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The Impact of Time Management on Students' Academic Achievement

S N A M Razali 1 , M S Rusiman 1 , W S Gan 1 and N Arbin 2

Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd Journal of Physics: Conference Series , Volume 995 , International Seminar on Mathematics and Physics in Sciences and Technology 2017 (ISMAP 2017) 28–29 October 2017, Hotel Katerina, Malaysia Citation S N A M Razali et al 2018 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 995 012042 DOI 10.1088/1742-6596/995/1/012042

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1 Department of Mathematics and Statistic, Faculty of Applied Science and Technology University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia.

2 Department of Mathematic, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Perak, Malaysia.

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Time management is very important and it may actually affect individual's overall performance and achievements. Students nowadays always commented that they do not have enough time to complete all the tasks assigned to them. In addition, a university environment's flexibility and freedom can derail students who have not mastered time management skills. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the relationship between the time management and academic achievement of the students. The factor analysis result showed three main factors associated with time management which can be classified as time planning, time attitudes and time wasting. The result also indicated that gender and races of students show no significant differences in time management behaviours. While year of study and faculty of students reveal the significant differences in the time management behaviours. Meanwhile, all the time management behaviours are significantly positively related to academic achievement of students although the relationship is weak. Time planning is the most significant correlated predictor.

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Research Article

Does time management work? A meta-analysis

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Concordia University, Sir George Williams Campus, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Roles Methodology, Validation

Affiliation FSA Ulaval, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada

Roles Validation, Writing – review & editing

• Brad Aeon, 
• Aïda Faber, 
• Alexandra Panaccio

• Published: January 11, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066
• Reader Comments

Does time management work? We conducted a meta-analysis to assess the impact of time management on performance and well-being. Results show that time management is moderately related to job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Time management also shows a moderate, negative relationship with distress. Interestingly, individual differences and contextual factors have a much weaker association with time management, with the notable exception of conscientiousness. The extremely weak correlation with gender was unexpected: women seem to manage time better than men, but the difference is very slight. Further, we found that the link between time management and job performance seems to increase over the years: time management is more likely to get people a positive performance review at work today than in the early 1990s. The link between time management and gender, too, seems to intensify: women’s time management scores have been on the rise for the past few decades. We also note that time management seems to enhance wellbeing—in particular, life satisfaction—to a greater extent than it does performance. This challenges the common perception that time management first and foremost enhances work performance, and that wellbeing is simply a byproduct.

Citation: Aeon B, Faber A, Panaccio A (2021) Does time management work? A meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 16(1): e0245066. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066

Editor: Juan-Carlos Pérez-González, Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia (UNED), SPAIN

Received: October 27, 2020; Accepted: December 21, 2020; Published: January 11, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Aeon et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist

Introduction

Stand-up comedian George Carlin once quipped that in the future a “time machine will be built, but no one will have time to use it” [ 1 ]. Portentously, booksellers now carry one-minute bedtime stories for time-starved parents [ 2 ] and people increasingly speed-watch videos and speed-listen to audio books [ 3 – 5 ]. These behaviors are symptomatic of an increasingly harried society suffering from chronic time poverty [ 6 ]. Work is intensifying—in 1965 about 50% of workers took breaks; in 2003, less than 2% [ 7 ]. Leisure, too, is intensifying: people strive to consume music, social media, vacations, and other leisure activities ever more efficiently [ 8 – 11 ].

In this frantic context, time management is often touted as a panacea for time pressure. Media outlets routinely extol the virtues of time management. Employers, educators, parents, and politicians exhort employees, students, children, and citizens to embrace more efficient ways to use time [ 12 – 16 ]. In light of this, it is not surprising that from 1960 to 2008 the frequency of books mentioning time management shot up by more than 2,700% [ 17 ].

Time management is defined as “a form of decision making used by individuals to structure, protect, and adapt their time to changing conditions” [ 18 ]. This means time management, as it is generally portrayed in the literature, comprises three components: structuring, protecting, and adapting time. Well-established time management measures reflect these concepts. Structuring time, for instance, is captured in such items as “Do you have a daily routine which you follow?” and “Do your main activities during the day fit together in a structured way?” [ 19 ]. Protecting time is reflected in items such as “Do you often find yourself doing things which interfere with your schoolwork simply because you hate to say ‘No’ to people?” [ 20 ]. And adapting time to changing conditions is seen in such items as “Uses waiting time” and “Evaluates daily schedule” [ 21 ].

Research has, furthermore, addressed several important aspects of time management, such as its relationship with work-life balance [ 22 ], whether gender differences in time management ability develop in early childhood [ 23 ], and whether organizations that encourage employees to manage their time experience less stress and turnover [ 24 ]. Despite the phenomenal popularity of this topic, however, academic research has yet to address some fundamental questions [ 25 – 27 ].

A critical gap in time management research is the question of whether time management works [ 28 , 29 ]. For instance, studies on the relationship between time management and job performance reveal mixed findings [ 30 , 31 ]. Furthermore, scholars’ attempts to synthesize the literature have so far been qualitative, precluding a quantitative overall assessment [ 18 , 32 , 33 ]. To tackle this gap in our understanding of time management, we conducted a meta-analysis. In addressing the question of whether time management works, we first clarify the criteria for effectiveness. In line with previous reviews, we find that virtually all studies focus on two broad outcomes: performance and wellbeing [ 32 ].

Overall, results suggest that time management enhances job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Interestingly, individual differences (e.g., gender, age) and contextual factors (e.g., job autonomy, workload) were much less related to time management ability, with the notable exception of personality and, in particular, conscientiousness. Furthermore, the link between time management and job performance seems to grow stronger over the years, perhaps reflecting the growing need to manage time in increasingly autonomous and flexible jobs [ 34 – 37 ].

Overall, our findings provide academics, policymakers, and the general audience with better information to assess the value of time management. This information is all the more useful amid the growing doubts about the effectiveness of time management [ 38 ]. We elaborate on the contributions and implications of our findings in the discussion section.

What does it mean to say that time management works?

In the din of current debates over productivity, reduced workweeks, and flexible hours, time management comes to the fore as a major talking point. Given its popularity, it would seem rather pointless to question its effectiveness. Indeed, time management’s effectiveness is often taken for granted, presumably because time management offers a seemingly logical solution to a lifestyle that increasingly requires coordination and prioritization skills [ 39 , 40 ].

Yet, popular media outlets increasingly voice concern and frustration over time management, reflecting at least part of the population’s growing disenchantment [ 38 ]. This questioning of time management practices is becoming more common among academics as well [ 41 ]. As some have noted, the issue is not just whether time management works. Rather, the question is whether the techniques championed by time management gurus can be actually counterproductive or even harmful [ 26 , 42 ]. Other scholars have raised concerns that time management may foster an individualistic, quantitative, profit-oriented view of time that perpetuates social inequalities [ 43 , 44 ]. For instance, time management manuals beguile readers with promises of boundless productivity that may not be accessible to women, whose disproportionate share in care work, such as tending to young children, may not fit with typically male-oriented time management advice [ 45 ]. Similarly, bestselling time management books at times offer advice that reinforce global inequities. Some manuals, for instance, recommend delegating trivial tasks to private virtual assistants, who often work out of developing countries for measly wages [ 46 ]. Furthermore, time management manuals often ascribe a financial value to time—the most famous time management adage is that time is money. But recent studies show that thinking of time as money leads to a slew of negative outcomes, including time pressure, stress, impatience, inability to enjoy the moment, unwillingness to help others, and less concern with the environment [ 47 – 51 ]. What’s more, the pressure induced by thinking of time as money may ultimately undermine psychological and physical health [ 52 ].

Concerns over ethics and safety notwithstanding, a more prosaic question researchers have grappled with is whether time management works. Countless general-audience books and training programs have claimed that time management improves people’s lives in many ways, such as boosting performance at work [ 53 – 55 ]. Initial academic forays into addressing this question challenged those claims: time management didn’t seem to improve job performance [ 29 , 30 ]. Studies used a variety of research approaches, running the gamut from lab experiments, field experiments, longitudinal studies, and cross-sectional surveys to experience sampling [ 28 , 56 – 58 ]. Such studies occasionally did find an association between time management and performance, but only in highly motivated workers [ 59 ]; instances establishing a more straightforward link with performance were comparatively rare [ 31 ]. Summarizing these insights, reviews of the literature concluded that the link between time management and job performance is unclear; the link with wellbeing, however, seemed more compelling although not conclusive [ 18 , 32 ].

It is interesting to note that scholars often assess the effectiveness time management by its ability to influence some aspect of performance, wellbeing, or both. In other words, the question of whether time management works comes down to asking whether time management influences performance and wellbeing. The link between time management and performance at work can be traced historically to scientific management [ 60 ]. Nevertheless, even though modern time management can be traced to scientific management in male-dominated work settings, a feminist reading of time management history reveals that our modern idea of time management also descends from female time management thinkers of the same era, such as Lillian Gilbreth, who wrote treatises on efficient household management [ 43 , 61 , 62 ]. As the link between work output and time efficiency became clearer, industrialists went to great lengths to encourage workers to use their time more rationally [ 63 – 65 ]. Over time, people have internalized a duty to be productive and now see time management as a personal responsibility at work [ 43 , 66 , 67 ]. The link between time management and academic performance can be traced to schools’ historical emphasis on punctuality and timeliness. In more recent decades, however, homework expectations have soared [ 68 ] and parents, especially well-educated ones, have been spending more time preparing children for increasingly competitive college admissions [ 69 , 70 ]. In this context, time management is seen as a necessary skill for students to thrive in an increasingly cut-throat academic world. Finally, the link between time management and wellbeing harks back to ancient scholars, who emphasized that organizing one’s time was necessary to a life well-lived [ 71 , 72 ]. More recently, empirical studies in the 1980s examined the effect of time management on depressive symptoms that often plague unemployed people [ 19 , 73 ]. Subsequent studies surmised that the effective use of time might prevent a host of ills, such as work-life conflict and job stress [ 22 , 74 ].

Overall, then, various studies have looked into the effectiveness of time management. Yet, individual studies remain narrow in scope and reviews of the literature offer only a qualitative—and often inconclusive—assessment. To provide a more quantifiable answer to the question of whether time management works, we performed a meta-analysis, the methods of which we outline in what follows.

Literature search and inclusion criteria

We performed a comprehensive search using the keywords “time management” across the EBSCO databases Academic Search Complete , Business Source Complete , Computers & Applied Sciences Complete , Gender Studies Database , MEDLINE , Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection , PsycINFO , SocINDEX , and Education Source . The search had no restrictions regarding country and year of publication and included peer-reviewed articles up to 2019. To enhance comprehensiveness, we also ran a forward search on the three main time management measures: the Time Management Behavior Scale [ 21 ], the Time Structure Questionnaire [ 19 ], and the Time Management Questionnaire [ 20 ]. (A forward search tracks all the papers that have cited a particular work. In our case the forward search located all the papers citing the three time management scales available on Web of Science .)

Time management measures typically capture three aspects of time management: structuring, protecting, and adapting time to changing conditions. Structuring refers to how people map their activities to time using a schedule, a planner, or other devices that represent time in a systematic way [ 75 – 77 ]. Protecting refers to how people set boundaries around their time to repel intruders [ 78 , 79 ]. Examples include people saying no to time-consuming requests from colleagues or friends as well as turning off one’s work phone during family dinners. Finally, adapting one’s time to changing conditions means, simply put, to be responsive and flexible with one’s time structure [ 80 , 81 ]. Furthermore, time management measures typically probe behaviors related to these three dimensions (e.g., using a schedule to structure one’s day, making use of downtime), although they sometimes also capture people’s attitudes (e.g., whether people feel in control of their time).

As shown in Fig 1 , the initial search yielded 10,933 hits, excluding duplicates.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.g001

The search included no terms other than “time management” to afford the broadest possible coverage of time management correlates. Nevertheless, as shown in Table 1 , we focused exclusively on quantitative, empirical studies of time management in non-clinical samples. Successive rounds of screening, first by assessing paper titles and abstracts and then by perusing full-text articles, whittled down the number of eligible studies to 158 (see Fig 1 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t001

Data extraction and coding

We extracted eligible effect sizes from the final pool of studies; effect sizes were mostly based on means and correlations. In our initial data extraction, we coded time management correlates using the exact variable names found in each paper. For instance, “work-life imbalance” was initially coded in those exact terms, rather than “work-life conflict.” Virtually all time management correlates we extracted fell under the category of performance and/or wellbeing. This pattern tallies with previous reviews of the literature [ 18 , 32 ]. A sizable number of variables also fell under the category of individual differences and contextual factors, such as age, personality, and job autonomy. After careful assessment of the extracted variables, we developed a coding scheme using a nested structure shown in Table 2 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t002

Aeon and Aguinis suggested that time management influences performance, although the strength of that relationship may depend on how performance is defined [ 18 ]. Specifically, they proposed that time management may have a stronger impact on behaviors conducive to performance (e.g., motivation, proactiveness) compared to assessments of performance (e.g., supervisor rankings). For this reason, we distinguish between results- and behavior-based performance in our coding scheme, both in professional and academic settings. Furthermore, wellbeing indicators can be positive (e.g., life satisfaction) or negative (e.g., anxiety). We expect time management to influence these variables in opposite ways; it would thus make little sense to analyze them jointly. Accordingly, we differentiate between wellbeing (positive) and distress (negative).

In our second round of coding, we used the scheme shown in Table 2 to cluster together kindred variables. For instance, we grouped “work-life imbalance,” “work-life conflict” and “work-family conflict” under an overarching “work-life conflict” category. The authors reviewed each variable code and resolved rare discrepancies to ultimately agree on all coded variables. Note that certain variables, such as self-actualization, covered only one study (i.e., one effect size). While one or two effect sizes is not enough to conduct a meta-analysis, they can nonetheless be grouped with other effect sizes belonging to the same category (e.g., self-actualization and sense of purpose belong the broader category of overall wellbeing). For this reason, we included variables with one or two effect sizes for comprehensiveness.

Meta-analytic procedures

We conducted all meta-analyses following the variables and cluster of variables outlined in Table 2 . We opted to run all analyses with a random effects model. The alternative—a fixed effects model—assumes that all studies share a common true effect size (i.e., linking time management and a given outcome) which they approximate. This assumption is unrealistic because it implies that the factors influencing the effect size are the same in all studies [ 83 ]. In other words, a fixed effects model assumes that the factors affecting time management are similar across all studies—the fallacy underlying this assumption was the main theme of Aeon and Aguinis’s review [ 18 ]. To perform our analyses, we used Comprehensive Meta-Analysis v.3 [ 84 ], a program considered highly reliable and valid in various systematic assessments [ 85 , 86 ].

In many cases, studies reported how variables correlated with an overall time management score. In some cases, however, studies reported only correlations with discrete time management subscales (e.g., short-range planning, attitudes toward time, use of time management tools), leaving out the overall effect. In such cases, we averaged out the effect sizes of the subscales to compute a summary effect [ 83 ]. This was necessary not only because meta-analyses admit only one effect size per study, but also because our focus is on time management as a whole rather than on subscales. Similarly, when we analyzed the link between time management and a high-level cluster of variables (e.g., overall wellbeing rather than specific variables such as life satisfaction), there were studies with more than one relevant outcome (e.g., a study that captured both life satisfaction and job satisfaction). Again, because meta-analyses allow for only one effect size (i.e., variable) per study, we used the mean of different variables to compute an overall effect sizes in studies that featured more than one outcome [ 83 ].

Overall description of the literature

We analyzed 158 studies for a total number of 490 effect sizes. 21 studies explored performance in a professional context, 76 performance in an academic context, 30 investigated wellbeing (positive), and 58 distress. Interestingly, studies did not systematically report individual differences, as evidenced by the fact that only 21 studies reported correlations with age, and only between 10 and 15 studies measured personality (depending on the personality trait). Studies that measured contextual factors were fewer still—between 3 and 7 (depending on the contextual factor). These figures fit with Aeon and Aguinis’s observation that the time management literature often overlooks internal and external factors that can influence the way people manage time [ 18 ].

With one exception, we found no papers fitting our inclusion criteria before the mid-1980s. Publication trends also indicate an uptick in time management studies around the turn of the millennium, with an even higher number around the 2010s. This trend is consistent with the one Shipp and Cole identified, revealing a surge in time-related papers in organizational behavior around the end of the 1980s [ 87 ].

It is also interesting to note that the first modern time management books came out in the early 1970s, including the The Time Trap (1972), by Alec MacKenzie and How to Get Control of your Time and your Life (1973), by Alan Lakein. These books inspired early modern time management research [ 21 , 58 , 88 ]. It is thus very likely that the impetus for modern time management research came from popular practitioner manuals.

To assess potential bias in our sample of studies, we computed different estimates of publication bias (see Table 3 ). Overall, publication bias remains relatively low (see funnel plots in S1). Publication bias occurs when there is a bias against nonsignificant or even negative results because such results are seen as unsurprising and not counterintuitive. In this case, however, the fact that time management is generally expected to lead to positive outcomes offers an incentive to publish nonsignificant or negative results, which would be counterintuitive [ 89 ]. By the same token, the fact that some people feel that time management is ineffective [ 38 ] provides an incentive to publish papers that link time management with positive outcomes. In other words, opposite social expectations surrounding time management might reduce publication bias.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t003

Finally, we note that the link between time management and virtually all outcomes studied is highly heterogeneous (as measured, for instance, by Cochran’s Q and Higgins & Thompson’s I 2 ; see tables below). This high level of heterogeneity suggests that future research should pay more attention to moderating factors (e.g., individual differences).

Time management and performance in professional settings

Overall, time management has a moderate impact on performance at work, with correlations hovering around r = .25. We distinguish between results-based and behavior-based performance. The former measures performance as an outcome (e.g., performance appraisals by supervisors) whereas the latter measures performance as behavioral contributions (e.g., motivation, job involvement). Time management seems related to both types of performance. Although the effect size for results-based performance is lower than that of behavior-based performance, moderation analysis reveals the difference is not significant (p > .05), challenging Aeon and Aguinis’s conclusions [ 18 ].

Interestingly, the link between time management and performance displays much less heterogeneity (see Q and I 2 statistics in Table 4 ) than the link between time management and other outcomes (see tables below). The studies we summarize in Table 4 include both experimental and non-experimental designs; they also use different time management measures. As such, we can discount, to a certain extent, the effect of methodological diversity. We can perhaps explain the lower heterogeneity by the fact that when people hold a full-time job, they usually are at a relatively stable stage in life. In school, by contrast, a constellation of factors (e.g., financial stability and marital status, to name a few) conspire to affect time management outcomes. Furthermore, work contexts are a typically more closed system than life in general. For this reason, fewer factors stand to disrupt the link between time management and job performance than that between time management and, say, life satisfaction. Corroborating this, note how, in Table 6 below, the link between time management and job satisfaction ( I 2 = 58.70) is much less heterogeneous than the one between time management and life satisfaction ( I 2 = 95.45).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t004

Moreover, we note that the relationship between time management and job performance (see Fig 2 ) significantly increases over the years ( B = .0106, p < .01, Q model = 8.52(1), Q residual = 15.54(9), I 2 = 42.08, R 2 analog = .75).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.g002

Time management and performance in academic settings

Overall, the effect of time management on performance seems to be slightly higher in academic settings compared to work settings, although the magnitude of the effect remains moderate (see Table 5 ). Here again, we distinguish between results- and behavior-based performance. Time management’s impact on behavior-based performance seems much higher than on results-based performance—a much wider difference than the one we observed in professional settings. This suggests than results-based performance in academic settings depends less on time management than results-based performance in professional settings. This means that time management is more likely to get people a good performance review at work than a strong GPA in school.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t005

In particular, time management seems to be much more negatively related to procrastination in school than at work. Although we cannot establish causation in all studies, we note that some of them featured experimental designs that established a causal effect of time management on reducing procrastination [ 90 ].

Interestingly, time management was linked to all types of results-based performance except for standardized tests. This is perhaps due to the fact that standardized tests tap more into fluid intelligence, a measure of intelligence independent of acquired knowledge [ 91 ]. GPA and regular exam scores, in contrast, tap more into crystallized intelligence, which depends mostly on accumulated knowledge. Time management can thus assist students in organizing their time to acquire the knowledge necessary to ace a regular exam; for standardized exams that depend less on knowledge and more on intelligence, however, time management may be less helpful. Evidence from other studies bears this out: middle school students’ IQ predicts standardized achievement tests scores better than self-control while self-control predicts report card grades better than IQ [ 92 ]. (For our purposes, we can use self-control as a very rough proxy for time management.) Relatedly, we found no significant relationship between time management and cognitive ability in our meta-analysis (see Table 8 ).

Time management and wellbeing

On the whole, time management has a slightly stronger impact on wellbeing than on performance. This is unexpected, considering how the dominant discourse points to time management as a skill for professional career development. Of course, the dominant discourse also frames time management as necessary for wellbeing and stress reduction, but to a much lesser extent. Our finding that time management has a stronger influence on wellbeing in no way negates the importance of time management as a work skill. Rather, this finding challenges the intuitive notion that time management is more effective for work than for other life domains. As further evidence, notice how in Table 6 the effect of time management on life satisfaction is 72% stronger than that on job satisfaction.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t006

Time management and distress

Time management seems to allay various forms of distress, although to a lesser extent than it enhances wellbeing. The alleviating effect on psychological distress is particularly strong ( r = -0.358; see Table 7 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t007

That time management has a weaker effect on distress should not be surprising. First, wellbeing and distress are not two poles on opposite ends of a spectrum. Although related, wellbeing and distress are distinct [ 93 ]. Thus, there is no reason to expect time management to have a symmetrical effect on wellbeing and distress. Second, and relatedly, the factors that influence wellbeing and distress are also distinct. Specifically, self-efficacy (i.e., seeing oneself as capable) is a distinct predictor of wellbeing while neuroticism and life events in general are distinct predictors of distress [ 94 ]. It stands to reason that time management can enhance self-efficacy. (Or, alternatively, that people high in self-efficacy would be more likely to engage in time management, although experimental evidence suggests that time management training makes people feel more in control of their time [ 89 ]; it is thus plausible that time management may have a causal effect on self-efficacy. Relatedly, note how time management ability is strongly related to internal locus of control in Table 8 ) In contrast, time management can do considerably less in the way of tackling neuroticism and dampening the emotional impact of tragic life events. In other words, the factors that affect wellbeing may be much more within the purview of time management than the factors that affect distress. For this reason, time management may be less effective in alleviating distress than in improving wellbeing.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.t008

Time management and individual differences

Time management is, overall, less related to individual differences than to other variables.

Age, for instance, hardly correlates with time management (with a relatively high consistency between studies, I 2 = 55.79, see Table 8 above).

Similarly, gender only tenuously correlates with time management, although in the expected direction: women seem to have stronger time management abilities than men. The very weak association with gender ( r = -0.087) is particularly surprising given women’s well-documented superior self-regulation skills [ 95 ]. That being said, women’s time management abilities seem to grow stronger over the years ( N = 37, B = -.0049, p < .05, Q model = 3.89(1), Q residual = 218.42(35), I 2 = 83.98, R 2 analog = .03; also see Fig 3 below). More realistically, this increase may not be due to women’s time management abilities getting stronger per se but, rather, to the fact that women now have more freedom to manage their time [ 96 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.g003

Other demographic indicators, such as education and number of children, were nonsignificant. Similarly, the relationships between time management and personal attributes and attitudes were either weak or nonsignificant, save for two notable exceptions. First, the link between time management and internal locus of control (i.e., the extent to which people perceive they’re in control of their lives) is quite substantial. This is not surprising, because time management presupposes that people believe they can change their lives. Alternatively, it may be that time management helps people strengthen their internal locus of control, as experimental evidence suggests [ 89 ]. Second, the link between time management and self-esteem is equally substantial. Here again, one can make the argument either way: people with high self-esteem might be confident enough to manage their time or, conversely, time management may boost self-esteem. The two options are not mutually exclusive: people with internal loci of control and high self-esteem levels can feel even more in control of their lives and better about themselves through time management.

We also note a very weak but statistically significant negative association between time management and multitasking. It has almost become commonsense that multitasking does not lead to performance [ 97 ]. As a result, people with stronger time management skills might deliberately steer clear of this notoriously ineffective strategy.

In addition, time management was mildly related to hours spent studying but not hours spent working. (These variables cover only student samples working part- or full-time and thus do not apply to non-student populations.) This is consistent with time-use studies revealing that teenagers and young adults spend less time working and more time studying [ 98 ]. Students who manage their time likely have well-defined intentions, and trends suggest those intentions will target education over work because, it is hoped, education offers larger payoffs over the long-term [ 99 ].

In terms of contextual factors, time management does not correlate significantly with job autonomy. This is surprising, as we expected autonomy to be a prerequisite for time management (i.e., you can’t manage time if you don’t have the freedom to). Nevertheless, qualitative studies have shown how even in environments that afford little autonomy (e.g., restaurants), workers can carve out pockets of time freedom to momentarily cut loose [ 100 ]. Thus, time management behaviors may flourish even in the most stymying settings. In addition, the fact that time management is associated with less role overload and previous attendance of time management training programs makes sense: time management can mitigate the effect of heavy workloads and time management training, presumably, improves time management skills.

Finally, time management is linked to all personality traits. Moreover, previous reviews of the literature have commented on the link between time management and conscientiousness in particular [ 32 ]. What our study reveals is the substantial magnitude of the effect ( r = 0.451). The relationship is not surprising: conscientiousness entails orderliness and organization, which overlap significantly with time management. That time management correlates so strongly with personality (and so little with other individual differences) lends credence to the dispositional view of time management [ 101 – 103 ]. However, this finding should not be taken to mean that time management is a highly inheritable, fixed ability. Having a “you either have it or you don’t” view of time management is not only counterproductive [ 104 ] but also runs counter to evidence showing that time management training does, in fact, help people manage their time better.

Does time management work? It seems so. Time management has a moderate influence on job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. These three outcomes play an important role in people’s lives. Doing a good job at work, getting top grades in school, and nurturing psychological wellbeing contribute to a life well lived. Widespread exhortations to get better at time management are thus not unfounded: the importance of time management is hard to overstate.

Contributions

Beyond answering the question of whether time management works, this study contributes to the literature in three major ways. First, we quantify the impact of time management on several outcomes. We thus not only address the question of whether time management works, but also, and importantly, gauge to what extent time management works. Indeed, our meta-analysis covers 53,957 participants, which allows for a much more precise, quantified assessment of time management effectiveness compared to qualitative reviews.

Second, this meta-analysis systematically assesses relationships between time management and a host of individual differences and contextual factors. This helps us draw a more accurate portrait of potential antecedents of higher (or lower) scores on time management measures.

Third, our findings challenge intuitive ideas concerning what time management is for. Specifically, we found that time management enhances wellbeing—and in particular life satisfaction—to a greater extent than it does various types of performance. This runs against the popular belief that time management primarily helps people perform better and that wellbeing is simply a byproduct of better performance. Of course, it may be that wellbeing gains, even if higher than performance gains, hinge on performance; that is to say, people may need to perform better as a prerequisite to feeling happier. But this argument doesn’t jibe with experiments showing that even in the absence of performance gains, time management interventions do increase wellbeing [ 89 ]. This argument also founders in the face of evidence linking time management with wellbeing among the unemployed [ 105 ], unemployment being an environment where performance plays a negligible role, if any. As such, this meta-analysis lends support to definitions of time management that are not work- or performance-centric.

Future research and limitations

This meta-analysis questions whether time management should be seen chiefly as a performance device. Our questioning is neither novel nor subversive: historically people have managed time for other reasons than efficiency, such as spiritual devotion and philosophical contemplation [ 72 , 106 , 107 ]. It is only with relatively recent events, such as the Industrial Revolution and waves of corporate downsizing, that time management has become synonymous with productivity [ 43 , 65 ]. We hope future research will widen its scope and look more into outcomes other than performance, such as developing a sense of meaning in life [ 108 ]. One of the earliest time management studies, for instance, explored how time management relates to having a sense of purpose [ 73 ]. However, very few studies followed suit since. Time management thus stands to become a richer, more inclusive research area by investigating a wider array of outcomes.

In addition, despite the encouraging findings of this meta-analysis we must refrain from seeing time management as a panacea. Though time management can make people’s lives better, it is not clear how easy it is for people to learn how to manage their time adequately. More importantly, being “good” at time management is often a function of income, education, and various types of privilege [ 42 , 43 , 46 , 109 ]. The hackneyed maxim that “you have as many hours in a day as Beyoncé,” for instance, blames people for their “poor” time management in pointing out that successful people have just as much time but still manage to get ahead. Yet this ill-conceived maxim glosses over the fact that Beyoncé and her ilk do, in a sense, have more hours in a day than average people who can’t afford a nanny, chauffeur, in-house chefs, and a bevy of personal assistants. Future research should thus look into ways to make time management more accessible.

Furthermore, this meta-analysis rests on the assumption that time management training programs do enhance people’s time management skills. Previous reviews have noted the opacity surrounding time management interventions—studies often don’t explain what, exactly, is taught in time management training seminars [ 18 ]. As a result, comparing the effect of different interventions might come down to comparing apples and oranges. (This might partly account for the high heterogeneity between studies.) We hope that our definition of time management will spur future research into crafting more consistent, valid, and generalizable interventions that will allow for more meaningful comparisons.

Finally, most time management studies are cross-sectional. Yet it is very likely that the effect of time management compounds over time. If time management can help students get better grades, for instance, those grades can lead to better jobs down the line [ 110 ]. Crucially, learning a skill takes time, and if time management helps people make the time to learn a skill, then time management stands to dramatically enrich people’s lives. For this reason, longitudinal studies can track different cohorts to see how time management affects people’s lives over time. We expect that developing time management skills early on in life can create a compound effect whereby people acquire a variety of other skills thanks to their ability to make time.

Overall, this study offers the most comprehensive, precise, and fine-grained assessment of time management to date. We address the longstanding debate over whether time management influences job performance in revealing a positive, albeit moderate effect. Interestingly, we found that time management impacts wellbeing—and in particular life satisfaction—to a greater extent than performance. That means time management may be primarily a wellbeing enhancer, rather than a performance booster. Furthermore, individual and external factors played a minor role in time management, although this does not necessarily mean that time management’s effectiveness is universal. Rather, we need more research that focuses on the internal and external variables that affect time management outcomes. We hope this study will tantalize future research and guide practitioners in their attempt to make better use of their time.

Supporting information

S1 checklist. prisma 2009 checklist..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.s001

S1 File. Funnel plots.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.s002

S2 File. Dataset.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245066.s003

Acknowledgments

We would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge our colleagues for their invaluable help: Mengchan Gao, Talha Aziz, Elizabeth Eley, Robert Nason, Andrew Ryder, Tracy Hecht, and Caroline Aubé.

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It took less than two years in graduate school for me to burn out. I was spending long hours in the laboratory, yet I worried that I wasn’t making satisfactory progress. Overwork-induced exhaustion made me sloppy and impaired my productivity, creating a vicious cycle.

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Despite its recognized importance for academic success, much of the research investigating time management has proceeded without regard to a comprehensive theoretical model for understanding its connections to students’ engagement, learning, or achievement. Our central argument is that self-regulated learning provides the rich conceptual framework necessary for understanding college students’ time management and for guiding research examining its relationship to their academic success. We advance this larger purpose through four major sections. We begin by describing work supporting the significance of time management within post-secondary contexts. Next, we review the limited empirical findings linking time management and the motivational and strategic processes viewed as central to self-regulated learning. We then evaluate conceptual ties between time management and processes critical to the forethought, performance, and post-performance phases of self-regulated learning. Finally, we discuss commonalities in the antecedents and contextual determinants of self-regulated learning and time management. Throughout these sections, we identify avenues of research that would contribute to a greater understanding of time management and its fit within the framework of self-regulated learning. Together, these efforts demonstrate that time management is a significant self-regulatory process through which students actively manage when and for how long they engage in the activities deemed necessary for reaching their academic goals.

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Wolters, C.A., Brady, A.C. College Students’ Time Management: a Self-Regulated Learning Perspective. Educ Psychol Rev 33 , 1319–1351 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09519-z

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Researchers function in a complex environment and carry multiple role responsibilities. This environment is prone to various distractions that can derail productivity and decrease efficiency. Effective time management allows researchers to maintain focus on their work, contributing to research productivity. Thus, improving time management skills is essential to developing and sustaining a successful program of research. This article presents time management strategies addressing behaviors surrounding time assessment, planning, and monitoring. Herein, the Western Journal of Nursing Research editorial board recommends strategies to enhance time management, including setting realistic goals, prioritizing, and optimizing planning. Involving a team, problem-solving barriers, and early management of potential distractions can facilitate maintaining focus on a research program. Continually evaluating the effectiveness of time management strategies allows researchers to identify areas of improvement and recognize progress.

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• Nursing Research Medicine & Life Sciences 19%

T1 - Time Management Strategies for Research Productivity

AU - Chase, Jo Ana D.

AU - Topp, Robert

AU - Smith, Carol E.

AU - Cohen, Marlene Z.

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N2 - Researchers function in a complex environment and carry multiple role responsibilities. This environment is prone to various distractions that can derail productivity and decrease efficiency. Effective time management allows researchers to maintain focus on their work, contributing to research productivity. Thus, improving time management skills is essential to developing and sustaining a successful program of research. This article presents time management strategies addressing behaviors surrounding time assessment, planning, and monitoring. Herein, the Western Journal of Nursing Research editorial board recommends strategies to enhance time management, including setting realistic goals, prioritizing, and optimizing planning. Involving a team, problem-solving barriers, and early management of potential distractions can facilitate maintaining focus on a research program. Continually evaluating the effectiveness of time management strategies allows researchers to identify areas of improvement and recognize progress.

AB - Researchers function in a complex environment and carry multiple role responsibilities. This environment is prone to various distractions that can derail productivity and decrease efficiency. Effective time management allows researchers to maintain focus on their work, contributing to research productivity. Thus, improving time management skills is essential to developing and sustaining a successful program of research. This article presents time management strategies addressing behaviors surrounding time assessment, planning, and monitoring. Herein, the Western Journal of Nursing Research editorial board recommends strategies to enhance time management, including setting realistic goals, prioritizing, and optimizing planning. Involving a team, problem-solving barriers, and early management of potential distractions can facilitate maintaining focus on a research program. Continually evaluating the effectiveness of time management strategies allows researchers to identify areas of improvement and recognize progress.

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109 Time Management Topics & Essay Examples

Learn about the effects of poor time management, timetables, and organizational skill! Explore this list of 106 topics about time , compiled by our experts .

⌚ How to Write a Time Management Essay: Do’s and Don’ts

🏆 best research titles about time management, 📌 most interesting time management topics to write about, 👍 good research topics about time: management & organization, ❓ time management essay questions.

When writing a Time Management Essay, it may be easy to revert to merely enumerating and explaining how to achieve perfection through various approaches. While this is an essential part of such essays, you should not forget about other aspects of it. Here are some examples of what you should do in your paper:

• Explain the intent of your essay. Are you teaching stress management tactics to save people the time they spend worrying or discipline? Your readers should be aware of your subject.
• When mentioning a tactic, explain its purpose. People will be more intent to listen to you when they understand the intent behind the ideas that you are presenting. Compare these statements: “Keeping a bullet journal helps manage time better” and “A bullet journal’s purpose is helping people get subconsciously ready for today’s tasks.” Which one attempts to clarify the process?
• Describe the mechanisms behind the outlined techniques. Doing so helps people adjust any goal-setting process to their own needs rather than blindly following it.
• Use credible sources to back up your claims. For example, when writing about mind mapping, you can reference some of the studies conducted on this method.
• If you can, give precedents of the successful implementation of the idea that you are describing. Mention people or even companies that have benefited from applying these methods to their daily working process.

All this advice should be used together with standard essay-writing rules. Outlining and brainstorming may save you, the writer, time that you would have spent on rewriting faulty paragraphs. You should do your research beforehand and structure your work so that the topics within it do not overlap.

Additionally, reference credible book and journal titles since your audience will believe factual, source-supported evidence more willingly.

Finally, when it comes to thinking about time management essay titles, choose one that is reflective of your subject and approach it. Each structural choice should help you further your thesis statement, linking to it and helping your readers follow your train of thought.

There are other things you should avoid doing when covering your topic. All of them center on the idea that time management essay topics should be respectful of the reader. Do not:

• Write about your audience as if they are incompetent. Advice that seems condescending place is often unappreciated and neglected.
• Name-drop inventors and techniques with no explanation. Doing so will only confuse your readers needlessly and make you seem unaware of your subject yourself.
• Plagiarize from anywhere, including time management essay samples. Gaining inspiration is one thing, while purposefully copying and not referencing stolen content is an academic crime.
• Leave your paragraphs inconclusive. Apart from academically referenced facts, you should also voice your own resolutions that your used sources support.
• Promise your readers a solution to all of their problems. You are merely demonstrating sample means to better anyone’s time-management. Using these methods is an entirely different thing.

Other evident don’ts are those that your instructor should outline. Do not ignore the rules of essay writing that have been stated to you explicitly, such as the maximum word count. Your essay’s structure is reflective of your discipline and time-management.

Therefore, a careless outline or a disregard for the rules demonstrates that your work has had no positive effect on you and may have the same outcome on your readers.

Want to know more paper samples? Find more at IvyPanda!

• Time Management Theories and Models Report In using the time management grid, I developed a grid and filled it with the tasks that I was supposed to accomplish.
• Time Management and Its Effect in Reducing Stress among Students One of the causes of stress among high school students and college students is the difficulty in interacting with a completely new set of students and an even larger social group within the body of […]
• Reflection on Time Management Skills While there is enough time available to improve my planning skills, I still have a long way to go to master the art of time-management.
• The Importance of Time Management Time is one of the most important resources within the operations and execution of tasks and or activities of organizations and individuals.
• Time Management at the Workplace Traditionally, time management is associated with one’s ability to accomplish more assignment and duties within a certain period of time, but often the first task for a time manages is to eliminate some of the […]
• Tools of Time Management for Students Students can write down all of the projects they need to complete and the deadlines for those. It is also crucial for individuals to study at what time of the day they can be the […]
• Procrastination and Time Management In case the available time is not properly allocated to all activities to be achieved within a given period, then the available time will not be allocated to the correct event.
• Time and Stress Management for Better Productivity Procrastination is the forwarding of events that have to be done at a specific time to another time in the future.
• Poor Time Management and Addressing Strategies I knew that I should not do it but the first time I broke the rule I did it unconsciously. In fact, because of these phone checks, I paid more attention to the phone rather […]
• Time Management of a Nurse Graduate This essay discusses why time management is a critical skill for a nurse graduate and what strategies can be employed to alleviate the impact of transition from a student to a healthcare worker.
• Time Management: Getting Things Done At any time, the individual knows the task to complete and the manner in which it is to be completed. The GTD system can easily lead to a disconnect between the tasks to be completed, […]
• Quality and Time Management Improvement Techniques Because of the lack of consistency in the types of information retrieved, the firm needs to adopt the approach that allows for arranging the existing data within the shortest amount of time.
• School Principal: Successful Time Management As the key administrator of the school, the principal is expected to set the tone for a society of learners-teachers who unreservedly exchange information, thoughts and ideas.
• Time Management in Tertiary Studies The essay endeavours to examine the importance of time management and the role of lectures in relation to tertiary studies. To start with, the essay will explore the importance of time management in the lives […]
• “Just in Time” – Philosophy of Management All the benefits of this system tend to be woven in the quality, efficiency and effectiveness of the processes that are involved.
• Time Management for Nurses It is important for healthcare professionals to find time for patients because of identifying their needs and to know what can be done to improve the situation.
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• Budget Plan: Time Management Aspects The application will not be able to diagnose this, but it will be able to warn the patient and recommend possibly going to the doctor.
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• Reconstructing for Handicapped Students: Project Time Management Originally, the reconstruction process requires the adaptation of various facilities for increasing the comfort of using them for the students with disabilities, nevertheless, the reconstruction process itself requires detailed preparation and creation of the required […]
• Concise Time Management and Personal Development Suppose that creativity can be encouraged by exploring some of the qualities and characteristics of creative thinkers and the activities/steps that can be undertaken to improve the processes involved.
• Time Management: How Developing Professional Knowledge and Abilities Impact Career Success First, it is important to assess the entire time available and then it is needed to assort the time in accordance to the need. As a result, it is important to formulate the right balance […]
• Time Management Theory and Study Skills It is during this time that a right balance between work and leisure would be the decisive factor in shaping ones future course of life.
• Researching Time Management Aspects Time management refers to the process of planning how to divide the time you have between the activities you need to perform as well as to the idea of controlling how the schedule is followed.
• Time Management Skills and Techniques Because of the lack of experience in the arrangement of activities, the experience of managing time is likely to be rather deplorable.
• Time Management Issues Among Managers The authors concluded that managers should get control over the time and content of their roles to ensure the management of their time effectively.
• Why the Poor Stewardship of Time? When asked by my teacher why I was a notorious timekeeper I used to answerer, “my home is the furthest and I could not make it early as my colleagues”.
• Time Management: How to Beat Your Procrastination? In order to manage time effectively the following solutions can be applied: The most popular solution is to make a schedule to keep track of important facts and ideas that can be of any use […]
• The Just-in-Time Management Concept The concept of Just-in-Time is a comparatively recent addition to the array of manufacturing strategies that are supposed to help reduce the waste levels in the organization, at the same time improving the product quality […]
• Students’ Time Management Strategies Students should keep track of the time they have to meet their responsibilities. The third strategy involves keeping reminders to keep students focused on their assignments and their deadlines.
• Time Management and Building Team The strength of the article is that it takes more time in explaining what a team is and what many think a team to be.
• Time Management: Lesson Pacing To begin with lesson pacing can be described as a given rate or speed at which a teacher tends to present a task to pupils in a class.
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• v.26(4); 2013 Dec

Effective Time Management: Surgery, Research, Service, Travel, Fitness, and Family

C. rees porta.

1 Department of Surgery, Madigan Army Medical Center, Fort Lewis, Washington

Michael R. Anderson

2 Department of Otolaryngology, Fort Healthcare, Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin

Scott R. Steele

Over 1,500 years ago, the St. Benedictine Monks used planning and strict schedules to increase their productivity. Since then, surgeons have developed several different strategies to manage our time effectively. Finding a balance among career, family, and hobbies is essential for maintaining satisfaction and optimizing productivity. Several recurring themes throughout the medical literature offer potential solutions to help maximize the little time surgeons possess. In this article, we will explore some of the methods and strategies available to help surgeons minimize waste and make the most of the most precious commodity we have—our time.

Objectives: On completion of this article, the reader should be able to summarize the history of time management, the recurring themes in medical literature, and how to apply these concepts to achieve their career goals.

“Lost time is never found again, and what we call time-enough, always proves little enough” ——Benjamin Franklin 1758

The History of Time Management

Few resources are as precious and limited as time. Today's world operates at a lightning fast pace where every second counts. To make each moment worthwhile, it has become critical that we develop effective time management strategies. Historically, as our demand for efficiency and productivity have increased, so too have our attempts at controlling our schedules and managing our time.

Be assured, time management is not a new concept. In fact, the history of time management actually predates “time” itself. Before mankind had invented the calendar, sundial, or clock, we had a primitive understanding of seasons, sunsets, and sunrises, and understood how important optimal timing was with regards to successful farming, hunting, and migration. 1 The first peoples to use daily schedules and strict planning were probably the St. Benedictine Monks in the sixth century AD. 2 Their discipline allowed them to accomplish more in 1 day than anyone thought possible. Due in large part to their unique obedience and planning, they were able to flourish as authors, healers, scholars, and religious leaders.

Similarly, 500 years ago Leonardo Da Vinci, the “Renaissance Man,” accomplished more in the realms of art, science, and literature than anyone could have imagined. Despite his innumerous monumental achievements, he constantly felt plagued by inefficiency and wasted time. In addition to attempting radically new sleep/wake cycles, he also undertook several different methods to increase personal productivity. 3 Da Vinci would sleep for very short periods of time (less than 30 minutes) several times a day. This method, known as polyphasic sleeping, allowed him to spend only 2 to 4 hours sleeping each day. 4 In addition, he even practiced taking notes with one hand while drawing with the other. 5

However, it was not until the industrial revolution of the 18th century that the philosophy of time management grew exponentially. This large shift toward an emphasis on efficiency is thanks largely in part to contributions from innovators such as Adam Smith and Eli Whitney. 6 7 In 1776, Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations and brought to light novel concepts such as the division of labor and defined productivity as the production of either goods or services. 8 Today, this still stands as a fundamental work in economics and nation building. Eli Whitney capitalized on these fundamentals and together with interchangeable parts (a boldly new concept at the time) was able to produce cotton and firearms at record-breaking rates. 9 At the turn of the 18th century, national productivity was at an all-time high. Instituting assembly lines and the concept of shift work allowed goods to be manufactured at an unprecedented rate.”

Benjamin Franklin, widely considered as the father of modern time management, put it all together and developed many of the common time management strategies we still utilize today. His essay entitled “The Way to Wealth” is a collection of adages and suggestions that were published in the Poor Richards Almanac from 1732 to 1758. 10 His philosophy put an emphasis on being efficient, planning, and working hard to get the job done. “Time is money,” “Don't leave 'till tomorrow what you can do today,” and “Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise” are just a few well-known quotations illustrating his values. 11

As the world continued to progress, time management and efficiency became increasingly important. In 1959, James McCay published the first book strictly dedicated to the art of time management, and since then there have been thousands of publications on the subject. 12 An Amazon.com search reveals over 100,000 hits. The World English dictionary has over 60 phrases related to “time.” David Allen, author of “Getting Things Done,” created his own company that specializes in time management, resourcefulness, and personal productivity. With proven success and widespread high demand, his company is now an international, multimillion dollar corporation. 13

Given the exponential increases in innovation in a global economy, set in the era of “24/7” social media, there is an ever-increasing demand for efficient productivity. Industry requires up-to-the-second information and accountability. In fact, several authors hint at time becoming the currency for the new millennia (a concept exemplified in the 2011 movie “In Time” starring Justin Timberlake). 3 14 Despite the logical importance of efficiency within business, the health-care industry still lags woefully behind. With the various time demands, doctors are often disorganized, hospitals become inefficient, and national health care winds up increasingly wasteful. Teaching time management and efficiency skills is rarely seen in today's medical school, residency curriculum, or clinical practice, and is largely left to be learned through trial-and-error method or not at all. In addition, there are ever-changing requirements for increased documentation, electronic medical records, billing, coding, etc. Together these can combine to create immense physician frustration, inefficiency, and burnout rates in surgeons that approach 50%. 15

The ultimate goal is to develop a schedule that meets the needs and desires of the individual physician. This agenda may be vastly different from one surgeon to the next, and may even evolve significantly throughout one's career. In general, surgeons live chaotic lives. Our professional lives are filled with clinical duties, greater administrative responsibilities, increasingly less time in the operating room, and even less time spent at home. For academic surgeons, research and training residents/fellows is an additional task. For those who chose a community-based practice, managing a business and devoting time to the local community are commonplace. Military physicians have service obligations to their troops and their command. Already, the time allotted to family, pets, travel, leisure, exercise, etc. can be very limited or even nonexistent. Although the daily goal often starts out to “Dominate!” the road is frequently paved with obstacles. Therefore, it is particularly important that we develop excellent time management strategies as early in our career as possible to maximize efficiency in all areas of our lives.

What Does the Literature Say on Time Management?

Despite an overwhelming amount of literature on corporate level time management strategies and policies to improve efficiency in industry, there is very little published regarding physicians–and lesser still specific to surgeons. The diminutive amount of medical literature that does exist originates almost exclusively from primary care physicians in the outpatient setting. With a wide variety of practices, preferences, and personalities, it is easy to imagine the breadth of proposed solutions. Rather than regurgitating the entire spectrum, we will focus on the recurring themes that are the backbone of numerous publications. It is important to note that we understand many readers will find some aspects of these time management strategies to be extremely helpful and others ineffective. Furthermore, some are so obvious and straightforward that it may appear almost condescending. However, as the author Richard Bach said, “The simplest things are often the truest.” Ultimately, the most important goal is finding which method(s) work well for you and then implementing them.

Our time is incredibly valuable to our patients, our families, and ourselves. It is important not to spend too much time on the unimportant. Parkinson law states that it is human nature to spend inappropriate time and energy on insignificant tasks that are perceived as important, rather than those of true importance. 16 Pareto's Principle, also known as the “80/20 rule” or the “law of the vital few,” states that 80% of our results come from 20% of our time/energy. This does not mean we have to settle for 80% or “B-” outcomes, rather it emphasizes that generally 8% of our goals are completed easily, whereas inordinate amounts of energy can be required for the remaining 20%. The solution to these dilemmas is to prioritize your goals. 17 This can be done with daily tasks as well as career goals such as 1-year, 5-year, and 10-year plans. Yet, before you can start to manage your goals in life, you must first define and prioritize them.

Manageable, Realistic To-Do Lists

One of the most recurring themes in the literature is the emphasis on creating lists and ranking them in priority order. 3 18 19 20 21 As an analogy in the personal finance arena, you cannot create an effective budget without first identifying where and how you spend your money. Most authors recommend ranking items by priority and urgency. This has the dual benefit of creating a concrete list to help us stay on track as well as helping to guide which tasks get completed first. In general, there are four categories: (1) urgent and important , (2) nonurgent and important , (3) urgent and not important , and (4) nonurgent and not important . Clearly items in number 1 need to be dealt with now, number 4 issues can be delayed, and numbers 2 and 3 can be dealt with as soon as there are no more urgent/important issues.

This concept can be applied to daily activities (talk with the clinic nurse, edit a manuscript, and daily ward rounds) as well as more global aspects of our lives (research, family, church, etc.). Naturally, these lists will be dynamic and items are expected to shift into and out of categories as circumstances change. Factors such as the meaning of the task to others (i.e., your supervisor), or the degree to which you are asked to do new projects commonly cause these fluxes in significance. What is important is that the physician makes a list, works to complete the tasks, and continually updates and reassesses the list so that it accurately reflects his/her goals for the day or for their career.

It is likely more essential that the list is manageable and reflects what is practical and pragmatic. Tasks should be classified objectively and planning should be realistic. The list does more harm than good if it is unrealistic, unruly, or inaccurate. At a minimum, there should be two mandatory time slots. The first should be private time for you. 3 What is done during this time period or its duration is not as important. It is up to you—do what you enjoy and make sure it is long enough so that you feel rejuvenated and fulfilled. The second mandatory slot is for unforeseen delay. Unfortunately, delays are a guaranteed part of life and every day seems to bring a new interruption. If you allow a small “fudge factor” you will be more consistently on track, or at least more able to catch up. 22

Saying “No” and Delegating

As physicians we are leaders. As surgeons, most of us feel that the way to ensure a job is done right is to do it ourselves. Although this may be accurate, it is impossible to give all things our undivided attention. We must learn to delegate responsibility and limit our commitments by occasionally saying “no.” Saying no to a colleague, boss, or loved one can be extremely difficult at times. However, this can be an extremely important step toward protecting the limited time we have. Several authors have illustrated that learning professional and considerate methods to decline new responsibilities can significantly improve job fatigue and feelings of being overwhelmed. 3 21 Some providers have such difficulty saying “no” that they overcommit, overextend, and frequently find themselves exhausted and overwhelmed. This is an extremely common difficulty in every profession and there are entire books, Web sites, videos, conferences, and manuscripts committed to the subject. Some articles even offer physicians very specific methods to say “no.” 23

It goes without saying that you also have to be cognizant of the offers that you decline, especially early in your career. Opportunities may arise, that while they may stretch you, are too good to pass up and not likely to come your way again. Similarly, while refusing once may be understandable (especially with a courteous explanation to those propositioning your help), several “no's” are likely to find you without future tenders. Depending on your workload, future goals, and person requesting, you may want to take this into consideration. In contrast, overextending yourself, not following through, having significant delays in completion, and turning in shoddy work is not acceptable either. In these cases, it is often better to have declined initially.

The concept of protecting our health, sleep, and schedules should not be overlooked. During present day residency, time is somewhat guarded by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education and the “80-hour work week.” For those who trained before 2003, or when recent graduates transition to practice, there are no regulations to safeguard your time. It falls completely up to the individual provider who, unfortunately, frequently neglects his/her own well-being for the sake of their career, patients, income, etc. While starting on time has more of an implication on daily schedules, saying “no” and delegating responsibility is more pertinent on the larger scale. This may require teaching office staff or junior partners skills that previously have been handled alone. Physicians that are frustrated with the lack of time spent in one arena, or the redundant time spent in another, may need to reconsider their commitments. It is no mistake that protecting our time, saying “no,” and delegating responsibility is one of the more frequently cited solutions to burnout and fatigue. 3 19 21 24

Start On Time and Do not Procrastinate

In 2010, Dr. Stillwagon published the “ten time commandments” to help physicians effectively manage their time and complete tasks. Not surprisingly, the number one commandment was to start on time. Falling behind early in the day is frequently cited as a major aspect in faulty time management that can have compounding detrimental effects on productivity and physician satisfaction. 19 20 22 24 Although punctuality does not have direct implications on the “big picture” items such as balancing the time between work and family, starting on time is the most simple and doable task to maintain daily productivity, optimize efficiency, and minimize frustration.

Dr. Lowes wrote a cover story for Medical Economics in 2007 that exposed the prevalence of procrastination among doctors. 25 Here, he clarified the common causes for this behavior and boldly explained how to suffocate this bad habit with the utmost urgency. Frequently, procrastination was a conscience decisions made by the physician because of lack of interest or understanding. If we are confused or uninterested in something, we are more likely to put it off. In addition, procrastination is usually found outside the realm of patient care and is more prevalent in administrative, economic, or managerial aspects. Regardless, the solution is simple: Stop, now! If it is a task that will take less than 2 minutes to complete, do it right away. If not, put it on your more urgent to-do list and get it done soon. 25 If it is something that confuses you, either get more information or delegate it to someone with better understanding. The bottom line is we need to be more disciplined and force ourselves to get the job done or assign it to someone who can.

Multitasking

The concept of multitasking can be a little controversial. The true definition of human multitasking is focusing on more than one significant task simultaneously. This method can actually have the opposite effect in many physicians and cause disorganization and inefficiency. 26 Realistically, only approximately 10% (or less) of us can truly “multi-task,” regardless of what we believe. 3 Today's vernacular usually implies that we are working on more than one project and commonly refers to the art of starting a new assignment before the completion of the previous. The bottom line seems to be that (1) true multitasking is rare, (2) trying to balance several tasks simultaneously can have deleterious consequences, and (3) know what works best for you.

Some of us thrive on the high-speed transition between tasks and juggling as many things at once, while others become gridlocked at the thought of moving on until the first task is completed with a level of attention needed to ensure accuracy. Recently, authors have discovered that younger people seem to be better at multitasking, even apart from texting while doing anything else. 27 Whether this is a generational phenomenon or purely a reflection of the aging brain is unclear. Is it because younger physicians are products of the electronic age or is this difference purely because of reduced neurophysiologic conduction? Facebook, Twitter, Wikipedia, 4G, and so on allow us to process information and interact at lightning speeds. Teenagers can read their email, check the football score, and blog about the presidential election with one hand during a commercial break. A meta-analyses review comparing college-aged students to the elderly showed that our ability to “dual-task” tends to drop with age. Elderly participants seemed to have more difficulty maintaining concentration in more than one global arena (i.e., “task switching”) suggesting that multitasking becomes more difficult with age. 27 Truthfully, learning and multitasking are complex skills that are influenced by several different factors. Hopefully, further discovery will lead to better understanding and increased efficiency for each individual.

Final Thoughts

You may now be asking, “Okay, so where do we go from here?” The difficulty with this subject is not in understanding complex concepts, but rather in applying the material to everyday life. Time management for surgeons can be broken down into two major phases: the daily schedule and our overall career goals.

Thankfully, being efficient on a daily basis can have profound implications on your overall productivity and satisfaction, even beyond 1 day. Prioritize your daily goals and create a list. Start on time and work your way through a “to-do” list. Do not procrastinate; it is all too easy to get sidetracked or to put things off. We must stay disciplined and maintain our focus. Do not be too rigid, however, as physicians must remain flexible and expect some unanticipated delays. That is just a part of our profession and our lives. Look at the fluidity and uncertainty of medicine as a blessing and not a curse.

When it comes to your overall goals like your career, travel, leisure, and family, the same concepts apply. Prioritize your goals—whether they may be to take your children to school once a week, climb a mountain, or visit a country. Our goals must be realistic and manageable. This is why prioritizing them is so important. How important is publishing? Do you want administrative responsibilities? Have you always wanted to coach little league? The first step is making sure you have optimized your daily schedules and efficiency. However, the unfortunate truth is that there is still only so much time in a day. Although becoming chief of surgery, President of the American College of Surgeons, research guru, operative wizard, and board member of the local Parent Teacher Association would all be remarkable achievements; this may simply not reasonable, or likely.

Surgeons must limit their obligations and protect their time. The best way to do this is by learning effective and professional strategies to say “no.” Yet, decline the “right” things, not necessarily those that will ultimately truly help you achieve your most important goals. Think of each offer or new responsibility as a compliment and blessing rather than a hassle. Never commit to anything instantly, but think it through. Take some time to assess how this new “job” will fit with your goals. If it is seems to be something desirable, where is it going to fit into your priority list? Chances are, time will have to be taken from one of your existing responsibilities or hobbies to make time for the new assignment. Is this acceptable? Does writing a chapter on “ Time Management ” help you manage your time? Maybe for some, not for others.

There is no set template for the right amount of time spent in the operating room, research laboratory, gym, or clinic. Do not underestimate the value of staying healthy, exercising, and getting sleep. A total of 20 to 30 minutes of exercise in the morning before showering (which you likely do every day anyway) may pay invaluable rewards toward your health, self-esteem, and likely overall energy level. Continually, reassess you current condition and compare it with your ideal situation. Adopt changes, and make the adjustments needed to merge the two into one. As you transition through your career, your ambitions, goals, and attitudes will change. If you find yourself no longer pleased with the status quo, change it.

If you are having difficulties, ask the advice of a respected colleague or mentor. Chances are that they can give excellent insight from an outsider's perspective and offer unbiased guidance. It was surprising that noticeably absent from the recurring themes in literature was simply reaching out and asking for advice. It retrospect, it seems logical because most physicians embrace the “get the job done yourself” mentality. However, seeking the counsel of someone who has likely “been there and done that” can be innumerably beneficial.

The bottom line is that you need to find what works for you. Use bits and pieces from each of the above suggestions to create your own individualized plan. Each of our solutions will all be a little different. Once you have a developed a successful method, stick with it, be disciplined, and give 100% to what you are doing at that time. At the same time, plan in advance to reassess along the way and find out how you can improve, and what needs attention. If you find yourself worrying about the office when you are at home, you need to assign more time and energy into completing the essential tasks at the office before you come home, so that you can be 100% present for your family. Likewise, if at work you are distracted by the guilt of missing your child's soccer game, you need to leverage in more time with your family. Be resilient. Both your day and career can seem completely out of your control at times. Stay positive. A small-calculated adjustment today can result in profound change for the future. One of the joys of medicine is the endless options it offers, its constant challenges, and its consistent changing. Use this flux to your advantage. Explore new aspects of surgery and design your career to involve features that energize and excite you. Although “Dominating the Day!” is a mantra to some, 5 minutes of peace and quiet is priceless to others. Simply put, time is the most valuable commodity we have. It must be fought for, defended, and protected with the utmost priority.

Time stays long enough for anyone who will use It.

—Leonardo Da Vinci

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The importance of effective time management in research: Strategies for improving productivity

Research is a crucial aspect of academic and professional life, but it can be challenging to balance research responsibilities with other commitments. Effective time management is essential for researchers to be productive and achieve their goals without sacrificing their personal lives. In this article, we will explore the importance of time management in research and provide strategies for improving productivity.

Importance of Time Management in Research:

Effective time management is critical in research for several reasons. First, research requires a significant amount of time, and effective time management ensures that this time is used efficiently. Poor time management can result in missed deadlines, incomplete projects, and wasted resources. Second, time management can help researchers achieve a healthy work-life balance, which is essential for maintaining well-being and avoiding burnout. Third, time management can improve research outcomes by allowing researchers to focus on their work without distractions.

Strategies for Improving Productivity:

Here are some strategies for improving productivity through effective time management:

Plan Ahead: Effective time management begins with planning. Researchers should create a research plan that includes their goals, deadlines, and milestones. Planning helps researchers stay organized and avoid last-minute rushes.

Prioritize Tasks: Not all tasks in research are equally important. Researchers should prioritize tasks based on their importance and urgency. Tasks that are urgent and important should be given priority over tasks that are less critical.

Use Time-Blocking: Time-blocking is a technique that involves scheduling specific blocks of time for different tasks. Researchers can allocate time for specific activities, such as writing, data analysis, or meetings. Time-blocking can help researchers stay focused and avoid distractions.

Take Breaks: Taking breaks is essential for maintaining productivity. Researchers should take regular breaks to rest their minds and recharge their energy. Short breaks can help researchers stay refreshed and focused.

Avoid Multitasking: Multitasking can reduce productivity and increase stress. Researchers should focus on one task at a time and avoid distractions. Switching between tasks can reduce efficiency and increase the risk of errors.

Use Productivity Tools: There are several productivity tools available that can help researchers manage their time more effectively. Tools such as calendar apps, to-do lists, and project management software can help researchers stay organized and on track.

Delegate Tasks: Delegating tasks can help researchers save time and reduce their workload. Researchers can delegate tasks to research assistants or collaborators to free up their time for more critical activities.

Effective time management is critical for researchers to achieve their goals and maintain a healthy work-life balance. By planning ahead, prioritizing tasks, using time-blocking, taking breaks, avoiding multitasking, using productivity tools, and delegating tasks, researchers can improve their productivity and achieve their research objectives. Adopting these strategies can help researchers achieve their full potential and succeed in their research endeavors.

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103 Time Management Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on time management, 🎓 interesting time management essay topics, 📌 easy time management essay topics, 👍 good time management research topics & essay examples, ❓ research questions about time management.

• Study Skills and Time Management in Education
• The Role of Time Management in Leadership
• Time Management and Work-Life Balance
• Time Management: Being Late and Its Impact on a Team
• Short Attention Span as a Time Management Issue
• Study Skill of Time Management
• Effective Time Management Analysis
• Good Time Management and Delegation Skills The management skills of good time management and delegation. These two skills of management are very much closely related and even to a particular extend they move together.
• Time Management for Adult Students The paper includes the problem of time management, various programs which constitute management problems and short and long-term achievements of time management.
• Work-Life Balance and Time Management The central question of the research relates to why people cannot competently calculate their time to pay equal attention to work responsibilities and personal life.
• Time Management for Nursing Leaders to Consider There’re a number of management functions in the sphere of nursing, important is the possibility to plan an appropriate work schedule, to eliminate the barriers of different types.
• Stress and Time Management The data is supported by Svedberg’s current information that highlights that an individual can lower the level of anxiety when there is a possibility of sound sleep.
• Time Management or Self-Management Time management is about developing a day-to-day system of dividing time between the things you have to do and those you want to do.
• Time Management Days Plan This paper reviews the concept of strategic time management, presents the reader with current approaches to strategic time management.
• The Just-in-Time Management System Installation The main aim of installing the JIT system in the company is to improve efficiency in data handling. It is expected to reduce the time taken by the company to process data from customers.
• Project Scheduling and Time Management The paper explores the project management and key factors of project failure. It assesses the importance of the evaluation of the customers’ needs to make a project successful.
• The Importance of Time Management among Students and Employees in Bahrain Financial Sector This research is aimed to study the opinions and attitudes towards time management among the students in Bahrain University and the country’s financial sector.
• Time Management Skills in Leadership While leadership’s goal is to push forward and develop, management tends to find faults in the present state of a system and fix them.
• Time Management: Mobile Application The problem of time management among college students is significant since it impacts their academic performance, grades, and mental health well-being.
• The Business Proposal: Mobile App to Improve Time Management n this case, a mobile application that controls its user’s time management can successfully combat the current issue of poor time management.
• Importance of Time Management for a Personal Life There is no arguing with the fact that managing one’s time is one of the most important things for a student to consider.
• Multitasking as a Personal Time Management Issue I had an impression I was more effective attempting several tasks at the same time. To overcome my multitasking, I focus on just one activity up until I am fully done with it.
• Time Management for Students in Bahrain’s Banking This research is aimed to study the opinions and attitudes towards time management among the students at Bahrain University and the country’s financial sector.
• Time Management in Relation to Work Values Across Managerial Levels in a Public Sector
• Impact of Time Management on the Students’ Academic Performance
• Beyond Time Management: Time Use, Performance, and Well-Being
• Productivity and Time Management for the Overwhelmed
• The Relationship Between Time Management Behavior and Time Perspective
• Why Time Management Is Essential for Goal Setting
• An Overview of Time Management as an Effective Tool in Organizational Management
• Software Solutions for Time Management in Remote Work Settings
• The Key Time Management Skills and How to Improve Them
• How Effective Time Management Can Reduce Job-Induced Stress
• Managing Time With Technology: Types & Tools
• Time Management: A Guide for Teachers and Education Staff
• Gender-Based Comparative Study of Time Management Skills at the University Level
• Why College Students Should Practice Time Management Skills
• Time Management in Sports: How Elite Athletes Manage Time Under Fatigue and Stress Conditions
• Free Time Management in Contributing to Better Quality of Life
• Applying Skills and Principles of Time Management in a Hospitality Organization
• Time Management as a Way to Increase Employee Work Efficiency
• Importance of Time Management for Distance Learning Students
• Promoting Time Management & Self-Efficacy Through Digital Competence
• A Review of Time Management Behaviors Among Nurse Managers
• How Time Management Fuels Motivation and Vice Versa
• Overcoming Procrastination and Improving Time Management
• What Makes Women Better at Time Management and Multitasking
• Assessing Time Management Skills in Terms of Age and Gender
• Time Management at Work: How Efficient Are You?
• The Main Skills Required for Effective Time Management to Achieve Organizational and Personal Objectives
• How to Manage Your Time and Improve Punctuality
• Dynamic Self-Regulation as an Effective Time Management Strategy
• Guide to Creating SMART Goals for Time Management
• Time Management Behavior Among Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic
• Prioritizing Your Tasks for Better Time Management
• Time and Time Management From a Cross-Cultural Perspective
• The Relation of Religion and Spirituality to Time Management
• Time Management Games as an Excellent Tool for Improving Concentration and Critical Thinking
• Military Time Management Technique: The CARVER System
• The Future of Work: AI in Changing the Time Management Game for Executives
• Time Management Skills and How They Benefit Your Mental Health
• Why Some People Struggle With Time Management
• The Importance of Time Management for the Success of Teenagers in Education
• Time Management: Boost Productivity and Get Things Done
• Evaluating Time Management Strategies for People With Disabilities
• A Job in High School: How to Balance Your Time
• Technology for Time Management Has Made It Easy
• A Review of Time Management to Ensure Creative and Purposeful Learning
• Project Time Management: Getting Projects Done on Time
• The Nexus Between Time Management Behaviors and Work-Life Balance of Employees
• Effective Time Management for Better Customer Experience
• Best Work Productivity Apps: Choosing the Right Time Management Software
• Time Management: Balancing Social Life and Academics
• How to Set Priorities for Effective Time Management?
• What Are Time Management Strategies?
• What Effective Time Management Tools Should Managers Use?
• What Is the Relationship Between Time Management and Goal Setting?
• What Are Effective Time Management Practices?
• Is Time Management a Strategy for Coping With Overload?
• Can Poor Time Management Cause Stress?
• Does Making a List Help With Time Management?
• What Time Management Techniques Help Students?
• Does Time Management Make a Person Punctual and Disciplined?
• Why Does a Person Become More Organized Thanks to Time Management?
• Should Children Learn Time Management?
• Why Effective Time Management Makes a Person Confident?
• What Are the Time Management Problems?
• Does Time Management Help You Accomplish Your Goals in the Shortest Possible Time Span?
• Can Time Management Reduce Anxiety?
• Does the Time Management Plan Include Time for Entertainment?
• How Do Realistic and Achievable Goals Contribute to Successful Time Management?
• Why Does Time Management Contribute to the Absence of Overloads?
• Why Is Discipline Important for Time Management?
• What Is the Role of the Organizer in Time Management?
• What Are the Benefits of Time Management?
• What Are the Most Effective Time Management Tips?
• Is It Possible to Learn Effective Time Management?
• Does the Order in the Office Contribute to the Successful Time Management of the Employee?
• Why Do Some People Struggle With Time Management?
• Do Older People and Young People Manage Time Equally?
• What Is the Solution for Time Management in a Remote Work Setting?
• How to Improve Your Time Management Skills?
• What Are the Time Management Strategies for People With Disabilities?

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StudyCorgi. (2023, May 18). 103 Time Management Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/time-management-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "103 Time Management Essay Topics." May 18, 2023. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/time-management-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2023. "103 Time Management Essay Topics." May 18, 2023. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/time-management-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Time Management were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on December 27, 2023 .