psychoanalytic approach to personality essay

The Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality Report (Assessment)

Introduction, the psychoanalytic approach, the stages of freud’s theory, freudian defense mechanisms, reference list.

Personality is hard to define; it is an attempt by man to summarize an individual. It means describing and understanding other people. More than five different perspectives are employed in the study of personality and include the trait, learning, psychoanalytic and biological perspectives (Carver & Scheier, 2000).

This paper aims at highlighting the major characteristics, similarities and differences between the psychoanalysis theories of Freud, Jung and Adler. It will lay a particular emphasis on the stages of Sigmund Freud’s theory, major Freudian defense mechanisms and their application to real life scenarios.

This was an approach to the study of personality developed by Sigmund Freud in late 19th century proposing that the human mental activities depended on his unconscious mind. Freud was a neurologist at a hospital in Italy where he dealt with psychiatric patients.

Over the course of his career, Freud was faced with a major challenge, he realized that most of his patient’s nervous symptoms lacked a physiological explanation and that neither science nor rational laws could explain phobias and other physical complains. Faced with these problems, Freud developed his now famous theory on personality and child development that helped him in solving neurotic disorders.

Major aspects of the Freud’s theory are: 1) the unconscious mind contains hidden memories and is in most of the times responsible for our actions and manners, 2) That we are born with certain instincts that govern our behavior, 3) what we experience at childhood influences our development of emotions and personality, and 4) Id, ego and superego are three vital biological elements that represent our inherited instinctual drives.

Jungian theory (Jung’s analytic psychology) divides the human mind into three:-

• The ego (conscious mind)
• Personal (unconscious) ego- things forgotten but can be remembered,
• Collective unconscious (e.g. immediate love). This is the part of the mind that differentiates his theory of analytic psychology from Freud’s psychoanalytic approach. This part of the mind according to Carl Jung’s theory is the inherited psyche (Boeree 2006). It keeps an individual’s experiences but he/she is not aware, it influences ones emotions.

His collective unconscious mind is believed to be deeper and made of emotional symbols he called archetypes. Jung postulated that these symbols are universal and are found in all of us. They are passed down generations through repeating events. These archetypes make individuals respond similarly to common stimuli (Friedman & Schustack, 2009). Unlike Freud’s theory, Jung’s theory was not focused on sex, was more on history and leant on spiritual.

Alfred Adler experimented with the inferiority complex and the importance of the society. Adler’s Individual psychology laid much importance on the uniqueness of individual’s motivation and the importance of each individual’s place in the society. His emphasis was on the goal directedness of every individual nature and its influence on ones personality.

Adler’s theory differed with the Freudian theory in that when Freud stressed on pleasure and sexuality, Adler emphasized the complexity of individual motivation. He (Adler) also laid much emphasis on social conditions which Freud tended to ignore.

The theories of Carl Jung, Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler all touch on the ego or ‘I’. The ingenuity with which these three great psychologists handle this item of the human mind is an enough convincement to me. I in particular buy the whole of Freud’s definition of this term. I also agree with their conclusion that the unconscious mind generally influences our behavior and emotions.

Their (especially Freud) division of the human mind into three different structures is inconclusive as we know it today. Their postulates were based on poor understanding of the human mind. All these theories were developed on medical ground and therefore largely pessimistic towards human personality. They are also pathological in outlook.

Freud’s psychological world involved a series of differing tensions like that between selfishness and the society. According to him, sexual energy was the underlying drive/motivation. His theory of psychoanalytic approach was an endeavor to unearth the reason libido was the motivation for so many actions (Friedman & Schustack, 2009).

• Oral stage – The urge by infants to fulfill their hunger and thirst drives, security and pleasure make them suckle. When weaned at age one, a crisis arises between remaining dependent and growing up. Those infants fixated at this stage may forever seek satisfaction as adults from biting, chewing or even smoking.
• Anal stage – Occurs between ages two and three as children are taught to use toilet. Some learn rather fast while others remain stagnant at this stage where they seek to maintain control over when and where they relieve themselves. At adult life, Freud says that these anal character types develop a certain personality like bathroom humor, orderliness, and organization.
• Phallic stage – Phallic phase occur at age four where they direct their libido at their genitals and tend to discover their gender by age six. The Oedipus complex may develop at this stage. This is a great unconscious fear termed castration anxiety that a small five year boy developed from horses that he unconsciously likened to his father.
• Penis envy – These stage develop in some little girls who when they realize they don’t have a penis associate with their father to have one and want to have a baby at adult life. At adult, they develop a weird personality that revolves around her genital identity. They tend to look for husbands who resemble their father to have a baby while men marry ladies who either look like their mother or are the opposite of their mothers.
• Latency stage – This is the stage between the Oedipus complex and puberty (11 years). This phase is marked by little sexual expression and instead their libido is channeled towards going to school, making new friends, and generally socializing.
• Genital stage – Occur in those children that never got trapped in any childhood stages. These children lead a normal life as adults.

These are the processes one’s ego uses to protect itself from the reality.

• Repression – helps an individual’s ego push threatening thoughts into the unconscious mind e.g. post traumatic stress
• Reaction formation – an ego defense strategy that tend to hide threatening impulses from one’s memory and instead put stress on the opposing thoughts.
• Projection – this defense strategy places on others the anxiety arousing impulses.

Personality can simply be termed as meaning ‘I’. Sigmund Freud has been considered the greatest psychologist of all times. Freud, Jung and Adler differed in most of their approaches toward the study of identity but while Jung and Freud divided the mind into three structures, Adler’s approach was different. Freud’s theory on psychosexual analysis has been shown to be in stages advancing from infancy to adulthood. Freud also showed that the ego employs different defense mechanisms to deal with reality.

Boeree, G. (2006). Carl Jung . Web.

Carver, C. S. & Scheier, M. F. (2000). Perspectives on personality (4th ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Friedman, H. & Schustack, M. (2009). Personality: Classic Theories and Modern Research . Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.

• Freud and Jung Psychology
• Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
• Carl Jung: Main Theories and Their Importance
• Causes of Different Personalities and Character Traits
• Addressing Unhealthy Lifestyles: Scott Sander's "Grub"
• Stages of Change Inventory
• Analysis of Impact of Culture Shock on Individual Psychology
• Behaviors That Build Trust and Behaviors That Hurt Trust
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

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Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

We couldn't talk about theories of personality or psychology without mentioning Freud. Sigmund Freud is one of the most famous (and controversial) minds of the 20th century. His psychoanalytic perspective of personality offers a unique way of looking at the body and mind's connection to personality.

What is the Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality?

To know Sigmund Freud's personality theory, you must know the following three terms: Id, Ego, and superego. These are the three parts of your personality driven by unconscious energy. All three are silently going through a struggle to influence our decisions and behavior.

The Id is the “bad boy” of our subconscious. It is an impulsive part of the psyche that seeks pleasure and avoids pain at all costs. The Id wants instant gratification - it is the part of you that grabs for food as a baby or acts to satisfy sexual desires without thinking.

The SuperEgo lies on the opposite side of the spectrum. This part of the psyche wants to control the Id. If humans acted only based on receiving instant gratification and immediate pleasure, we would all be in a whole lot of trouble. The SuperEgo unconsciously and consciously acts to follow the rules of society and keep the Id from causing serious damage.

The Ego lies in the middle of these two entities. It is a constant struggle to balance out these two forces and make pleasurable decisions without causing too much damage. It's like a well-minded adult standing between two children wanting to overthrow each other.

Freud and Personality

How do Freud’s ideas influence the way that we shape our personality? One of his theories was that as a child grows into an adult, they encounter five psychosexual stages of development . During each stage of development, the Id is focused on a specific erogenous zone.

The Ego must struggle to balance out the pleasure-seeking Id and the moral superego. During each phase, internal conflicts will result in many struggles. Freud said personality is formed by the process and results of these struggles.

• Oral (Stage 1)
• Anal (Stage 2)
• Phallic (Stage 3)
• Latency (Stage 4)
• Genital (Stage 5)

Freud believes that most of our personality has been formed by age five. At the age of five, a child has gone through the oral, anal, and most of the phallic stages. If the child struggles with balance during these stages, they will develop “fixations.”

Oral fixations include smoking or problems with eating.

If someone fails to master potty training or still struggles during the anal stage, they may be a sloppy or lazy person.

During the phallic stage, Freud believed that boys and girls start to notice the difference in each other and develop The Oedipus Complex and penis envy. The Oedipus Complex is the idea that unconsciously, young boys feel possessive of their mother and, as a result, feel aggressive toward their father. Freud also believed that young girls experienced penis envy and, due to their lack of penis, developed fixations that followed them until they were adults.

Other Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality

Sigmund Freud is the biggest name in psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic perspective, but he is far from the only person who used this approach. Think of psychoanalysis as an umbrella term. Underneath lies the work of Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Melanie Klein, and many others. Each of these names contributed their work to the psychoanalytic theory of personality. 

Carl Jung and Personality Theory

Carl Jung worked with a lot of the same theories as Freud. He believed the unconscious mind, including the Id, Ego, and Superego, significantly impacted personality. But did you know you can thank Carl Jung for one of the biggest personality tests in the world? That’s right. If you have ever taken the MBTI Personality test , you can thank Carl Jung. 

Carl Jung didn’t exactly come up with the ISFJ or ENTJ personality types as we know them today, but he did lay the groundwork for the Myers Briggs Type Indicator. We can trace the “introversion vs. extroversion” categorization back to Jung. He also identified four different “functions” that determine our personality: thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting. Sound familiar? That’s because Katherine Briggs and Isabel Myers Briggs were inspired by Jung’s work when they made the MBTI. 

Collective Unconscious 

In addition to his work that led to the MBTI test, Carl Jung’s most famous theory also addresses how we form our personality. He believed in the collective unconscious. Basically, the collective unconscious is the version of the unconscious that has always been shared throughout humankind. Jung believed that our fears of the dark, heights, or other common fears, for example, can be traced back to experiences that were remembered and shared through the collective unconscious. 

Does your personality come from the experiences only you have had as a child, or does it come from the entire history of humankind? These are the questions that the nature-nurture debate continues to ask today! 

Melanie Klein and Personality Theory 

Melanie Klein was another psychologist who wrote about the impact of the unconscious but did not agree with Freud on everything he wrote. Her most well-known theory, Objects Relations Theory , is a little more comfortable to discuss in a classroom than Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. 

Freud believed that personality development was largely influenced by the need to fulfill sexual desires as you age. Klein disagreed. Instead, she believed our personalities and behavior were largely influenced by the desire to form connections and relationships with the people around us. Objects Relations Theory is not about objects like a ball, a bat, or a toy. When Klein refers to “objects,” she refers to people or parts of people (like a mother’s breast.) 

Alfred Adler and Personality Theory 

The work of Alfred Adler is the work that appears to stray most from Freud while remaining under the psychotherapy umbrella. It’s also the work that seems relevant today, although it faces similar criticisms for not being backed up by science. 

Adler did not believe in the collective unconscious or a universal force secretly connecting and impacting personality in the same ways. He believed that the individual faced different journeys, and even his method of psychotherapy would affect each individual differently. However, Adler believed that every child faced similar challenges and motivations from the moment they were born.

Superiority Complex 

Freud often pointed to a child’s traumatic past or their need to fulfill sexual desires to assess personality. Adler believed the child’s goals could also determine personality and where they placed themselves on the journey to achieving them. 

All children start out feeling inferior, Adler believed. But it’s up to the parent and child to navigate that journey and find security and confidence. A parent who gives the child the love and support they need will likely raise a confident kid who doesn’t mind being inferior as long as they works toward superiority. Children who feel inferior at everything and have no control are more likely to overcompensate. 

Alfred Adler was the first to coin the term “inferiority complex.” Although he used examples rather than science to explain this theory, many psychologists now believe he had the right idea. 

Child Birth Order 

Alfred Adler also believed other factors like childbirth order played into inferiority and personality formation. The youngest child, for example, is always looking at older children and feeling a sense of inferiority. This makes them more likely to overcompensate in life. Only children faced their own set of challenges. Adler theorized that the amount of attention an only child could get from their parents could impact their personality and make them dependent.

Anna Freud, Erik Erikson, and Personality Theory 

Sigmund Freud’s daughter Anna Freud was also a psychoanalyst. She pioneered child psychology and believed that children could be psychoanalyzed. (Her father did not.) Through her work, Anna Freud was one of the earliest psychologists to identify and speak about the different stages that children and adults went through. 

Anna Freud had a significant impact on Erik Erikson, a psychologist who went on to create the Stages of Psychosocial Development. Unlike the psychosexual stages of development or even Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, the psychosocial stages last until the golden years of a person’s life. A conflict, from trust vs. mistrust to integrity vs. despair, defines each stage. How a person handles that conflict can significantly shape their personality and behavior.

If Freud’s ideas make you uncomfortable, either for the fact that he focuses explicitly on sex or that he seems to frame women as the lesser sex, you’re not alone. Freud has never ceased to face criticism for his work. Unlike many psychologists, he did not use empirical research to support his theories. He worked solely with adults on a case-by-case basis. Since Freud introduced this theory, it has been largely replaced by humanistic and cognitive approaches .

Why Is Freud’s Theory of Personality Important?

The psychoanalytic perspective remains one of the top personality theories , alongside behaviorism and humanism. Unlike humanist theory, Freud’s focus remains on the unconscious. He explores the idea that to discover the root of our personality, we must dig deeper than what we experience on “the surface.”

Psychoanalytic therapy grew out of Freud’s theories. This approach involves a therapist questioning their patient about childhood memories or possible events that led to struggles between the Id and the superego. Freud believed that humans repress many of their emotions; his goal during therapy sessions was to bring unconscious feelings into the conscious mind.

Other Theories of Personality 

• Psychoanalytic theories are a fascinating study approach, but they are not widely accepted anymore. What is accepted in the world of psychology today? Other schools of thought may give you a different peek into what today’s psychologists believe forms our personality. 

Trait Theories 

One way that psychologists have tried to organize and understand personality is through personality traits. Traits are often identified on a spectrum, with two opposites on either side. (Carl Jung is not the only person to identify introversion vs. extroversion - Hans Eysenck made it one of three sets of traits that he focused on in his work.) This is one way to look at personality from three sets of traits to 4,000 total. 

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches 

Psychologists like B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov theorized that behavior and personality were entirely learned. We learned through rewards and punishments. Later replacements of these theories argued that we learn behavior by watching the behavior of others. 

Humanist Approaches 

More recent approaches to personality suggest that our personality and behavior come from the desire to fulfill a higher need. Like Erikson’s conflicts, humanist theories focus on the journey a person takes to fulfill their full potential. A person who is trying to achieve self-actualization is certainly going to behave differently than a person who is striving to have their basic needs met. 

Psychodynamic theories give us a lot to think about when it comes to developing our personality. How many events in your life can you point out as “defining” moments that shaped your personality? How many events could have changed your personality without your knowledge?

Related posts:

• Alfred Adler Biography - Contributions To Psychology
• Carl Jung Biography
• 40+ Famous Psychologists (Images + Biographies)
• Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development (Definition and Examples)
• Unconscious Mind (Definition + Purpose)

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An Introduction and Brief Overview of Psychoanalysis

Martin tarzian.

1 Psychiatry, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA

Mariana Ndrio

2 Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA

Adegbenro O Fakoya

3 Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, USA

The field of psychology has been shaped by the views and perspectives of Sigmund Freud and his former students: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These psychologists and their respective schools of thought provide distinct views on psychology and influences on personality and psychosocial development. The foundation for psychoanalysis was laid by Freud, his work on the unconscious mind, and his emphasis on early childhood experiences. His students also made substantial contributions that expanded, sharpened, and challenged his theories. This review will begin by highlighting the work of Sigmund Freud; it will then compare his theories with the theories of his students. This review will introduce and bring attention to the most important figures of psychoanalysis and give a brief overview of their theories.

Introduction and background

Sigmund Freud (Born May 6th, 1856) was an Austrian neurologist widely known as the father of psychoanalysis. His revolutionary theories, thoughts, and challenges to the field of psychology have changed how theorists understand the mind and how psychologists treat their patients [ 1 ]. Throughout his life, he worked fervently and tirelessly to advance his theories, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing until he died in 1939. Today, most clinical psychologists and psychiatrists roll their eyes when Freud’s ideas are brought up. However, his impact on shaping the theoretical and practical approaches to the human mind and reasoning for behavior cannot be understated or forgotten [ 2 ].

Freud attended medical school at the University of Vienna and graduated as a neurologist [ 1 , 2 ]. He was interested in the brain’s anatomy and how the nervous system works in relation to the human body. Time and time again, his research led him to query and ponder the relationship between the human mind and the physical ailments his patients would experience [ 3 ]. He began to question whether the symptomology he witnessed in his patients came from the illness within the brain or the mind. As time passed, Freud developed a passion for understanding the complexities of the mind and psyche, eventually leading him to pursue his pioneering work of psychoanalysis [ 3 ].

As his passion and interest in the human mind increased, Sigmund Freud shifted from treating neurological diseases to treating individuals suffering from psychological issues such as depression and anxiety [ 3 ]. This switch gradually occurred in the late 1800s. By the 1900s, Freud was solely focused on using psychoanalysis to explain anomalies of human nature [ 3 , 4 ]. While working at the University of Vienna, his professor, Dr. Josef Breuer, introduced Sigmund Freud to a fascinating case. The patient, referred to as “Anna O,” experienced a range of physical symptoms such as visual disturbances, hallucinations, partial paralysis, and speech problems with no apparent physical cause [ 4 ]. Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms improved when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed from conscious awareness, which he called the “Cathartic Method” [ 4 ]. Unsurprisingly, Sigmund Freud, who was already fascinated with anomalies of the human mind, feverishly began exploring the possible psychological phenomena that could explain Anna Os’s symptomology. Later, in 1895, Freud and Breuer published a book discussing Anna’s case and other similar clinical cases called “Studies in Hysteria.” This case is significant because it laid the foundation for developing Freud’s influential ideas about psychoanalysis [ 5 , 6 ].

Continuing his work with Breuer, Freud finally derived his groundbreaking theory about “The Unconscious,” proposing that repressed memories and desires influence behavioral and emotional states. A revolutionary concept at the time, this theory would permanently leave its imprint on psychological thinking for centuries to come [ 6 , 7 ]. This time can also be considered the period when Freud abandoned neurology as a field and focused solely on practicing psychoanalysis. While initially he used the method of hypnosis taught to him by Charcot, Freud recognized that he needed a better way of addressing his patients’ unconscious desires and memories. Thus, he developed the “Free Association,” in which patients were encouraged to speak freely about their thoughts and feelings without censorship or self-editing [ 7 , 8 ]. Through this technique, Freud believed that he uncovered the unconscious thoughts and memories that were the root cause of many psychological phenomena and anomalies [ 7 , 8 ].

In 1899, Sigmund Freud released his groundbreaking book “The Interpretation of Dreams.” He proposed a new theory on the meaning behind dreams and how they relate to the unconscious [ 9 - 11 ]. In his book, he argued that dreams portal into humankind’s hidden desires and emotions and provide insight into any underlying conflicts within the unconscious mind. At the start of the 1900s, Freud had established himself as the master of addressing the unconscious [ 1 - 3 ]. As time passed, his theories continued to grow more rambunctious and ambitious in their claims of explaining human behavior. His work revolutionized how we view the human psyche and opened many avenues for further exploration [ 9 ].

In the early 1900s, Sigmund Freud had established himself at the frontier of psychological thinking and began writing about the Oedipus complex [ 1 - 3 ]. This theory claims that young children have an unconscious sexual desire toward the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipal complex has come to be known as Sigmund Freud’s most controversial theory and is often joked about when referenced in popular media [ 12 ]. He also formulated the tripartite theory involving the id, ego, and superego - a theory still taught today to explain different facets of the human psyche. Over the next decade, Freud dedicated himself to improving these theories [ 12 ]. In 1902, Sigmund Freud formed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, and it quickly became a popular hub for the exploration and development of his theories. He also began instructing other mental health professionals in psychoanalysis, leading to its increased spread across Europe and the United States in the following years [ 1 , 2 ]. His work at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, along with his time spent teaching, are regarded as the reasons that psychoanalysis quickly globalized at the turn of the 20th century.

Despite the initial success of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories were controversial and faced criticism from many quarters. Some critics accused Freud of being overly focused on sex and of exaggerating the influence of the unconscious mind. Others argued that psychoanalysis lacked scientific validity and was based on anecdotal evidence rather than empirical data [ 13 ]. Ultimately, even his students challenged him and began their own schools of thought, which we will discuss later [ 13 ]. Nevertheless, Freud’s influence on psychology and culture cannot be overstated. His theories continue to be the subject of debate and research, and psychoanalysis remains a popular and influential field of study. Freud’s discovery of psychoanalysis paved the way for a new understanding of the human mind and continues to shape our understanding of psychology and society [ 1 - 3 ].

Freud’s legacy extends beyond his contributions. His circle of inspired and loyal pupils continued to push and advance the field. Together, they have expanded the principles of psychoanalysis. These students, united in their respect and admiration for Freud, carry his ideas forward, establishing psychoanalysis as a legitimate and influential approach to understanding the human mind. By continuing to explore and apply psychoanalytic principles, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves, our actions, and the intricate workings of the human mind. This review aims to emphasize the contributions of psychoanalysis, from Sigmund Freud to his students Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney.

Freud’s Free Association Technique

Free association is the fundamental technique of addressing the unconscious in psychoanalysis. The method allows patients to freely express their thoughts, feelings, and emotions without censoring themselves. Commonly, the patient lies on a couch in the physician’s office and is made to feel very comfortable. This lowers the patient’s guard and thus the ego’s guard, allowing the mind to truly express its reservations [ 14 ]. The goal is to elicit the unconscious thoughts and memories contributing to psychological distress [ 14 ]. The theory behind free association is that unconscious thoughts and emotions may be painful, embarrassing, or socially unacceptable and thus remain submerged in the unconscious [ 14 ]. The patient is lulled into a state of comfort through free association, allowing these subconscious notions to come to light [ 14 ].

By bringing these unconscious thoughts and feelings into conscious awareness, the patient is allowed to address them and understand why they may be experiencing distress from them. The therapist can encourage the patient to talk about dreams, childhood memories, or anything that may bring the patient’s underlying issues to conscious awareness [ 15 ]. The therapist must listen without interrupting or imposing their own ideas, thus creating a safe space to express themselves openly and speak honestly [ 15 ].

Free association is not without its limitations and criticism. One of the criticisms of free association is that it relies too much on the therapist’s ability to interpret the patient’s unconscious thoughts and feelings. This is subjective, and different therapists may interpret the exact words or phrases differently [ 16 ]. Take, for instance, a dream depicting a tiger pursuing a gazelle in the depths of the jungle. One therapist might interpret the tiger as a symbol of the patient’s personal strength and confidence, while another therapist could perceive the gazelle as a representation of the patient’s apprehension regarding vulnerability to external forces. Determining which interpretation is objectively accurate is inherently elusive if not impossible. Another challenge with free association is that it is time-consuming and arduous. Patients may struggle to access their unconscious thoughts, feelings, and/or emotions, and it may take several months or even years to express themselves honestly and freely [ 16 ]. Despite these limitations, free association remains a fascinating approach to both therapy and addressing the unconscious. While it has limitations, free association remains an interesting tool in treating psychological disorders. It is a pivotal technique used by Sigmund Freud and other followers of psychoanalysis [ 15 ].

The Oedipal complex

First proposed by Sigmund Freud, the Oedipal complex is an essential concept within psychoanalysis. According to Freud, the Oedipal complex is a psychological phenomenon occurring between three and six in otherwise healthy children [ 17 ]. This desire is theorized to originate from the child’s need to satisfy sexual instincts, which are repressed by social norms and familial expectations [ 18 - 20 ]. It represents a child’s unconscious desire to own the same-sex parent and eliminate the other, whom they view as competition. The child develops hostility, jealousy, and anger toward the same-sex parent while experiencing love and sexual attraction toward the parent of the opposite sex [ 18 - 20 ].

The Oedipal complex has been criticized and debated outside and within the psychoanalytic community. Some argue that the Oedipal complex is a culturally specific concept that does not apply to all societies, and it reinforces gender stereotypes and heteronormativity [ 21 ]. Despite the ongoing debate, the Oedipal complex remains a central concept in psychoanalytic theory and continues to shift and influence the understanding of human psychology, desire, and development [ 21 ].

The tripartite theory of the psyche

The id represents our primitive impulses and desires, including sexual and aggressive urges. According to Freud, the id is the source of our unconscious thoughts and wishes and operates on the principle of immediate gratification [ 22 ]. For instance, consider a situation where one child observes another child enjoying their favorite snack. In response, the first child impulsively snatches the snack and swiftly consumes it. This impulsive act reflects the id’s instincts and desires. On the other hand, the ego serves as the rational and conscious aspect of the psyche, acting as a mediator between the id’s demands and the realities of the external world [ 22 ]. Its role is to satisfy the id’s needs in a socially acceptable manner, avoiding negative consequences. In our previous example, the child witnessing another child devouring their favorite snack would refrain from forcibly taking it, as doing so would result in punishment from an authority figure. Instead, the child might negotiate, offering a piece of their own snack in exchange for a portion of the other child’s snack, thus achieving their goal in a socially acceptable manner. Lastly, the superego symbolizes the internalization of societal norms and values [ 23 ]. It functions as a moral compass, determining right from wrong based on cultural and ethical standards. The superego enforces moral principles and may elicit feelings of guilt or shame when one’s actions violate those standards [ 22 , 23 ]. In the hypothetical scenario, the child may be tempted to steal the snack but recalls the moral teachings of their favorite cartoon character, which emphasizes that stealing is morally wrong. As a result, the child refrains from stealing the snack, influenced by the cultural impact of their beloved cartoon character [ 23 ].

Some argue that Freud’s tripartite theory oversimplifies human thought and behavior [ 24 ]. According to his theory, only three components underlie all the behavior a person will ever exhibit in their lifetime. His theory does not allow change or growth as an individual would continuously operate on at least one of these three principles [ 24 ]. According to Freud’s theory, humans are inherently selfish creatures who are always trying to manipulate a situation to attain their desires that will not bring punishment or pain [ 23 - 25 ]. Despite these criticisms, the id, ego, and superego concept contributes significantly to psychoanalysis [ 24 ]. It emphasizes the dynamic relationship between our primitive desires, rational consciousness, and societal norms. While it has been criticized for its narrow focus and deterministic view of the human psyche, it remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis.

The secret world of dreams: Sigmund Freud’s interpretation and analysis

“The Interpretation of Dreams” (published in 1899) is considered one of the most influential books. In “The Interpretation of Dreams,” Freud provides insights into his theories about the mechanisms that underlie the unconscious mind [ 25 ]. He argued that the content of dreams is symbolic and that it is necessary to decode the symbolism to understand what the dream truly represents [ 25 ].

For Freud, dreams are a way for people to address their unconscious wishes. These wishes are unacceptable to our conscious mind and thus remain trapped in the recesses of the subconscious [ 26 ]. During sleep, the boundary between consciousness and unconsciousness becomes blurred, and therefore, we are allowed to address our repressed emotions within our dreams [ 26 , 27 ]. Freud believed that the manifest content of the dream (what we remember upon waking) was a disguise for the latent content (the true meaning of the dream) [ 26 ]. For example, in a dream where a person is flying, flight represents the desire to escape from a difficult situation or a yearning to experience freedom. A dream about a mouse might represent repressed feelings of inadequacy or weakness compared to others. Freud argued that dreams are a means of processing unresolved psychological conflicts. Thus, for Freud, dreams are a form of therapy that allows people to work through their difficult emotions and subconscious issues in the comfort of their own beds [ 26 , 27 ].

Unlike his other theories, Freud’s dream interpretation theory was the center of controversy. Some argued that his ideas were too focused on sexual desires and his approach was too subjective to the interpreter [ 27 ]. How can one tell if a dream has some deep underlying meaning or is just a dream? Others questioned the validity of interpreting dreams as a means of uncovering unconscious thoughts and emotions [ 27 ]. Like the tiger stalking the gazelle example discussed earlier, two therapists may interpret the same dream differently. There is no objective way to determine whose interpretation is correct. Despite these criticisms, Freud’s theory of dream interpretation remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis. It has been used to gain insights into the workings of the unconscious mind and to treat various psychological disorders, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder [ 27 ].

Going rogue with the mind: the psychoanalytical mavericks who challenged Freud

In the 1950s, psychoanalysis was not only established as its own discipline but was now being taken to new frontiers. Freud’s original ideas were challenged and built upon by a new generation of psychoanalytical theorists, including Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These theorists emphasized different aspects of the human unconscious. The unconscious was used to address the mental health concerns of patients worldwide. In addition, therapy and healing became a central aspect of psychoanalysis.

Jung vs. Freud: even the deepest relationships cannot escape the idiosyncrasies of the ego

Carl Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and former student of Freud who developed his own Analytical Psychology theory. While he was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, his ideas eventually diverged from Freud’s, and the two men had a falling out [ 28 ]. Jung viewed classical psychoanalysis as a perspective that does not foster individual growth, nor did it provide the framework for the commonality of all people. Analytical Psychology is a psychological theory and framework that explores the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the process of Individuation [ 28 , 29 ]. Carl Jung recognized the existence of a shared reservoir of universal human experiences and symbols, known as the collective unconscious, which influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors through archetypes [ 30 , 31 ]. Individuation, a central concept in Jungian psychology, involves integrating both conscious and unconscious aspects of one’s personality to achieve wholeness and self-realization [ 31 ]. Like Freud, Jung saw dreams as a gateway to the unconscious mind [ 28 ]. Overall, Jungian psychology offers a holistic approach to understanding the human mind. Jung’s approach fosters personal growth and embraces a journey toward self-discovery. The following section will highlight the similarities and differences between Analytical Psychology and Freud’s Classical Psychoanalysis.

Similarities Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of the unconscious: Both Jung and Freud agreed that the unconscious mind plays a vital role in shaping our behaviors and experiences. They also believed that unconscious conflicts lead to psychological distress. Finally, they agreed that exploring the unconscious through free association could lead to spiritual and psychological healing [ 28 ]. While sharing these foundational beliefs with Sigmund Freud, Jung expanded upon them and introduced his own distinctive concepts. Jung argued that the unconscious had various aspects and was not solely driven by sexual motivations, as proposed by Freud. Rather the existence of a collective unconscious, a reservoir of shared human experiences, emotions, and symbols that shape our thoughts and behaviors through archetypes (we will discuss archetypes shortly), explained much of our behavior, if not all [ 29 ]. He saw the unconscious as a rich source of wisdom, creativity, and spiritual insight. Freud’s focus on repressed memories and painful truths about ourselves vastly differed from Jung’s, who explored the deepest layers of the psyche to integrate and harmonize conscious and unconscious aspects of one’s self to achieve personal growth and wholeness [ 29 ]. Jung’s views on the unconscious were not limited to pathology. Still, they encompassed a broader approach to understanding the human mind and its relation to universal themes, the cosmos, and archetypal patterns [ 29 ].

The use of dream analysis: Both Jung and Freud agreed that dreams are a window into the unconscious mind. They also decided that analyzing the symbols and themes within someone’s dreams could uncover repressed thoughts and feelings causing pain and strife in that person’s life [ 28 ]. Carl Jung was profoundly interested in dream analysis. His exploration of the unconscious through dream analysis was driven by his desire to bridge a gap between religion and science [ 29 ]. In his book “Memories, Dreams, Reflections,” Jung discusses how religion, science, and the unconscious are intertwined. He compares the term “the unconscious” with Gods, religions, and numinosity that have been present throughout human history [ 29 ]. Jung acknowledges that certain experiences, such as dreams and inspirations, arise spontaneously and cannot be attributed solely to conscious effort. He suggested that these experiences emanate from the human psyche, a demon, a god, or the unconscious [ 29 ]. Jung believed that the unconscious contains an unknown realm, parallel to reality as we know it, a vast expanse beneath the surface of consciousness. He acknowledged the limitations of scientific knowledge about the unconscious and the futility of objectively studying the workings of the unconscious. Like Freud, Jung’s approach to dream analysis sought to uncover the deeper meanings and symbolic messages embedded in dreams, considering them valuable sources of insight into the unconscious aspects of the individual’s psyche [ 29 ]. He embraced the subjective nature of dream analysis and accepted that although not perfect, it offers much to the therapist in addressing the psychological issues of their patients [ 29 ].

The emphasis on the therapist-patient relationship: Both Jung and Freud believed that the relationship between therapist and patient was key to the success of psychotherapy. They agreed that the therapist is a guide to help navigate unconscious conflicts and promote healing [ 28 ]. Carl Jung heavily emphasized the therapeutic alliance. He saw the relationship between the therapist and the patient as a crucial determinant for facilitating healing and growth. According to Jung, the therapist’s ability to establish a strong connection and rapport with the patient is paramount for a successful therapeutic process. He believed that a trusting and collaborative alliance allows the patient to feel safe, understood, and supported, creating a conducive environment for exploration and self-discovery [ 29 ]. His stress on creating a safe haven for patients to express themselves freely goes hand in hand with Freud’s free association.

Emphasis on the therapeutic alliance as a partnership is central to analytical therapy. The therapist must provide guidance, support, and overall compassion. Encouraging active engagement is crucial to success, according to Jung [ 28 , 29 ]. He underscored the value of empathy, listening actively, and caring. By demonstrating respect, acceptance, and a non-judgmental attitude, the therapist creates an environment that allows the patient to freely express their thoughts, real feelings, and true emotions [ 29 ]. The similarities between Freud’s emphasis on creating a safe environment and Jung’s emphasis on empathy highlight that Jung’s theories, although unique from Freud’s, remain rooted in classical psychoanalysis. Jung also believed that the therapeutic alliance provides the foundation for exploring the unconscious aspects of the patient’s psyche. He recognized that the unconscious holds valuable insights and symbols that can shed light on the patient’s inner world. Through collaboration and trust, the therapist can guide the patient into navigating and understanding the facets of their psyche. Ultimately uncovering hidden patterns, unresolved conflicts, and potentiating self-growth were the goals of Carl Jung [ 29 ].

Differences Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The structure of the psyche: While both Jung and Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the psyche as consisting of the id, ego, and superego (as discussed earlier). Jung, in contrast, saw the psyche as consisting of three different layers: the conscious, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. According to Jung, the conscious mind is just the tip of the iceberg and is limited in its ability to understand our true nature [ 29 ]. The conscious is what we are actively aware of and thinking about at the moment. The personal unconscious is the second layer of consciousness, which consists of all the experiences, memories, and feelings that are not within our immediate awareness. For example, a person may have an upsetting and recurring dream which initially appears to have no meaning. However, upon exploration in analytical therapy, the meaning behind this recurring dream may be discovered and addressed. This idea is very similar to Freud’s latent and manifest dreams. The personal unconscious also includes forgotten memories, repressed thoughts, and feelings we have not fully processed or are ready to acknowledge. Jung believed that the personal unconscious is a fundamental part of our psyche that could house the positive and negative components of the self [ 29 ]. The third and deepest layer of consciousness is the collective unconscious. Here we find the archetypes, symbols, and universal experiences that all humans share, regardless of dominion. Here, according to Jung, is the foundation of human thinking. It is the source of our deepest spiritual and creative impulses and what defines us as humans [ 29 ]. Jung believed that the collective unconscious was responsible for producing myths, fairy tales, and other universal symbols found in cultures and civilizations worldwide. Even day-to-day interactions can be explained with Jung’s theory. For example, a traffic light that uses green to symbolize go and red to symbolize stop may be defined by some deeply shared human positive emotion toward the color green and reservation to the color red. He believed that by tapping into this deeper layer of consciousness, individuals could better understand their psyche and the world around them [ 29 ].

What motivates people: Freud believed that repressed sexual desires universally lead to psychological distress and are the primary motivation source for human behavior [ 12 , 13 ]. Analytical psychologists argue that sexual desire is just one aspect of a broader human desire termed “Life Energy.” While acknowledging that sexual conflicts may be a source of distress, Jungian psychologists do not see sexual desire as the essential source of conflict for most people [ 28 , 29 ]. Instead, Life Energy is the primary psychic need that motivates us all to grow and pursue fulfilling lives [ 30 ]. Jung saw Life Energy as the fundamental aspect that drives individuals toward self-realization and wholeness [ 29 ]. Life Energy encompasses all forms of psychic energy, including creative needs, spiritual pursuits, and intelligence desires [ 28 , 29 ]. Jung saw the expression of life energy as being closely tied to a process he termed “Individuation,” which involves the integration of all aspects of self to reach a state of peace and tranquility [ 29 ]. He believed that Life Energy drives all humans toward pursuing Individuation. Life Energy manifests itself in various ways, such as creative pursuits, meaningful relationships, and spiritual practice. Jung saw the suppression of Life Energy as harmful to our well-being. People who suppress their Life Energy may experience physical or psychological symptoms [ 28 , 29 ]. Thus, unlike Freud, who viewed the unconscious as a place of shame and distress for his patients, Jung saw the unconscious as a gateway to reaching a state of Individuation or idealistic self.

Archetypes: According to Carl Jung, archetypes are recurring universal human experience themes rooted within the collective unconscious [ 29 ]. Archetypes represent fundamental aspects of human existence, such as characters, symbols, or situations, and they are shared across different cultures and periods [ 30 , 31 ]. For example, weddings have occurred in cultures worldwide despite no prior interaction between most cultures. It would seem then that getting married is a normal aspect of being human, which is shared among the collective unconscious of all people. Archetypes, therefore, arise from the innate psychological predispositions of humankind. They can manifest in arts, religion, literature, mythology, and poetry [ 32 ]. For example, the “Hero Archetype” has existed in numerous cultures throughout history. This is the story of a protagonist who must accomplish a quest to attain a goal, from Babylon’s Gilgamesh to today’s Hollywood movies. No culture has ever existed without a story that involves the “Hero Archetype.” Archetypes provide organizing patterns of thinking that shape our thoughts. Archetypes reflect shared human nature, providing a framework for interpreting the world [ 32 ]. By recognizing and working with archetypes, psychologists can gain insight into integrating shared unconscious elements into conscious awareness to provide effective therapy [ 30 - 32 ].

Individuation: Individuation is a central theme in analytical psychology. It refers to the psychological process of integrating all the aspects of oneself and thus realizing one’s true potential [ 31 ]. It requires putting together the conscious and unconscious elements of the mind. For Individuation to occur, one must strive to develop a unique identity and establish a harmony between conscious thoughts and unconscious desires and instincts [ 31 , 32 ]. It is a lifelong process that involves self-reflection, self-discovery, and self-acceptance, in that order [ 31 ]. Individuation goes beyond conforming to societal expectations. Jung highlights the need to explore inner depths and integrate the repressed aspects of the self no matter how shameful [ 31 ]. Through Individuation, individuals become more self-aware and authentic. The ultimate goal is to become in tune with oneself and one’s purpose. It is a journey of transformation that leads to personal fulfillment and a more meaningful life [ 30 - 33 ]. Although Sigmund Freud did acknowledge the importance of personal growth, he differed from Jung’s concept of Individuation. Freud’s goal was to alleviate psychological distress through the process of psychoanalysis. He never emphasized achieving a sense of wholeness or integration of the self [ 29 , 29 , 33 ].

While Carl Jung was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, he eventually developed his theory of analytical psychology and quickly diverged from Freud’s classical psychoanalysis. While there are a few similarities between the two, such as the emphasis on the unconscious and the use of dream analysis, there were also poignant differences, such as their views on what drives humans, the structure of the psyche, the concept of self, and the ultimate goal of humans. Freud emphasized the significance of sexual desire for driving human nature, but Carl Jung disagreed. He believed sexual needs were a small part of a vast human desire called Life Energy. Life Energy is the desire to attain Individuation, a state of self-realization. Individuation occurs when the collective unconscious, personal unconscious, and conscious work harmoniously to acknowledge all aspects of oneself.

The battle of Vienna: Adler vs. Freud - feelings of inferiority

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was an Austrian psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and former student of Sigmund Freud. Like Jung, he developed his theory rooted in psychoanalysis, known as Individual Psychology. Adler began as a follower of Sigmund Freud. Similarly to Jung, he eventually developed his approach to psychoanalysis. Individual Psychology emphasizes the holistic nature of people and considers the interplay between the psychological, biological, and cultural factors for shaping feelings, thoughts, and cognition. Adler emphasizes the importance of understanding an individual’s perspective to explain why they are the way they are [ 34 , 35 ]. The Adlerian theory emphasizes personal growth and self-improvement, similar to Jungian psychology. Individual psychology, however, highlights the concept of inferiority and superiority in an individual’s development [ 34 ]. Adler heavily emphasized negative feelings from childhood stemming into the strife individuals experience in adulthood. Individual psychology offers a unique framework for understanding individuals as striving beings influenced by their social environments [ 34 , 35 ]. In this response, we will summarize Adler’s research concerning psychoanalysis, highlighting both the similarities and differences between the two approaches.

Similarities Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of childhood experiences: Both Adler and Freud agreed that early childhood experiences shape personality, self-image, and behavior in adulthood. They agreed that the therapist should help the patient explore and understand early life experiences to gain insight into their current strife [ 34 ]. Adler, just like Freud, saw childhood as pivotal. He recognized that early interactions with caregivers and the social environment impact a person’s sense of self-worth and ability to navigate life’s obstacles [ 34 ]. Adler, unlike Freud, highlighted the importance of empowering children to develop a sense of competence, confidence, and mastery of tasks. He encouraged children to overcome feelings of inferiority and contribute positively to society. Adler’s holistic approach to childhood and development emphasized the interplay between social dynamics, individual aspirations, and the cultivation of social interest as crucial factors in promoting healthy psychological growth [ 34 ].

The use of free association: Both Adler and Freud used free association to access the unconscious thoughts of their patients. They both agreed that exploring the unconscious aspects of the mind could lead to greater self-awareness and, ultimately, healing [ 34 ]. Through Adler’s observations of children affected by “organic deficiencies” (physical handicaps), he established his theories on Superiority and Inferiority. He found that children who experienced physical limitations needed to compensate and achieve a feeling of superiority over other children [ 35 ]. This striving for superiority propelled them to take on more significant challenges in life and perceive the world as enemy territory [ 35 ]. For example, someone with no arms walking behind you may be offended that you opened the door for them despite being willing to open it for anyone. Perceiving that you opened that door for them because of their organic deficiency, they would be more inclined to take on the challenge of opening the door themselves than someone with arms to prove they can. Many of the actions these children performed became part of their adaptive response to their deficiency [ 35 ]. According to Adler, these children quickly and firmly established defensive and offensive attitudes, developing antagonistic behaviors such as fighting, hesitating, stopping, and pushing [ 35 ]. Adler argued that through intense focus on themselves and their flaws, they tend to be egocentric, lacking social empathy, courage, and self-confidence, as they fear defeat more than they desire success [ 35 ]. These children actively sought out favorable situations while creating barriers to avoid confronting challenges that they may not be able to surpass [ 35 ]. These children, burdened by the inferiority of their organs, became strongly influenced by the darker aspects of life [ 35 ]. In his therapeutic work, Adler utilized free association to explore and unravel these unconscious dynamics, helping these children gain insight into their thought patterns and strategies for compensating for their deficiencies, ultimately supporting them in developing a healthier and more socially connected life [ 34 - 36 ].

The therapeutic relationship: Adler, Jung, and Freud agreed that therapeutic alliance is critical to success and change in at-risk children. They also all agreed that the therapist must establish trust and nurture a relationship based on openness and willingness to communicate. He underscored facilitating a safe space for exploration and growth [ 34 , 35 ]. According to Adler, the importance of a therapeutic alliance extends beyond the boundaries of the therapist and patient. Adler believed that therapists, social workers, and teachers all play roles in addressing the psychological issues of children and thus must work together as a team [ 35 ]. Therapists can guide children toward a more hopeful future by establishing a strong partnership with parents and collaborating with teachers. This future fosters the growth of individuals who have become accountable, aware, and willing to give back to society [ 35 ]. Adler’s emphasis on the therapeutic alliance highlights the need for a community effort to shape the development of children [ 35 ].

Differences Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: Freud saw sexual desire as the primary motivation of human behavior. Jung saw Life Energy as the ultimate drive, but Adler believed that striving for superiority was humankind’s primary motivation. Individual psychology sees people as inherently needing to overcome feelings of inferiority. Just like Jung, Adler acknowledged that sexual problems could be a source of psychological distress at times. He did not emphasize them [ 35 , 36 ]. He believed that people are motivated by a need to overcome their feelings of inferiority and thus strive for superiority. He termed this ambition the “will to power.” According to Adler, everyone experiences a sense of inferiority stemming from childhood experiences of inadequacy compared to others [ 36 ]. For example, a child who failed a math test would experience feelings of inferiority and would work extra hard to do well on the next math test to achieve a feeling of superiority. If the child continues to do poorly in math, they will carry on through life, avoiding math problems, thus preventing that feeling of being inferior. Therefore, feeling of inferiority provides all people with two choices, strive to become superior or avoid that obstacle that once made them feel inferior [ 36 ].

The concept of the unconscious: While both Adler and Freud believed in the importance of the unconscious mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the unconscious as a repository for repressed thoughts and feelings that were too painful to be brought into consciousness. Adler believed the unconscious is a source of creativity and problem-solving, unlike Jung [ 37 ]. Adler did not see the need to distinguish between the conscious and unconscious realms clearly [ 37 ]. He recognized the fluidity between levels of awareness, whereby what may initially seem unconscious can be raised to consciousness through effective therapy or when it becomes relevant and necessary. Many things remain unconscious because they are not immediately appropriate or needed in conscious awareness. However, these unconscious elements can be brought into consciousness when required. Adler understood that individuals tend to focus on and consider only those aspects supporting their self-enhancement goals. Elements disturbing or challenging their viewpoint are often left aside in the unconscious [ 37 ]. For Adler, the conscious mind becomes a source of encouragement, while the unconscious holds what might disrupt or hinder the individual’s perspective. The individual’s lifestyle, to some extent, reflects the degree of narrow or broad focus in their awareness. A narrow focus may disregard or suppress aspects not aligning with their goals.

In contrast, a more general perspective allows for a more comprehensive understanding and integration of conscious and unconscious elements [ 35 ]. Adler’s views on the unconscious align with his holistic assessment of the individual. He believed the mind could not be divided into separate and antagonistic halves of the conscious and unconscious. Instead, consciousness and unconsciousness are directed by the individual’s fictional final goal, representing their ultimate purpose and self-enhancement [ 38 ]. Self-enhancement in this accord is not unlike his contemporary Carl Jung’s “Individuation,” both goals being continued self-improvement [ 31 , 32 ].

While there are similarities between self-enhancement and Individuation regarding personal growth, there are also nuances. Self-enhancement focuses on overcoming feelings of inferiority [ 37 ], emphasizing building a sense of superiority [ 37 ]. In contrast, Individuation is all about self-discovery and the journey to self-realization. Wholeness is established through incorporating all aspects of oneself [ 31 , 32 ]. Adler and Jung recognized the importance of self-actualization and fulfilling one’s potential. Ultimately, self-enhancement and Individuation represent two different approaches to growth. Self-enhancement focused on personal achievement and superiority, and Individuation focused on self-discovery, integration, and wholeness.

The concept of the self: Adler did not use the term “self” as Jung did. However, he agreed that people have a fundamental sense of self shaped by interactions with others and experiences. Thus, Adler saw the goal of therapy as helping others develop a more positive sense of self and enabling them to overcome feelings of inferiority [ 34 - 36 ]. Adler’s concept of self emphasizes the indivisibility of the mind rejecting a notion of a boundary between the conscious and unconscious. Instead, both are guided by the individual’s final goal, which drives their decision-making [ 37 ]. According to Adler, the opposition between conscious and unconscious impulses is merely a difference in means, with both aspects ultimately working toward enhancing the self. He argued that there is fluidity between levels of awareness. Thus, at one time, the unconscious may be raised to consciousness when necessary [ 37 ]. Adler recognizes that not everything must be consciously attended to at all times. Certain thoughts and feelings may remain unconscious until they become relevant or required to undergo a course of action [ 37 ]. The conscious mind focuses on thoughts, feelings, and experiences that support and reinforce the patient. The unconscious mind possesses ideas and feelings that disrupt or challenge their perspective of themselves [ 37 ]. Overall, Adler’s self-concept highlights the interconnectedness of conscious and unconscious processes. The fluidity between these levels of awareness suggests that unconscious elements can be made conscious, and a comprehensive understanding of the self can be achieved through effective therapy and self-reflection.

Alfred Adler and Sigmund Freud were two of the most influential figures in the development of modern psychology, yet their theories differed significantly. While Freud focused on the unconscious mind and the role of instinctual drives, Adler saw the importance of needing to feel superior. While working with children with organic deficiency, Adler noticed that these children strived to put themselves in situations where they could feel superior and avoid problems that made them feel inferior [ 35 ]. His observations led Adler to believe that all people have feelings of inferiority that stem from childhood. Adler also emphasized the self more than Freud did. Adler believed that by combining the positive ideas of one’s self from the conscious mind and negative aspects from the unconscious mind, one could reach enlightenment and self-awareness.

Emphasizing stages: Erikson and Freud’s views on personality development

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was a psychologist who built on Freud’s theories and developed his approach to psychosocial development. Erikson states that we all must overcome eight stages of development. These stages encompass a range of challenges, such as establishing trust with caregivers, overwhelming feelings of guilt, forming an identity, and accomplishing autonomy. The Eriksonian theory emphasizes achieving a healthy balance between societal demands and our own needs. Thus, he focuses on the societal and cultural factors that influence us at every point of our lives [ 38 ]. Each stage is characterized by a specific crisis that individuals must resolve to mature and become successful and content with life [ 39 , 40 ]. By addressing the psychosocial challenges of each stage, individuals have an opportunity to establish a fulfilling life. We will summarize Erikson’s theory, highlighting the similarities and differences between him and Freud [ 38 ].

Similarities Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like Freud, Erikson agreed that early childhood experiences have a lasting impact on personality development. Like Freud, he emphasized the importance of the first few years of life in shaping a person’s sense of self [ 38 - 40 ]. Classical psychoanalytic theory heavily emphasizes childhood experience, particularly the psychosexual stages [ 14 ]. Freud argued that the experiences of the first few years of life, especially interactions with parents or caregivers, ultimately shape an individual’s personality [ 14 ]. Erikson expanded on Freud’s emphasis on psychosexual development to encompass a lifelong journey with stages marked by developmental tasks. Erikson did agree with Freud in regards to childhood experiences being pivotal. However, he extended the focus to include the entire lifespan [ 38 ]. They both agreed and recognized that early childhood experiences impact an individual’s psychological development and personality. They believed unresolved conflicts or challenges during these formative years could lead to long-term consequences [ 38 , 39 ]. Freud focused on the sexual drives that occurred during infancy and early childhood, but Erikson believed every stage of life has its own drive, and these drives extend passed just early childhood [ 14 ].

The influence of the unconscious mind: While Erikson acknowledged the existence of the unconscious and believed it does play some role in processing information, he did not focus on it or speak about it much [ 40 ]. Unlike Freud, Jung, and Adler, Erikson was indifferent to the unconscious processes. He did not acknowledge them much in his developmental theory. For Erikson, the conscious mind plays a prominent role, and unconscious processes are irrelevant at best [ 40 ]. Erikson believed that individuals actively engage in self-discovery and identity formation, which involves conscious reflection [ 40 ]. While Erikson did not dismiss the existence of unconscious influence, he placed heavier emphasis on conscious awareness and how this conscious awareness allowed for integrating social and cultural factors [ 40 ].

Differences Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: According to Freud, humans are driven by sexual urges, particularly in childhood. Erikson disagreed. For Erikson, every part of life presents its own unique challenge that causes people to purpose [ 40 ]. Erikson’s theory focused more on social and emotional development than the sexual aspects emphasized by Freud [ 41 ]. However, a stage in Erikson’s view is often associated with Freud’s emphasis on sexuality, and that is Erikson’s “Identity vs. Role Confusion” stage, which occurs during adolescence (12 to 18 years old). During Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion stage, adolescents explore their identities, trying to establish a sense of self and figure out their place in society [ 42 ]. This stage is characterized by the search for a cohesive identity, including exploring one’s sexual and gender identity. Thus, while Erikson did not emphasize sexual development as Freud did, this stage does involve exploring sexual and romantic relationships, which, in a way, can be seen as parallel to Freud’s focus on sexual development [ 42 ].

The focus on social and cultural influences: Erikson emphasized the role of social and cultural factors in shaping personality development. Freud rarely acknowledged or spoke about the role of society or culture in his theoretical approach. Erikson believed that a person’s social context played a significant role in shaping identity [ 40 ]. The fourth stage, “Industry vs. Inferiority,” exemplifies the cultural focus in development. This stage occurs between the ages of six and 12 [ 42 ]. In the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, children develop a sense of competence in various social and academic settings. The child must strive to acquire new skills, accomplish tasks, and receive recognition and praise from others. A parallel between Adler’s Will to Power can be seen in this stage, as the child must strive to feel superior at this point in their life.

Interestingly, many of the children that Adler worked with were between the ages of six and 12 when he initially formulated his theory [ 35 ]. According to Erkison [ 42 ], this stage is crucial for developing self-esteem. Culture significantly influences the activities and expectations during this stage. Educational systems, societal norms, and cultural practices shape the tasks and activities children are encouraged to pursue. Cultural factors also influence the standards against which children measure their competence. Cultural values, beliefs, and social comparisons shape children’s perceptions of success or failure. By acknowledging the role of culture in the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, Erikson’s theory recognizes that cultural contexts influence children’s socialization and self-evaluation [ 42 ].

The emphasis on stages of development: Erikson’s theory proposes eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved for them to progress to the next stage [ 42 ]. These stages are influenced by social factors such as family, peers, cultural norms, and the individual’s personality and temperament. For example, in the first stage of psychosocial development, trust vs. mistrust, infants must learn to trust their caregivers to develop a sense of security and basic trust in the world around them [ 42 ]. If caregivers are consistently responsive and meet the infant’s needs, the child will develop a sense of trust, influencing their future relationships and sense of self. However, if caregivers are unresponsive or inconsistent, the child may develop a sense of mistrust, which could lead to future difficulties in forming trusting relationships.

Similarly, in the fifth stage of psychosocial development, identity vs. role confusion, adolescents must navigate the challenges of identity formation and establish a sense of self-consistent with their cultural and social context [ 42 ]. If adolescents can successfully integrate their personal values and goals with the expectations of their social environment, they will develop a sense of identity and purpose. However, they may experience confusion and a lack of direction if they cannot do so. According to Erikson, each of the eight stages of development has its own unique set of challenges [ 42 ].

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development proposed eight stages of development, each characterized by a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved to progress to the next stage. Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that development continues throughout the lifespan and that successful resolution of these stages leads to a more integrated sense of self. Additionally, Erikson’s theory emphasized the potential for personal growth and change throughout the lifespan rather than the fixed nature of personality proposed by Freud. While Freud stresses the role of the unconscious mind and the importance of sexual and aggressive drives in shaping personality, Erikson believed that social and cultural factors played a more significant role.

Beyond the Oedipus complex: Horney’s feminist challenge to Freudian psychoanalysis

Karen Horney (1885-1952) was a psychoanalyst who developed her own theories about the unconscious influences and mechanisms that shape and ultimately determine behavior [ 43 ]. Horneyian psychology offers an alternative perspective from traditional psychoanalysis. Like Erikson and Jung, she emphasized the influence of cultural elements that lead to internal conflict [ 43 ]. Horney introduced the “interpersonal theory.” She highlights the importance of early relationships in shaping someone's personality [ 44 ]. In this regard, social and cultural context is crucial in understanding human behavior and the emergence of what she termed “neurotic patterns.” At the core of Horney’s theory is “basic anxiety.” Individuals develop a fundamental sense of insecurity and anxiety during their early years due to feelings of helplessness and vulnerability, similar to Adler’s inferiority complex [ 44 , 45 ]. According to Horney, we are all imprinted with certain gender roles, which leads to feelings of internal strife. This anxiety influences the individual’s subsequent psychological development and contributes to the formation of neurotic behaviors to cope with the stressors of day-to-day living.

Similarities Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like all the other psychoanalysts we discussed, Horney agreed that early childhood experiences play a significant role in shaping a person [ 43 ]. Unlike Freud, who emphasized the influence of unconscious drives, conflicts, and sexual development [ 1 - 3 ], Horney focused on the impact of gender roles and sexuality in forming an individual’s sense of self and their relationship to society [ 43 , 44 ].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud share similarities in their views on the unconscious [ 1 - 3 , 43 , 44 ]. Both psychologists acknowledged the existence of the unconscious mind, recognizing that individuals are not always aware of the motivations, desires, and conflicts that drive their thoughts and behaviors. They agreed that the unconscious significantly influences human behavior, shaping aspects of personality, emotional experiences, and the formation of psychological symptoms [ 43 , 44 ]. While their theories diverged in specific mechanisms and influences on the unconscious, such as cultural and social factors in Horney’s approach versus innate drives in Freud’s theory, they recognized the importance of exploring and understanding the unconscious to gain insight into human psychology [ 43 , 44 ].

Differences Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The role of culture and society: Horney believed that cultural and societal factors played a significant role in shaping personality, whereas Freud’s psychoanalytic theory focused primarily on the individual psyche. She emphasized the importance of social influences such as gender roles, cultural norms, and societal expectations in shaping a person's sense of self [ 43 , 44 ]. Horney believed that women, in particular, are socialized to adopt submissive and nurturing roles, which can lead to feelings of inferiority and helplessness down the line [ 43 ]. Women are often taught to prioritize the needs of others over their own, which can lead to a lack of self-esteem and a sense of being powerless or dependent on others. Horney believed that this cultural conditioning could lead to the development of what she called “feminine psychology,” which is characterized by a preoccupation with love, relationships, and the desire for approval from others [ 44 ]. Women who internalize these cultural messages may struggle with insecurity and self-doubt, affecting their sense of self and ability to achieve their goals [ 43 , 44 ]. Horney also believed that men are subject to cultural expectations and that traditional male gender roles can lead to emotional detachment and a need to prove oneself through competition and achievement. Men may struggle with feelings of isolation and a sense of disconnection from their emotions, which can affect their ability to form intimate relationships and achieve a sense of fulfillment in their lives [ 43 , 44 ]. Karen Horney and Alfred Adler had contrasting views on the concept of inferiority while sharing some similarities. Horney believed that feelings of inferiority stem from societal pressures and parental attitudes, leading to inadequacy and insecurity [ 44 , 45 ]. She emphasized the role of external validation and success as compensatory strategies to overcome these feelings.

In contrast, Adler viewed inferiority as an inherent part of the human condition, driving individuals to strive for superiority and personal growth. He emphasized the importance of overcoming inferiority through developing a sense of community and contributing to society [ 35 , 36 ]. Both theorists recognized the impact of childhood experiences on the development of inferiority. Still, Horney focused more on cultural and social influences, while Adler emphasized individual psychology and the pursuit of social interest.

The role of anxiety: Horney placed a greater emphasis on the role of anxiety in shaping behavior and personality than Freud did. She believed anxiety was a normal and necessary part of life and could be harnessed to promote growth and change [ 45 ]. Horney developed the concept of “basic anxiety,” which refers to a deep-seated feeling of insecurity and helplessness that arises from early childhood experiences. Basic anxiety can lead to neurosis and other psychological problems if not addressed. Horney believed that basic anxiety was a pervasive sense of vulnerability and insecurity from early childhood experiences, such as neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers [ 45 ]. This basic anxiety can become a central aspect of an individual’s personality and affect their relationships, sense of self, and ability to cope with stress. According to Horney, there are several ways in which individuals may respond to basic anxiety. One response is to seek security and protection from others, which can lead to a preoccupation with relationships and a fear of rejection or abandonment. Another response is to develop a strong sense of independence and self-sufficiency, which can lead to a fear of being controlled or dominated by others. A third response is to become aggressive or domineering, which can be a defense against feelings of helplessness and vulnerability [ 45 ].

The concept of neurotic needs: Horney identified the “neurotic needs” common to everyone and could lead to neurosis if not addressed. These included the need for affection and approval, the need for power and control, and the need for perfection as well as others [ 45 ]. According to Horney, neurotic needs are compulsive desires or behaviors that individuals adopt to feel more secure and alleviate anxiety. These needs are not based on genuine personal interests or values but rather on a perceived need to conform to the expectations of others or to achieve a sense of control over their environment [ 45 ]. These needs can become so ingrained in an individual’s personality that they interfere with their ability to form healthy relationships, pursue personal interests, and achieve a sense of fulfillment in life. Horney believed that the development of neurotic needs was influenced by early childhood experiences, particularly those that involved feelings of neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers. These experiences can make individuals feel insecure and vulnerable and adopt behaviors or attitudes that they believe will protect them from further harm [ 45 ].

The role of psychotherapy: Horney’s approach to psychotherapy differed significantly from traditional psychoanalysis. She believed the therapist’s role was to create a supportive and empathic environment where the client could explore and understand their emotions and experiences rather than interpret and analyze the client’s unconscious motivations and conflicts [ 43 , 44 ].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud had significant differences in their personality and psychological development theories. Freud emphasized the importance of innate drives and instincts in shaping an individual’s psychological development. At the same time, Horney believed that an individual’s personality was largely shaped by their social and cultural experiences, particularly their early relationships with caregivers. Horney also differed from Freud’s views on gender and sexuality, emphasizing that gender roles were socially constructed and influenced by cultural norms and expectations. Overall, while Freud’s theories continue to be influential in modern psychology, Horney’s emphasis on the role of social and cultural experiences in shaping an individual’s personality has had a lasting impact on psychology.

Strengths, limitations, and contributions of this study

One of the major strengths of this review paper is the comprehensive coverage of the major contributors to the field of psychoanalysis and how their views contrast with the founder, Sigmund Freud. By exploring the findings of these contributors, the reader is offered many unique perspectives and, thus, a broader understanding of the field. However, a limitation of this review is its lack of detailed exploration of the theories and concepts put forth by these major contributors. Due to the nature of the paper, which aims to provide an overview of the history of psychoanalysis, it does not have the space to delve deeply into each theorist’s work. Consequently, readers seeking an in-depth analysis of specific theories may use this review as a starting place for their research and learning. We hope that this paper could put forth a framework for what psychoanalysis is and where it came from. In addition, we hope to have sparked the reader’s interest to further read and learn more about this fascinating psychology paradigm.

Conclusions

The theories of Sigmund Freud have laid a foundation for psychoanalytical psychology. Although the thoughts and attitudes of his students differed from him, they remained grounded in psychoanalysis. All four psychoanalysts we have discussed agree that childhood plays a significant role in development. Freud, as we discussed earlier, emphasized the sexual nature of people and believed this was the most significant factor in determining a person’s behavior and personality. Jung spoke about the collective unconscious and the need for self-realization, a drive he termed “individuation.” In his theory, we all share a collective unconscious and must use the archetypes of this collective unconscious with our consciousness to attain self-realization. Adler had his version of self-realization, called “Will to Power.” Adler saw all people needing to overcome feelings of inferiority from childhood to attain feelings of superiority in adulthood. Erikson believed every life stage has unique challenges and drives to overcome negative feelings. Horney emphasized the feelings of anxiety influencing our behavior and drives.

While Freud spoke of the id, ego, and superego in his theory of the unconscious, this was not a central theme for his students. Jung highlighted the collective unconscious, a universal shared architecture of understanding the world around us. Adler saw the unconscious and consciousness as more fluid than Freud did. He believed people could more easily access the unconscious than Freud had originally postulated. Erikson acknowledged the unconscious but was indifferent about it in his theoretical framework. Horney’s view of the unconscious was very similar to Freud’s; however, she heavily emphasized how gender roles influence our unconsciousness. In conclusion, the diverse perspectives of Freud and his students, such as Jung, Adler, Erikson, and Horney, have contributed to the rich tapestry of psychoanalytical psychology, each offering unique insights into the role of childhood, the unconscious mind, and the factors shaping human behavior and personality.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Personality: Definitions, Approaches and Theories

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The main objective of this chapter is to describe the concept of personality and approaches to researching it. For this reason, first a view on outlining the field of personality psychology in its present form, then the key term—personality—is discussed. The next section contains a synopsis of the main approaches to the study of personality, including psychoanalytic, learning and humanistic perspectives. The objective of the second part is to present the main theoretical directions in personality studies, which are divided into two basic trends. The first one is represented by type theories that focus on qualitative differences and discrete categories. The other direction is composed of trait theories that aim to formulate the latent structure of personality on the basis of statistical procedures, this has led to the development of the trait model adopted as the groundwork of this volume—the Big Five. The last section of this chapter is devoted to a general description of the most important theories exploring the development of personality across a lifespan (psychosexual, psychosocial, cognitive, and social cognitive).

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Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud's Elements of Personality

How do the three work together to form personality?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

The Interaction of the Id, Ego, and Superego

What happens if there is an imbalance.

According to  Sigmund Freud , human personality is complex and has more than a single component. In his famous psychoanalytic theory, Freud states that personality is composed of three elements known as the id, the ego, and the superego. These elements work together to create complex human behaviors.

"The id is considered the basis of sexual and aggressive energy and is largely held in the unconscious, emerging as illogical or wishful thinking," explains Shannon Sauer-Zavala, PhD , associate professor of psychology at the University of Kentucky. "The superego is one’s conscience and is established via identification with parental figures or social groups at large. The ego is tasked with balancing reality with the demands of desire (id) and morality (superego)." 

Each component adds its own unique contribution to personality, and the three interact in ways that have a powerful influence on an individual. Each element of personality emerges at different points in life.

According to Freud's theory, certain aspects of your personality are more primal and might pressure you to act upon your most basic urges. Other parts of your personality work to counteract these urges and strive to make you conform to the demands of reality. 

Here's a closer look at each of these key parts of the personality, how they work individually, and how they interact.

• According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of personality.
• The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
• This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive behaviors.

The id is driven by the  pleasure principle , which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state of anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink.

The id is very important early in life because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, they will cry until the demands of the id are satisfied. Young infants are ruled entirely by the id; there is no reasoning with them when these needs demand satisfaction.

Examples of the Id

Imagine trying to convince a baby to wait until lunchtime to eat their meal. The id requires immediate satisfaction, and because the other components of personality are not yet present, the infant will cry until these needs are fulfilled.

However, immediately fulfilling these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing the things that we want out of other people's hands to satisfy our cravings.

This behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the use of  primary process thinking , which involves forming a mental image of the desired object to satisfy the need.

Although people eventually learn to control the id, this part of personality remains the same infantile, primal force throughout life. It is the development of the ego and the superego that allows people to control the id's basic instincts and act in ways that are both realistic and socially acceptable.

• According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.
• The ego functions in the  conscious , preconscious, and  unconscious  mind.
• The ego is the personality component responsible for dealing with reality.

Everyone has an ego. The term ego is sometimes used to describe your cohesive awareness of your personality, but personality and ego are not the same. The ego represents just one component of your full personality.

The ego operates based on the  reality principle , which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses.

In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of  delayed gratification —the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.

The term ego is often used informally to suggest that someone has an inflated sense of self. However, the ego in personality has a positive effect. It is the part of your personality that keeps you grounded in reality and prevents the id and superego from pulling you too far toward your most basic urges or moralistic virtues. Having a strong ego means having a strong sense of self-awareness.

Freud compared the id to a horse and the ego to the horse's rider. The horse provides power and motion, while the rider provides direction and guidance. Without its rider, the horse would wander wherever it wished and do whatever it pleased. The rider gives the horse directions and commands to get it where it wants it to go.

The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through secondary process thinking, in which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by the id's primary process.

Examples of the Ego

Imagine that you are stuck in a long meeting at work. You find yourself growing increasingly hungry as the meeting drags on. While the id might compel you to jump up from your seat and rush to the break room for a snack, the ego guides you to sit quietly and wait for the meeting to end.

Instead of acting upon the primal urges of the id, you spend the rest of the meeting imagining yourself eating a cheeseburger. Once the meeting is finally over, you can seek out the object you were imagining and satisfy the demands of the id realistically and appropriately.

The Superego

The last component of personality to develop is the superego .

• According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age 5.
• The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents and society (our sense of right and wrong).
• The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

The superego has two parts:

• The conscience  includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments, or feelings of guilt and remorse.
• The ego ideal  includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego aspires to.

The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It suppresses all the id's unacceptable urges and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather than on realistic principles. The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

Examples of the Superego

For example, if you give in to the urges of the id, the superego is what will cause you to feel a sense of guilt or even shame about your actions. The superego may help you feel good about your behavior when you suppress your most primal urges.

Other examples of the superego include:

• A woman feels an urge to steal office supplies from work. However, her superego counteracts this urge by focusing on the fact that such behaviors are wrong. 
• A man realizes that the cashier at the store forgot to charge him for one of the items he had in his cart. He returns to the store to pay for the item because his internalized sense of right and wrong urges him to do so.
• A student forgets to study for a history test and feels an urge to cheat off of a student sitting nearby. Even though he feels like his chances of getting caught are low, he knows that cheating is wrong, so he suppresses the urge.

When talking about the id, the ego, and the superego, it is important to remember that these are not three separate entities with clearly defined boundaries. These aspects are dynamic and always interacting to influence an individual's overall personality and behavior.

With many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the id, ego, and superego. "A central theme of Freud’s work is that id, ego, and superego are always in conflict and the specific nature of these discrepancies determines one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (or personality)," says Sauer-Zavala.

Freud further assumed that it takes a lot of mental energy to keep the id’s desires in the unconscious; however, unconscious thoughts must go somewhere and are likely to be expressed in another form that may not be under one’s control (e.g., as symptom, dream, joke, slip of the tongue, or behavior).

Freud used the term  ego strength  to refer to the ego's ability to function despite these dueling forces. A person who has good ego strength can effectively manage these pressures, while a person with too much or too little ego strength can be unyielding or disruptive.

According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego. If the ego is able to adequately moderate between the demands of reality, the id, and the superego, a healthy and well-adjusted personality emerges. Freud believed that an imbalance between these elements would lead to a maladaptive personality.

"Freud believed that mental health difficulties (anxiety, depression) arise when 'the ego has lost the capacity to allocate the [id] in some way' (Freud, 1920), adds Sauer-Zavala. "Freud noted that, in many cases, the symptoms experienced are as bad or worse than the conflict they were designed to replace. Though the symptom is a substitute for the instinctual impulse, it has been so reduced, displaced, and distorted that it looks more like a compulsion or even an illness than a gratification of the id’s desire."

For example, an individual with an overly dominant id might become impulsive, uncontrollable, or even criminal. Such an individual acts upon their most basic urges with no concern for whether their behavior is appropriate, acceptable, or legal.

On the other hand, an overly dominant superego might lead to a personality that is extremely moralistic and judgmental. A person ruled by the superego might not be able to accept anything or anyone that they perceive to be "bad" or "immoral."

Final Thoughts

Freud's theory provides one conceptualization of how personality is structured and how the elements of personality function. In Freud's view, a balance in the dynamic interaction of the id, ego, and superego is necessary for a healthy personality.

"Freud’s accounts of the nature of one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors have largely fallen out of favor," admits Sauer-Zavala. "People began to question whether differences in people’s personalities could accurately be reduced to sexual and aggressive impulses. In fact, there is limited research support for Freud’s theories."

While the ego has a tough job to do, it does not have to act alone. Anxiety also plays a role in helping the ego mediate between the demands of the basic urges, moral values, and the real world. When you experience different types of anxiety , defense mechanisms may kick in to help defend the ego and reduce the anxiety you are feeling.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Essay on Sigmund Freud and the Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856, in the Czech Republic. His family moved to Leipzig and settled in Vienna, Austria, where Freud will be educated. His family is Jewish, but Freud himself does not practice the religion (Sigmund Freud, n.d.). Freud began his study of medicine in 1873 at the University of Vienna. Freud collaborated with a physician named Josef Breuer in treating patients with hysteria by recalling painful experiences (Sigmund Freud, n.d.). Freud would also draw inspiration from Jean Charcot, a French neurologist that tutored Freud. Freud would then return to Vienne and set up a clinic for his private practice. This series of events led Freud to develop his theory of psychoanalysis. Honestly, Freud was not drawn to medicine because he desired to engage in medical practice, but because he was intensely curious and passionate about human nature (Ellenberger, 1970). Meeting Both Breuer and Charcot influenced Freud’s eventual pursuit of developing a psychological theory.

A combination of his experiences heavily influenced Freud’s understanding of personality with patients, his self-analyzation of his dreams, and the readings from various sciences and humanities (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). All these culminated in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality.

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is a grand theory. This premise denotes that the theory he created covers a vast scope of the human personality and mind. Freud’s theory can be divided into several facets for a clearer understanding of the entire picture. First, there are the provinces of the mind: the conscious and the unconscious (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). Next, come the dynamics of personality. This premise refers to the sex and aggression impulse in everyone. Supplementary to this are the defense mechanisms. Last, Freud delves into the development of the individual. His theory posits the psychosexual stages of development.

To further understand the provinces of the mind, Freud introduced the conscious and the unconscious. The conscious is the mental awareness that a person has. The conscious plays a very minimal role in his theory. Freud focused on the unconscious in building his theory. The unconscious can be further divided into two other regions: the preconscious and the true unconscious. The difference between these two is that the preconscious contains thoughts that an individual is not conscious of but is readily available when needed. The unconscious contains an individual’s drives, urges, or instincts, not in a person’s awareness (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). The central theme of Freud’s theory lies within the unconscious. Freud claimed that a person’s unconscious motivates most of an individual’s words, feelings, and actions. He also stated that some parts of a person’s unconscious may have originated from their ancestors; he called this phylogenic endowment (Feist, Feist & Roberts, 2018). As the provinces of the mind have been established, Freud also hypothesized the id, ego, and superego. These elements interact with the outside world. The id, or the pleasure principle, lies entirely in the unconscious. The id is responsible for our desires, and its only function is to seek pleasure. The ego, or the reality principle, has all conscious, unconscious, preconscious elements (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). The ego is an individual’s method of communicating with the outside world. As the only region of the mind that has contact with the outside world, the ego is also considered the decision-making personality of a person (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). Last, the superego is the part of the mind that tackles the moral and ideal principles of the person. The superego resides in the unconscious and preconscious. The superego acts as a person’s moral conscience, informing the person on what is right and what is wrong. These three forces of the mind constantly struggle against each other and determine which force rules over a person. An example would be an individual with an overgrown id who may actively seek pleasurable stimuli.

Freud also tackles personality in his theory. Freud claimed that personality in man is our innate drive. The personality theory revolves around two significant drives: eros or sex and Thanatos or aggression (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). These drives originate from the id but are constantly checked by the ego. The eros, or libido, drive in a person pertains not only to genitalia satisfaction. Freud expresses that eros pertains to all pleasurable acts; this includes love. Thanatos, on the other hand, pertains to an individual’s aggression. The aim of the destructive drive, according to Freud, is to return the organism to an inorganic state. The inorganic condition that Freud is referring to is death. The ultimate aim of the aggressive drive is self-destruction (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). This premise may take on many forms, such as teasing, anger, or enjoying other people’s suffering.

Freud also included defense mechanisms in his theory. Defense mechanisms help the conscious avoid dealing with sexual and aggressive urges and defend itself from the anxiety that it brings (Feist, Feist, & Roberts, 2018). Examples of this are repression, denial, and projection.

Freud’s theory also included the stages of development in an individual. These stages function like different stages in a person’s life. If one stage is not fulfilled or “satisfied,” the result would be a fixation in that stage that would reflect certain unwanted behaviors later in life. The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. There is a specific erogenous zone or parts of the body that require satisfaction to proceed generally in life in each stage. In the oral stage, this is the mouth. The mouth is where an infant gains nourishment. This stage must be satisfied by providing the mouth with objects to suck on. Failure in satisfaction eventually leads a child to develop pleasure-seeking of the mouth in adulthood. Examples are smoking or chewing gum. Next is the anal stage, wherein pleasure is derived from the anus. Specifically, the pleasure is centered on defecating. Failure to satisfy this stage leads to a fixation of having excessive controlling tendencies later in life. In the phallic stage, the child gains awareness of anatomical differences. This awareness creates the conflict between attraction, resentment, and jealousy, which Freud called the Oedipus complex (for boys) and the Electra complex (for girls) (Mcleod, 2019). Next is the latency period, wherein the libido becomes dormant, and no psychosexual development occurs. Much of a child’s energy is devoted to acquiring new skills and engaging in social activities with other children. Lastly is the genital stage, wherein the libido is once again awakened and simultaneously occurs during puberty. In this stage, individuals direct sexual instinct toward heterosexual intercourse. Fixations from the past stages may prevent the healthy development of relationships.

The application of Freud’s grand theory is shown primarily in psychoanalytic therapy. The goal of psychoanalytic theory is to uncover unconscious memories through free association and dream analysis. Psychoanalysis aims to strengthen the ego by forcing unconscious thoughts to the conscious mind, ultimately making the ego face such thoughts. Free association pertains to a patient free saying what is on his or her mind. From these thoughts, the therapist will slow derive patterns and ideas from the words or stories spoken by the patient. In dream analysis, Freud believed that our dreams contain our unfulfilled, unconscious wishes. Freud’s goal was to use a person’s dreams as a gateway into the unconscious, thus retrieving those thoughts and ultimately understanding the person’s desires.

In reading Freud’s theory, I have realized that Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality is deterministic. I say this because Freud’s theory emphasizes the control of the unconscious in a person’s life. I also believe that Freud’s theory is not verifiable, nor is it falsifiable. I believe that his theory is grand because it covers the entirety of a person’s mind and personality. What I did not appreciate in his theory is that it cannot be proven scientifically. There is no way to prove the existence of the id, ego, and superego. His theory cannot be falsifiable. A theory is seldom free from questioning and falsification—Freud’s bias and opinion spill over in his creation. Many of his methods and conclusions have been denied, even to a point where some of his theories have even become viewed as damaging (Alliant International University, n.d.). An example of this is his view of both women and homosexuality. There are many questionable aspects of Freud’s theory, so I believe that it must not be used as the fundamental theory in dealing with people. Freud’s theory is outdated and must only be a reference for contemporary theories or research.

Alliant International University. (n.d.).  Are Freud and psychoanalysis still relevant?   https://www.alliant.edu/blog/are-freud-and-psychoanalysis-still-relevant

Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious. New York: Basic Books.

Feist, J., Feist, G. J., & Roberts, T. (2018).  Theories of personality  (9th ed.). McGrew Hill.

McLeod, S. (2019).  Freud’s psychosexual stages of development . Simply Psychology.  https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html#:~:text=Freud%20proposed%20that%20p

sychological%20development,different%20area%20of%20the%20body

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) . (2014). BBC.  http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/freud_sigmund.shtml#:~: text=Sigmund%20Freud%20(1856%2D1939)&text=

Sigismund%20(later%20changed%20to%20Sigmund,he%20was%20himself%20non%2Dpractising

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Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

Introduction.

Personality development is essential in a child and relates to organized behavior and attitudes which distinguish a person from others. Personality is defined by Beckmann and Wood (2017) as the dynamic system of a person that involves the person’s psychophysical systems that influences his thoughts and pattern of behaviors. It is the important and more stable aspect of a person’s behavior and according to some psychological theorists; this can be studied by looking at the person’s social and external behaviors. For example, according to Swartz et al. (2016) personality includes a variety of human actions, practically all aspects of a person – the mental, emotional, social, and physical aspects. This paper summarizes, the Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality, which is one of the most controversial theories of personality development in children.

The psychoanalysis founder and the proponent of this theory were Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). His psychoanalytic theory is a dynamic theory based on the notion that the formation of personality is governed by primarily unconscious conflicts and events which can only be understood by his thorough research QA (Pascariu, 2019). The psychoanalytical approach to the development of a child’s personality assumes that the structures of personality are mostly uninformed of why they behave in particular and are hence unconscious. In addition to this, the behavior is often heavily influenced by the ongoing struggle and conflict between the person’s instincts, unconscious motives, experiences, and societal standards (Swartz et al., 2016). Freud maintained that the personality is driven by two essential instincts: an instinct for life and a death instinct. Libido is the mental energy from the instinct of life which feeds our need for survival and development and further ensures reproduction while the death instinct represents people’s unconscious wish to die hence the destructive force of human nature.

The Structures of the Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

The psychoanalytic theory of personality development has three layers, the conscious, the pre-conscious, and the unconscious. According to Freud, the personality structure is based on three structures/characteristics: the id, ego, and superego concepts. Each of these personality traits is linked to the two others (Pascariu, 2019). The Id, Ego, and the Super-Ego are three levels of personality (Swartz et al., 2016). The Id is completely unconscious; Ego is partially conscious and Super Ego is entirely conscious. According to Freud, the interactions between these three structures have led to our personality development. Conflicts between these three structures and our efforts to find a balance between the desires of each of the three structures is what influences human behavior and how we approach it according to Pascariu, (2019). In a particular context, what balance we strike stipulates how we handle the tension between two underlying behavioral trends: our aggressive biological drives and our socialized internal control over those drives.

According to Freud, the most important aspect of the ego is that it balances the id, the superego, and the reality so that the conscious state of the person remains healthy (Swartz et al., 2016). It protects one from the stressors and anxiety by reacting in a way that messes with reality and further protects the individual’s consciousness from the unconscious thoughts and material and often threaten to enter it (Swartz et al., 2016). The id is completely unconscious which involves the instincts and the libido. It works on the principle of pleasure and uses primary thinking processes. The ego is reasonable and based on reality’s needs (the reality principles). It uses the notion of a secondary process. The superego contains the consciousness (the inner code of morality) and the id ego. The ego is under strain from id, super-ego, and reality and functions as a crossroads for all these forces. If the ego is unable to meet these demands, anxiety comes about (Swartz et al., 2016). In essence, it is the role of the ego is to act as a balancing mechanism.

The various forms of protection are reaction, repression, denial, projecting, removal, sublimation, regression, and rationalization (Pascariu, 2019). Repression, according to Freud’s theory, is one of the most powerful systems of defense against irrational impulses from the unconscious mind (Pascariu, 2019). Defense mechanisms play a significant role in driving thoughts from the conscious part. Stressful thoughts that threaten the survival of an individual should be put into an unconscious mind to relieve anxiety by repression.

Freud’s Stages to Personality Development

Freud’s psychoanalytic Theory of Personality involves four stages which a child must undergo and complete to have a fulfilled personality. Freud believed that the conflict that happens between the four stages keeps on changing as the child keeps developing into an adult. He termed these stages of personality development as the psychosexual stages because he considered sexual instinct to be the principal component underlying human development (Singh, 2020). These stages include the oral, anal, phallic, and genital. Freud states that every phase of psychosexual development is related to an erogenous zone and each stage must be resolved and the conflicts and tasks in each stage are resolved before the possibility of progression to another stage (Swartz et al., 2016). Failure to solve the conflicts and tasks of each stage leaves the individual stuck and fixated on that stage. In essence, libidinal energy is engaged in this specific step, leaving less energy for the following stages (Swartz et al., 2016). Freud thought the foundations of many and various adult personalities are linked to unsuccessfully solved psychosexual stages of development.

For instance, an individual stuck on the oral stage may be excessively concerned or fixated on activities involving the use of the mouth in particular eating and drinking (Singh, 2020). These children develop oral-passive and oral-aggressive types of personalities in that they are either dependent or sadistic. They are easily gullible and often rely on other people for gratification and those on the oral-aggressive become excessively pessimistic, hostile, aggressive, and could be manipulative or aggressive (Singh, 2020). Those stuck on the second stage, the anal, often turn out to lack self-control and those with the anal-retentive personality tend to be stingy and typically stubborn. Under the phallic stage, men fixated on this stage are often boastful, vain, and ambitious while the females are flirtatious, seductive, and naive. Furthermore, Freud believes that the fourth stage, the genital stage, requires the formulation of intimate relationships, learning to work, and postponing of gratification, and children that resolve this stage will have mature and responsible social-sexual relations.

Zhang, (2020) comments that even if most psychodynamic theories did not use experimental research, they contributed to the development of experimental psychology through theories and methods of Psychoanalyst thinking (Zhang, 2020). Many of the personality theories advanced by the psychodynamic philosophers, such as Erikson’s idea of the psychosocial stage and Freud’s notion of the psychosexual stage, still affect today’s area (Zhang, 2020). Psychoanalysis opened up a new perspective on a mental disease that could assist relieve a person’s psychological pain by discussing psychoanalytic difficulties.

Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis has heavily impacted personality theory development especially by other well-known psychoanalytic psychologists like Anna Freud, Carl Jung, and Otto Rank (Zhang, 2020). In psychoanalysis and dreaming, Anna Freud inherited the theory of Sigmund Freud but moved focus to child psychology which is constantly used in the field of child psychology.

Freud is still felt today as a psychological trace. Speech therapy is usually linked to psychoanalysis, but therapists are also using the technique for other therapeutic techniques, such as client therapy and group therapy. It may not have been the strength of psychoanalysis in 1910, but Freud’s theories have lastingly influenced popular and psychology culture as well. While Freud is widely criticized, the significance and impact of his theory on personality psychology cannot be denied.

Beckmann, N., & Wood, R. E. (2017). Dynamic personality science. Integrating between-person stability and within-person change. Frontiers Research Topics . Web.

Pascariu, C. C. (2019). Child Personality Development – A Psychoanalytic Approach. International Journal of Education and Psychology in the Community, IJEPC , 9 (1-2), 87-91.

Singh, S. (2020). Psychoanalytic theory of personality . RajRAS. Web.

Swartz, L., Rey, C. D., Duncan, N., Townsend, L., & O’Neill, V. (2016). Psychology: An introduction (4th ed.). South Africa ; New York : Oxford University Press Southern Africa.

Zhang, S. (2020). Psychoanalysis: The influence of Freud’s theory in personality psychology. Proceedings of the International Conference on Mental Health and Humanities Education (ICMHHE 2020) . Web.

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1.4: Freud And Psychoanalytic Theory

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Perhaps one of the most influential and well-known figures in psychology’s history was Sigmund Freud (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physi- cal symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which had an apparent physical cause. Freud theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness. Gaining access to the unconscious, then, was crucial to the successful resolution of the patient’s problems. According to Freud, the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis, by examinations of the first words that came to people’s minds, and through seemingly innocent slips of the tongue. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

Freud’s ideas were influential, and you will learn more about them when you study lifespan development, person- ality, and therapy. For instance, many therapists believe strongly in the unconscious and the impact of early child- hood experiences on the rest of a person’s life. The method of psychoanalysis, which involves the patient talking about their experiences and selves, while not invented by Freud, was certainly popularized by him and is still used today. Many of Freud’s other ideas, however, are controversial. Drew Westen (1998) argues that many of the criticisms of Freud’s ideas are mis- placed, in that they attack his older ideas without taking into account later writings. Westen also argues that critics fail to consider the success of the broad ideas that Freud introduced or developed, such as the importance of childhood experi- ences in adult motivations, the role of unconscious versus conscious motivations in driving our behavior, the fact that motivations can cause conflicts that affect behavior, the effects of mental representations of ourselves and others in guiding our interactions, and the development of personality over time. Westen identifies subsequent research support for all of these ideas.

More modern iterations of Freud’s clinical approach have been empirically demonstrated to be effective (Knekt et al., 2008; Shedler, 2010). Some current practices in psychother- apy involve examining unconscious aspects of the self and relationships, often through the relationship between the therapist and the client.

Freud’s historical significance and contributions to clinical practice merit his inclusion in a discussion of the histori- cal movements within psychology.

Psychoanalytic Theories: Examples and Explanations

Psychoanalysis is the branch of psychology that investigates the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind.

Founded by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, this theoretical framework aims to bring repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind, allowing an individual to confront and better understand their feelings and behaviors. The process usually involves dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst, often focusing on the patient’s dreams and childhood memories.

Psychoanalysis posits that human behavior is a product of internal conflicts, unconscious desires, and past experiences. In this framework, resolving these conflicts and bringing them to consciousness can lead to improved mental health and a clearer understanding of oneself.

While Freud’s ideas are largely debunked, subsequent researchers have build-on his foundations to develop their own useful ideas about the subconscious psyche.

Psychoanalytic Theory Examples

1. ego psychology (freud).

Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, developed a theory of how the subconscious mind operates.

He held that the mind contained three components: the id, ego, and superego . Each influence one another and are in struggle. The id represents impulse, the ego represents pragmatism, and the superego represents morals:

See Also: Freudian Slip Examples

2. Psychosexual Development Theory (Freud)

Freud’s second important contribution to psychoanalysis was his theory of development. In this theory, he believed people developed through distinct stages, driven by sexual desires.

Each of Freud’s stages is characterized by a different sexually-related challenge that must be overcome, or else we will develop a complex for the rest of our lives.

The stages are outlined below:

Go Deeper: Freud’s Theory of Personality – An Overview

3. the Collective Unconscious (Jung)

Carl Jung, a prominent Swiss psychiatrist, introduced the concept of the collective unconscious to psychology.

The collective unconscious is proposed to be a part of the unconscious mind, manifested by universal archetypes or symbols that are shared among all humans due to ancestral experience.

In essence, Jung’s idea posits that our behaviors and thoughts are not merely personal but influenced by ancestral knowledge contained within the collective unconscious. This concept distinguishes itself from the personal unconscious, which refers to information that has been acquired during one’s life but has been forgotten or repressed.

According to Jung, exploring your collective unconscious (through dreams or various forms of therapy) allows you to tap into universal experiences (known as Jungian archetypes) and ideas that shape your thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Go Deeper: Jung’s Collective Unconscious – An Overview

4. Psychological Archetypes (Jung)

The second key contribution of Carl Jung to psychoanalysis is the concept of archetypes. Jung defined these as universal and innate symbols present in the collective unconscious of all human beings.

Psychological archetypes, according to Jung, play a vital role in influencing human thoughts, actions, and feelings. They are generally formed through historical experiences shared by our ancestors and can be recognized through patterns that emerge in dreams, literature, art, or religion.

Some of the main Jungian archetypes include the Self, the Persona, the Shadow, the Anima/Animus, the Great Mother, the Wise Old Man, the Hero, and the Trickster.

Each archetype represents a different aspect of the human psyche. For instance, the Persona represents the image we present to the world while the Shadow houses our darkest desires and impulses. Understanding these archetypes, Jung argued, could help individuals to gain insights into their behaviors and deeper selves.

Go Deeper: Jungian Archetypes – An Overview

5. Adler’s Individual Psychology

Alfred Adler, an Austrian psychotherapist, established a unique perspective called Individual Psychology. It emphasizes the person as a whole unit and highlights the importance of societal factors, notably family and community, on individual development.

Adler argued that human character traits are shaped by an individual’s drive to overcome feelings of inferiority, which he called Inferiority Complex. The feelings arise in childhood from our realization of being lesser and weaker than adults. Correctly overcoming these feelings guides us toward mastery and personal growth, known as striving for superiority.

According to Adler, this pursuit of superiority is influenced by one’s lifestyle, an overall strategy we construct to navigate society and face challenges. The relational approach encouraged by Adler manifests in our goal-setting and problem-solving behavior, underscoring how our interactions with society profoundly shape our individuality.

6. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson made Freudian psychology far more palatable with his psycho social rather than psycho sexual model of development.

Whereas Freud argued that psychosexual energy (called the libido) was the driving force behind development, Erikson argued that it was social desires that are core to psychological development.

Erikson went on to formulate a set of lifelong stages, where the core challenge or crisis in each stage was not sexual in nature, but social:

Each stage presents a central conflict or crisis that individuals must navigate. Successfully resolving each crisis leads to the development of a basic virtue that contributes to a healthy personality and interactions with others.

Go Deeper: Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

7. Klein’s Object Relations Theory

Melanie Klein, a prominent child psychoanalyst, offered a novel perspective through her Object Relations Theory.

This theory focuses on our interpersonal relations, asserting that our experiences with others (objects) significantly impact our personal growth and perception of the world.

According to Klein, early childhood experiences, particularly those involving primary caregivers, play an instrumental role in shaping our psyche, our expectations of others, and our relationships. These “objects” or people can either be part-objects, such as a mother’s breast to a hungry baby, or whole objects like the mother herself.

Klein proposed that we develop both positive and negative feelings towards these objects, resulting in what she termed the “paranoid-schizoid” and “depressive” positions:

• Paranoid-Schizoid: This refers to a child’s early perception of good and bad objects.
• Depressive: This introduces the awareness that objects can possess both good and bad qualities.

By understanding these interactions, Klein believed, we could grapple with our difficulties and derive insights into our relationships.

Before you Go

I’ve provided links throughout this piece to help you go deeper into your exploration of the various psychoanalytic theories. But it’s also worth zooming out to see the range of other theories in psychology , including:

• Cognitive Psychology : This branch studies mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving.
• Behavioral Psychology: This focuses on observable behaviors and the effects of the environment on them.
• Humanist Psychology: This emphasizes individual potential, self-actualization, and the intrinsic nature of human beings.
• Developmental Psychology: This examines the psychological changes and growth that occur throughout the human lifespan.
• Personality Theories in Psychology: These seek to explain the enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that characterize individual humans.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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