. “How to Write a Standard Research Article.” Inspiring Academic Practice at the University of Exeter; Kayfetz, Janet. "Academic Writing Workshop." University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken. "The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model." Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004; Swales, John M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990; Chapter 5: Beginning Work. In Writing for Peer Reviewed Journals: Strategies for Getting Published . Pat Thomson and Barbara Kamler. (New York: Routledge, 2013), pp. 93-96.

Writing Tip

Swales showed that establishing a research niche [move 2] is often signaled by specific terminology that expresses a contrasting viewpoint, a critical evaluation of gaps in the literature, or a perceived weakness in prior research. The purpose of using these words is to draw a clear distinction between perceived deficiencies in previous studies and the research you are presenting that is intended to help resolve these deficiencies. Below is a table of common words used by authors.

NOTE: You may prefer not to adopt a negative stance in your writing when placing it within the context of prior research. In such cases, an alternative approach is to utilize a neutral, contrastive statement that expresses a new perspective without giving the appearance of trying to diminish the validity of other people's research. Examples of how to take a more neutral contrasting stance can be achieved in the following ways, with A representing the findings of prior research, B representing your research problem, and X representing one or more variables that have been investigated.

• Prior research has focused primarily on A , rather than on B ...
• Prior research into A can be beneficial but to rectify X , it is important to examine B ...
• These studies have placed an emphasis in the areas of A as opposed to describing B ...
• While prior studies have examined A , it may be preferable to contemplate the impact of B ...
• After consideration of A , it is important to also distinguish B ...
• The study of A has been thorough, but changing circumstances related to X support a need for examining [or revisiting] B ...
• Although research has been devoted to A , less attention has been paid to B ...
• Earlier research offers insights into the need for A , though consideration of B would be particularly helpful to...

In each of these example statements, what follows the ellipsis is the justification for designing a study that approaches the problem in the way that contrasts with prior research but which does not devalue its ongoing contributions to current knowledge and understanding.

Dretske, Fred I. “Contrastive Statements.” The Philosophical Review 81 (October 1972): 411-437; Kayfetz, Janet. "Academic Writing Workshop." University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken. "The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model." Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990

• << Previous: 4. The Introduction
• Next: Background Information >>
• Last Updated: Aug 21, 2024 8:54 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

• How it works

How to Write a Research Design – Guide with Examples

Published by Alaxendra Bets at August 14th, 2021 , Revised On June 24, 2024

A research design is a structure that combines different components of research. It involves the use of different data collection and data analysis techniques logically to answer the  research questions .

It would be best to make some decisions about addressing the research questions adequately before starting the research process, which is achieved with the help of the research design.

Below are the key aspects of the decision-making process:

• Data type required for research
• Research resources
• Participants required for research
• Hypothesis based upon research question(s)
• Data analysis  methodologies
• Variables (Independent, dependent, and confounding)
• The location and timescale for conducting the data
• The time period required for research

The research design provides the strategy of investigation for your project. Furthermore, it defines the parameters and criteria to compile the data to evaluate results and conclude.

Your project’s validity depends on the data collection and  interpretation techniques.  A strong research design reflects a strong  dissertation , scientific paper, or research proposal .

Step 1: Establish Priorities for Research Design

Before conducting any research study, you must address an important question: “how to create a research design.”

The research design depends on the researcher’s priorities and choices because every research has different priorities. For a complex research study involving multiple methods, you may choose to have more than one research design.

Multimethodology or multimethod research includes using more than one data collection method or research in a research study or set of related studies.

If one research design is weak in one area, then another research design can cover that weakness. For instance, a  dissertation analyzing different situations or cases will have more than one research design.

For example:

• Experimental research involves experimental investigation and laboratory experience, but it does not accurately investigate the real world.
• Quantitative research is good for the  statistical part of the project, but it may not provide an in-depth understanding of the  topic .
• Also, correlational research will not provide experimental results because it is a technique that assesses the statistical relationship between two variables.

While scientific considerations are a fundamental aspect of the research design, It is equally important that the researcher think practically before deciding on its structure. Here are some questions that you should think of;

• Do you have enough time to gather data and complete the write-up?
• Will you be able to collect the necessary data by interviewing a specific person or visiting a specific location?
• Do you have in-depth knowledge about the  different statistical analysis and data collection techniques to address the research questions  or test the  hypothesis ?

If you think that the chosen research design cannot answer the research questions properly, you can refine your research questions to gain better insight.

Step 2: Data Type you Need for Research

Decide on the type of data you need for your research. The type of data you need to collect depends on your research questions or research hypothesis. Two types of research data can be used to answer the research questions:

Primary Data Vs. Secondary Data

Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Data

Also, see; Research methods, design, and analysis .

Need help with a thesis chapter?

• Hire an expert from ResearchProspect today!
• Statistical analysis, research methodology, discussion of the results or conclusion – our experts can help you no matter how complex the requirements are.

Step 3: Data Collection Techniques

Once you have selected the type of research to answer your research question, you need to decide where and how to collect the data.

It is time to determine your research method to address the  research problem . Research methods involve procedures, techniques, materials, and tools used for the study.

For instance, a dissertation research design includes the different resources and data collection techniques and helps establish your  dissertation’s structure .

The following table shows the characteristics of the most popularly employed research methods.

Research Methods

Step 4: Procedure of Data Analysis

Use of the  correct data and statistical analysis technique is necessary for the validity of your research. Therefore, you need to be certain about the data type that would best address the research problem. Choosing an appropriate analysis method is the final step for the research design. It can be split into two main categories;

Quantitative Data Analysis

The quantitative data analysis technique involves analyzing the numerical data with the help of different applications such as; SPSS, STATA, Excel, origin lab, etc.

This data analysis strategy tests different variables such as spectrum, frequencies, averages, and more. The research question and the hypothesis must be established to identify the variables for testing.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis of figures, themes, and words allows for flexibility and the researcher’s subjective opinions. This means that the researcher’s primary focus will be interpreting patterns, tendencies, and accounts and understanding the implications and social framework.

You should be clear about your research objectives before starting to analyze the data. For example, you should ask yourself whether you need to explain respondents’ experiences and insights or do you also need to evaluate their responses with reference to a certain social framework.

Step 5: Write your Research Proposal

The research design is an important component of a research proposal because it plans the project’s execution. You can share it with the supervisor, who would evaluate the feasibility and capacity of the results  and  conclusion .

Read our guidelines to write a research proposal  if you have already formulated your research design. The research proposal is written in the future tense because you are writing your proposal before conducting research.

The  research methodology  or research design, on the other hand, is generally written in the past tense.

How to Write a Research Design – Conclusion

A research design is the plan, structure, strategy of investigation conceived to answer the research question and test the hypothesis. The dissertation research design can be classified based on the type of data and the type of analysis.

Above mentioned five steps are the answer to how to write a research design. So, follow these steps to  formulate the perfect research design for your dissertation .

ResearchProspect writers have years of experience creating research designs that align with the dissertation’s aim and objectives. If you are struggling with your dissertation methodology chapter, you might want to look at our dissertation part-writing service.

Our dissertation writers can also help you with the full dissertation paper . No matter how urgent or complex your need may be, ResearchProspect can help. We also offer PhD level research paper writing services.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is research design.

Research design is a systematic plan that guides the research process, outlining the methodology and procedures for collecting and analysing data. It determines the structure of the study, ensuring the research question is answered effectively, reliably, and validly. It serves as the blueprint for the entire research project.

How to write a research design?

To write a research design, define your research question, identify the research method (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed), choose data collection techniques (e.g., surveys, interviews), determine the sample size and sampling method, outline data analysis procedures, and highlight potential limitations and ethical considerations for the study.

How to write the design section of a research paper?

In the design section of a research paper, describe the research methodology chosen and justify its selection. Outline the data collection methods, participants or samples, instruments used, and procedures followed. Detail any experimental controls, if applicable. Ensure clarity and precision to enable replication of the study by other researchers.

How to write a research design in methodology?

To write a research design in methodology, clearly outline the research strategy (e.g., experimental, survey, case study). Describe the sampling technique, participants, and data collection methods. Detail the procedures for data collection and analysis. Justify choices by linking them to research objectives, addressing reliability and validity.

You May Also Like

Struggling to find relevant and up-to-date topics for your dissertation? Here is all you need to know if unsure about how to choose dissertation topic.

Repository of ten perfect research question examples will provide you a better perspective about how to create research questions.

How to write a hypothesis for dissertation,? A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested with the help of experimental or theoretical research.

USEFUL LINKS

LEARNING RESOURCES

COMPANY DETAILS

• How It Works

Blueprints for Academic Research Projects

Today's post is written by Dr. Ben Ellway, the founder of www.academic-toolkit.com . Ben completed his Ph.D. at The University of Cambridge and created the  Research Design Canvas , a multipurpose tool for learning about academic research and designing a research project. 

Based on requests from students for examples of completed research canvases, Ben created the  Research Model Builder Canvas . 

This canvas modifies the original questions in the nine building blocks to enable students to search for key information in a journal article and then reassemble it on the canvas to form a research model — a single-page visual summary of the journal article which captures how the research was designed and conducted. 

Ben’s second book,  Building Research Models,  explains how to use the Research Model Builder Canvas to become a more confident and competent reader of academic journal articles, while simultaneously building research models to use as blueprints to guide the design of your own project .  

Ben has created a template for Stormboard based on this tool and this is his brief guide on how to begin using it.

Starting with a blank page can be daunting

The Research Design Canvas brings together the key building blocks of academic research on a single page and provides targeted questions to help you design your own project. However, starting with a blank page can be a daunting prospect! 

Academic research is complex as it involves multiple components, so designing and conducting your own project can be overwhelming, especially if you lack confidence in making decisions or are confused about how the components of a project fit together. It is much easier to start a complex task and long process such as designing a research project when you have an existing research model or ‘blueprint’ to work from. 

Starting with a ‘blueprint’ — tailored to your topic area — is much easier

Using the Research Model Builder Canvas, you can transform a journal article in your topic into a research model or blueprint — a single-page visualization of how a project was designed and conducted. 

The research model — and equally importantly the process of building it — will improve your understanding of academic research, and will also provide you with a personalized learning resource for your Thesis. You can use the research model as a blueprint to refer to specific decisions and their justification, and how components of research fit together, to help you begin to build your own project. 

Obviously, each project is unique so you’ll be using the blueprint as a guide rather than as a ‘cookie cutter’ solution. Seeing the components of a completed research project together on a single page (which  you  produced from a ten or twenty-page journal article) — is a very powerful learning resource to have on your academic research journey.

Build research models on Stormboard 

If you prefer to work digitally rather than with paper and pen, you can use the Research Model Builder Canvas Template in Stormboard. 

By using the Stormboard template, you’ll be able to identify key content and points from the journal article and then quickly summarize these on digital sticky notes. You can easily edit the sticky notes to rearrange, delete, or expand upon the ideas and points. You can then refer back to the permanent visual research model you created, share it with fellow students, or discuss it with your supervisors.

What are the building blocks of the research model?

The template has nine building blocks. 

The original questions in the building blocks of the research design canvas are modified in the research model builder canvas. They are designed to help you locate the most important points, decisions, and details in a journal article.  

A brief introduction to the purpose of each building block is provided below to help you familiarize yourself with the research model you will build.

Phenomenon / Problem

What does the research focus on? What were the main ‘things’ investigated and discussed in the journal article? Did the research involve a real-world problem?

What area (or areas) of past literature are identified and introduced? Which sources are especially important?

Observations & Arguments 

What are the most crucial points made by the authors in their analysis of past research? What evidence, issues, and themes are the focus of the literature review? Is a gap in past research identified? 

Research Questions / Hypotheses 

What are the research questions and/or hypotheses? How are they justified? If none are stated, what line of investigation is pursued?  

Theory & Concepts 

Does the research involve a theoretical or conceptual component? If so, what are the key concepts / theory? What role do they play in the research?  

Methodology / Design / Methods  

What methods and data were used? How are the decisions justified? 

Sample / Context 

What sampling method is used? Is the research context important?

Contributions

What contribution(s) do the authors claim that their research makes? Is the value-add more academically or practically-oriented? Are real-world stakeholders and the implications for them mentioned? 

Philosophical Assumptions / Research Paradigm 

These are not usually mentioned or discussed in journal articles. Indeed, this building block can be confusing if you are not familiar with research philosophy or are confused by its seemingly abstract focus. If you understand these ideas, can you identify any implicit assumptions or a research paradigm in the article?

Compare two research models to appreciate the diversity of research

The easiest way to increase your appreciation of the different types and ways of conducting academic research is to build  multiple  research models. 

Start by building two models. Compare and contrast them. Which decisions and aspects are similar and which are different? What can you learn from each research model and how can this help you when designing your own research and Thesis? 

Building research models will help you to appreciate the diversity in the different types of research conducted in your topic area.

Transforming a ten or twenty-page journal article into a single-page visual summary is a powerful way to learn about how academic research is designed and conducted — and also what a completed research project looks like. 

The Stormboard template makes the process of building research models easy, and the ability to save, edit, and share them ensures that you’ll be able to refer back to these blueprints at various stages throughout your research journey and Thesis writing process. 

When you get confused, become stuck, or feel overwhelmed by the complexity of academic research, you can fall back on the research models you created to guide you and get you back on track. Good luck!

Are you interested in trying the Research Model Builder Canvas? Sign up for a free trial now!

Keep reading.

A Retrospective meeting (or Retrospective sprint as it is sometimes called) is a step in the Agile model that allows for teams to take an overall look at what they have done over a period of time — a week, a month, etc. — to determine what’s working for them and what’s not.

Get free Save the Cat and 5-act beat board templates with Stormboard! Simplify your writing process with unlimited space, seamless collaboration, and easy recovery of discarded ideas. Perfect for novelists and screenwriters, our templates help you map out your story visually and clearly.

Discover the unspoken challenges faced by developers in agile teams. This blog reveals the core issues beyond common complaints, helping scrum masters improve team dynamics and productivity.

Explore the counterintuitive idea that even well-functioning teams with solid brainstorming sessions can benefit from AI. By playing the role of the devil's advocate, AI can introduce healthy disagreement and challenge the status quo, potentially leading to groundbreaking ideas.

If your Agile team uses the Scrum methodology, you are probably already practicing Daily Standup meetings (or Daily Scrum meetings). These meetings are an essential part of Scrum that should be done to keep the process on track. What is…

Enterprise organizations who have adopted the highly-effective Agile PI Planning strategy, have recently been forced to do their planning sessions remotely…

By definition, the word Agile means the “ability to move with quick, easy grace.” While this is how most of us would define Agile, the term has grown over the years to have a much more diverse, broad meaning — especially in the business world.

In today's evolving work environment, creating agile teams can change the face of team building in the modern workplace. Learn more about how you can manage your agile teams easily - whether you are in office, remote, or hybrid.

Explore the hidden costs of excessive meetings in Agile environments and learn how to streamline your team's workflow for optimal productivity. Discover practical solutions to common complaints and transform your meetings into valuable assets that drive efficiency and collaboration.

Discover the latest advancements in StormAI, the industry's first augmented intelligence collaborator, with exciting updates that enhance its capabilities. Learn about the innovative features and improvements that make StormAI 2.0 a groundbreaking technology for collaborative work.

Discover the contrasting views within the Agile community regarding spilled stories (or spillover) in sprint cycles and delve into strategies adopted by different teams. Gain insights into the pros and cons of each approach to better inform your Agile methodology.

Uncover the pivotal role collaborative platforms play in facilitating a seamless transition towards sustainable energy solutions. From project management to real-time communication, explore how these tools are reshaping the landscape for utility companies amidst the push for renewable energy adoption.

How to Track Your Team’s Workflow Remotely

Archive - 2021 business trends.

Creating Models in Psychological Research

• © 2015
• Olivier Mesly 0

University of Québec in Outaouais, Gatineau, Canada

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

• Complimentary to traditional books on methodology
• Develops flawless models that will support thinking and research endeavors
• Presents effective techniques to perform qualitative and quantitative research
• Includes supplementary material: sn.pub/extras

Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs in Psychology (BRIEFSPSYCHOL)

8548 Accesses

14 Citations

54 Altmetric

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this book

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Other ways to access

Licence this eBook for your library

Institutional subscriptions

About this book

This concise reference serves as a companion to traditional research texts by focusing on such essentials as model construction, robust methodologies and defending a compelling hypothesis. Designed to wean Master's and doctorate-level students as well as new researchers from their comfort zones, the book challenges readers to engage in multi-method approaches to answering multidisciplinary questions. The result is a step-by-step framework for producing well-organized, credible papers based on rigorous, error-free data. 

The text begins with a brief grounding in the intellectual attitude and logical stance that underlie good research and how they relate to steps such as refining a topic, creating workable models and building the right amount of complexity. Accessible examples from psychology and business help readers grasp the fine points of observations, interviewing, simulations, interpreting and finalizing data and presenting results. Fleshed out with figures, tables, key terms, tips, and questions, this book acts as both a friendly lecturer and a multilevel reality check.

Similar content being viewed by others

Structural Equation Modeling: Principles, Processes, and Practices

Addressing the theory crisis in psychology

The Role of Theory in Behavior Analysis: A Response to Unfinished Business , Travis Thompson’s Review of Staddon's New Behaviorism (2 nd edition)

• auto-ethnography
• conducting research
• consolidated model of financial predation
• data percolation
• marketing theory
• methodology
• modeling in social sciences
• multidisciplinary research
• operations management
• qualitative and quantitative methods
• qualitative and quantitative research
• questionnaires
• research topics
• social sciences

Table of contents (10 chapters)

Front matter, general principles.

Olivier Mesly

Bubbles and Arrows

Basic principles, building complexity, more on data percolation, some qualitative techniques, simulation and quantitative techniques, the hypothetico-deductive method, steps to finalizing the research, back matter, authors and affiliations, about the author.

Olivier Mesly obtained a doctorate in marketing after which he completed a post-degree term at HEC Montreal. His area of specialization- the emotional relationship between sellers and buyers- eventually focused on one particular area of interest: the psychology of investors. He has written a number of scientific articles on behavioral finance and his approach has found applications not only is psychology, but also in the legal field and project management. He works closely with a number of psychologists and is involved in many research activities including in virtual reality and f MRI as well as being a member of the LAPS (Laboratory for psychoneuroendocrinological analyses). He recently won the best presentation award at the Psychology outside the Box forum held in Ottawa in 2014.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Creating Models in Psychological Research

Authors : Olivier Mesly

Series Title : SpringerBriefs in Psychology

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15753-5

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Behavioral Science , Behavioral Science and Psychology (R0)

Copyright Information : Author 2015

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-319-15752-8 Published: 31 March 2015

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-15753-5 Published: 21 March 2015

Series ISSN : 2192-8363

Series E-ISSN : 2192-8371

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XXI, 126

Number of Illustrations : 2 b/w illustrations, 58 illustrations in colour

Topics : Psychological Methods/Evaluation

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

How To Make Conceptual Framework (With Examples and Templates)

We all know that a research paper has plenty of concepts involved. However, a great deal of concepts makes your study confusing.

A conceptual framework ensures that the concepts of your study are organized and presented comprehensively. Let this article guide you on how to make the conceptual framework of your study.

Related: How to Write a Concept Paper for Academic Research

Table of Contents

At a glance: free conceptual framework templates.

Too busy to create a conceptual framework from scratch? No problem. We’ve created templates for each conceptual framework so you can start on the right foot. All you need to do is enter the details of the variables. Feel free to modify the design according to your needs. Please read the main article below to learn more about the conceptual framework.

Conceptual Framework Template #1: Independent-Dependent Variable Model

Conceptual framework template #2: input-process-output (ipo) model, conceptual framework template #3: concept map, what is a conceptual framework.

A conceptual framework shows the relationship between the variables of your study.  It includes a visual diagram or a model that summarizes the concepts of your study and a narrative explanation of the model presented.

Why Should Research Be Given a Conceptual Framework?

Imagine your study as a long journey with the research result as the destination. You don’t want to get lost in your journey because of the complicated concepts. This is why you need to have a guide. The conceptual framework keeps you on track by presenting and simplifying the relationship between the variables. This is usually done through the use of illustrations that are supported by a written interpretation.

Also, people who will read your research must have a clear guide to the variables in your study and where the research is heading. By looking at the conceptual framework, the readers can get the gist of the research concepts without reading the entire study. 

Related: How to Write Significance of the Study (with Examples)

What Is the Difference Between Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Framework?

Both of them show concepts and ideas of your study. The theoretical framework presents the theories, rules, and principles that serve as the basis of the research. Thus, the theoretical framework presents broad concepts related to your study. On the other hand, the conceptual framework shows a specific approach derived from the theoretical framework. It provides particular variables and shows how these variables are related.

Let’s say your research is about the Effects of Social Media on the Political Literacy of College Students. You may include some theories related to political literacy, such as this paper, in your theoretical framework. Based on this paper, political participation and awareness determine political literacy.

For the conceptual framework, you may state that the specific form of political participation and awareness you will use for the study is the engagement of college students on political issues on social media. Then, through a diagram and narrative explanation, you can show that using social media affects the political literacy of college students.

What Are the Different Types of Conceptual Frameworks?

The conceptual framework has different types based on how the research concepts are organized 1 .

1. Taxonomy

In this type of conceptual framework, the phenomena of your study are grouped into categories without presenting the relationship among them. The point of this conceptual framework is to distinguish the categories from one another.

2. Visual Presentation

In this conceptual framework, the relationship between the phenomena and variables of your study is presented. Using this conceptual framework implies that your research provides empirical evidence to prove the relationship between variables. This is the type of conceptual framework that is usually used in research studies.

3. Mathematical Description

In this conceptual framework, the relationship between phenomena and variables of your study is described using mathematical formulas. Also, the extent of the relationship between these variables is presented with specific quantities.

How To Make Conceptual Framework: 4 Steps

1. identify the important variables of your study.

There are two essential variables that you must identify in your study: the independent and the dependent variables.

An independent variable is a variable that you can manipulate. It can affect the dependent variable. Meanwhile, the dependent variable is the resulting variable that you are measuring.

You may refer to your research question to determine your research’s independent and dependent variables.

Suppose your research question is: “Is There a Significant Relationship Between the Quantity of Organic Fertilizer Used and the Plant’s Growth Rate?” The independent variable of this study is the quantity of organic fertilizer used, while the dependent variable is the plant’s growth rate.

2. Think About How the Variables Are Related

Usually, the variables of a study have a direct relationship. If a change in one of your variables leads to a corresponding change in another, they might have this kind of relationship.

However, note that having a direct relationship between variables does not mean they already have a cause-and-effect relationship 2 . It takes statistical analysis to prove causation between variables.

Using our example earlier, the quantity of organic fertilizer may directly relate to the plant’s growth rate. However, we are not sure that the quantity of organic fertilizer is the sole reason for the plant’s growth rate changes.

3. Analyze and Determine Other Influencing Variables

Consider analyzing if other variables can affect the relationship between your independent and dependent variables 3 .

4. Create a Visual Diagram or a Model

Now that you’ve identified the variables and their relationship, you may create a visual diagram summarizing them.

Usually, shapes such as rectangles, circles, and arrows are used for the model. You may create a visual diagram or model for your conceptual framework in different ways. The three most common models are the independent-dependent variable model, the input-process-output (IPO) model, and concept maps.

a. Using the Independent-Dependent Variable Model

You may create this model by writing the independent and dependent variables inside rectangles. Then, insert a line segment between them, connecting the rectangles. This line segment indicates the direct relationship between these variables. 

Below is a visual diagram based on our example about the relationship between organic fertilizer and a plant’s growth rate. 

b. Using the Input-Process-Output (IPO) Model

If you want to emphasize your research process, the input-process-output model is the appropriate visual diagram for your conceptual framework.

To create your visual diagram using the IPO model, follow these steps:

• Determine the inputs of your study . Inputs are the variables you will use to arrive at your research result. Usually, your independent variables are also the inputs of your research. Let’s say your research is about the Level of Satisfaction of College Students Using Google Classroom as an Online Learning Platform. You may include in your inputs the profile of your respondents and the curriculum used in the online learning platform.
• Outline your research process. Using our example above, the research process should be like this: Data collection of student profiles → Administering questionnaires → Tabulation of students’ responses → Statistical data analysis.
• State the research output . Indicate what you are expecting after you conduct the research. In our example above, the research output is the assessed level of satisfaction of college students with the use of Google Classroom as an online learning platform.
• Create the model using the research’s determined input, process, and output.

Presented below is the IPO model for our example above.

c. Using Concept Maps

If you think the two models presented previously are insufficient to summarize your study’s concepts, you may use a concept map for your visual diagram.

A concept map is a helpful visual diagram if multiple variables affect one another. Let’s say your research is about Coping with the Remote Learning System: Anxiety Levels of College Students. Presented below is the concept map for the research’s conceptual framework:

5. Explain Your Conceptual Framework in Narrative Form

Provide a brief explanation of your conceptual framework. State the essential variables, their relationship, and the research outcome.

Using the same example about the relationship between organic fertilizer and the growth rate of the plant, we can come up with the following explanation to accompany the conceptual framework:

Figure 1 shows the Conceptual Framework of the study. The quantity of the organic fertilizer used is the independent variable, while the plant’s growth is the research’s dependent variable. These two variables are directly related based on the research’s empirical evidence.

Conceptual Framework in Quantitative Research

You can create your conceptual framework by following the steps discussed in the previous section. Note, however, that quantitative research has statistical analysis. Thus, you may use arrows to indicate a cause-and-effect relationship in your model. An arrow implies that your independent variable caused the changes in your dependent variable.

Usually, for quantitative research, the Input-Process-Output model is used as a visual diagram. Here is an example of a conceptual framework in quantitative research:

Research Topic : Level of Effectiveness of Corn (Zea mays) Silk Ethanol Extract as an Antioxidant

Conceptual Framework in Qualitative Research

Again, you can follow the same step-by-step guide discussed previously to create a conceptual framework for qualitative research. However, note that you should avoid using one-way arrows as they may indicate causation . Qualitative research cannot prove causation since it uses only descriptive and narrative analysis to relate variables.

Here is an example of a conceptual framework in qualitative research:

Research Topic : Lived Experiences of Medical Health Workers During Community Quarantine

Conceptual Framework Examples

Presented below are some examples of conceptual frameworks.

Research Topic : Hypoglycemic Ability of Gabi (Colocasia esculenta) Leaf Extract in the Blood Glucose Level of Swiss Mice (Mus musculus)

Figure 1 presents the Conceptual Framework of the study. The quantity of gabi leaf extract is the independent variable, while the Swiss mice’s blood glucose level is the study’s dependent variable. This study establishes a direct relationship between these variables through empirical evidence and statistical analysis . 

Research Topic : Level of Effectiveness of Using Social Media in the Political Literacy of College Students

Figure 1 shows the Conceptual Framework of the study. The input is the profile of the college students according to sex, year level, and the social media platform being used. The research process includes administering the questionnaires, tabulating students’ responses, and statistical data analysis and interpretation. The output is the effectiveness of using social media in the political literacy of college students.

Research Topic: Factors Affecting the Satisfaction Level of Community Inhabitants

Figure 1 presents a visual illustration of the factors that affect the satisfaction level of community inhabitants. As presented, environmental, societal, and economic factors influence the satisfaction level of community inhabitants. Each factor has its indicators which are considered in this study.

Tips and Warnings

• Please keep it simple. Avoid using fancy illustrations or designs when creating your conceptual framework. 
• Allot a lot of space for feedback. This is to show that your research variables or methodology might be revised based on the input from the research panel. Below is an example of a conceptual framework with a spot allotted for feedback.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. how can i create a conceptual framework in microsoft word.

First, click the Insert tab and select Shapes . You’ll see a wide range of shapes to choose from. Usually, rectangles, circles, and arrows are the shapes used for the conceptual framework. 

Next, draw your selected shape in the document.

Insert the name of the variable inside the shape. You can do this by pointing your cursor to the shape, right-clicking your mouse, selecting Add Text , and typing in the text.

Repeat the same process for the remaining variables of your study. If you need arrows to connect the different variables, you can insert one by going to the Insert tab, then Shape, and finally, Lines or Block Arrows, depending on your preferred arrow style.

2. How to explain my conceptual framework in defense?

If you have used the Independent-Dependent Variable Model in creating your conceptual framework, start by telling your research’s variables. Afterward, explain the relationship between these variables. Example: “Using statistical/descriptive analysis of the data we have collected, we are going to show how the <state your independent variable> exhibits a significant relationship to <state your dependent variable>.”

On the other hand, if you have used an Input-Process-Output Model, start by explaining the inputs of your research. Then, tell them about your research process. You may refer to the Research Methodology in Chapter 3 to accurately present your research process. Lastly, explain what your research outcome is.

Meanwhile, if you have used a concept map, ensure you understand the idea behind the illustration. Discuss how the concepts are related and highlight the research outcome.

3. In what stage of research is the conceptual framework written?

The research study’s conceptual framework is in Chapter 2, following the Review of Related Literature.

4. What is the difference between a Conceptual Framework and Literature Review?

The Conceptual Framework is a summary of the concepts of your study where the relationship of the variables is presented. On the other hand, Literature Review is a collection of published studies and literature related to your study. 

Suppose your research concerns the Hypoglycemic Ability of Gabi (Colocasia esculenta) Leaf Extract on Swiss Mice (Mus musculus). In your conceptual framework, you will create a visual diagram and a narrative explanation presenting the quantity of gabi leaf extract and the mice’s blood glucose level as your research variables. On the other hand, for the literature review, you may include this study and explain how this is related to your research topic.

5. When do I use a two-way arrow for my conceptual framework?

You will use a two-way arrow in your conceptual framework if the variables of your study are interdependent. If variable A affects variable B and variable B also affects variable A, you may use a two-way arrow to show that A and B affect each other.

Suppose your research concerns the Relationship Between Students’ Satisfaction Levels and Online Learning Platforms. Since students’ satisfaction level determines the online learning platform the school uses and vice versa, these variables have a direct relationship. Thus, you may use two-way arrows to indicate that the variables directly affect each other.

• Conceptual Framework – Meaning, Importance and How to Write it. (2020). Retrieved 27 April 2021, from https://afribary.com/knowledge/conceptual-framework/
• Correlation vs Causation. Retrieved 27 April 2021, from https://www.jmp.com/en_ph/statistics-knowledge-portal/what-is-correlation/correlation-vs-causation.html
• Swaen, B., & George, T. (2022, August 22). What is a conceptual framework? Tips & Examples. Retrieved December 5, 2022, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/conceptual-framework/

Written by Jewel Kyle Fabula

in Career and Education , Juander How

Jewel Kyle Fabula

Jewel Kyle Fabula is a Bachelor of Science in Economics student at the University of the Philippines Diliman. His passion for learning mathematics developed as he competed in some mathematics competitions during his Junior High School years. He loves cats, playing video games, and listening to music.

Browse all articles written by Jewel Kyle Fabula

Copyright Notice

All materials contained on this site are protected by the Republic of the Philippines copyright law and may not be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, displayed, published, or broadcast without the prior written permission of filipiknow.net or in the case of third party materials, the owner of that content. You may not alter or remove any trademark, copyright, or other notice from copies of the content. Be warned that we have already reported and helped terminate several websites and YouTube channels for blatantly stealing our content. If you wish to use filipiknow.net content for commercial purposes, such as for content syndication, etc., please contact us at legal(at)filipiknow(dot)net

How to develop a graphical framework to chart your research

Graphic representations or frameworks can be powerful tools to explain research processes and outcomes. David Waller explains how researchers can develop effective visual models to chart their work

David Waller

• More on this topic

You may also like

Popular resources

.css-1txxx8u{overflow:hidden;max-height:81px;text-indent:0px;} It’s time: how to get your department off X

Deepfakes are coming for education. be prepared, campus webinar: the evolution of interdisciplinarity, emotions and learning: what role do emotions play in how and why students learn, relieve student boredom by ‘activating’ lectures.

While undertaking a study, researchers can uncover insights, connections and findings that are extremely valuable to anyone likely to read their eventual paper. Thus, it is important for the researcher to clearly present and explain the ideas and potential relationships. One important way of presenting findings and relationships is by developing a graphical conceptual framework.

A graphical conceptual framework is a visual model that assists readers by illustrating how concepts, constructs, themes or processes work. It is an image designed to help the viewer understand how various factors interrelate and affect outcomes, such as a chart, graph or map.

These are commonly used in research to show outcomes but also to create, develop, test, support and criticise various ideas and models. The use of a conceptual framework can vary depending on whether it is being used for qualitative or quantitative research.

• Using literature reviews to strengthen research: tips for PhDs and supervisors
• Get your research out there: 7 strategies for high-impact science communication
• Understanding peer review: what it is, how it works and why it is important

There are many forms that a graphical conceptual framework can take, which can depend on the topic, the type of research or findings, and what can best present the story.

Below are examples of frameworks based on qualitative and quantitative research.

As shown by the table below, in qualitative research the conceptual framework is developed at the end of the study to illustrate the factors or issues presented in the qualitative data. It is designed to assist in theory building and the visual understanding of the exploratory findings. It can also be used to develop a framework in preparation for testing the proposition using quantitative research.

In quantitative research a conceptual framework can be used to synthesise the literature and theoretical concepts at the beginning of the study to present a model that will be tested in the statistical analysis of the research.

It is important to understand that the role of a conceptual framework differs depending on the type of research that is being undertaken.

So how should you go about creating a conceptual framework? After undertaking some studies where I have developed conceptual frameworks, here is a simple model based on “Six Rs”: Review, Reflect, Relationships, Reflect, Review, and Repeat.

Process for developing conceptual frameworks:

Review: literature/themes/theory.

Reflect: what are the main concepts/issues?

Relationships: what are their relationships?

Reflect: does the diagram represent it sufficiently?

Review: check it with theory, colleagues, stakeholders, etc.

Repeat: review and revise it to see if something better occurs.

This is not an easy process. It is important to begin by reviewing what has been presented in previous studies in the literature or in practice. This provides a solid background to the proposed model as it can show how it relates to accepted theoretical concepts or practical examples, and helps make sure that it is grounded in logical sense.

It can start with pen and paper, but after reviewing you should reflect to consider if the proposed framework takes into account the main concepts and issues, and the potential relationships that have been presented on the topic in previous works.

It may take a few versions before you are happy with the final framework, so it is worth continuing to reflect on the model and review its worth by reassessing it to determine if the model is consistent with the literature and theories. It can also be useful to discuss the idea with  colleagues or to present preliminary ideas at a conference or workshop –  be open to changes.

Even after you come up with a potential model it is good to repeat the process to review the framework and be prepared to revise it as this can help in refining the model. Over time you may develop a number of models with each one superseding the previous one.

A concern is that some students hold on to the framework they first thought of and worry that developing or changing it will be seen as a weakness in their research. However, a revised and refined model can be an important factor in justifying the value of the research.

Plenty of possibilities and theoretical topics could be considered to enhance the model. Whether it ultimately supports the theoretical constructs of the research will be dependent on what occurs when it is tested.  As social psychologist, Kurt Lewin, famously said “ There's nothing so practical as good theory ”.

The final result after doing your reviewing and reflecting should be a clear graphical presentation that will help the reader understand what the research is about as well as where it is heading.

It doesn’t need to be complex. A simple diagram or table can clarify the nature of a process and help in its analysis, which can be important for the researcher when communicating to their audience. As the saying goes: “ A picture is worth 1000 words ”. The same goes for a good conceptual framework, when explaining a research process or findings.

David Waller is an associate professor at the University of Technology Sydney .

If you found this interesting and want advice and insight from academics and university staff delivered direct to your inbox each week,  sign up for the THE Campus newsletter .

It’s time: how to get your department off X

Using data skills to turn students’ passion for sports into rewarding careers, a diy guide to starting your own journal, the zone of proximal development in four stages, contextual learning: linking learning to the real world, ‘it just isn’t safe to disclose’.

Register for free

and unlock a host of features on the THE site

• Thesis Action Plan New
• Academic Project Planner

Literature Navigator

Thesis dialogue blueprint, writing wizard's template, research proposal compass.

• Why students love us
• Rebels Blog
• Why we are different
• All Products
• Coming Soon

How to Start a Research Project: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners

Starting a research project can be a bit overwhelming, especially if it's your first time. But don't worry! This guide will walk you through each step, making the process easier and more manageable. By breaking down the project into smaller tasks, you'll find it much simpler to handle. Let's dive into how you can go from an idea to a well-organized research proposal.

Key Takeaways

• Clearly define your research subject to set a strong foundation.
• Engage stakeholders early to align expectations and gather input.
• Craft a precise research statement to guide your study.
• Establish specific research goals to stay focused.
• Choose a suitable methodology to ensure reliable results.

Defining the Research Subject

Selecting a topic of interest.

The first step in starting your research project is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you. Selecting a topic that excites you will keep you motivated throughout the research process. Begin by brainstorming broad areas of interest and then narrow them down to a specific niche. Consider the practicalities, such as the availability of resources and the scope of your project. If you're struggling to find a topic, consult with your instructor or peers for guidance.

Narrowing Down the Focus

Once you have a general topic, it's essential to narrow it down to a more specific focus. This involves conducting an initial literature review to identify gaps, debates, and questions within your chosen field. By doing so, you can pinpoint a unique angle for your research. Remember, a well-defined focus will make your research more manageable and impactful.

Aligning with Assignment Instructions

It's crucial to ensure that your chosen topic aligns with the assignment instructions provided by your instructor. Review the guidelines carefully to understand the requirements and limitations. This alignment will not only help you meet academic expectations but also make your research more relevant and structured. If in doubt, seek clarification from your instructor to avoid any misunderstandings.

Engaging with Stakeholders

Identifying key stakeholders.

Before starting your research, it's crucial to identify the key stakeholders involved. These are the people who have a vested interest in your project. They can include supervisors, funding bodies, and even the target audience of your research. Understanding who your stakeholders are will help you align your research goals with their expectations.

Conducting Initial Meetings

Once you've identified your stakeholders, the next step is to conduct initial meetings . These meetings are essential for gathering input and setting expectations. During these meetings, discuss the scope of your research, the methodologies you plan to use, and any potential challenges. This is also a good time to ask for any resources or support you might need.

Gathering Input and Expectations

After the initial meetings, gather all the input and expectations from your stakeholders. This will help you refine your research plan and ensure that it meets everyone's needs. Create a summary document that outlines the key points discussed and any agreed-upon actions. This document will serve as a reference throughout your research project.

Crafting a Precise Research Statement

Formulating the main question.

Creating a strong research statement starts with formulating the main question . This question will guide your entire project. Make sure it is clear and specific. For example, if you're studying the impact of WhatsApp on communication, your main question could be, "How does WhatsApp influence daily communication habits?"

Ensuring Clarity and Conciseness

Your research statement should be both clear and concise. Avoid using complex words or jargon. Instead, focus on making your statement easy to understand. A clear and concise statement helps keep your research focused and on track.

Aligning with Research Goals

Finally, ensure that your research statement aligns with your overall research goals. This means that your statement should directly relate to what you aim to achieve with your study. For instance, if your goal is to understand user behavior on WhatsApp, your research statement should reflect this aim.

Establishing Research Goals

Setting clear research goals is a crucial step in any research project. These goals guide your study and help you stay focused on what you aim to achieve. Here’s how to establish effective research goals:

Identifying Key Areas of Exploration

Start by pinpointing the main areas you want to explore. These should be directly related to your research statement. Identifying these key areas will help you stay organized and ensure that your research is comprehensive.

Setting Specific Objectives

Once you have identified the key areas, the next step is to set specific objectives. These objectives should be clear, measurable, and achievable. Pinpointing the major focus of your research will help you stay on track and make your study more manageable.

Aligning Goals with Stakeholder Expectations

It's important to ensure that your research goals align with the expectations of your stakeholders. This alignment will help you gather the necessary support and resources for your project. Conducting initial meetings with stakeholders can provide valuable input and help you refine your goals.

Conducting a Comprehensive Literature Review

Gathering relevant sources.

Before diving into your research, it's crucial to gather all the relevant sources. Start by doing a preliminary search to see if there's enough information available. Use libraries, online databases, and academic journals to find books, articles, and papers related to your topic. This step ensures you have a solid foundation for your research .

Analyzing Existing Research

Once you have your sources, the next step is to analyze them. Skim through the materials to identify key points and different viewpoints. This will help you understand the current state of research in your field. Pay attention to how these sources relate to your research question.

Identifying Research Gaps

Finally, look for gaps in the existing research. These are areas that haven't been explored or questions that haven't been answered. Identifying these gaps can provide a direction for your own research and make your study more valuable. Conducting a comprehensive literature review is vital for putting your research in context and highlighting what your research will add to the field.

Choosing an Appropriate Methodology

Deciding Between Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

When starting your research, you need to decide whether to use qualitative or quantitative methods . Qualitative methods involve first-hand observations like interviews, focus groups, and case studies. These methods are great for exploring complex issues in depth. On the other hand, quantitative methods deal with numbers and logic, focusing on statistics and numerical patterns. They are ideal for testing hypotheses and making generalizable conclusions. Sometimes, a mixed-method approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative methods, can be the best choice.

Selecting Data Collection Tools

Choosing the right tools for data collection is crucial. For qualitative research, you might use interviews, focus groups, or open-ended surveys. For quantitative research, tools like structured surveys, experiments, and statistical software are more appropriate. Make sure your tools align with your research questions and objectives.

Planning Data Analysis Techniques

Once you have collected your data, the next step is to analyze it. For qualitative data, look for patterns and themes. Coding and thematic analysis are common techniques. For quantitative data, use statistical methods to test your hypotheses. Software like SPSS or R can help you manage and analyze large datasets. Proper planning of your data analysis techniques ensures that your findings are reliable and valid.

Creating a Detailed Research Plan

Creating a detailed research plan is essential for the success of your project. It helps you stay organized and ensures that you cover all necessary aspects of your research. Here are the key steps to follow:

Outlining the Methodology

Start by outlining the methodology you will use. This includes deciding on qualitative or quantitative methods, selecting tools for data collection, and determining how you will analyze the data. A clear methodology is essential for the credibility of your research.

Creating a Research Timeline

Next, create a timeline for your research activities. Break down your tasks into manageable steps and assign deadlines to each. This will help you stay on track and ensure that you complete your project on time. Use a table to organize your timeline:

Allocating Resources Effectively

Finally, allocate your resources effectively. This includes budgeting for any costs, such as software, travel, or materials, and ensuring you have access to necessary resources like libraries or labs. Proper resource allocation can make a significant difference in the quality and feasibility of your research.

Writing the Research Proposal

Structuring the proposal.

When structuring your research proposal, it's essential to include several key components. Start with a clear title that reflects the main focus of your study. Follow this with an abstract that provides a brief summary of your research objectives, methods, and expected outcomes. The introduction should set the context for your research, explaining the background and significance of your study. Make sure to include a literature review that highlights existing research and identifies gaps your study aims to fill. Finally, outline your research design, detailing the methods and procedures you will use to collect and analyze data.

Including a Literature Review

A comprehensive literature review is crucial for situating your research within the existing body of knowledge. Begin by gathering relevant sources from academic journals, books, and other credible publications. Summarize and synthesize these sources to show how they relate to your research question. Highlight any gaps or inconsistencies in the current literature that your study will address. This section not only demonstrates your understanding of the field but also justifies the need for your research.

Describing the Research Design

The research design section should provide a detailed plan of how you will conduct your study. Start by explaining whether you will use qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Describe the data collection tools you will use, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments. Outline your sampling methods and criteria for selecting participants or data sources. Finally, detail your data analysis techniques, explaining how you will interpret the results to answer your research question. This section should be thorough enough to convince reviewers that your methodology is sound and feasible.

Implementing the Research Project

Collecting data.

Once your research plan is in place, the next step is to start collecting data. This involves gathering the information you need to answer your research questions . Make sure to use the data collection tools you selected during your planning phase. Accurate data collection is crucial for the success of your project.

Analyzing Results

After collecting your data, the next step is to analyze it. This means looking for patterns, trends, and insights that will help you answer your research questions. Use the data analysis techniques you planned earlier. Remember, the goal is to make sense of the data and draw meaningful conclusions.

Adjusting the Plan as Needed

As you collect and analyze data, you might find that some parts of your plan need to be adjusted. This is normal and part of the research process. Be flexible and ready to make changes to your methodology or data collection methods if necessary. Staying adaptable will help you overcome any challenges that arise.

Presenting Your Findings

Organizing the presentation.

When presenting your research findings, it's crucial to structure your presentation logically. Start with an introduction that outlines the purpose of your research and the main questions you aimed to answer. Follow this with a summary of your methodology, highlighting the key methods used for data collection and analysis. Ensure your findings are presented clearly and concisely , using tables and graphs where appropriate to illustrate your points.

Engaging the Audience

To keep your audience engaged, use a mix of visual aids and verbal explanations. Interactive elements like Q&A sessions or live demonstrations can also be effective. Make sure to explain the significance of your findings and how they contribute to the existing body of knowledge. This not only keeps the audience interested but also underscores the importance of your work.

Handling Questions and Feedback

Be prepared to handle questions and feedback from your audience. This is an opportunity to clarify any doubts and to demonstrate your deep understanding of the subject. Listen carefully to the questions, and take your time to provide thoughtful and well-reasoned answers. This will not only help in addressing any concerns but also in reinforcing the credibility of your research.

Sharing your research results is a crucial step in your academic journey. It can be tough, but you don't have to do it alone. Our Thesis Action Plan is here to guide you through every step. Ready to make your thesis writing stress-free? Visit our website now and claim your special offer!

In summary, starting a research project can seem overwhelming, but breaking it down into clear, manageable steps can make the process much more approachable. By carefully defining your research topic, engaging with stakeholders, crafting a precise research statement, and establishing clear goals and methodologies, you set a strong foundation for your project. Remember, a well-organized plan not only helps you manage your time and resources effectively but also enhances the credibility and impact of your research. As you embark on your research journey, keep these steps in mind to navigate the process smoothly and achieve your academic goals.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a research project.

A research project is a detailed study on a specific topic. It involves gathering information, analyzing data, and presenting findings to answer a particular question or solve a problem.

How do I choose a good research topic?

Pick a topic that interests you and has plenty of resources available. Make sure it aligns with your assignment guidelines and is neither too broad nor too narrow.

Why is it important to define the research subject?

Defining the research subject helps you stay focused and organized. It ensures that you have a clear direction and don't get lost in too many ideas.

Who are stakeholders in a research project?

Stakeholders are people who have an interest in your research. They can include funders, academic supervisors, or anyone affected by your study.

What is a research statement?

A research statement is a clear and concise description of the main question or problem your research aims to address.

What are research goals?

Research goals are the specific objectives you aim to achieve with your study. They guide your research and help you stay focused on your main question.

How do I choose the right methodology for my research?

Choosing the right methodology involves deciding how you will collect and analyze data. Consider whether you need qualitative or quantitative data and choose tools and techniques that best suit your study.

What should be included in a research proposal?

A research proposal should include the research subject, a literature review, research questions, methodology, and a timeline. It outlines what you plan to study and how you will do it.

Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics: A Fun and Informative Guide

Unlocking the Power of Data: A Review of 'Essentials of Modern Business Statistics with Microsoft Excel'

Discovering Statistics Using SAS: A Comprehensive Review

Thesis Revision Made Simple: Techniques for Perfecting Your Academic Work

Integrating Calm into Your Study Routine: The Power of Mindfulness in Education

How to Determine the Perfect Research Proposal Length

Thesis Action Plan

How Do I Start Writing My Thesis: A Step-by-Step Guide

From idea to proposal: 6 steps to efficiently plan your research project in 2024.

• Blog Articles
• Affiliate Program
• Terms and Conditions
• Payment and Shipping Terms
• Privacy Policy
• Return Policy

© 2024 Research Rebels, All rights reserved.

Your cart is currently empty.

We’re reviewing our resources this spring (May-August 2024). We will do our best to minimize disruption, but you might notice changes over the next few months as we correct errors & delete redundant resources. 

Creating a Research Space: CaRS Model 

The CaRS Model can help you build an introduction, especially in STEM fields. The model consists of three rhetorical moves that help identify the background, motivation, and focus of the research. This framework can help give your reader a basic overview of your larger project.

Move 1: Establish a Research Territory

The research territory, or broad topic, is the context required to both understand and conduct the research being explored. Your goal is to explain the current state of scholarship in the field and answer the question, “Why is this general research area important?” 

Language for Establishing a Research Territory:

__________ has been extensively studied... 

Interest in _________ has been growing. 

Recent studies have focused on... 

__________ has become a major issue...

Move 2: Establish a Niche

The niche is the reason or motivation for the research. You are preparing your audience to understand how your research relates to the background you have given, highlighting gaps/problems in current knowledge that justify or explain the need for further investigation.  

Methods for Establishing a Niche

Make a counter-claim (something is wrong) 

Indicate a gap (something is missing) 

Raise a question or make an inference (something is unclear) 

Continue a tradition (adding something) 

Language for Establishing a Niche

Previous studies of _______ have not examined...

Such studies are unsatisfactory because...

One question that needs to be asked, however is...

Research on _______ has mostly been restricted to _______ so...

Move 3: Occupying a Niche

This step is an explanation of how you are responding to the need for further investigation. Explain how your research addresses the need you identified in the previous step and list your specific research objectives, questions, or methods.  

Strategies for Occupying the Niche  

Outline purpose(s) of your research 

List research questions or hypotheses 

Announce principal research findings 

Indicate structure of your research process

Example: Three Moves in Action

Move 1:   Stress is a seemingly ever-present factor in the lives of university students, and many have difficulty regulating stress and functioning to their fullest potential. Many individuals choose to relieve their stress by listening to music, and stress relief as a result of music listening has been researched through both physiological and self-perception studies. Music listening decreases physiological stress by indirectly decreasing cortisol levels (a hormone linked to high stress levels) through a down-regulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis (Linnemann, Ditzen, Strahler, Doerr, & Nater, 2015). Studies focused on self-perceived stress levels found that listening to music with the goal of relaxation is significantly more effective than listening to music for the purpose of distraction according to self-report measures (Linnemann et al., 2015).   Move 2:   While the positive relationship between music listening and stress relief has been supported within the general population, little research has been done to examine music’s effect on the mental health and stress levels of university students in particular. University students exhibit a higher rate of both stress-induced depression and anxiety than the general population due to the pressures of completing complex programs while often living away from home for the first time (Hanser, 1985, p. 419; Regehr, Glancy, & Pitts, 2013). As a result, student stress relief is a critical part of ensuring student wellbeing, especially with student mental health at the forefront of many recent discussions among university faculty, staff, and students.   Move 3:   This investigatory survey is the first step in a multi-stage study on how undergraduate residents at Conrad Grebel University College use music in relation to stressful situations, and how stress relief through music listening is perceived. We hypothesize that students will report stress-relief as one of the primary reasons they choose to listen to music, and that they will report choosing music they enjoy when they need to relieve stress. Patterns observed in student responses will be used to determine specific research questions for further investigation, and research on student stress relief could help to inform university policy makers on ways to create healthier campuses.

Adapted from: Swales, John and Christine Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2013. Print. 

Research process models

How should we conceptualize the processes of doing research? Two models, one productive and one not.

Eleanor C Sayre

Oftentimes in school, we’re taught how to do research (or science labs) in a linear process that passes through discrete stages in a specific order. At the end of the process, you’re supposed to “write it up” in a lab report or scientific paper. However, this stage model of research is a lie. In this article, I articulate two models for doing research, and explore their implications.

Research stage model

Under this model, research passes through discrete stages. The progression of the stages looks a bit like sections of a research paper, and it echoes the scientific method that’s often taught in schools. Each stage in this model has defined tasks. For example, when you’re doing a lit review , you gather papers, read them, and synthesize. Getting data is a separate stage that finishes before any data can be analyzed, and all data must be analyzed to generate your conclusions before you write up your papers.

It’s easy to teach a stage model because it feels simple and linear: the stages are distinct and well-determined, and they progress in an orderly fashion. It feels comforting to plan a project which progresses through these stages, because you can look at your calendar and know when you are ahead or behind. When we’re teaching people about doing research , we often simplify the research process so that it more closely mimics this model. Research-esque activities, like undergraduate labs (including course-based undergraduate research experiences), undergraduate “capstone” courses, and even some masters theses, can take up this model for doing research and use it to determine preliminary and intermediate deadlines: by this day, turn in your draft lit review; by this day, turn in your full data set. As instructors, we often simplify these research-esque projects in order to support this stage model of doing research.

However, the research stage model can create blocking tasks which impede progress on the project as a whole. Blocking tasks are ones where you can’t do them (because you don’t know how, because you are waiting for someone else, because they feel insurmountable, etc), but also you cannot avoid them and do something else. They block all work on the project until they can be resolved.

As research projects get bigger and more complex, there are a lot more opportunities for blocking tasks to emerge. For example, what if you are collecting data at three field sites, and one of them can’t host your visit until three months later? Or – this is super common – you don’t want to start writing until you’ve finished all your analysis, but there’s always one more exciting avenue to pursue?

The blocking tasks problem is especially bad for emerging researchers, because they’re more likely to only be working on one project at a time, and because there are more things they don’t know how to do yet.

Additionally, because the research stages are sequential, if you need to “go back” to a prior stage, that can feel like a failure. Suppose your data analysis doesn’t align well with the lit review you did ahead of time. If you need to read new papers to understand your data or bring in another theory to explain it better, you might feel like your research has a major setback or like you don’t have time to complete your project in the original timeline. This is a problem for emerging researchers because it can negatively impact their self-efficacy as researchers more strongly.

Parallel processes model for research

Under this model, research processes are overlapping and generative. Each analysis that you do suggests new data for you to collect or new literature for you to read. Each paper that you read suggests new analyses to perform or data to collect. All throughout, your research questions are living questions: they grow and change in response to what you’re discovering. Instead of writing up your paper at the end, you engage in generative writing to help you record your results, generate new ideas, and document your work for your papers.

The parallel processes model for research can seem intimidating at first, but it creates fewer blocking tasks than the stage model. Because you’re doing a little bit of each thread at a time, if you’re stuck on one aspect of your project, you can work on another aspect to help unstick you (or to fill your time while you’re waiting for feedback). As you learn more, you can do more. This allows your research progress to grow with you as you learn and develop as a researcher.

Plus, the parallel processes model for research is more honest than the research stage model. This is how research actually gets done in big and complex projects (and small exploratory ones). It’s very common for experienced researchers to need to go back to the literature in the process of doing their analysis, or for inspiration for new data to strike while they’re reading a paper. Generative writing is good practice for research, and while it’s not required to write papers, it’s certainly more productive than the stage model.

Emerging researchers (from undergrads to faculty new to DBER) tend to have one of three major responses when they learn about the parallel processes model:

• omg, I’ve never heard it explicitly like this and I feel so seen
• whoa, that’s allowable? mind. blown.
• hmm, this feels less deterministic and therefore more scary.

If you see yourself in one of these groups, you’re in good company.

Applying the parallel processes model

Something that is both great and terrible about the parallel processes model is that it does not prescribe where to begin the research process. You can start in any of the major strands of research and trust that your work will integrate activities from all strands as necessary and relevant.

If you’re new to research, this feature can be scary.

Where should you start? Here are some options:

• Read something! When you pick up a research paper or popular press article, ask yourself what’s exciting about their study. The claims? the methods? the theory? the population? Doing a lit review can help you do this in a more structured way.
• Write something! What are you interested in? Why is it interesting? Engage in some generative writing around a problem you see, or work on a reflective statement of research interests to help structure your thoughts and suggest a new study.
• Notice something! Oftentimes as scientists, educators, and humans in the world, we see something interesting or unusual or problematic. Allow yourself the curiosity to ask questions of this thing you noticed: why does it do that? what would happen if it were different? The Research Process for Video-based Research article covers a formalized method for noticing and refining our noticing to generate a research project using classroom video.

You might notice that all of these articles push you to do generative writing in order to figure out new ideas and refine them. That’s because generative writing is a major research tool. It can help you improve at doing research, no matter what your skill level is.

Once you’re started, what comes next?

Well, what did your reading, writing, or noticing suggest to you? If your next idea doesn’t flow from your last one, try another one of the first options.

Unlike the stage model, using the parallel processes model isn’t prescriptive. There isn’t a simple script to follow for what comes next.

Research models and research advising

If, as a research advisor or lab instructor, you are strongly committed to the research stages model, you might find yourself simplifying the research-esque projects that your students work on, so that they are less likely to develop blocking tasks or sequencing setbacks. As long as this choice supports your learning goals, that’s probably ok. It works pretty well in instructional labs where the major goal is for students to learn something science-y with equipment. It also works pretty well if your primary interaction with research is reading published papers (e.g. for a journal club), or if the research work you engage in is primarily replication or repetition (e.g. for a CURE).

Alternately, if your students are engaging in original research, you might need to reconceptualize their projects in order to take advantage of the parallel processes model. You need to figure out reasonable timelines for their work and help them integrate each strand in these processes, from collecting pilot data before they’re “done” with a lit review to making space for preliminary analyses early enough to return to the literature. You also need to teach them how to turn to another part of the braid while they wait for your feedback, so that you are not a source of blocking tasks.

You will also need to work to help your students understand why you work this way, instead of in the more familiar stage model. By the time my students come to my lab, they have already engaged in many years of instructional labs (and sometimes also research-esque projects) in which the projects were simplified into fitting the research stages model. Often, they have already internalized feelings of failure when they need to return to literature during their analysis, and they have already experienced the paralysis of blocking tasks.

There are a few articles in this handbook to help you figure out how to mentor research with emerging scholars (singly and in groups) from a parallel processes model, or think more abstractly about how this works. I’m open to new suggestions: what else do you want to see?

Additional topics to consider

Planning research projects.

How to develop a timeline for an education research project that makes space for emergence.

Evaluation and Research

What is the difference between evaluation and research?

Statement of research interests

How to write your statement of research interests

This article was first written on June 2, 2018, and last modified on May 30, 2024.

Topic Guide - Developing Your Research Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• APA 7th Edition
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model

Introduction

Writing tip.

• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• 10. Proofreading Your Paper
• Writing Concisely
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Study
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

The Creating a Research Space [C.A.R.S.] Model was developed by John Swales based upon his analysis of journal articles representing a variety of discipline-based writing practices. His model attempts to explain and describe the organizational pattern of writing the introduction to scholarly research studies. Following the C.A.R.S. Model can be useful approach because it can help you to: 1) begin the writing process [getting started is often the most difficult task]; 2) understand the way in which an introduction sets the stage for the rest of your paper; and, 3) assess how the introduction fits within the larger scope of your study. The model assumes that writers follow a general organizational pattern in response to two types of challenges [“competitions”] relating to establishing a presence within a particular domain of research: 1) the competition to create a rhetorical space and, 2) the competition to attract readers into that space. The model proposes three actions [Swales calls them “moves”], accompanied by specific steps, that reflect the development of an effective introduction for a research paper. These “moves” and steps can be used as a template for writing the introduction to your own social sciences research papers.

" Introductions ." The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Coffin, Caroline and Rupert Wegerif. “ How to Write a Standard Research Article .” Inspiring Academic Practice at the University of Exeter; Kayfetz, Janet. " Academic Writing Workshop ." University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken. " The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model ." Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004.

Creating a Research Space Move 1: Establishing a Territory [the situation] This is generally accomplished in two ways: by demonstrating that a general area of research is important, critical, interesting, problematic, relevant, or otherwise worthy of investigation and by introducing and reviewing key sources of prior research in that area to show where gaps exist or where prior research has been inadequate in addressing the research problem. The steps taken to achieve this would be:

• Step 1 -- Claiming importance of, and/or  [writing action = describing the research problem and providing evidence to support why the topic is important to study]
• Step 2 -- Making topic generalizations, and/or  [writing action = providing statements about the current state of knowledge, consensus, practice or description of phenomena]
• Step 3 -- Reviewing items of previous research  [writing action = synthesize prior research that further supports the need to study the research problem; this is not a literature review but more a reflection of key studies that have touched upon but perhaps not fully addressed the topic]

Move 2: Establishing a Niche [the problem] This action refers to making a clear and cogent argument that your particular piece of research is important and possesses value. This can be done by indicating a specific gap in previous research, by challenging a broadly accepted assumption, by raising a question, a hypothesis, or need, or by extending previous knowledge in some way. The steps taken to achieve this would be:

• Step 1a -- Counter-claiming, or  [writing action = introduce an opposing viewpoint or perspective or identify a gap in prior research that you believe has weakened or undermined the prevailing argument]
• Step 1b -- Indicating a gap, or  [writing action = develop the research problem around a gap or understudied area of the literature]
• Step 1c -- Question-raising, or  [writing action = similar to gap identification, this involves presenting key questions about the consequences of gaps in prior research that will be addressed by your study. For example, one could state, “Despite prior observations of voter behavior in local elections in urban Detroit, it remains unclear why do some single mothers choose to avoid....”]
• Step 1d -- Continuing a tradition  [writing action = extend prior research to expand upon or clarify a research problem. This is often signaled with logical connecting terminology, such as, “hence,” “therefore,” “consequently,” “thus” or language that indicates a need. For example, one could state, “Consequently, these factors need to examined in more detail....” or “Evidence suggests an interesting correlation, therefore, it is desirable to survey different respondents....”]

Move 3: Occupying the Niche [the solution] The final "move" is to announce the means by which your study will contribute new knowledge or new understanding in contrast to prior research on the topic. This is also where you describe the remaining organizational structure of the paper. The steps taken to achieve this would be:

• Step 1a -- Outlining purposes, or  [writing action = answering the “So What?” question. Explain in clear language the objectives of your study]
• Step 1b -- Announcing present research [writing action = describe the purpose of your study in terms of what the research is going to do or accomplish. In the social sciences, the “So What?” question still needs to addressed]
• Step 2 -- Announcing principle findings  [writing action = present a brief, general summary of key findings written, such as, “The findings indicate a need for...,” or “The research suggests four approaches to....”]
• Step 3 -- Indicating article structure  [writing action = state how the remainder of your paper is organized]

" Introductions ." The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Atai, Mahmood Reza. “Exploring Subdisciplinary Variations and Generic Structure of Applied Linguistics Research Article Introductions Using CARS Model.” The Journal of Applied Linguistics 2 (Fall 2009): 26-51; Chanel, Dana. "Research Article Introductions in Cultural Studies: A Genre Analysis Explorationn of Rhetorical Structure." The Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes 2 (2014): 1-20; Coffin, Caroline and Rupert Wegerif. “ How to Write a Standard Research Article .” Inspiring Academic Practice at the University of Exeter; Kayfetz, Janet. " Academic Writing Workshop ." University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken. " The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model ." Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004; Swales, John M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990; Chapter 5: Beginning Work. In Writing for Peer Reviewed Journals: Strategies for Getting Published . Pat Thomson and Barbara Kamler. ( New York: Routledge, 2013), pp. 93-96.

Swales showed that establishing a research niche [move 2] is often signaled by specific terminology that expresses a contrasting viewpoint, a critical evaluation of gaps in the literature, or a perceived weakness in prior research. The purpose of using these words is to draw a clear distinction between perceived deficiencies in previous studies and the research you are presenting that is intended to help resolve these deficiencies. Below is a table of common words used by authors.

NOTE : You may prefer not to adopt a negative stance in your writing when placing it within the context of prior research. In such cases, an alternative approach is to utilize a neutral, contrastive statement that expresses a new perspective without giving the appearance of trying to diminish the validity of other people's research.

Examples of how this can be achieved include the following statements, with A representing the findings of prior research, B representing your research problem, and X representing one or more variables that have been investigated.

• Prior  research has focused on A, rather than on B...
• Prior research into A can be useful but to counterbalance X, it is important to consider B...
• These studies have emphasized A, as opposed to B...
• While prior studies have examined A, it may be preferable to contemplate the impact of B...
• After consideration of A, it is important to also recognize B...
• The study of A has been exhaustive, but changing circumstances related to X support the need for examining [or revisiting] B...
• Although considerable research has been devoted to A, less attention has been paid to B...
• Earlier research offers insight into the need for A, though consideration of B is also helpful...

Dretske, Fred I. “Contrastive Statements.” The Philosophical Review 81 (October 1972): 411-437; Kayfetz, Janet. " Academic Writing Workshop ." University of California, Santa Barbara, Fall 2009; Pennington, Ken. " The Introduction Section: Creating a Research Space CARS Model ." Language Centre, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005; Swales, John M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990

• << Previous: 4. The Introduction
• Next: Background Information >>
• Last Updated: Mar 22, 2022 8:49 AM
• URL: https://leeuniversity.libguides.com/research_study_guide

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

"Create a Research I Space" (CARS) Model of Research Introductions 1

Related Papers

Ana Stefanelli

The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics

Lynne Flowerdew

Wasima Shehzad

Driving research questions from the prevailing issues and interests and developing from them new theories, formulas, algorithms, methods, and designs, and linking them to the interests of the larger audience is a vital component of scientific research papers. The present article discusses outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research, and listing research questions or hypotheses in the introduction of academic papers. This corpus-based genre study focuses particularly on Move 3 of the model " occupying the niche. " The results indicating disciplinary variation show that the writers of Computer Science (CS) research articles, over the years have developed an increased use of outlining purpose/stating the nature of the present research, having the characteristics of purposive, descriptive, extension of the previous work, contrast to the existing work, brevity, complexity , and a description of methodology. It also shows that listing research questions or hypothesis may have distinctively different functions in developing genres as compared to the established ones such as physics.

Luz Gil-Salom

Humera Rahman

Academic writers have reported that research article Introductions are more problematic to write than the rest of the paper. It is because they have to choose from amongst the various options available to them for making a start. The CARS Model beautifully captures these options in functional terms which make it very easy to understand and implement. In this paper, I discuss the model with examples from published geology research articles to show the model&#39;s usefulness. However, the model is equally applicable to other disciplines.

Christian Merand Mendoza Azul

Yasir B J Al-shujairi

The discussion section is considered as a crucial part in the writing process of a research article (RA). Research writers find it difficult to write an effective discussion for their results and this could be due to the unawareness of the various move functions that shape this section. A rhetorical move is a sentence or group of sentences that serves a communicative function. This paper focuses on move Background information, its linguistic devices such as verb, tense, and self-reference and lexical bundles (LBs) including 3-to 5-word bundles that are used to construct this communicative move. The corpus of the study includes a total of 50 medical RAs discussion section which were selected from five prestigious journals in the field. The corpus was analysed in terms of the occurrence of move Background information, the linguistic devices associated with this move and the LBs that initiate it. The analysis of the move and the linguistic realizations was done manually and the identification of LBs was done using AntConc3.5.7w computer program. The findings revealed that 34 (64%) of the corpus included move Background information. This move was mainly employed to describe methodological aspects and restate the research purpose. These functions were characterized by the use of procedural verbs, first-person plural pronouns and simple past tense. Moreover, several 3-5 words LBs (e.g., we tested the hypothesis, this study was based on) were found to initiate move Background information. Further studies are needed to examine other obligatory and optional moves such as Explaining research findings and Indicating research limitations.

The discussion section forms an integral part in the writing process of a research article (RA). Research authors find it difficult to write and produce a well-structured discussion for their findings. The reason could be due to the unawareness of the main components (rhetorical moves) that shape this section. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a review of the studies that have been done to analyze the discussion section of RAs over the last 36 years. Also, this review seeks to examine the discussion section of RAs across various scientific disciplines and different types of journals. The review showed that the rhetorical structure of RAs discussion section witnessed some changes over the course of time. New moves such as Research Implications and Research Limitations started to be parts of the discussion section of RAs. In addition, it was revealed that differences in writing the discussion section can be varied broadly across disciplines such as soft sciences (e.g., applied linguistics, sociology, psychology) and hard sciences (e.g., engineering, chemistry, biology) and slightly across types of journals such as ISI and local journals. In conclusion, this paper offered several suggestions for further research to be conducted in the area.

Publishing Research Quarterly

Sweta Pandey

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Journal of Language and Communication

EFL Journal , Suhaily Abdullah

Su-Hie Ting

Applied Linguistics

assef khalili

Dialogicity in Written Specialised Genres

Hossein Saadabadi

Stefania M Maci

Journal of English Education and Teaching

Safnil Arsyad

Journal of Teaching Language Skills

Zohre Shooshtari

Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics

Kathy Ling Lin

Birutė Ryvitytė

Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan

Yazid Basthomi

Journal of Applied Languages and Linguistics

Muzaffar Hussain

Izet Masic, MD, PhD, FWAAS, FEASA, FIAHSI, FEFMI, FACMI

Budsaba Kanoksilapatham

Claudia Spaccavento

Global Journal of Foreign Language Teaching

Research in English Language Pedagogy

International Journal of Linguistics

Ahmad Tawalbeh

English for Specific Purposes

chan swee heng

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Organization & the CARS Model

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Although each discipline has its own conventions for what articles, research reports, dissertations, and other types of scholarly writing should look like, academic writing shares some general characteristics across each field. One area of similarity is the introduction section. This handout provides strategies for revising introductions.

CARS (Creating a Research Space)

John Swales’ CARS model for introductions is based on his study of articles across a range of disciplines. He identified the following moves as common among most articles:

Move 1: Establishing a territory

Step 1 Claiming importance and/or

Step 2 Making topic generalizations and/or

Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research

Move 2: Establishing a niche

Step 1a Counter-claiming or

Step 1b Indicating a gap or

Step 1c Question-raising or

Step 1d Continuing a tradition

Move 3: Occupying the niche

Step 1a Outlining purposes or

Step 1b Announcing present research

Step 2 Announcing principle findings

Step 3 Indicating article structure

Writers can use these moves as a guide for revising their own writing, or for helping others.

Questions for Revision

Does the introduction to the piece of writing you are working with…

Topic Outline

A topic outline is a fast and easy way to analyze whether an introduction is effectively organized. According to Pyrczak and Bruce, a topic outline can help show the flow of an introduction to ensure it moves from a general introduction of the problem or gap to a specific discussion of the current research (33). The topic outline can be combined with the CARS model to improve your introduction or to offer advice to a peer.

Topic Outline Exercise

Works cited.

Pyrczak, Fred and Randall R. Bruce. Writing Empirical Research Reports : A Basic Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Los Angeles: Pyrczak Publishing, 2000. Print.

Swales, John. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings . 1990. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. Print.

• Activity Diagram (UML)
• Amazon Web Services
• Android Mockups
• Block Diagram
• Business Process Management
• Chemical Chart
• Cisco Network Diagram
• Class Diagram (UML)
• Collaboration Diagram (UML)
• Compare & Contrast Diagram
• Component Diagram (UML)
• Concept Diagram
• Cycle Diagram
• Data Flow Diagram
• Data Flow Diagrams (YC)
• Database Diagram
• Deployment Diagram (UML)
• Entity Relationship Diagram
• Family Tree
• Fishbone / Ishikawa Diagram
• Gantt Chart
• Infographics
• iOS Mockups
• Network Diagram
• Object Diagram (UML)
• Object Process Model
• Organizational Chart
• Sequence Diagram (UML)
• Spider Diagram
• State Chart Diagram (UML)
• Story Board
• SWOT Diagram
• TQM - Total Quality Management
• Use Case Diagram (UML)
• Value Stream Mapping
• Venn Diagram
• Web Mockups
• Work Breakdown Structure

Thesis Conceptual Framework

Outline of how you plan to conduct the research for your thesis with Creately's example. Use the template to easily visualize framework with Creately visual workspace.

You can easily edit this template using Creately. You can export it in multiple formats like JPEG, PNG and SVG and easily add it to Word documents, Powerpoint (PPT) presentations, Excel or any other documents. You can export it as a PDF for high-quality printouts.

• Flowchart Templates
• Org Chart Templates
• Concept Map Templates
• Mind Mapping Templates
• WBS Templates
• Family Tree Templates
• VSM Templates
• Data Flow Diagram Templates
• Network Diagram Templates
• SWOT Analysis Templates
• Genogram Templates
• Activity Diagram Templates
• Amazon Web Services Templates
• Android Mockups Templates
• Block Diagram Templates
• Business Process Management Templates
• Chemical Chart Templates
• Cisco Network Diagram Templates
• Class Diagram Templates
• Collaboration Diagram Templates
• Compare & Contrast Diagram Templates
• Component Diagram Templates
• Concept Diagram Templates
• Cycle Diagram Templates
• Data Flow Diagrams(YC) Templates
• Database Diagram Templates
• Deployment Diagram Templates
• Entity Relationship Diagram Templates
• Fishbone Diagram Templates
• Gantt Chart Templates
• Infographic Templates
• iOS Mockup Templates
• KWL Chart Templates
• Logic Gate Templates
• Mind Map Templates
• Object Diagram Templates
• Object Process Model Templates
• Organizational Chart Templates
• Other Templates
• PERT Chart Templates
• Sequence Diagram Templates
• Site Map Templates
• Spider Diagram Templates
• State Chart Diagram Templates
• Story Board Templates
• SWOT Diagram Templates
• T Chart Templates
• TQM - Total Quality Management Templates
• UI Mockup Templates
• Use Case Diagram Templates
• Value Stream Mapping Templates
• Venn Diagram Templates
• Web Mockup Templates
• Y Chart Templates

Related Templates

• Departments
• For Students
• For Faculty
• Book Appointment

• Flow and Cohesion
• Reverse Outline
• Paper Skeleton

Creating a Research Space

• Personal Statements
• Literature Reviews

Typical Research Genre Structure

Swales’ Model of Rhetorical moves in Research Articles: Create A Research Space (CARS)

Move 1 Establishing a territory Step 1 Claiming centrality and/or Step 2 Making topic generalization(s) and/or Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research  Move 2 Establishing a niche  Step 1A Counter-claiming or Step 1B Indicating a gap or Step 1C Question-raising or Step 1D Continuing a tradition  Move 3 Occupying the niche  Step 1A Outlining purposes or Step 1B Announcing present research Step 2 Announcing principal findings Step 3 Indicating research article structure

The CARS Model (Create a Research Space), by John Swales

According to Swales, research writers frequently use  three rhetorical moves  to create a context for their work. These moves can happen both in the introduction of a piece, as well as on a larger scale, throughout the research paper/proposal/document:

MOVE 1: Establishing a Territory (Annotated Bibliography/Literature Review)

• Ask yourself:  “Why is my research important in this current moment of 2016 – politically, socially, historically?” Then
• Example phrase:  “In recent years, researchers have become increasingly interested in...” “A central issue in  ______  is...” “Many recent studies have focused on..."
• Imagine that all past research on your topic is an ongoing academic conversation that you need to understand fully before joining in; then, to structure your synthesis,  ask yourself:  "What would X author say to Y author? Does X author extend Y author's research, or does she critique it, etc.?"
• Example phrase:  “Much research has examined ______, though different conclusions have been made.”

MOVE 2: Establishing a Niche (Rhetorical Prospectus)

• Imagine that you now understand the conversation, and you see some limitation or place where extension is needed; join the conversation to make the limitation or need for more research clear.
• Example phrases:  (limitation) “However, these studies have failed to recognize the...” or (extension) “X...has been extensively studied. However, less attention has been paid to..."

MOVE 3: Occupying the Niche (Research Proposal)

• Imagine that you now have everyone’s attention, and that you must explain to fellow scholars how your ideas will add or move the conversation forward.
• Example phrases – for proposal:  “The purpose of this investigation is to...” or “To focus my research, I will ask the following questions..."
• Example phrases – for research article or dissertation introduction:  “The remainder of this paper is divided into five sections. Section 1 describes..."

Works Consulted:

• Swales, John M.  Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings  (1990)
• Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak.  Academic Writing for Graduate Students  (2008)

[Adapted by Lisha Storey, May 2015]

• Cookies & Privacy
• GETTING STARTED
• Introduction
• FUNDAMENTALS

Getting to the main article

Choosing your route

Setting research questions/ hypotheses

Assessment point

Building the theoretical case

Setting your research strategy

Data collection

Data analysis

STEP FOUR Put your diagram (i.e., your theoretical model) together

Putting your diagram together involves the following five steps :

• STEP A: Start by putting each construct in a circle
• STEP B: Based on your hypotheses?
• STEP C: If relevant, group constructs and highlight ties to theory
• STEP D: Try and order your constructs
• STEP E: Put it all together and give it a suitable title

STEP A Start by putting each construct in a circle

A circle should be used instead of a rectangle because a rectangle has a different purpose. See below for Construct A , Construct B and Construct C , which we call Service Quality , Customer Loyalty and Trust .

Note that most constructs will only be 1-3 words long (e.g., Trust , Service Quality or Customer Loyalty ), but they can also be 4-6 words long (e.g., Trust in the Service Provider , Customer Disposition to Trust ). Whilst they can be longer, it is important to try and keep the name of a construct short (i.e., precise), leaving the longer, operational definition of that construct to the main body of your Literature Review chapter.

STEP B Based on your hypotheses...

Use thick line arrows (i.e., rather than dotted lined arrows ) to show the relationships between your constructs.

Insert the number (and part , if any) of each hypothesis next to the relationships you are trying to show. Hypotheses are expressed as H , followed by the hypotheses number (e.g. H 2 ), sometimes with multiple parts (e.g. H 2a and H 2b , or H 2a and H 2b ).

If you have stated a research hypothesis in your dissertation (i.e., rather than a null hypothesis ), which you probably will have done, and you have expressed the directionality (i.e., positive or negative ) of this hypothesis, insert a positive (+) or negative (-) symbol on the right hand side of each hypothesis (e.g., H 1a (+) ).

If you are unsure about any of these terms, see the section on Research (and null) hypotheses in the Fundamentals part of Lærd Dissertation.

In the examples above, we have illustrated: (a) a positive relationship being predicted between service quality and trust (i.e., as service quality increases, trust increase); (b) a negative relationship being predicted between employee turnover and service quality (i.e., as employee turnover increases, service quality decreases); and (c) no relationship being predicted between trust and customer loyalty (i.e., we believe that there is a relationship between trust and customer loyalty , but we are unsure whether the relationship is positive or negative ).

STEP C If relevant, group constructs and highlight ties to theory:

As previously mentioned in STEP THREE , sometimes constructs can be grouped (i.e., construct grouping ) and the theories that underpin the relationships between them illustrated (i.e., theoretical group ). We do highlighting construct grouping and theoretical grouping using different types of rectangles (see diagram below):

Construct grouping

We can show that constructs are related to each other in some way (e.g., the three dimensions of organisational commitment , namely affective , continuance and normative commitment ) by enclosing these constructs (which we put in circles ) in a rectangle . As you can see in the diagram below, these rectangles either have (a) a thick line with no inner shading or (b) a dotted line with no shading . We recommend using:

A thick line when the constructs are part of a broader , overarching construct

For example, the case of organisational commitment , since normative commitment , continuance commitment and affective commitment were part of the broader construct, organisational commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1991).

A dotted line when the constructs are more loosely coupled/tied by some other factor

For example, in a study looking at the construct, customer loyalty , you may be interested in number of constructs, such as service quality , trust , customer satisfaction , and so forth. However, you may also be interested in a customer's age , gender , income , educational background , and so forth. All of these latter constructs (i.e., age , gender , income , educational background , etc.) could be classified as individual characteristics . Therefore, we can enclose these constructs in a rectangle with a dotted line to show that they are loosely coupled/tied .

In either case, you should give the rectangle a name (e.g., Organisational Commitment in the first example, and Individual Characteristics in the second example).

Theoretical grouping

When you are simply illustrating how different constructs are underpinned by certain theories, this can be shown by placing a rectangle , with inner shading , but no line , underneath the relevant constructs (which we put in circles ).

When we want to show how theories and constructs may overlap , we can bring together two (or more) rectangles ; again, rectangles with inner shading , but no line .

In both cases, it is helpful to use a different colour of inner shading for each of the different theories, especially when they overlap.

STEP D Try and order your constructs

With all the different construct, hypotheses, arrows, construct grouping, and maybe even theoretical grouping, it is difficult to avoid producing a diagram (i.e., a theoretical model) that is not very messy. A lot of this is trial and error, but one rule that you should try and stick to is to start with those constructs that are acting as independent variables on the left of the diagram, and those constructs acting as dependent variables on the right . Just as we read the page from left-to-right , we want the reader to quickly understand that we are examining the impact of those independent variables (also known as predictor variables ) on the left , on the dependent variables (also known as outcomes variables ) on the right . This is the same formula that we use when putting together quantitative research questions or hypotheses ; again, because it helps the reader to understand what we are trying to study [see the articles: Quantitative research questions and Research (and null) hypotheses in the Fundamentals part of Lærd Dissertation].

STEP E Put it all together and give it a suitable title

Once you've worked through STEPS A to D above, it is time to put your diagram together, and give the theoretical model you have created a suitable title. Below we illustrate an example model:

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Starting the research process

A Beginner's Guide to Starting the Research Process

When you have to write a thesis or dissertation , it can be hard to know where to begin, but there are some clear steps you can follow.

The research process often begins with a very broad idea for a topic you’d like to know more about. You do some preliminary research to identify a  problem . After refining your research questions , you can lay out the foundations of your research design , leading to a proposal that outlines your ideas and plans.

This article takes you through the first steps of the research process, helping you narrow down your ideas and build up a strong foundation for your research project.

Table of contents

Step 1: choose your topic, step 2: identify a problem, step 3: formulate research questions, step 4: create a research design, step 5: write a research proposal, other interesting articles.

First you have to come up with some ideas. Your thesis or dissertation topic can start out very broad. Think about the general area or field you’re interested in—maybe you already have specific research interests based on classes you’ve taken, or maybe you had to consider your topic when applying to graduate school and writing a statement of purpose .

Even if you already have a good sense of your topic, you’ll need to read widely to build background knowledge and begin narrowing down your ideas. Conduct an initial literature review to begin gathering relevant sources. As you read, take notes and try to identify problems, questions, debates, contradictions and gaps. Your aim is to narrow down from a broad area of interest to a specific niche.

Make sure to consider the practicalities: the requirements of your programme, the amount of time you have to complete the research, and how difficult it will be to access sources and data on the topic. Before moving onto the next stage, it’s a good idea to discuss the topic with your thesis supervisor.

>>Read more about narrowing down a research topic

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

So you’ve settled on a topic and found a niche—but what exactly will your research investigate, and why does it matter? To give your project focus and purpose, you have to define a research problem .

The problem might be a practical issue—for example, a process or practice that isn’t working well, an area of concern in an organization’s performance, or a difficulty faced by a specific group of people in society.

Alternatively, you might choose to investigate a theoretical problem—for example, an underexplored phenomenon or relationship, a contradiction between different models or theories, or an unresolved debate among scholars.

To put the problem in context and set your objectives, you can write a problem statement . This describes who the problem affects, why research is needed, and how your research project will contribute to solving it.

>>Read more about defining a research problem

Next, based on the problem statement, you need to write one or more research questions . These target exactly what you want to find out. They might focus on describing, comparing, evaluating, or explaining the research problem.

A strong research question should be specific enough that you can answer it thoroughly using appropriate qualitative or quantitative research methods. It should also be complex enough to require in-depth investigation, analysis, and argument. Questions that can be answered with “yes/no” or with easily available facts are not complex enough for a thesis or dissertation.

In some types of research, at this stage you might also have to develop a conceptual framework and testable hypotheses .

>>See research question examples

The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you’ll use to collect and analyze it, and the location and timescale of your research.

There are often many possible paths you can take to answering your questions. The decisions you make will partly be based on your priorities. For example, do you want to determine causes and effects, draw generalizable conclusions, or understand the details of a specific context?

You need to decide whether you will use primary or secondary data and qualitative or quantitative methods . You also need to determine the specific tools, procedures, and materials you’ll use to collect and analyze your data, as well as your criteria for selecting participants or sources.

>>Read more about creating a research design

Finally, after completing these steps, you are ready to complete a research proposal . The proposal outlines the context, relevance, purpose, and plan of your research.

As well as outlining the background, problem statement, and research questions, the proposal should also include a literature review that shows how your project will fit into existing work on the topic. The research design section describes your approach and explains exactly what you will do.

You might have to get the proposal approved by your supervisor before you get started, and it will guide the process of writing your thesis or dissertation.

>>Read more about writing a research proposal

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Is this article helpful?

Other students also liked.

• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

More interesting articles

• 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project
• How to Choose a Dissertation Topic | 8 Steps to Follow
• How to Define a Research Problem | Ideas & Examples
• How to Write a Problem Statement | Guide & Examples
• Relevance of Your Dissertation Topic | Criteria & Tips
• Research Objectives | Definition & Examples
• What Is a Fishbone Diagram? | Templates & Examples
• What Is Root Cause Analysis? | Definition & Examples

What is your plagiarism score?