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Quantitative Research: Questionnaire Design and Data Collection

• First Online: 18 November 2021

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• Kerstin Kurzhals 2  

Part of the book series: Gabler Theses ((GT))

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Following the introduction and discussion of the general research design and the presentation of the results from the qualitative research, this chapter specifies the quantitative research method applied for testing the conceptual model and hypotheses. The chapter starts with a critical examination of the data collection method, a self-administered online survey, chosen for the quantitative research part, and justifies its use. This is followed by a discussion of the questionnaire design, which incorporates the levels of measurement, theory and statistical analysis, an operationalisation of the measurement constructs and scales used, as well as the pre-test of the survey instrument.

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In their study Pavlou and El Sawy (2011) focus on the group level, explicitly the NPD unit’s attributes, not the firm’s attributes are addressed.

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Kurzhals, K. (2021). Quantitative Research: Questionnaire Design and Data Collection. In: Resource Recombination in Firms from a Dynamic Capability Perspective. Gabler Theses. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-35666-8_5

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Designing and validating a research questionnaire - Part 1

Priya ranganathan.

Department of Anaesthesiology, Tata Memorial Centre, Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Carlo Caduff

1 Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom

Questionnaires are often used as part of research studies to collect data from participants. However, the information obtained through a questionnaire is dependent on how it has been designed, used, and validated. In this article, we look at the types of research questionnaires, their applications and limitations, and how a new questionnaire is developed.

INTRODUCTION

In research studies, questionnaires are commonly used as data collection tools, either as the only source of information or in combination with other techniques in mixed-method studies. However, the quality and accuracy of data collected using a questionnaire depend on how it is designed, used, and validated. In this two-part series, we discuss how to design (part 1) and how to use and validate (part 2) a research questionnaire. It is important to emphasize that questionnaires seek to gather information from other people and therefore entail a social relationship between those who are doing the research and those who are being researched. This social relationship comes with an obligation to learn from others , an obligation that goes beyond the purely instrumental rationality of gathering data. In that sense, we underscore that any research method is not simply a tool but a situation, a relationship, a negotiation, and an encounter. This points to both ethical questions (what is the relationship between the researcher and the researched?) and epistemological ones (what are the conditions under which we can know something?).

At the start of any kind of research project, it is crucial to select the right methodological approach. What is the research question, what is the research object, and what can a questionnaire realistically achieve? Not every research question and not every research object are suitable to the questionnaire as a method. Questionnaires can only provide certain kinds of empirical evidence and it is thus important to be aware of the limitations that are inherent in any kind of methodology.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE?

A research questionnaire can be defined as a data collection tool consisting of a series of questions or items that are used to collect information from respondents and thus learn about their knowledge, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, and behavior and informed by a positivist philosophy of the natural sciences that consider methods mainly as a set of rules for the production of knowledge; questionnaires are frequently used instrumentally as a standardized and standardizing tool to ask a set of questions to participants. Outside of such a positivist philosophy, questionnaires can be seen as an encounter between the researcher and the researched, where knowledge is not simply gathered but negotiated through a distinct form of communication that is the questionnaire.

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF QUESTIONNAIRES

A questionnaire may not always be the most appropriate way of engaging with research participants and generating knowledge that is needed for a research study. Questionnaires have advantages that have made them very popular, especially in quantitative studies driven by a positivist philosophy: they are a low-cost method for the rapid collection of large amounts of data, even from a wide sample. They are practical, can be standardized, and allow comparison between groups and locations. However, it is important to remember that a questionnaire only captures the information that the method itself (as the structured relationship between the researcher and the researched) allows for and that the respondents are willing to provide. For example, a questionnaire on diet captures what the respondents say they eat and not what they are eating. The problem of social desirability emerges precisely because the research process itself involves a social relationship. This means that respondents may often provide socially acceptable and idealized answers, particularly in relation to sensitive questions, for example, alcohol consumption, drug use, and sexual practices. Questionnaires are most useful for studies investigating knowledge, beliefs, values, self-understandings, and self-perceptions that reflect broader social, cultural, and political norms that may well diverge from actual practices.

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES

Research questionnaires may be classified in several ways:

Depending on mode of administration

Research questionnaires may be self-administered (by the research participant) or researcher administered. Self-administered (also known as self-reported or self-completed) questionnaires are designed to be completed by respondents without assistance from a researcher. Self-reported questionnaires may be administered to participants directly during hospital or clinic visits, mailed through the post or E-mail, or accessed through websites. This technique allows respondents to answer at their own pace and simplifies research costs and logistics. The anonymity offered by self-reporting may facilitate more accurate answers. However, the disadvantages are that there may be misinterpretations of questions and low response rates. Significantly, relevant context information is missing to make sense of the answers provided. Researcher-reported (or interviewer-reported) questionnaires may be administered face-to-face or through remote techniques such as telephone or videoconference and are associated with higher response rates. They allow the researcher to have a better understanding of how the data are collected and how answers are negotiated, but are more resource intensive and require more training from the researchers.

The choice between self-administered and researcher-administered questionnaires depends on various factors such as the characteristics of the target audience (e.g., literacy and comprehension level and ability to use technology), costs involved, and the need for confidentiality/privacy.

Depending on the format of the questions

Research questionnaires can have structured or semi-structured formats. Semi-structured questionnaires allow respondents to answer more freely and on their terms, with no restrictions on their responses. They allow for unusual or surprising responses and are useful to explore and discover a range of answers to determine common themes. Typically, the analysis of responses to open-ended questions is more complex and requires coding and analysis. In contrast, structured questionnaires provide a predefined set of responses for the participant to choose from. The use of standard items makes the questionnaire easier to complete and allows quick aggregation, quantification, and analysis of the data. However, structured questionnaires can be restrictive if the scope of responses is limited and may miss potential answers. They also may suggest answers that respondents may not have considered before. Respondents may be forced to fit their answers into the predetermined format and may not be able to express personal views and say what they really want to say or think. In general, this type of questionnaire can turn the research process into a mechanical, anonymous survey with little incentive for participants to feel engaged, understood, and taken seriously.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS: FORMATS

Some examples of close-ended questions include:

e.g., Please indicate your marital status:

• Prefer not to say.

e.g., Describe your areas of work (circle or tick all that apply):

• Clinical service
• Administration
• Strongly agree
• Strongly disagree.
• Numerical scales: Please rate your current pain on a scale of 1–10 where 1 is no pain and 10 is the worst imaginable pain
• Symbolic scales: For example, the Wong-Baker FACES scale to rate pain in older children
• Ranking: Rank the following cities as per the quality of public health care, where 1 is the best and 5 is the worst.

A matrix questionnaire consists of a series of rows with items to be answered with a series of columns providing the same answer options. This is an efficient way of getting the respondent to provide answers to multiple questions. The EORTC QLQ-C30 is an example of a matrix questionnaire.[ 1 ]

For a more detailed review of the types of research questions, readers are referred to a paper by Boynton and Greenhalgh.[ 2 ]

USING PRE-EXISTING QUESTIONNAIRES VERSUS DEVELOPING A NEW QUESTIONNAIRE

Before developing a questionnaire for a research study, a researcher can check whether there are any preexisting-validated questionnaires that might be adapted and used for the study. The use of validated questionnaires saves time and resources needed to design a new questionnaire and allows comparability between studies.

However, certain aspects need to be kept in mind: is the population/context/purpose for which the original questionnaire was designed similar to the new study? Is cross-cultural adaptation required? Are there any permission needed to use the questionnaire? In many situations, the development of a new questionnaire may be more appropriate given that any research project entails both methodological and epistemological questions: what is the object of knowledge and what are the conditions under which it can be known? It is important to understand that the standardizing nature of questionnaires contributes to the standardization of objects of knowledge. Thus, the seeming similarity in the object of study across diverse locations may be an artifact of the method. Whatever method one uses, it will always operate as the ground on which the object of study is known.

DESIGNING A NEW RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

Once the researcher has decided to design a new questionnaire, several steps should be considered:

Gathering content

It creates a conceptual framework to identify all relevant areas for which the questionnaire will be used to collect information. This may require a scoping review of the published literature, appraising other questionnaires on similar topics, or the use of focus groups to identify common themes.

Create a list of questions

Questions need to be carefully formulated with attention to language and wording to avoid ambiguity and misinterpretation. Table 1 lists a few examples of poorlyworded questions that could have been phrased in a more appropriate manner. Other important aspects to be noted are:

Examples of poorly phrased questions in a research questionnaire

• Provide a brief introduction to the research study along with instructions on how to complete the questionnaire
• Allow respondents to indicate levels of intensity in their replies, so that they are not forced into “yes” or “no” answers where intensity of feeling may be more appropriate
• Collect specific and detailed data wherever possible – this can be coded into categories. For example, age can be captured in years and later classified as <18 years, 18–45 years, 46 years, and above. The reverse is not possible
• Avoid technical terms, slang, and abbreviations. Tailor the reading level to the expected education level of respondents
• The format of the questionnaire should be attractive with different sections for various subtopics. The font should be large and easy to read, especially if the questionnaire is targeted at the elderly
• Question sequence: questions should be arranged from general to specific, from easy to difficult, from facts to opinions, and sensitive topics should be introduced later in the questionnaire.[ 3 ] Usually, demographic details are captured initially followed by questions on other aspects
• Use contingency questions: these are questions which need to be answered only by a subgroup of the respondents who provide a particular answer to a previous question. This ensures that participants only respond to relevant sections of the questionnaire, for example, Do you smoke? If yes, then how long have you been smoking? If not, then please go to the next section.

TESTING A QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire needs to be valid and reliable, and therefore, any new questionnaire needs to be pilot tested in a small sample of respondents who are representative of the larger population. In addition to validity and reliability, pilot testing provides information on the time taken to complete the questionnaire and whether any questions are confusing or misleading and need to be rephrased. Validity indicates that the questionnaire measures what it claims to measure – this means taking into consideration the limitations that come with any questionnaire-based study. Reliability means that the questionnaire yields consistent responses when administered repeatedly even by different researchers, and any variations in the results are due to actual differences between participants and not because of problems with the interpretation of the questions or their responses. In the next article in this series, we will discuss methods to determine the reliability and validity of a questionnaire.

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Qualitative Questionnaire

Questionnaire generator.

When you first think of qualitative and quantitative survey, what comes into your mind? For students, it would normally be something that they would have to concoct in their thesis class. But truth be told, you can find these general surveys almost everywhere. Hotels distribute them in order to get feedback from their guests or clients for the duration of their stay.

• Questionnaire Examples in PDF
• What Is a Questionnaire?

Restaurants hand them out to customers to allow them to rate not only in terms of their food, but also the food as well. Students hand them out to their respective respondents so that their questions may be answered in the hopes of passing the class. So, what do these have in common? Surveys gather data for whatever purpose the ones conducting them have. By gathering the said data, it helps the researcher or the industry better understand their audience and what their thoughts re on that particular matter. Although there are many ways in gathering the needed data to help answer your queries (e.g. face-to-face interview, telephone interview), the most common method of getting what you need is through a survey. You may also see questionnaire examples  to give you more insight in making surveys.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Summary

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Surveys

As you know, there are 2 kinds of surveys that can be asked to the respondents: quantitative or qualitative surveys.

Quantitative surveys count results.  These are the kind of surveys that would normally provide you with options in order to obtain more accuracy from your audience especially when they answer the questions. These kinds of surveys have tick boxes or radio boxes beside them which would indicate them as a quantitative survey. This kind of survey may be given to anyone at random (depending on how many people you are aiming for) or for a certain demographic that fits the given criteria and use statistical analysis to ensure that the results are statistically significant and representative for the whole population. Below is an example of such. You may also see research questionnaire to provide you a better idea on how research surveys are made.

• Are you a reader of local British dailies’? Please select one. YES or NO. If no, there is no need to continue.
• The Guardian
• The Daily Telegraph
• The Independent
• Once a week
• Once a month
• Other (Please indicate)

Qualitative surveys ask open-ended questions . If quantitative surveys get results based on numbers and computation, qualitative surveys ask for comments, feedback, suggestions, and other kinds of responses. Although the downside to asking qualitative questions would be the need to transcribe the answers accurately and correctly in order to assess the basis of their responses, the kind of answers that qualitative questionnaires provide are more in-depth and are more rich in information than close-ended questions. Most, if not all, would likely include both qualitative and quantitative surveys in order to provide a balance of responses coming from their audience. This one-two-punch strategy is much preferable to going straight to a closed-ended question with response categories you and your colleagues thought up in your conference room. Keep in mind that if you are asking qualitative questions via a face-to-face or telephone interview, do not just stick to your questions. There is always the possibility of a follow-up, and make sure that they remain on track when giving a response to your questions since the chances of them getting carried away are high. You may also like what is the importance of a questionnaire?

For the sake of your thesis and perhaps some other research purposes, it is important to get consent first from your respondents before considering to publish said research. 2 very crucial aspects are needed to get it done: careful planning and coordination.

Dear Respondents,

Good day! We are currently conducting a research entitled Examining American Dailies Banner Stories and Readers Preference with the aim of documenting and analyzing the present landscape of the banner stories of local American dailies’ banner stories and analyzing the gatekeeping procedure of the present news editor in their respective news organization. In line with this goal, we request you to answer this survey questionnaire by encircling the letter of your choice. Thank you! You may also see what is a questionnaire .

GUIDE QUESTIONNAIRE Interviewees are encouraged to discuss each point thoroughly.

• What kind of news story do you usually select as a banner story?
• How do you select a news story as a banner story?
• Do you consider news values as a factor for news selection?
• What news value/s do you usually associate your banner story with?
• What news value/s are less likely prioritized?
• What is your personal criteria in the selection and exclusion of story?
• Does your organization have certain criteria for news selection? Discuss the top 3.
• If you are to choose one story as a banner story between a controversial story that will have a minimal impact on society as they go about their daily lives, or an economic-related news that will hold much significance to the readers but will impact on the city’s future, which would you choose as a banner story and why?
• What specific elements in a news story do you usually look into? (i.e., grammar, structure)
• Does gender in the newsroom influence your banner news selection?
• Would you pursue a controversial story that involved one of your major advertisers knowing what it might cost the company?
• Discuss how your company balances marketability at the same time maintain the quality of news.
• Do you consider advertising and rating as among the pressures in selecting a banner story?
• How important are readers’ preference to your story selection?
• Do you think your company is able to provide the readers a variety of news in every banner story?

You may also check out evaluation questionnaire examples & samples .

Types of Qualitative Research Questions

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Tips for Qualitative Surveys

For people who likes to keep things tidy and systemic, they would normally try to find a way to make sure that the qualitative questions are arranged in a manner that is chronological in a way. Another thing is that you cannot simply ask just any kind of qualitative question since it might turn out to be a useless gesture if they do not really provide the answers that you would want to hear. Here are at least 20 tips to help you draft a good qualitative survey. You may also see evaluation questionnaires .

• First, you should try to draft your questions and get comments and opinions from your friends or supervisors.
• After drafting the questions, proceed to making the survey and handing it out to your colleagues for a dry run as to how they answer. Along the way, it is also important to get feedback from them for each question made. You may also like hr questionnaire examples & samples .
• Once you have managed to obtain their feedback, the next step for you would be to revise the said survey and start handing them out again to maybe different people.
• Try to mix up some sections and questions of the survey to help ensure that when there are certain people who will quit partway don’t affect the overall balance of data being collected, and that the question or section ordering doesn’t bias people’s responses. You may also check out  lifestyle questionnaire examples & samples .
• Test the survey-system format with a small set of testers from the target audience, again collecting comments on each page.
• Make sure that this time the data that you have gathered can be sorted and be laid out in an easy and comprehensible manner.
• Revise the survey one more time.
• Don’t make your own tool for surveys if you can avoid it . There are numerous ways to go about distributing your survey to the masses- whether it is a hard copy survey or through an electronic survey. In that way, you can save not only time, but also money. You might be interested in examples of questionnaire for customer satisfaction .
• Decide up front what the survey learning goals are . When the respondents are done answering the survey, what would be the end goal of this? For researchers, it is important to go back to the general Statement of the Problem to make sure that their survey questionnaire can really answer as to what is found in the S.O.P.
• Write neutral questions that don’t imply particular answers or give away your expectations .
• Open vs. closed answers.  The main difference between the close-ended and open-ended questions is the amount of thinking and time that the respondents themselves will dedicate. Keep in mind that close-ended questions are the easiest to answer since the choices are already laid out for them, while open-ended questions require a significant amount of time to answer if the respondents truly wish to be honest with you. Maintaining the balance between these kinds of questions is important since you both want objectivity and subjectivity at the same time. You may also see product questionnaire examples & samples .
• Carefully consider how you will analyze and act on the data . For researchers, that would not normally be the issue since the treatment of the data section provides them with an idea of what to do with the gathered data. Here is an example: Treatment of Data. The data will be analyzed using quantitative (frequency count and survey) and qualitative (content analysis and interview) research design. For the first sub-problem, news categories for each banner story will be individually analyzed, categorized and coded by the researchers and the data analyst for the purpose of triangulation. Afterwards, the three parties will discuss and consolidate their findings as one. Based on all three analyses, the most common news categories found in news stories particularly: a) business, b) crime, c) human interest, d) education, e) sports, f) entertainment/lifestyle, g) politics, h) science and technology, i) health, j) environment, and k) disaster, will then be tallied and tabulated to reveal the top three most frequent news categories found in Cebu dailies’ banner stories. News values in each banner story, on one hand, will still be analyzed, categorized, and coded by the researchers and the data analyst individually according to Conley & Lamble’s (2006) list of news values with its respective definitions. Afterwards, news values will be tabulated to determine the top three news values banner stories are mostly associated with. You may also like survey questionnaire examples .
• Multiple vs. single answers : By only providing one answer, you are simply depriving the respondents by not giving them enough choices for them to truly express what they would want to answer for close-ended questions. Try giving out more choices for your audience so that the research data can have more substance. You may also check out health questionnaire examples .
• Front-load the most important questions, because people will quit partway through . There are some people that might decide to give up halfway through the survey, especially when much thinking is involved. So ensure that when drafting the said survey, all the important questions are placed up and center so that you would’t have to worry about the loss of much data when people stop answering partway. You might be interested in how to develop a questionnaire .
• Provide responses such as, “Not applicable” and “Don’t use”.  By providing these kinds of questions, you actually save people the trouble from going through those questions more than they would need to.
• People have trouble understanding required and optional signals on survey question/forms . Have you heard the saying that common sense is not so common anymore? That unfortunately, applies true until today. The tendency of people not following instructions is very high. That is why it is essential and important for the ones conducting the survey to give out the instructions as clear and as concise as possible which then informs the respondents which questions are a “must” to answer and which areas are optional. Sometimes, people would often overlook examples and instructions that are on the right. When marking is not clear enough, many people feel obligated to answer optional questions. Use one-line directions if at all possible. You may also see training questionnaire examples & samples .
• Keep it short . The Keep It Short and Simple (K.I.S.S.) rule still applies, even to survey making. The shorter and more comprehensible the question, the better. When your questions are lengthy, there is a big probability that the respondents might not even know what the real question is. It is always best to make it straight to the point in order for the respondents to give their answers better. You may also like student questionnaire examples .
• People tend not to read paragraphs or introductions . Surveys are boring to answer. It is true. Making surveys are even harder. The ones who made the survey would actually appreciate it if you took the survey seriously and with all honesty. After all, there might come a time that they would need a survey to be answered, and you would not want them to give out fabricated answers, now would you? Reading the introduction after all gives you a better and clearer understanding of what the survey is about and how it can actually help society (e.g. for research surveys). You may also check out research questionnaire examples & samples .
• Define terms as needed.  It cannot be helped if there are certain terminologies that the respondents might not be able to understand right away since it might be something that they have not really heard of before. If it is a jargon that you are trying to define, make sure that the certain word is done in layman’s terms, that even the average person can get its meaning. You might be interested in how to prepare a questionnaire .
• Ask assistance from a professional to help translate the data of your survey . Some survey answers are easy to break down, some are not. It may be possible to treat the data on your own, but just know that you can always ask for help, especially when it is needed. Statisticians for instance can help you with translating the data into numerical form as simple as possible. When using interviews as the source of your data, ask aid from a transcriber, especially if some of the words are not in English. You may also see assessment questionnaire examples .
• Items at the top and bottom of lists may attract more attention than items in the middle of long lists.
• Because people scan instead of read, the first words of items in lists can cause them to overlook the right choice, especially in alphabetical lists.
• Test where best to place page breaks.  Arrange your questionnaire by parts so that people can be able to browse through the questions of that certain page better. If you merge all the questions together without segregating them properly, there is a chance that the conductor of the survey might be confused on which particular part that question attempts to answer. Segregate the questions as best as you can in order to avoid confusion. You may also check out questionnaire templates & examples .
• If possible, don’t annoy people by asking questions that don’t apply to them.  There are certain questions that the respondents might not be able to answer. Maybe to the ones that are not your target audience, but other than that, they might just get irritated by seeing the question. So make sure to only ask the questions that are relevant to your audience and not to add unnecessary ones. You might be interested in customer service questionnaire examples & samples .
• Take your data with a grain of salt . Unlike for quantitative surveys, qualitative survey metrics are rarely representative for the whole target audience; instead, they represent the opinions of the respondents. You can still present descriptive statistics to summarize the results of the survey, but, unless you use sound statistics tools, you cannot say whether these results are the result of noise or sample selection, as opposed to truly reflecting the attitudes of your whole user population. You may also see questionnaire examples in word .
• Count whatever you can count.  There will always be certain people that will get sidetracked by not really answering your question and just give out anything he or she feels about that certain subject matter. Segregate and filter out the information. If you feel that his answer is way off track, then it would be best not to include his or her answer as part of your data. You may also like restaurant questionnaire examples & samples .
• Show, don’t tell . Use lots of graphs, charts, and tables, with an executive summary of key takeaways.

Qualitative Research vs Quantitative Research

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Making a survey is often easier said than done. You would have to think and carefully formulate the kind of questions that is necessary if you really want to gather the data that matters the most to you. For research students, there is always the option to consult with your thesis adviser to help you out. You may also see survey questionnaire examples  to provide you with more insight in how to make these kinds of surveys.

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