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The periodic table: a very short introduction [Book Review]

The modern periodic table is basic to the sciences and is so familiar that popular songs have even been written about it. But perhaps surprisingly, even many professional chemists don't know much about the history of how it was discovered beyond Mendeleev's contributions.

In his newest book, The Periodic Table: A Very Short Introduction [Oxford University Press; 2012: Amazon UK ; Amazon US ], university lecturer and writer Eric Scerri takes us on an engaging and fascinating journey into how the modern periodic table came to be. This small book provides a surprisingly big overview of the many discoveries, developments and individuals that defined this universal law of nature, the periodic law, and all this is all rolled up into an absorbing and educational narrative.

In this book, we are introduced to an interesting cast of international characters, including physicists, chemists, geologists, teachers, tradesmen and nobleman, all who played a role in the discovery and evolution of the periodic table. Notably, we meet Scottish physician, William Prout, whose proposal that all matter was composed of hydrogen atoms motivated the scientists of the day to obtain ever more accurate weights for each atom in their quest to prove whether his hypothesis was correct. We meet Danish-American eccentric, Gustavus Hinrichs, who saw the connection between the frequencies of spectra emitted by the elements and the internal structures of their atoms. We also meet German physical chemist, Julius Lothar Meyer, who is considered by some historians to be the co-discoverer of the periodic table, along with the Russian scientist, Dimitri Mendeleev, who sketched out his periodic table on the back of an invitation to a local cheese factory.

But more than simply recounting history, Scerri also discusses how the deeper meaning of the periodic table's structure gradually became evident to scientists, and served to reinforce the growing cross-pollination between chemistry and physics by contributing to the development of atomic theory and quantum mechanics. Further, there is a chapter devoted to the artificial synthesis of super-heavy elements beyond uranium (element 92). I especially was fascinated by the discussion of the many alternative forms of the periodic table -- ranging from trees to spirals -- both from a scientific and philosophical point of view. I am not sure if the author did this intentionally, but by the telling the multi-faceted story of the periodic table, the reader gains an appreciation for the scientific method and for how science is really done.

Researchers, scientists, science educators and students will all enjoy this book, as will fans of science and of the history of science. This small paperback is 147 pages long, and includes black and white photographs, tables, and diagrammes, a list of additional readings, and an index. Chapters include:

• The elements
• A quick overview of the modern periodic table
• Atomic weight, triads, and Prout
• Steps toward the periodic table
• The Russian genius -- Mendeleev
• Physics invades the periodic table
• Electronic structure
• Quantum mechanics
• Modern alchemy: from missing elements to synthetic elements
• Forms of the periodic table

Although this book is really well-designed and written, there is one small addition that may possibly improve it: a timeline that notes when the relevant discoveries were made in chemistry and physics to provide the reader with a concise mental image for how all this information fits together into a coherent story.

This small paperback is part of Oxford's growing collection of "Very Short Introduction" books that collectively have sold more than three million copies around the world. Written by experts in their fields and peer-reviewed before publication, these books are small enough to fit into a pocket, handbag or rucksack. Based on the titles I've read so far, I have found these slim volumes to be interesting, informative and very readable, and I eagerly look forward to each new book.

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Eric Scerri is a lecturer in chemistry and in the history and philosophy of science at the University of California, Los Angeles . He has written and published more than 100 research articles, numerous book chapters, is featured in many online video & audio lectures, is the editor of the academic journal, Foundations of Chemistry , and has edited or written six books. His 2007 book, The Story of the Periodic System: Its Development and Its Significance earned him UCLA's Herbert Newby McCoy award, which honors significant contributions to the science of chemistry. The Periodic Table: A Very Short Introduction is Dr Scerri's sixth book. Visit Dr Scerri's website .

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Online periodic table of elements to support students’ learning of trends in properties of chemical elements

• Published: 27 February 2023
• Volume 28 , pages 11793–11817, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Ezechiel Nsabayezu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1377-9266 1 ,
• Aloys Iyamuremye   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3968-8757 1 ,
• Leonard Nungu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3266-7259 1 ,
• Janvier Mukiza   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3191-9493 1 , 2 ,
• Evode Mukama   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1047-8425 1 , 2 , 3 &
• Francois Niyongabo Niyonzima   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8228-5171 1 , 2  

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The Online Periodic Table of Elements (Ptable) is a Wikipedia-linked periodic table that displays a list of chemical elements organized by atomic number, electronic configuration, and recurring chemical properties. Elements are listed in reading order, increasing in atomic number, in their most basic form. The current study seeks to assess the impact of Ptable on students' understanding of trends in the properties of chemical elements. A mixed research strategy was used in this study. Chemistry students in grade eight (senior two) were selected to participate in this study. The sample size was 46 participants, with 38 students and 8 chemistry teachers chosen at random from two secondary schools in Bugesera District, in Rwanda. Interviews were used to collect qualitative data, which was then analyzed using discourse and interpretive analysis approaches. While quantitative data were collected by giving students achievement tests (pre- and post-test) and questionnaires, descriptive statistics were used to analyze them using a Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). According to the findings of this study, there was a statistical difference in student performance between the pre-and post-test, but no statistical difference between male and female students' academic performance. It was also discovered that students were pleased with the use of Ptable, which improved their learning and knowledge retention about trends in the properties of chemical elements. Teachers mentioned that Ptable is effective to teach trends in the properties of chemical elements. Among the difficulties noted were a slow internet connection and a limited number of computers.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative in Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Sciences (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda-College of Education (UR-CE), Rukara Campus, Kayonza, Rwanda, for its encouragement to conduct this study.

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1.1 Achievement test

Name the only non-metal which is liquid.

How many non-metals are found in the gaseous state?

The only non-metal which conducts electricity is graphite. (True or False).

Which is the most abundant non-metal in the earth’s crust?

What is meant by saying that metals are malleable and ductile? Explain with examples.

With the help of an example, describe how metals differ from non-metals.

Name one metal and one non-metal which exist in the liquid state at room temperature.

Name the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust.

Describe the trends and patterns in the properties of elements in groups and periods.

Illustrate the electrical conductivity of metals and non-metals.

Distinguish between the chemical properties of metals and non-metals.

Give three uses of non-metals in daily life.

Name two metalloids.

Why do non-metals not conduct heat and electricity?

Non-metals have low (a) densities (b) melting points (c) boiling points (d) All of these.

Explain, why the chemical reactivity of metals increases on going down in a group of the periodic table?

Which of the following element is least reactive? Explain.

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Which of the following metal exists in the liquid state?

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Nsabayezu, E., Iyamuremye, A., Nungu, L. et al. Online periodic table of elements to support students’ learning of trends in properties of chemical elements. Educ Inf Technol 28 , 11793–11817 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11650-7

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https://www.nist.gov/blogs/taking-measure/periodic-table-its-more-just-chemistry-and-physics

Taking Measure

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The Periodic Table: It's More than Just Chemistry and Physics

This is the International Year of the Periodic Table , and while I’ve been (accurately) accused of being a physics fanboy, I’m here to tell you that this famous chart isn’t just about physics, chemistry and the other sciences. It’s also about mathematics and engineering and even nonscientific areas of knowledge including history, geography and the origins of words.

First, a quick review of what the periodic table is. It’s a chart of all the chemical building blocks of matter. To date, humans have observed 118, both natural and artificially made. Each of these building blocks, known as atomic elements, contains a positively charged core (known as the nucleus) that is (usually) surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged particles called electrons. Zooming in on the nucleus a little more, we find positively charged particles known as protons and neutral particles known as neutrons.

The one feature that defines an atomic element is its atomic number, that is, the number of protons it has in its nucleus. Hydrogen has one proton, so its atomic number is 1, and uranium has 92, so its atomic number is … 92. If there are an equal number of electrons and protons, the atom is electrically neutral. If there are fewer or more electrons than protons, the atom is electrically charged and known as an ion.

Each atom can have several different versions, known as isotopes, in which there are different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. For example, hydrogen usually only has one proton and no neutrons, but an isotope known as deuterium or “heavy hydrogen” also contains one neutron.

The deuterium isotope helps create heavier elements inside stars, makes certain drugs more effective, and could be the key ingredient for making clean fusion energy. It was discovered in the 1930s at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST, then known as the National Bureau of Standards), where it was identified by Harold Urey of Columbia University, who won a Nobel Prize for the feat.

(Alas, no prize for NIST’s Ferdinand Brickwedde . That’s fine.)

So, already you can see this one isotope’s importance in astronomy, pharmaceuticals and energy. And, yet, despite its importance, it’s a rarity compared with ordinary hydrogen, the most abundant ingredient in water, most stars and the universe in general. It’s amazing how one element in the periodic table is found in so many different kinds of stuff in our world.

In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, created the first periodic table by arranging the atomic elements into columns and rows. Atomic elements in the same columns and rows have certain properties in common. For example, atoms in the rightmost column, known as the noble gases, may differ greatly in mass from light (helium) to heavy (such as radon), but what they have in common is that they don’t ordinarily participate in chemical reactions.

The genius of Mendeleev was that he left spaces for elements yet to be discovered, and in so doing he predicted their existence, such as gallium in 1875 and germanium in 1886. As you may have guessed, the latter was named after Germany (the home country of discoverer Clemens Winkler). As for the former, Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran named the element “gallia,” after Gaul, the Iron Age region that includes present-day France.

So, if you love history, literature and words, the periodic table is for you. Some elements are named after towns: Strontium comes from the Scottish village of Strontian, where the mineral containing the element was found. Some take their names from mythology. The element vanadium is named after the Norse goddess Vanadis. More recently discovered elements have tended to be named after real people, such as meitnerium (Austrian-Swedish physicist Lise Meitner was a co-discoverer of nuclear fission). Naming elements after places has also been trending. For instance, tennessine comes from the state of Tennessee, the home of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which performed key work to produce this particular element.

If you like engineering, the periodic table is the ultimate canvas for innovation. The semiconductor industry has used the periodic table to go beyond standard silicon-based devices. Semiconductor engineers have used different combinations of elements from the III and V columns of the periodic table to create new semiconductor alloys, such as gallium nitride (GaN) and indium nitride (InN), each having different advantages. For example, gallium nitride can produce light over a large number of wavelengths, including the blue light used in smartphone screens. Indium nitride can absorb light over a narrower range of wavelengths, making it a great candidate for solar cells, as it absorbs the specific wavelengths of light most common from the sun.

And, of course, there’s materials engineering, too. Engineers like to combine the lightweight metal titanium with other elements such as aluminum to create alloys for aircraft and other vehicles. Alloys of magnesium and other elements such as gold are finding use in medical implants for bone repair. The cool thing about these alloys is that they are biodegradable, so they disappear after serving as scaffolding for new bone growth.

NIST’s Materials Genome Initiative is a modern embodiment of the spirit of the periodic table, using the power of computing, including artificial intelligence, to combine the elements into new materials for desired applications, such as less-expensive-to-make nickel coins and “metallic glasses” for stronger building materials.

Precision timekeeping may not be something you associate with the periodic table, but for NIST researchers who build cutting-edge atomic clocks, it could be the first thing that comes to mind. Since 1967, the second has been defined by atomic clocks using cesium atoms. If cesium atoms are exposed to microwave radiation at a frequency of 9,192,631,770 hertz (cycles per second), they will change quantum energy states. Using an electronic detector to measure if the atoms have changed states, NIST scientists keep the generated frequency locked to the atomic transition, making a very stable frequency output.

Atomic clocks allow us to precisely divide the second into billionths of parts and beyond. Precise time measurements are useful for time-stamping financial transactions, synchronizing communications and data, and navigating using the Global Positioning System (GPS). More recently, NIST researchers are making clocks with other atoms such as strontium, ytterbium, mercury and aluminum. The researchers change the quantum states of these atoms using optical radiation, with frequencies of hundreds of trillions of cycles per second (much higher than the microwave radiation used in cesium clocks). These “optical clocks” enable the second to be split into even smaller intervals that could be useful for things such as detecting underground geologic deposits and even dark matter.

If you love numbers, well, of course, the periodic table is filled with them. Each atom on the table has a bevy of quantities. Besides atomic number, there’s atomic weight and ionization energy (the amount of energy it takes to remove an electron from that atom).

How did we get such accurate numbers? As physicists developed quantum theory, they made highly precise (and remarkably correct) calculations for the energy levels of electrons in atoms. Among so many other things, chemists determined how the arrangement of electrons in atoms influences chemical reactions. All this work by the scientists involved state-of-the-art mathematics.

Once scientists developed the fundamentals, however, there was still a lot of work to do in understanding the properties of each of the elements. Who is involved? Measurement scientists, such as the people who work at NIST.

NIST mathematician Jim Sims explained to me: “As the ‘standards’ people, we are the ones who collect the world’s experimental and theoretical data on atomic properties of the elements and critically evaluate it to come up with the best estimate of the numbers in the table at any time. Mathematics certainly goes into that analysis, and more fundamentally any atomic structure calculation relies heavily on both math and computational science.”

I asked Jim what developments in mathematics led to the periodic table that we know today. “Rather than any specific example,” he said, “all I can come up with is the fact that modern physics, chemistry and mathematics are intimately entwined.”

And I’ll take things a step further by saying that so many other fields are intertwined in the periodic table. One small chart is both a source of knowledge and a springboard for creativity, in so many fields. It’s so much more than a poster in your high-school chemistry class; it’s a roadmap for the future.

A print version of the official NIST periodic table can be downloaded here .

See NIST videos and other resources on the International Year of the Periodic Table here .

About the author

Ben P. Stein

Ben P. Stein is managing editor in the NIST public affairs office, where he edits and writes news articles and other content about the agency’s research and programs. He has a bachelor of science degree in physics from Binghamton University and a master of arts in journalism from New York University. He has also worked at the American Institute of Physics, where he most recently served as director of its Inside Science news program.

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From Trash to Cash: How AI and Machine Learning Can Help Make Recycling Less Expensive for Local Governments

NIST Physicist’s Once Obscure Work Is Now Helping Researchers Learn About the Origins of the Universe

This is one of the most "respectable" and "beautiful" article. By reading it, I'm passing through many great moments of humanity. I have to point out another fact from the lobby of scientific research. It is about extending the relevance of Periodic Table and introducing a new unit of measurement ("boscovich") for the "Type of Substance", described in the works of Croatian scientist Milan Perkovac.

Thank you for your kind words about the blog post. Thanks also for making me aware of the work of Prof. Perkovac. I looked up and found one of his papers , "Measurement of Type of Substance Based on Protons, Neutrons and Electrons in the Substance" (DOI: 10.9734/AJOPACS/2017/37863) for others who might be interested. Ben

The American can do attitude and willingness to invest in risk is one of its greatest attributes.

Everyone who gave a second thought to enter this site reading through this scientific literature of the periodic table will appreciate the views of the source of this document. The writer has gone beyond mentioning names of world known elements to exposing the genealogy of such which none of the early and contemporary elementary chemistry text books (eg. Lambert, Ababio ) never mentioned. I have to append this as credit to the writer for the research made on these names bringing it to the open to the world to know. I want to say most of us may never have any clue about how these names where derived less the source. I personally appreciate the writer and I know more people will come out to do so also.

Once again thank you for sharing your knowledge.

I had to read this article for a online science assignment. I had to write down 10 things that I learned about. This article was easy to comprehend and was easy to come up with 10 new things I learned. So Thank you sooo much for this article and making it easy to comprehend.

I like these post because it related topics that I interested

It is surprising and disappointing that there is no word in this article about the contribution of Henry Moseley whose work on the X-ray spectra of the elements made the periodic table what it is today.

Thanks for highlighting the great work of Moseley. Without a doubt he was one of several scientists who made critical contributions to establishing the modern periodic table. This post wasn't meant to tell a history of the periodic table. Instead it was an exploration of how its contents connect to multiple scientific and nonscientific disciplines. Thank you very much for your comment!

What is the volume number and the issue number for this journal article

Hi, Ivy. Thanks for your comment. This is a blog, so there are no volume or issue numbers.

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1 (page 1) p. 1 The elements

• Published: October 2011
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‘The elements’ outlines the history of the study of elements. Ancient Greeks had just four elements, which they believed possessed the shape of the platonic solids. They also believed that the four elements each possessed abstract qualities, a belief which later evolved into the concept of periodicity. Some elements have been known for millennia (indeed, ages have been named after them). Others have required technological advancements in order to be isolated. Elements have been named by a variety of means, which has caused controversy among discoverers. Alchemists applied symbols to elements based on associated planets and celestial bodies. This was replaced by the lettered system we use today.

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Literature Review on the Periodic Table and Chemical Elements

A topic from the subject of Literature Review in Chemistry.

• 4 months ago

Literature Review on the Periodic Table and Chemical Elements provides a thorough examination of existing research and material related to the Periodic Table and various Chemical Elements. This guide delves into understanding the fundamental concepts, equipment, techniques, and experiments associated with these topics to further comprehend its applications and contributions to the field of Chemistry.

Basic Concepts

• Periodic Table 101
• Classification of Elements
• Atomic Structure & Properties

This section discusses the different types of equipment and techniques used in Chemistry, focusing primarily on those relevant to the study of the Periodic Table and Chemical Elements.

• Chemical Equipment
• Experimentation Techniques
• Computational Methods

Types of Experiments

• Elemental Discovery Experiments
• Chemical Reaction Experiments
• Atomic Structure Experiments

The process of analyzing data stemming from the experiments. This section highlights common methods and steps in data analysis in Chemistry, specifically related to the Periodic Table and Chemical Elements.

• Statistical Analysis
• Data Visualization
• Interpretation Methods

Applications

• Applications in Chemical Synthesis
• Applications in Material Science
• Applications in Medicinal Chemistry

This part sums up the key points covered in the literature review, discussing the significance of the Periodic Table and Chemical Elements in the field of Chemistry. It provides an overview of the observations discussed, outlining the current understanding and potential future directions.

• Summary of Key Points
• Research Gaps and Future Directions
• Concluding Remarks

The literature review on the periodic table and chemical elements covers an extensive aspect of chemistry, understanding the properties, arrangement, and significance of elements in the Periodic Table.

Main Concepts Discussed

• Historical Development: The evolution of the Periodic Table from Mendeleev's table to the modern Periodic Table.
• Structural Analysis: Understanding the layout of the Periodic Table, including groups and periods, and the rationale behind their arrangements.
• Chemical Elements: Detailed exploration of the properties, behaviors, and uses of various chemical elements.
• Periodicity: The pattern in properties observed among elements in the Periodic Table.

The literature presents a multifaceted exploration of the Periodic Table and its chemical elements, integrating history, structure, usage, and trends.

• Mendeleev’s Contribution: He was the first to organize elements based on atomic weight and properties.
• Modern Periodic Law: The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
• Element Groups: Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons and hence exhibit similar chemical behavior.
• Element Periods: As we move left to right across a period, elements become less metallic and more nonmetallic in their properties.

In summary, a literature review on the Periodic Table and chemical elements provides a comprehensive understanding of the organization, significance, and properties of chemical elements, equipping readers with the knowledge to understand their behaviors and applications.

Experiment: Periodic Table Trends Investigation

In this experiment, we will use the Periodic Table to study and understand the trends and makeup of the chemical elements. We will focus on a few trends such as atomic radius, electronegativity, and ionization energy, which are some of the periodic trends that can be used to understand the arrangement and properties of elements.

• Periodic table
• Element data (can be found in a Chemistry textbook or online)
• Graphing software/computer or graph paper
• Select 10 elements consecutively from the periodic table.
• For each element, find the following properties - Atomic radius, Electronegativity, Ionization energy.
• Using a graphing tool, plot the atomic number (x-axis) against the properties (y-axis) for each of the 10 elements. This should result in three graphs, one for each property.
• Analyze the graphs to observe the trends.
• Start by choosing any 10 consecutive elements from the periodic table. The consecutive elements can be from the same period or group.
• Use a chemistry textbook or a reliable online source to find data for the three properties (Atomic radius, Electronegativity, Ionization energy) for each of the 10 elements.
• Plot the atomic number of each element on the x-axis and the three different properties on the y-axis using a graphing tool or graph paper. Ensure to clearly label each axis and provide a title for your graph.
• Evaluate the graphs to identify any trends or patterns. Take note of any increases or decreases in the properties as you move across the periodic table.

Understanding the trends in the Periodic Table helps in understanding the chemical behavior of the elements. This experiment is a practical application of the concept and offers a visual representation of how these properties change across periods and groups in the Periodic Table. This knowledge can be applied when predicting the behavior of an element or when studying chemical reactions. It is a foundational concept in the study of Chemistry.

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An introduction to the periodic table

The periodic table also known as the periodic table of elements, is a picture that tells the story of every atom in the universe.

The periodic table is an icon of chemistry, but it is a part of every branch of science. If you understand the periodic table, you understand the stuff that all matter is made of - the building blocks of matter.

This tutorial will take you through the history of the periodic table and how to read and understand the table. You can also test your knowledge of the periodic table by skipping to the quiz.

In this tutorial

• History of the periodic table - People have been using the periodic table to categorise elements and predict new atoms and how they interact with the known elements for over one hundred and fifty years - time to complete 15 minutes
• The arrangement of the periodic table - where an atom appears on the periodic table is a visual representation of the periodic law. Read on to learn more - time to complete 35 minutes
• Periodic table quiz - test your knowledge of the periodic table here. 25 questions. Time to complete - 75 minutes.

• History of the periodic table
• The arrangement of the periodic table
• Periodic table quiz

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