local case study of residential building

Case Study: Hillside House and Guesthouse by Hoedemaker Pfeiffer Architects

Whatever the topography or scale, a good house celebrates the experience of space inside and out, and these two buildings do that extraordinarily well. On a remote island in Puget Sound, the getaways are as rugged as their setting, but cocoon-like as well. The serene main house and guesthouse demonstrate the restorative potential of architecture by inviting the owner to connect with herself and with nature.

That was important, because she is active in Seattle’s civic culture and depends on this place to decompress. She had been coming to an existing house on this spot for many years and wanted a house that better suited her lifestyle. It was also an opportunity to build a smaller retreat for her grown daughter on the adjacent lot, or “building circle.” In this community, land is shared in common and each resident owns a building circle where a house can be built, says Steve Hoedemaker, AIA, whose firm, Hoedemaker Pfeiffer, was hired to design the project.

The compact 2,500-square-foot main house and 1,975-square-foot guesthouse have shed roofs, Douglas fir windows and doors, hemlock ceilings, and oak floors. Canted slightly toward each other on the steep, rocky site, they both use simple, stacked-stone volumes as an organizing principle. While this concept acknowledges the site’s geology, it was also an emotional touchstone. “The client’s family had a property in Appalachia with an old stone cottage that had a lot of sentimental meaning for them,” says Steve. “It was lost to fire and the property was given to the state to become a park. The property has lived in their memory and imagination, and they wanted to reach back and touch an aspect of what it meant to them.”

Sitting high above the water, the main house is a glass-and-wood structure resting on a plinth of Whistler basalt stone quarried in Canada. “The idea was to create a stone platform on which the house could rest, and then a stone wall to provide privacy from a small road,” Steve says. “On top of the platform is a light wood building that could perch there with much less need for both structure and privacy.”

On the north entry façade, a bar-shaped stone volume contains the master bath, powder room, and mudroom/laundry, its shed roof tilted down against the weather and the road. An east-west hallway axis joins it to the taller and lighter structure behind it housing a kitchen/dining/living room and master bedroom that flow out to a deck overlooking Puget Sound. Stacked stone reappears in this volume as a pair of central fireplaces. They separate the public and private spaces and flank a wide stairway to the lower level, which holds two bedrooms, a bath, and a kayak garage.

“The house sits on the westernmost portion of the island with beautiful sunlight and great views across the water and the islands,” Steve says. Sheltered and controlled, the main living space gets abundant light through a south wall of glass facing the water. This volume also tips up to the north, but its higher roofline allows for a band of operable clerestory windows that backfill the space with continuous northern light and release warm air on the leeward side. Its lower pitch toward the water protects the inside from glare.

One thing the client liked about the old house was that there was a sunny place to sit comfortably outdoors in cool weather, sheltered from the wind, Steve says. Hoedemaker Pfeiffer’s design recreated that version through the roof overhang and the two stone fireplace volumes that puncture the back wall, creating a protected seating nook on the deck. “The design allows them to occupy the main floor outside the building, and that protected space captures warmth from sunlight even when the temperature isn’t quite accommodating,” says project architect Todd Beyerlein.

Indeed, the design sets up a nuanced relationship between house, land, and view. “When you enter the house, there’s a moment where you’re able to see distant views, and you can see that there’s an exterior plinth you can inhabit; it inspires you to move around the building to get there,” says Todd. Adds Steve: “You can see the stone level that the whole first floor sits on and can read the ground dropping away. It’s an introduction to the concept, but you have to go looking for it.”

The solid, enduring interior materials are a further manifestation of the house as a tool for exploring nature. The feel of both cottages came from a basket of objects the client had collected from the site, such as bark, feathers, and rocks. In addition to the stone, honey-colored cedar siding wraps inside to cover the walls. Charcoal-colored basaltina, an Italian stone, adds a calming complement in the kitchen and baths.

A variation on this theme, the guesthouse was conceived as a stone tower with three protrusions. Closer to the water than the main house, “the site is a great deal steeper,” Todd says, “and was encumbered by a community association rule that limited its height to preserve the views of other residents. It also had a smaller building circle than the main house, which to some extent dictated the design. We wanted to build on a small footprint to limit excavation, yet we wanted more square footage, so we came up with what amounted to a stone tower with a program that extends outward.”

Visitors enter through a ground-to-roof glazed opening on the north side. To the left is a bumped-out wall of louvered casement windows that light the switchback staircase leading to the lower-level bedrooms and bath. Ahead on the main floor are the great room’s kitchen, island, and living room—and beyond, a south deck that cantilevers far above grade. The third protrusion is a glass-enclosed, 12-foot-by-15-foot dining room, held dramatically aloft on two 36-foot steel beams that anchor 24 feet into the building structure.

“It’s great to be up there among the trees, but we had to work hard to keep them there,” Steve says. Footings for a retaining wall under the dining room were tapered to steer clear of the roots of an important tree.

These companion buildings frame the indoor-outdoor conversation in different ways. “In the main house it’s about perching on a piece of earth and allowing the architecture to become light and ephemeral,” Todd says. “In the guesthouse, it’s about what it means to be inside, yet step outside of the architecture and still be indoors. We liked the idea of setting up rules and then finding very specific reasons to violate them.” Adds Steve, “it was almost like the square was too strong and simple until we came up with the exception.”

It took almost two years to build the houses, working on an isolated island without ferry service. With headquarters in Seattle and operations all over the U.S., Schuchart Dow (now Dowbuilt) knew how to organize around difficult terrain and time the arrival of concrete trucks with the tides. Most of the workers commuted by private boat daily, and the materials were barged in and staged at a house rented for the duration. “We would take all of our materials to that location first, prep them, and take them out to the job as needed,” says project manager Josh Williamson. “The 400,000 pounds of basalt stone came as blocks and every stone needed to be cut to a gauged size we could work with. But once we fell into a system, it became routine.”

The steep slope was daunting too, and not just for the construction crew. “We had to put up a perimeter safety fence around the whole site so that people and tools and materials didn’t fall into the water,” Steve says. Or sheep, it turns out. The island is home to a native population of free-ranging sheep brought here more than 100 years ago. During construction, a newborn fell down the hill and would have hit the water had it not been for the fence. “Our laborer who was living on the island took it home and nursed it back to health,” Josh says.

The project was a collective effort of more than 100 workers, he adds. The result is two well-crafted compositions that achieve the best of retreat architecture by letting nature shape and define it.

Plans and Drawings

Project Credits

Hillside Sanctuary and Hillside Retreat

San Juan Islands, Washington

ARCHITECT: Steve Hoedemaker, AIA, principal in charge; Todd Beyerlein, project architect, Hoedemaker Pfeiffer, Seattle

BUILDER: Josh Williamson, project manager, Schuchart/Dow (now Dowbuilt), Seattle

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT: Randy Allworth, Allworth Design, Seattle

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER: Malsam Tsang, Seattle

CIVIL ENGINEER: LPD Engineering, Seattle

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER: Nelson Geotechnical Associates, Woodinville, Washington

ARBORIST: Island Tree Doctor, Eastsound, Washington

PROJECT SIZE: 2,500 square feet (main house), 1,975 square feet (guesthouse)

SITE SIZE: .07 acres each

CONSTRUCTION COST: Withheld

PHOTOGRAPHER: Kevin Scott

Key Products

COOKTOP/RANGE: Wolf

DISHWASHER: Miele

DOOR HARDWARE: Baldwin

ENTRY DOORS: Northstar Woodworks

EXTERIOR LIGHTING: B-K Lighting, Lucifer Lighting

FAUCETS: PHYLRICH

INTERIOR LIGHTING: Philips Lightolier, Hafele, Tech Lighting, Casella, Currey & Company, Modern Fan Company

REFRIGERATOR: Sub-Zero

SINKS: Blanco, Duravit, PHYLRICH

THERMAL AND MOISTURE BARRIER: PROSOCO

TOILETS: TOTO

TUB: Lacava

WASHER/DRYER: Electrolux

WINDOWS: Woodcraft Windows

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A checklist for architectural case studies

A case study is a process of researching into a project and documenting through writings, sketches , diagrams, and photos. To understand the various aspects of designing and constructing a building one must consider learning from other people’s mistakes. As Albert Einstein quoted, “Learn from yesterday, live for today, and hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not to stop questioning.” 

A case study can be a starting point of any project or it can also serve as a link or reference which can help in explaining the project with ease. It is not necessary that the building we choose for our case study should be the true representation of our project. The main purpose is to research and understand the concepts that an architect has used while designing that project and how it worked, and our aim should be to learn from its perfections as well as from its mistakes too while adding our creativity.

• Primarily, talk to people and never stop questioning, read books, and dedicate your time to researching famous projects . Try to gather information on all famous projects because it is essential for a successful case study and easily available too. Also before starting the case study do a complete literature study on a particular subject, it gives a vague idea about the requirements of the project.
• Study different case studies that other people have done earlier on the projects which you would choose for your own just to get a vague idea about the project, before actually diving into it.
• Do case studies of similar projects with different requirements. For example, while doing a case study of a residential building, you should choose 3 residential buildings, one with the minimum, average, and maximum amenities. It helps in comparing between different design approaches.
• If possible, visit the building and do a live case study, a lot of information can be gathered by looking at the building first hand and you will get a much deeper insight and meaningful understanding of the subject and will also be able to feel the emotion which the building radiates.
• While doing the case study if you come across certain requirements that are missing but went through it while doing the literature study, they should try to implement those requirements in the design.

Certain points should be kept in mind while preparing the questionnaire, they are as follows,

Style of architecture

• The regional context is prevalent in the design or not.
• Special features.

Linkage / Connectivity diagrams

• From all the plans gather the linkage diagram.

Site plan analysis

• Size of the site.
• Site and building ratio.
• The orientation of the building.
• Geology, soil typology, vegetation, hydrography

Construction technologies and materials

• Related to the project.
• Materials easily available in that region and mostly used.
• Technologies used in that region. Search for local technologies that are known among the local laborers.

Environment and micro-climate

• Try to document a building situated in a region that is somewhat similar to the region in which the project will be designed.
• Important climatic factors- sun path, rainfall, and wind direction.

Requirements and used behaviors

• Areas required that will suffice the efficiency of the work to be done in that space.
• Keeping in mind the requirements, age-group, gender, and other factors while designing.

Form and function

• The form is incomplete without function. To define a large space or form it is necessary to follow the function.
• To analyze the reason behind the formation of a certain building and how it merges with the surroundings or why it stands out and does not merge with the surroundings.
• Why the architect of the building adopted either of the philosophies, “form follows function” or “function follows form”.

Circulation- Horizontal and Vertical

• Size and area of corridor and lobbies.
• Placement of staircases, ramps, elevators, etc.

Structure- Column, beam, etc.

• Analyzing the structure detail.
• Types of beams, columns, and trusses used, for example, I- section beam, C- section beam.

Building services or systems

• Analyzing the space requirement of HVAC, fire alarm system, water supply system, etc.

Consideration of Barrier-free environment in design detailing

• Designing keeping the requirements of disabled people, children, pregnant women, etc. in mind.

Access and approach

• Entry and exit locations into the site as well as into the building.
• Several entries and exit points.

Doing a case study and documenting information gives you various ideas and lets you peek into the minds of various architects who used their years of experience and dedicated their time to creating such fine structures. It is also fun as you get to meet different people, do lots of traveling, and have fun. 

She is a budding architect hailing from the city of joy, Kolkata. With dreams in her eyes and determination in her will, she is all set to tell stories about buildings, cultures, and people through her point of view. She hopes you all enjoy her writings. Much love.

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• Published: 15 May 2024

Courtyard geometry’s effect on energy consumption of AlKharga city residential buildings, Egypt

• Ahmed M. Seddik Hassan 1 ,
• Reham Fathy Ahmed Abd El Aal 1 ,
• Asmaa Abd elmoneim Fahmi 2 ,
• Sherif Mohamed Ahmed Ali 2 &
• Mohamed I. M. Abdelhady 2  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  11149 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Energy science and technology
• Engineering

The research aim is to clarify the effect of courtyard placement, the ratio between length and width, and courtyard orientation on energy consumption in residential buildings in hot and dry climates, to seek planning and designing alternatives for new cities and new residential complexes that are consistent with the environment and climate and save the consumption of energy used in the buildings. The research method was conducted through Design Builder software for simulation purposes. The reference model with the 157.25 m 2 which accommodates a central square courtyard measuring 5 m × 5 m, on a residential building model in the New Valley Governorate of Kharga City, Egypt. The courtyard simulation is aimed to determine Less energy consumption inside the different case studies, in 9 courtyard placements The studied alternatives for Courtyard Placement, are (the center of the building, sub facades, and main facades). The different ratios are (1:1, 1.25:1, 1.5:1–1.75:1, 2:1, 2.25:1, 2.5–1). The longitudinal axis of the Courtyard has been oriented to the east–west direction for all placements, and north–south direction for all placements. Also, (orientation angle is Zero), it offered the percentages of better and worst cases in each position of the courtyard. The research findings suggest that the best Placement of the Courtyard that achieved the highest rate of saving of energy consumed inside the used building model was at the southwestern façade, with a saving rate of 18.73%. Then, the Placement of the Courtyard at the northwestern and southeastern facades with a saving rate of 17.91%, with a length-to-width ratio (2.5:1) if the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard is oriented in the north–south direction, Through the study, we conclude that the placement and orientation of the courtyard and its regular formation have contributed to rationalizing energy consumption in residential buildings, the study reached some important standards that could represent a methodological framework for designing contemporary residential buildings with an energy-efficient inner courtyard.

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Introduction.

The problem of the research is that the designs of most buildings in hot dry areas disregard the impact of the climate conditions surrounding such buildings on the climate formation inside buildings. Moreover, new architectural elements have been introduced, that are not consistent with such conditions and don’t take them into account, such as the great development of modern construction styles resulting in the development of the architectural structure, freedom in facades design, the spread of the vertical construction style in most urbanization areas in the desert. This has resulted in a similarity of architectural designs in all countries despite the difference in climate conditions.

One of the most architectural elements characterizing the Arab heritage urban fabric is the inner Courtyard. Arabs and Muslims used it in their architecture due to its consistency with the environmental needs and requirements and the cultural and social concepts. Therefore, the inner Courtyard is considered one of the most important architectural solutions contributing to the confrontation of climate problems, particularly in hot dry areas. It also has great importance in the environmental design system of residential buildings, particularly in the provision of natural lighting and ventilation of high quality, resulting in energy efficiency 1 .

Many recent studies recommended reviving the style of buildings with courtyards in modern architecture, particularly in hot areas, as they are more appropriate for such climates and more energy-efficient than the modern styles of modern residential buildings 2 . The studies that addressed the inner Courtyard as a climatic mechanism proved that it is a climatic mechanism appropriate to the hot and dry regions, i.e., in the regions between latitudes 15°-30°, north or south of the equator, where most Arab countries, which adopted the inner courtyards in their traditional architecture, are located in these regions. In a study conducted to determine the best shape of the buildings in various climate regions, it was found that the buildings with courtyards are the most appropriate for the regions of hot dry climates, constituting the most significant percentage of the Arab Countries 3 .

According to the space characteristics of the Courtyard, its Placement has an important value for architecture and urbanism and is an influential factor in the extent of functional, environmental, and formational efficiency of a residence. The urban fabric in the hot and hot dry areas in the Arab countries reflects styles, in which the courtyard placement represents an important dimension in the formation, function, and environment of urbanism and distinguishing its identity. The study will address the effect of the inner courtyard placements on the consumption of energy in residential buildings in hot dry areas.

This study attempted to investigate the various parameters of the courtyard, such as placement, orientation, and elongation of the courtyard and their effects on the energy consumption inside architectural spaces as a tool for Energy saving. One of the Kharga city in the New Valley Governorate, Egypt residential models is chosen for testing and simulation as a case study of the present study.

Research limits

The application of the study will be limited to residential buildings in hot, dry areas. An example of these areas is the Arab Republic of Egypt, New Valley Governorate—Kharga City.

Research limitations

Lack of research studies in the field of study, as most of the studies that dealt with the courtyard were related to ventilation and temperature and their effect on thermal comfort within architectural spaces.

The inability to obtain electricity bills and meter readings after changing the electrical meters to prepaid meters, to calibrate the case study and compare it with the results of the program.

Inner courtyard

The inner courtyard is one of the most important architectural and symbolic features of the residential buildings in heritage architecture. It is also deemed as the heritage architectural system in treating the hot environment. It is also one of the most important principles of environmental, sustainable, and green architecture in Islamic housing architecture due to its ability to adapt to various climate conditions and meet various environmental, aesthetic, social, health, and psychological requirements 4 .

Importance of the courtyard in designing modern residential buildings at hot dry areas

Many researchers concluded that: “The adjoining buildings with inner courtyards are the most appropriate to the hot dry climate” 5 . The studies emphasized that the buildings with inner courtyards are the most buildings forming shadows during the sun movement during the day, and in the case of buildings of multiple floors, the shadows increase 6 . The courtyards reduce areas of roofs and walls exposed to the sunrays and other climate factors to a large extent and achieve the greatest amount of shadows, consequently protecting the building from the intense impact of the sunrays in hot areas 7 , as the inner Courtyard acts as a thermal regulator inside the residence through the provision of thermal comfort by the provision of cold shaded air substituting the hot air inside rooms surrounding it. The Courtyard is significantly important in various environmental 3 , formational, religious 4 , health, and social 8 aspects, as shown in Fig.  1 .

Importance of incorporation of inner courtyard in residential buildings.

Inner courtyard definition

There are various linguistic, terminological, and architectural definitions of the inner Courtyard, including the following:

Linguistic and terminological definition of the inner courtyard

The Courtyard is linguistically defined as a space in the middle of a building mass or an area extended in front of or around it. For the terminological definition of the Courtyard, it is an architectural means providing privacy and protection or a closed space structure composed of continuous or semi-continuous walls and overlooked by spaces of direct beneficial relevance 9 .

Architectural definition of the courtyard

The inner Courtyard is a space open to the sky and surrounded by building masses. It may be located inside or outside the building. Most windows of the rooms overlook it. It is used as an architectural component controlling the climate in the building design, as it moderates temperature and illuminates and ventilates the internal spaces 10 . It may also be defined as a part of the surrounding general space, which is surrounded by the building’s internal spaces to adapt to the environmental, formational, and social conditions 9 .

Placement of the courtyard and residence climate

The studies proved that the Courtyard reduces the temperature during the day inside buildings by varying values based on several factors, including air movement and coldness, amount of shadows, used building materials and their colors, and their degree of sunray dispersal 11 . The design of the residence around the Courtyard is one of the best methods to address environmental problems of the climate, particularly in the desert areas, as the inner Courtyard acts as a regulator of the temperature inside the residence, night and day. It provides ventilation and protects residences against hot wind. These are achieved through orienting such Courtyard and, adjusting its Placement for such a residence, and shaping its walls and building materials. The Courtyard also helps to achieve communication of the user with the external space. Moreover, the inner Courtyard allows the possibility to cultivate plants and trees and set up fountains inside it, resulting in improving and moderating the climate condition using such components 7 . Consequently, the Courtyard contributes to raising the efficiency of internal spaces surrounding it, reducing the energy consumption inside the residence.

Placement of courtyard and thermal cycle system

The Placement and formation of the Courtyard are the most important factors influencing the quality and efficiency of the thermal cycle system of the Courtyard, which is related to the day, noon, and night, as the areas of its walls exposed to the sun and shading amounts resulting from the orientation and Placement significantly help in adjusting the movement of the cold and hot air and the daily frequent thermal cycle of the Courtyard. The good Placement of the Courtyard adds environmental value to the residence spaces. The Courtyard helps provide natural lighting and ventilation, reduces energy consumption, and depends on the use of natural energy sources 12 .

The Courtyard acts as a thermal regulator in the residential buildings, as it cools the internal spaces. In its performance of its function, the Courtyard acts as a store of the cold air at night. The idea of the Courtyard's internal work depends on the phenomenon of significant variation of temperature between night and day, as at night, the Courtyard reradiates the amounts of the sunrays stored in its ground and walls all day to the sky; meanwhile, the cold air is stored therein to make use of the courtyard coldness during the next day 13 . During the daytime, the performance of the Courtyard differs when it is exposed to the sun's rays, as the weight of hot air decreases and rises upward and the cold air is drawn through the windows of rooms to substitute the hot air 14 . In addition, shading a vast area of its ground, reducing the reflected sunrays, and using trees, fountains, and climbing plants that insulate walls help cool the temperature of the Courtyard, and the moderately cold air gathers in layers and flows inside the spaces overlooking the Courtyard 15 . See Fig.  2 .

Thermal performance of the inner courtyard at night and during the daytime (Continuous lines in blue represent the air movement, while dashed lines in red color represent the solar and thermal radiation) 15 .

Shape of the courtyard and its relation to residence spaces

The courtyard shape and Placement are important dimensions in the engineering and organization of the internal spaces. It’s common knowledge in heritage architecture that the shape of inner courtyards takes a purely geometric shape, as the vast majority of them take on two basic shapes, the square and rectangular shapes 8 as shown in Fig.  3 . The courtyard shape is also made up of the distribution or grouping of the architectural spaces around it and the nature of the space relations between the inner Courtyard and the spaces overlooking it. Other factors influencing the shape and form of the Courtyard derived from the heritage and traditional architecture often include the land area, building size, total rooms, spaces overlooking the Courtyard, and the functional purpose for which the Courtyard was set up. All these factors are mainly related to the social aspects of the owner of the residence, such as the number of family members, social status, and financial status.

The prevailing formation of the courtyard in heritage buildings that diversifies between square and rectangular shapes 11 .

This formation contributed to the symmetry of surrounding spaces. Moreover, the regularity of the geometric shape of the Courtyard between the square and rectangular shapes and adjusting its Placement to be consistent with the cardinal directions or in a clear relation with the cardinal directions works on attaining the orientation of the residence spaces 11 .

Inner courtyards orientation

Following the general orientation of the Courtyard in terms of the cardinal directions, the most important element of the climatic system of the Courtyard, and through the proper orientation of the Courtyard, we can attain the minimum exposure to the sun rays in the summer and the maximum exposure to the sun rays in the winter, and we can as well take advantage of the wind movement in the courtyard ventilation. The proper orientation of the Courtyard helps achieve thermal comfort inside the building 13 . Figure  4 shows varying the orientation of the Courtyard from 0° to 90°.

Varying the orientation of the courtyard from 0° to 90° 2 .

Courtyard geometric measurements

The geometric dimensions of the Courtyard influence the performance of such Courtyard. The studies demonstrated that the effectiveness of any courtyard and its performance efficiency as a climatic mechanism is based on many factors, the most important of which is the courtyard dimensions, including length, width, and height. The height of the courtyard walls is the most important factor affecting the access of solar radiation to the Courtyard. For instance, increasing the height of courtyard walls from one floor to two floors would delay the access to the sun’s rays by about two hours or more. Therefore, the courtyard walls and their height must be appropriate to their dimensions in the horizontal plane. Therefore, the researchers recommend that the courtyard dimensions in the horizontal plan shouldn’t exceed the height of its walls. The geometric dimensions of the Courtyard could be identified in three variables, including 2 as shown in Fig.  5 .

Courtyard Depth: The ratio between the courtyard perimeter and height. Such Courtyard will be deemed as deep if this ratio is less than 3.

Courtyard Elongation: The ratio between the courtyard width and length.

Openness to the Sky: the ratio between the courtyard land area and courtyard upper area, which equals 1 in case of lack of prominences in the Courtyard upper area.

The geometric dimensions of courtyard 2 .

Placement of the courtyard and its relation to residence

The heritage residential urban fabric in Egypt and the Arab region includes several similar instances of courtyard placement. It has been noted from the residences spreading in the Arab region that the Courtyard located in the middle of the residence spaces is the most common, followed by the Courtyard surrounded by residence spaces on three sides. Then, the corner courtyard or the Courtyard surrounded by residence spaces on two sides is less common. Then, the Placement of the Courtyard surrounded by residence spaces on one side is rare 11 . Therefore, the Placement of the Courtyard has been selected to be in the center of the building as the main Alternative for the study. Figure  6 shows selected models of heritage buildings in Arab countries illustrating the Placement of the Courtyard in the residence in the heritage architecture.

Placement of the courtyard in some different models on the Arab Heritage Urbanism 11 .

The placements of the Courtyard can be described as follows.

Courtyard placement in the center of the building.

Courtyard placement in the middle of the main facades (Northern, eastern, southern, western).

Courtyard placements on sub-facades (northeastern, northwestern, southeastern, southwestern), show Table 1 the different placements of Courtyard in residential buildings.

Method and materials

The second part of the study addresses the potential of reducing energy consumption by studying the relationship between the residence and the Placement of the inner Courtyard, the research methodology included conducting an experiment to determine the impact of the courtyard's various design parameters on energy consumption, Using Kharga city in the New Valley Governorate, Egypt as a case study, the experiment included simulating energy consumption different courtyard cases, The research method was conducted through Design- Builder software for simulation purposes.

The study area

The building selected for the simulation is located in Kharga city in the New Valley Governorate, Egypt. Kharga city is located in the Egyptian Western Desert, specifically in the northern part of Kharga Depression. The city is 72 m above sea level. It’s bordered to the north by Gabal Altayr and to the northwestern by Gabal Tarwan. The city is located in the middle of urban centers in the Kharga Depression 17 .

The study area is astronomically located between latitudes 25°, 27° north and longitudes 30°, 32° east 18 . The area is known for its harsh climate conditions, especially during the summer, so, it is a prominent model of the hot dry desert region, requiring special architectural treatments that are consistent with the environment and climate and save the consumption of energy used in residential buildings. Figure  7 shows the average temperature and solar radiation in Kharga city.

Daily average temperature and levels of solar radiation in Kharga City.

Imran city of Kharga

The city has a distinctive traditional architectural style that was created by the conditions of the surrounding environment, the needs and social conditions, and the customs and traditions of the people of the city, As for the modern residential neighborhoods in the city of Kharga, they were formed after the implementation of the local government system in the New Valley Governorate in 1986 AD, and the city witnessed a major urban expansion after the preparation and approval of the general plan for the city from 1986 AD until now, most of the urban expansions are located in the western direction, and accordingly, Kharga was divided into two urban areas 7 :

Old Kharga , is dominated by a compact urban fabric and contains many valuable heritage buildings, and the urban style of the Old Kharga neighborhood is compatible with the hot desert nature.

New Kharga and the new extension areas , the residential site consists of several residential blocks that are repeated on the site, leaving spaces between them, noting that these blocks and sites are repeated in most Egyptian cities despite the different environmental and climatic conditions of these cities.

Methodology

Evaluation of the building's climate performance.

At this stage, a database is prepared for the building, which includes determining the climatic region in which the building is located, determining its location and area, the type of building (residential building), and preparing a climatic data file for the city.

Determine designing alternatives for the courtyard

Placement of courtyard.

Many design alternatives have been developed for the Placement of the Courtyard at the residence, including (the center of the building, northern façade, western façade, southern façade, eastern façade, northwestern façade, northeastern façade, southwestern façade, southeastern façade), Fig.  8 shows the 9 Courtyard Placement, the main Alternative will be compared to is the square Courtyard at the center of the building, Table 1 shows the different placements of Courtyard in residential buildings.

The 9 courtyard placements.

Courtyard elongation

The Courtyard has been designed in various placements by the following ratios (1:1, 1.25:1, 1.5:1–1.75:1, 2:1, 2.25:1, 2.5–1).

Courtyards orientation

The longitudinal axis of the Courtyard has been applied at the east–west direction for all placements and ratios. In addition, the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard has been changed to be at north–south direction for all placements and ratios (the orientation angle is Zero) (Fig.  9 ).

Daily occupancy schedule for different apartment rooms.

Reference model for simulation

The building subject of the study is a residential building of two floors, the total area of which is 157.25 Sq m, with a square-shaped inner Courtyard in the middle of the building spaces measuring 5 m × 5 m, and is a residence of one family, as shown in Fig.  10 . DesignBuilder software has been used to design the building. Table 2 shows the different specifications of the building, which have been used as inputs in the simulation process, such as the materials used in the construction, the Weather Data File, and different energy loads.

The study building model.

With regard to the occupancy schedule for the building rooms used in the simulation, the results of the survey conducted by Attia 19 in Egyptian cities are based on the average surveyed air conditioning and lighting schedule in different spaces for several apartments in some Egyptian cities, which is consistent to the case study 16 .

Energy simulation

The investigation of placement, elongation, and orientation of the courtyard was carried out using DesignBuilder software, one of the most reliable and widely used tools in several researches related to energy, has been used. DesignBuilder is dynamic simulation software used to calculate a wide range of thermal performance data, in addition to the energy consumption of a virtual building model with the EnergyPlus engine. In essence, EnergyPlus™ brings together the best capabilities and features of BLAST and DOE-2 16 .

DesignBuilder software has been used to assess the effect of the inner Courtyard on energy consumption in modern residential buildings by utilizing the inner Courtyard at different placements derived from Arab heritage urbanism see Fig.  6 to conclude the best Placement resulting in the highest rate of saving of energy consumption. The Placement of the Courtyard has been selected to be in the center of the building as the main Alternative of the study, to which the other alternatives will be compared due to the widespread of such courtyard placement in residential buildings.

A different model of the building is formed by the adjustment in placement, elongation, and orientation of the courtyard which includes the different cases of building, The nine main placements of reference model for various simulation sets, are shown in Table 1 , the Courtyard has been designed in various placements by the following ratios (1:1, 1.25:1, 1.5:1- 1.75:1, 2:1, 2.25:1, 2.5–1) and the simulations of the courtyard orientation the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard has been applied at the east–west direction for all placements and ratios. In addition, the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard has been changed to be a north–south direction for all placements and ratios (orientation angle is Zero), to determine the best length-to-width ratio for the Courtyard and the best Placement and orientation, achieving the thermal comfort and the highest rate of saving of energy consumption inside the residence, Table 3 shows energy consumption values for the study cases, of the reference building.

Results and discussion

The main results of the current work are presented in Tables 3 and 4 presents the simulation summary of the nine courtyard placements (the center of the building, the middle of the main facades Northern, eastern, southern, western, and on sub facades northeastern, northwestern, southeastern, southwestern) and different elongation (1:1, 1.25:1, 1.5:1–1.75:1, 2:1, 2.25:1, 2.5–1). Presenting energy consumption values for simulated cases of different courtyard placements for the selected housing model of Kharga, City in the New Valley. A comparison of the annual energy consumption for different courtyard placements is shown in Figs.  11 , 12 , and 13 .

The total energy consumption of courtyard placements with different proportions in the center of the building.

The total energy consumption of all building courtyard placements with different proportions on all main facades.

The total energy consumption of all building courtyard placements with different proportions on all other-facades.

Regarding the courtyard placement in the center of the building, the results have suggested that:

The best length-to-width ratio of the Courtyard, which achieved a saving of 0.04%, is (1.25:1), the best orientation of the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard is the north–south direction (orientation angle is Zero), the less the length-to-width ratio is in the north–south direction, the less energy is consumed inside the building.

Regarding the courtyard placement at the northern and southern facades, the results have suggested that:

The best orientation of the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard is the east–west direction (orientation angle is Zero), the best length-to-width ratio of the Courtyard is (2.5:1), the highest rate of energy saving at the northern façade is 8.48%, while the highest rate of energy saving at the southern façade is 10.24%.

Regarding the courtyard placement at the eastern and western facades, the results have suggested that:

The best orientation of the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard is the north–south direction (orientation angle is Zero), the best length-to-width ratio of the Courtyard is (2.5:1), the highest rate of energy saving at the eastern façade is 13.90%, while the highest rate of energy saving at the western façade is 14.86%.

Regarding the courtyard placement at the (northeastern, northwestern, southeastern, and southwestern) facades, the results have suggested that:

The best orientation of the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard is the north–south direction (orientation angle is Zero), the best length-to-width ratio of the Courtyard is (2.5:1), the highest rates of energy saving in these placements are northeastern façade 17.00%, northwestern façade 17.91%, southeastern façade 17.91%, and southwestern façade 18.73%.

In addition to the analysis of the total energy consumption associated with the different design alternatives for the courtyard placements compared to the main Alternative

The CO2 emissions of cooling and heating loads have been calculated. Figure  14 summarizes the predicted CO2 emissions reduction associated with the courtyard placements. The basic Alternative achieved the highest percentage of CO2 emissions at a rate of 17,896 kg CO2/year, while the best location for the Courtyard had an annual CO2 emissions record of 14,696 kg CO2, decreasing 17.88%.

The predicted CO2 emissions reduction associated with the courtyard placements.

Table 4 the simulation summary for different courtyard positions the results in Table 4 suggest the following:

Existence of a relationship between the courtyard placement and energy conservation, the best length-to-width ratio of the Courtyard that achieves the highest rate of energy consumption saving in case of the orientation of the longitudinal axis at the east–west direction and in case of the orientation of the longitudinal axis at the north–south direction for each of the courtyard placements, the best and worst Placement of the inner Courtyard in terms of energy consumption saving, as shown in Fig.  15 .

The Highest Energy Savings of Each Different Courtyard Placement.

Conclusions

Through this study, we have concluded that the inner courtyards are one of the most important architectural elements consistent and appropriate to the desert hot regions. They could be used to attain thermal comfort inside architectural spaces and reduce the energy internally consumed in modern residential buildings through the most proper Placement and orientation of such a Courtyard. This study has paid attention to the simulation methods that have demonstrated the best designs of the Placement, orientation, and elongation of the Courtyard for residential buildings. The study has concluded with some important standards that could act as a methodological framework for designing modern residential buildings with inner courtyards that should be applied to such residential buildings in the hot dry climate.

Therefore, we recommend that the legislative authorities in Egypt enact laws that oblige architects to have an inner courtyard in any architectural design according to the design standards deduced from the research, ideal designs for the inner courtyard can lead to energy savings on a larger scale if they are applied in national housing projects and new cities, as residential buildings are considered the most energy-consuming types of buildings.

The main outputs of this study could be briefed as follows:

The results suggest that the best Placement for the Courtyard among various design alternatives, which achieved the highest rate of saving of energy consumed inside the building, is the Placement of the Courtyard at the southwestern façade by a saving rate of 18.73%, compared to the main Alternative. The best length-to-width ratio is (2.5:1) if the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard is oriented in a north–south direction (orientation angle is Zero).

The results have demonstrated that the best orientation of the longitudinal axis at the following facades (eastern, western, northeastern, northwestern, southeastern, southwestern) is the north–south direction (orientation angle is Zero), and the greater the length-to-width ratio is at the north–South direction, the less energy is consumed inside the building.

In case of the orientation of the longitudinal axis in an east–west direction (orientation angle is Zero) for the following facades (eastern, western, northeastern, northwestern, southeastern, southwestern), the best length-to-width ratio of the Courtyard in this direction will be 1:1, i.e., the square shaped Courtyard is better than the rectangular shaped Courtyard in these placements.

The results have demonstrated that the best orientation of the longitudinal axis at the northern and southern facades is the east–west direction (orientation angle is Zero), and the greater the length-to-width ratio is in the east–west direction, the less energy is consumed inside the residence.

In case of the orientation of the longitudinal axis in a north–south direction (orientation angle is Zero) for the northern and southern facades, the best length-to-width ratio of the Courtyard in this direction will be 1:1, i.e., the square shaped Courtyard is better than the rectangular shaped Courtyard in these placements.

In comparison between the rates of energy saving in various design alternatives and the rate of energy saving in the main Alternative, the highest rate of energy saving is in the case of the courtyard placement at the southwestern façade by a saving rate of 18.73%, followed by the saving rate in the case of the courtyard placement at the southeastern and northwestern façades by a saving rate of 17.91%, in case of the orientation of the longitudinal axis of the Courtyard at the north–south direction (orientation angle is Zero), by a length-to-width ratio (2.5:1).

Future research

The authors are highly recommended to study the following:

The effect of courtyard geometry on energy consumption in residential buildings with vertical extension.

The effect of courtyard geometry on energy consumption in residential buildings in wet areas.

The effect of courtyard geometry on energy consumption in commercial and public buildings.

The effect of the courtyard placement on the efficiency of the dwelling in contemporary urbanism.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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M.I.M.A., A.M.S.H., R.F.A.A., A.A.F. and S.M.A.A., designed the study and Simulation Specifications , A.M.S.H., R.F.A.A., A.A.F., S.M.A.A. and M.I.M.A. The simulation work, R.F.A.A., A.A.F., S.M.A.A., M.I.M.A. and A.M.S.H. were involved in writing-original drat preparation, A.A.F., S.M.A.A., M.I.M.A., A.M.S.H. and R.F.A.A. was involved in writing-review and editing, S.M.A.A., M.I.M.A., A.M.S.H., R.F.A.A. and A.A.F. supervision, and editing. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Ahmed M. Seddik Hassan .

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Seddik Hassan, A.M., Abd El Aal, R.F.A., Fahmi, A.A.e. et al. Courtyard geometry’s effect on energy consumption of AlKharga city residential buildings, Egypt. Sci Rep 14 , 11149 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-60487-8

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metropolis (on the example of moscow), priorities for the development of large cities of the central black earth region from their foundation to the 20th century, historic “modus operandi” in the revitalization of ancient towns: japanese and polish experience, an analysis on the design of public communication space in college student apartments: taking the student apartments on the nanhu campus of wuhan textile university as an example, the historical and genetic model as a method of structuring and choice of the settlement development strategy, the matrix coupling integrated planning experiment of coastal sponge city under the framework of pressure-state-impact-respond (psir): taking xiamen as an example, the effect of memory construction of cultural landmarks on urban development, research on the inheritance and innovation of regional culture in environmental art design, suture and revival of historical blocks in the context of modernity: comprehensive planning and architectural design of the leqiao-caoqiao section in the ancient district of ganjiang road, suzhou city, a study on the revitalization of community building in taiwan based on qianyang village, research on the reconstruction and reuse of historic blocks from the perspective of urban catalysts: taking a historical district of foshan as an example, visual culture and spatial infiltration: modern traditional architecture of fuzhou from the perspective of creative city, study on the spatial morphological characteristics of traditional village settlements in nanxijiang river basin, comprehensive development and utilization of underground space and underground rail transit, research on the design of rural revitalization in remote areas of yunnan: taking wengding village of cangyuan as an example.

State of conservation of an industrial brick masonry chimney: a case-study in Montijo, Portugal

• Research Article
• Open access
• Published: 17 May 2024
• Volume 9 , article number  91 , ( 2024 )

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• Teresa Diaz Gonçalves   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9321-3667 1 &
• Teresa O. Santos 2  

Industrial masonry chimneys became widespread in the mid-19th century and were eventually integrated into urban landscapes, gaining significance as symbolic historical remnants of local industries. This poses new challenges, particularly concerning the safety of populations and goods, as well as the preservation of the now-historical structures. In this article, we assess the conservation status of the 45-meter-high chimney of the former cork processing factory Mundet, located in Montijo, Portugal. The study involved a structural survey conducted using height access equipment, along with an investigation to diagnose moisture and salt decay at the base of the chimney. The later included measuring current and hygroscopic moisture distributions, as well as XRD characterization of brick and mortar samples. At the chimney’s base, salt crystallization causes efflorescence and erosion leading to masonry disintegration. This is associated with rising damp and the presence of sodium sulfate in the brick and sodium chloride in the mortar. In the shaft, mortar erosion becomes more pronounced as we ascend. At the crown, extensive mortar erosion and limited compression have caused the NE-facing half to disappear, while the rest is at risk of imminent collapse. Damage mitigation measures to address this situation are proposed.

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1 Introduction

Industrial masonry chimneys saw widespread adoption in the United Kingdom during the mid-19th century and subsequently spread globally to Europe, America, Asia, and Oceania. Characterized by a typically conical shaft, they served to eliminate combustion smoke from industrial processes, extending in height to obtain sufficient draught-power for efficient combustion and to drive the upward movement of smoke. This design helped reduce the likelihood of smoke being spread or recirculated back into the building or nearby structures, and it minimized the risk of fires caused by sparks or embers. However, in the 20th century, this type of chimney experienced a decline as new construction materials and systems, for instance forced extraction, gained prominence. At the same time, as urban areas expanded, these chimneys became integrated into cityscapes, gaining significance as symbolic historical remnants of local activities and, in many cases, achieving architectural heritage protected status. This new context presents specific challenges, particularly in terms of safety considerations. Ensuring structural integrity becomes mandatory, namely in regions prone to seismic activity, to safeguard nearby urban populations, goods and constructions, as well as to protect the historical object itself [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ].

Here, we present the case study of the industrial brick masonry chimney of former cork processing factory Mundet in Montijo, Portugal. A case study is a detailed examination of a specific real-life scenario, aimed at providing a holistic understanding of the subject matter within its context. It retains the complexities and specificities of the individual case, offering insights that may not be captured through broader studies that generalize findings across multiple cases. Case studies contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field by delving into the practical applications and challenges encountered in real-life conditions. They also provide valuable data that becomes accessible to other researchers, facilitating collaboration and preventing the loss of valuable information collected through practical experience, often on a one-off basis. Additionally, case studies enable the establishment of hypotheses and serve as educational tools, offering valuable insights into the complexities of real-world scenarios. The present case study, of the Montijo chimney, explores the pathology and deterioration processes of this structure and the corresponding possible mitigation strategies. It fills a gap in the literature by offering a detailed examination that contributes to understanding of a typology that is understudied, in particular as regards the Portuguese territory.

The height of industrial masonry chimneys typically falls within the range of 20 to 50 m [ 1 , 3 ] although some extend up to 100 m [ 1 ]. In Spain most of these chimneys are between 20 and 30 m [ 6 ]. In Portugal, the situation is similar, with the ones surpassing 30 m generally associated with important industrial companies [ 4 ]. The latter is the case with the Montijo chimney focused on this article, which measures 45 m in height (Fig.  1 ).

Overall view of the industrial masonry chimney of former cork processing factory Mundet, in Montijo

Typical types of deterioration observed in industrial masonry chimneys include structural damage, as well as material damage and efflorescence [ 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 ]:

The most prevalent form of structural damage is displacement, with the shaft going out of plumb. This can arise from various factors, including faulty construction methods, foundation problems, differences in mortar drying on different sides of the chimney due to prevailing winds, the wedge effect of steel elements, and differential expansion in lime mortar due to condensation. Another form of structural damage is longitudinal cracking in a vertical or zig-zag pattern along the shaft, induced by thermal gradients. Seismic damage may also pose a critical threat to these slender structures and is typically concentrated near the base and in zones affected by the second and third vibration modes—the upper third of the chimney. Lightning strikes affect mostly the upper part of the chimney, particularly the crown, causing the loss of bricks in irregular patterns. Severity of structural damage increases where material damage has occurred, particularly where the mortar between bricks has already deteriorated.

Material damage and efflorescence are typically caused by chemical reactions due to gases, smoke, moisture or high-temperature during the activity of the industry (affecting the inner surfaces), or to atmospheric contamination and sea-water exposure (affecting the external surfaces). Efflorescence accompanied by spalling or flaking of the bricks appears mainly on the chimney base, into which moisture seeps from the ground by means of capillary action, as noted by López-Patiño et al. after inspecting over 500 chimneys across Spain [ 6 ]. Mortar loss may be particularly severe in the upper parts of the chimney, where loose bricks may occur because of the harsher exposure to wind and humidity.

Chimneys that are already cracked or are at risk of developing this kind of damage may be reinforced, for example with fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) [ 1 , 20 ].

López-Patiño et al. [ 6 ] mention specifically the damage caused by living organisms, which can be of the mentioned types (structural damage, material damage and efflorescence). According to these authors, birds cause the most damage to chimneys: (i) droppings contain nitric acid and phosphoric acid, which react with bricks and mortar with deleterious effects; (ii) large birds such as storks can cause structural damage when they build their large nests on the crowns. But damage by vegetables can be relevant too. Wind-blown seeds give rise to plants whose roots can penetrate the mortar and get between the bricks, causing the first to disintegrate and the second to break up. Finally, human action is also not a negligible origin of damage. Some of the damage due to humans may have occurred when the chimney was in use as part of the factory. It was, for example, common practice to support roofs and ceilings against the chimney and attach electric cables and pulleys to it. These often remained after the factory was demolished, or were removed, leaving behind cavities, remnants of mortar, or damaged materials due to the strain of supporting heavy components. Inadequate restoration work or repairs are also a common source of damage.

The case study of the industrial masonry chimney of former cork processing factory Mundet, presented in this article, was aimed at characterizing the pathology and conservation status of this chimney and providing recommendations for its preservation. The initial phase of the study comprised a structural survey conducted in July 2016 using height access equipment [ 7 ]. Subsequently, a second phase was undertaken in the wet season in March 2017, during which samples were collected at various depths and heights on three sides of the chimney base [ 8 ] These samples allowed obtaining profiles of current and hygroscopic moisture distribution and mineralogical characterization, employing X-ray diffraction, of the ceramic brick and mortar in zones representing the main degradation patterns.

This article begins with an overview of the chimney, encompassing its history, location, geometry, and materials (Sect.  2 ). It then proceeds to discuss the base (Sect.  3 ), describing the observed pathology (Sect.  3.1 ), detailing the experimental diagnostic methods used and their respective outcomes (Sect.  3.2 and 3.3 ), and concluding with a discussion of the degradation causes (Sect.  3.4 ). Subsequently, the focus shifts to the shaft and crown (Sect.  4 ), outlining the surveying methodology (Sect.  4.1 ), and presenting the corresponding results (Sect.  4.2 and 4.3 ). Finally, the article summarizes the conservation state of the chimney (Sect.  5.1 ) and presents key measures for damage mitigation (Sect.  5.2 ).

2 Description of the chimney

The chimney of the former Mundet cork processing factory is situated on the southern bank of the Tagus River, opposite Lisbon. Adjacent to a modern supermarket, it lies less than 500 m from the waters of the Tagus estuary (Fig.  2 ). Operating between 1905 and 1988, Mundet stood as one of Portugal’s largest companies in the cork sector, eventually becoming the world’s largest cork exporter. Mundet was also known for some innovative social policies. In the 1930s, it built a nursery and a kindergarten, as well as cafeterias that served the factory workers and needy people in the area. At its peak, the company employed over 2500 individuals, but it eventually struggled to adapt to the proliferation of new materials, such as plastic, which gained prominence in the early 20th century. The chimney under analysis is one of the remnants of the local cork processing activity, and the Municipality of Montijo strives to preserve it for future memory.

Location of the chimney (image obtained from Bing Maps, 20160919)

The chimney, built in 1951, is 45 m high and, as seen in the drawn piece of the original design drawing (Fig.  3 ), is divided into four main parts: foundation, base, shaft and crown. The foundation, with a thickness of 0.80 m, is constructed of reinforced concrete atop a layer of screed, according to contemporary records detailing the project’s inception [ 9 ] The base features a square section measuring 4.3 m on each side and stands 5.8 m tall. The shaft rises to a height of 39.2 m and boasts a hollow circular section with an inner mouth diameter of 1.75 m and a flare of 5% (0.05 m per meter of height). Finally, the crown constitutes the topmost section of the shaft and has a height of 0.95 m.

The thickness of the masonry wall decreases along the height of the chimney. Due to the unavailability of scaffolding, chimneys had to be constructed from the inside in rings. These rings had constant height and gradually narrowing width [ 1 ] At the base, the masonry thickness of the Mundet chimney ranges from 1.01 m in the lower zone, mostly below ground level, to 0.90 m in the upper zone. In the shaft, it varies from 0.84 m near the base to 0.24 m near the crown. This gradual variation in masonry wall thickness in the shaft occurs in a regular manner, with the thickness decreasing by 0.12 m between sections of constant thickness, which are generally 6.50 m long.

The brick laying mortar is a light-coloured air lime mortar. The same type of the mortar is observed in masonry joints, where white lime granules are often visible (Fig.  4 ). In numerous areas, the lime mortar, likely from the original construction, is disappearing or has already disappeared entirely due to erosion, leaving the joints unprotected. Repairs made with cement mortar are also evident, particularly at the base of the chimney.

A piece of the chimney’s project [ 9 ]

Masonry joints filled with air lime mortar at the shaft (left) and air lime joint mortar with white lime granules at the base (right)

3 Base of the chimney

3.1 survey of the conservation state.

The base of the chimney is made of solid red bricks of prismatic shape that form a mixed bond with one course of headers for every three courses of stretchers. (Fig.  5 ). The bricks are about 23 cm x 11 cm x 7 cm. The name and location of the manufacturer, “S. J. Oliveira – Montijo”, are engraved on each brick, acknowledging the Montijo ceramics factory José Salgado de Oliveira (Fig. 8, bottom).

General view of the four faces of the base of the chimney

As seen in Figs.  5 and 6 , the masonry at the base of the chimney is very degraded. Decay is most pronounced on the outer faces facing north and east, where the surface layer of bricks has often completely disappeared. The main types of anomalies observed in the decayed areas are the following:

Efflorescence (Fig.  6 , top left);

Flaking of the ceramic brick (Fig.  6 , top right);

Arenization of the joint mortar (Fig.  6 , bottom);

Erosion (Fig.  8 );

Cracks (Fig.  9 );

Collapse of the masonry on edges and vertices of the chimney base (Fig.  10 );

As shown in Fig.  6 , the two masonry materials undergo disaggregation through processes of flaking (the brick) or arenization (the mortar). Flaking refers to the detachment of thin scales with submillimetric to millimetric thickness [ 10 ] whereas arenization involves a loss of cohesion, causing the material to revert to a sand-like granular state.

Fundamental decay features of the external surface of the masonry at the base of the chimney: efflorescence (top left); flaking of the brick (top right); arenization of the mortar (bottom)

The interior surfaces of the chimney also exhibit decay, characterized by erosion of the brick surfaces, areas where the laying mortar has receded to significant depths, occasional missing bricks, and white efflorescence. However, no large cracks or collapse of the masonry are observed (Fig.  7 ).

Inner face of the base of the chimney

The process of masonry erosion is depicted in Fig.  8 , illustrating its initial and advanced phases. In the initial phase, efflorescence, flaking of the brick, and arenization of the joint mortar are evident. In the advanced stage, numerous bricks have nearly disappeared, and the collapse of the masonry at the edges is visibly underway as a result of joint mortar erosion.

Masonry erosion process: initial phase (top left) and advanced phase (top right); exposed bricks with the manufacturer’s marking (bottom)

Visible cracks mar the outer faces of the chimney base. Notably, two large vertical slits are prominent, roughly situated in the middle of the south and east faces, as depicted in Fig.  9 . The slit on the south face (left image) intersects the arch of the entrance to the chimney’s interior. However, these two large cracks are not visible on the inner surface of the chimney, which means they do not span the entire thickness of the masonry.

Cracks on the south (left) and east (right) faces of the base of the chimney

Smaller or less developed cracks are also visible on the other outer faces, accompanying the disintegration and erosion of mortars and bricks, as well as the collapse of complete sections of masonry. These cracks and collapsed areas could be due to ruptures along the joints of masonry sections subjected to certain stress conditions. The collapse occurs in structurally less important areas, such as corners (Fig.  10 ), and areas that are not directly located under the shaft and are therefore less compressed. The reduced compression leads to greater ease of disaggregation of the masonry, explaining why these areas are the first to collapse.

Collapsed masonry at the corner between the South and East faces of the base

Finally, areas with a greyish-coloured mortar, probably cement mortar, are seen on the top and on the faces of the base of the chimney. On the top, the mortar forms a capping which is quite degraded, with biological growth and cracks on both the surface and the interfaces with the masonry (Fig.  11 ). On the south face, remnants of an old cement plaster are visible, likely from a pre-existing adjacent construction (Fig.  10 ). Note that in the same area, the cornice of the chimney base was destroyed, probably to create a flat surface serving as a wall for that pre-existing adjacent construction.

Capping of the base of the chimney with biological growth

3.2 Actual and hygroscopic moisture content

The actual moisture content (MC) corresponds to the amount of water present in the sample. The hygroscopic moisture content (HMC) is the moisture content that the sample acquires by capturing moisture from the air until it reaches a state of equilibrium. The MC and HMC were measured in the laboratory using samples taken at various heights and depths of the base of the chimney. The values were then used to draw distribution profiles that reveal how the two types of moisture content vary in the building element, in height and in depth.

The MC profiles indicate the level of dampness in the masonry and provide clues about the origin of the moisture. For example, in the case of rising damp, which is the most frequent source of moisture in old constructions, the moisture content typically decreases in height but almost does not change along the thickness of the wall. Rising damp corresponds to a (tendentially) steady-state moisture flow condition, with intake of moisture through the base and evaporation through the surface of the wall.

The HMC profiles allow accessing the presence and distribution of soluble salts in the masonry because the hygroscopicity of building materials is negligible compared to that of soluble salts [ 11 , 12 ]. The presence and distribution of salts can then be confirmed by chemical analysis focusing on selected points. In addition, the HMC profiles may also provide information about moisture flow patterns [ 13 ].

To obtain MC and HMC distribution profiles, 105 samples were collected by drilling at various heights and depths, at the base of the chimney. The collection was scheduled for after the rainy season and took place on March 8, 2017. Two complete profiles were obtained from the East-facing and West-facing walls, which exhibited the highest and lowest material damage intensity, respectively. Additionally, since there was still some time left for the sampling operation, an extra drill could be performed. It was thus decided to investigate the horizontal distribution of salts at the base of the North-facing wall, which ranked second in terms of material damage.

In each drill, samples were collected at depth indents of 2 cm close to the surface and of 5 cm deeper inside the walls, up to a final depth of 35 cm. Vertically, a spacing of circa 50 cm between drills was adopted, except for the uppermost drill, which was located at the maximum possible height below the cornice. This kind of distribution of sampling points has been previously used successfully [ 13 ] and represents a good compromise between, on one hand, obtaining as many samples as possible to characterize the situation adequately, and on the other hand, avoiding excessive destruction and completing the work within the available time for the operation. In this case, all the work was carried out in a single day, which included: travel from LNEC in Lisbon to Montijo and back; organization and arrangement of material and equipment at departure and upon return to LNEC, as well as at the arrival and departure from the construction site; assembly and disassembly of scaffolding; observations; sampling, storage, and individual labeling of samples; weighing of samples upon arrival at LNEC.

The sampling procedure was the following (Fig.  12 ):

the element was drilled at low speed, using a drill with a diameter of 16 mm;

at the same time, the material was collected directly into a polyethylene bag placed below the hole;

immediately after the collection, the sample was carefully wrapped in the polyethylene bag;

this first bag was wrapped in a second polyethylene bag, which was sealed with adhesive plastic tape to prevent moisture loss, and then labelled.

Sampling by powder drilling

All the samples were collected from the outer faces of the walls for reasons of operability and safety of the technicians. Access to the highest levels was made possible using mobile scaffolding (Fig.  12 ).

The use of powder drilling as a sampling method is a well-established practice, with documented usage dating back many years, following guidelines such as BRE’s Digest 245 [ 14 ]. This technique of sampling by perforation for subsequent determination of moisture contents has also been vouched for by authors such as Hall and Hoff [ 15 ]. It was also previously and thoroughly tested by one of the authors and it was concluded that the loss of moisture during drilling is negligible [ 16 ].

The technique also allows for qualitative characterization of the distribution of salt along and across a construction element by measuring the hygroscopic moisture content (HMC) of a large number of samples. This is known as the HMC method, a front-line approach that is based on the fact that the HMC of soluble salts is significantly higher than that of typical building materials. Although the method doesn’t yield quantitative data due to variations in HMC among different salt species and cannot guarantee the complete absence of contamination during drilling, it provides an overview of the element’s general condition and helps to identify the most promising points for further detailed chemical analyses [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ].

The MC and HMC of the samples were measured in the laboratory.

The actual moisture content (MC) corresponds to the moisture present in the masonry at the time of sampling and was measured in the laboratory, by difference in masses, according to the following procedure:

the samples were placed in glass petri dishes and their wet mass (Mass wet ) was determined by weighing;

the samples were then dried in a ventilated oven at 60ºC for about 24 h, a period of time that experience shows is sufficient to achieve constant mass; after cooling, the dry mass of the samples (Mass dry ) was determined by weighing;

the MC was then calculated by the following expression:

The possible loss of moisture of the samples, from the moment they were collected until they were tested, was controlled by weighing. The polyethylene bags containing the samples were weighed immediately after arrival at the laboratory. These bags were weighed again two days later, before drying the samples in the oven, and it was confirmed that the loss of moisture between the two weighings was negligible. This indicated the tightness of the plastic wrappers was sufficient.

The hygroscopic moisture content (HMC) is the moisture content the samples have when they are in hygroscopic equilibrium under certain environmental conditions of temperature and relative humidity (RH). The HMC of the samples taken from the chimney was determined according to the following procedure:

after determination of the current moisture content according to the procedure already described, the dried samples were stored in a climatic chamber (FITOCLIMA 500 EDTU© from Aralab) at 20ºC and approximately 95% RH;

the samples remained in this environment, absorbing moisture from the air, and were weighed weekly until their mass (Mass wet hygroscopic ) stabilized;

the HMC was then calculated according to the following expression:

The resulting in-height and in-depth MC and HMC profiles [ 8 ] are presented in Figs.  13 , 14 and 15 .

East face: ( a ) location of the sampling; ( b ) vertical MC profiles; ( c ) horizontal MC profiles; ( d ) vertical HMC profiles; ( e ) horizontal HMC profiles

West face: ( a ) location of the sampling; ( b ) vertical MC profiles; ( c ) horizontal MC profiles; ( d ) vertical HMC profiles; ( e ) horizontal HMC profiles

North face: ( a ) location of the sampling; ( b ) MC and HMC profiles

3.3 Mineralogical analysis

Mineralogical analysis by X-ray diffraction (XRD) of two samples was performed in order to identify degradation agents, in particular, soluble salts. XRD is a technique that provides information about the minerals present in a sample and is based on the property of crystalline materials to diffract X-rays in a specific way. In addition, the height of the diffraction peaks allows for a semiquantitative assessment of the presence of these minerals in a sample [ 8 ].

The two samples were collected to represent the primary degradation patterns of the two masonry materials, respectively: (1) sanding of the mortar; (2) flaking associated with the occurrence of efflorescence in the ceramic brick. The sampling sites are shown in Figs.  13 a and 14 a, which show that the samples were collected at a height close to that of the highest HMC.

Sample 1 consisted of disaggregated material, mainly mortar, and was collected by brushing. Two diffractometric records were obtained from this sample: one from the collected material as it was, and another mainly from the binder after removing the sand by sieving. Sieving, which removes as much sand as possible from the mortar, enhances the detection of soluble salts, as they typically migrate extensively through the capillary pores of the binder paste. This step is crucial because XRD only permits the identification of substances present in a reasonable percentage (minimum amount of about 2–4%, by weight), whereas the percentage of soluble salts capable of damaging masonry is often lower. Sample 2 consisted of brick fragments exhibiting white efflorescence, collected using a hammer. In this instance, XRD analysis was performed on the efflorescence scraped from the brick surface [ 8 ].

Table  1 depicts the results of these XRD analyses [ 8 ]. Soluble salts with the greatest potential to cause degradation are indicated in bold and highlighted in grey.

3.4 Discussion on the causes of degradation

The current moisture content (MC) in the East and West-facing walls is elevated near the ground, diminishes with height, and remains relatively constant across the wall (Figs.  13 , 14 and 15 ). These patterns suggest that the primary source of moisture within the masonry at the time of sampling was rising damp from the soil. Indeed, it is plausible that the groundwater level beneath the chimney is elevated due to the proximity of the Tagus River (Fig.  2 ). Observations also indicate stormwater runoff from the nearby supermarket toward the chimney, which could potentially exacerbate the situation.

The hygroscopic moisture content (HMC) reaches very high values in these walls (Figs.  13 , 14 and 15 ). That is consistent with the visual evidence suggesting that masonry erosion is caused by the crystallization of soluble salts. The highest HMC values are reached at mid-height and near the surface, especially on the East facing wall, which is typical of rising damp and salt crystallization decay, as explained below [ 13 , 14 ].

Soluble salts induce the decay of porous building materials, such as mortars and brick, when they crystallize as efflorescence or subflorescence, which typically occurs during evaporative processes. Efflorescence arises when the salt crystallizes on the material surface. This happens when the moisture content of the material is high enough to maintain a saturated condition at the surface while evaporation proceeds. Efflorescence itself does not cause material breakdown but it does impact the element’s aesthetics, attracts hygroscopic moisture, and can further dissolve and recrystallize as subflorescence. Subflorescence, on the other hand, occurs when the salt crystallizes in the microscopic pores of the material, introducing internal stresses that can lead to rupture. This type of salt deposit forms when the moisture content inside the material is insufficient to generate a liquid flow capable of compensating for the evaporative demand, causing the liquid front to reach an equilibrium position below the material surface. Figure  16 illustrates these two situations.

Schematic representation of the mechanism of soluble salts crystallization

The degradation patterns observed at the base of the chimney are characteristic of salt crystallization:

Sanding of the air lime mortars happens because crystallization introduces internal stresses that break down the lime matrix, reducing the mortar to a sand-like granular material.

Flaking of the bricks occurs because subflorescence causes successive detachment of the material surface layers.

Brick erosion tends to occur in the upper areas of the walls whereas near the ground a whitish veil of efflorescence occurs associated to the highest moisture contents (Fig.  5 ).

The differential erosion of the bricks (Figs.  5 , 6 , 7 and 8 ) may be attributed to two classes of factors that are currently difficult to fully evaluate: (i) variations in physical characteristics of the bricks, such as porosity and mechanical strength, stemming from fluctuations in the quality of the raw material and temperature variations in old kilns; (ii) hydric discontinuities within the masonry.

The shape of the vertical HMC profiles, like that of the MC profiles, is also typical of rising damp. In the case of rising damp, the salt content is higher in the surface layers, reaches a maximum at a certain distance from the ground and then decreases with height, as occurs in Figs.  13 and 14 . This happens because in a wall with rising damp, water rises up to the level where the loss of water through the wall surface (evaporation flow) balances the inflow of water through the base of the wall (liquid flow). The moisture content of the wall decreases with height, leading to the crystallization of salts as efflorescence near the base of the wall and as subflorescence higher up. The amount of subflorescence decreases with height due to the decrease in liquid flow. The whole process is as follows:

Closer to the ground, the high liquid flow from inside the wall causes salt to crystallize on the surface as efflorescence, which is then regularly removed by the action of gravity, wind, and rain.

The liquid flow diminishes with height, and beyond a certain distance from the ground, salt begins to crystallize inside the material pores as subflorescence. This salt accumulates in the material until internal stresses lead to rupture, which is followed by erosion due to wind and rain.

At the higher levels, the liquid flow is low, so the amount of accumulated salt is also reduced.

Another important clue pointing to rising damp is provided by the horizontal MC profiles (Figs.  13 c, 14 c and 15 b). These profiles demonstrate that the MC:

is high near the ground;

remains relatively constant or slightly increases towards the interior of the wall;

is clearly higher than the HMC, which indicates that the actual moisture cannot solely be attributed to moisture absorption from the air.

Of course, some water ingress is also expected through the surface of the masonry due to the porous nature and deteriorated state of both the brick and mortar. In addition, on the south face, the cornice was removed and therefore the water that falls on the shaft and on the top of the base of the chimney can more easily flow down the wall surface. Furthermore, the cementitious capping of the chimney base is decayed (Fig.  11 ). The slight increase in the MC and HMC at the top of the walls, towards the top of the chimney, as revealed by the vertical distribution profiles (Figs.  13 and 14 ), suggests that there is indeed some ingress of water from above.

It is also notable that the HMC is significantly high in depth in the East-facing wall, which exhibits more degradation, whereas it is low in depth in the West-facing wall. The predominance of surface salts in the latter wall is consistent with its considerably lower material degradation.

The intensity of degradation at the base of the chimney varies from face to face, possibly due to differential water ingress or inconsistencies in the masonry’s hydric continuity. Variations in evaporation conditions across different faces may also contribute to these discrepancies. The evaporation flow depends on environmental factors such as temperature, relative humidity, and air velocity. Indeed, the height of capillary rise will be greater, for example, in walls less exposed to sunlight or shielded from the wind. However, predicting how these factors interact and affect a real case like that of the chimney is challenging. This is particularly true considering the possibility of differences in water intake through the base and the influence of local conditions, such as the nearby supermarket. But other things being equal, the data suggests a greater influence from the wind than from sunlight exposure. In fact, despite facing more intense sun exposure, the West face shows the least degradation, possibly due to the protective influence of the nearby supermarket pavilions against wind. This protective effect of the supermarket pavilions in terms of wind may also explain why the most degraded areas of the chimney base face Northeast (Fig.  17 ), despite the prevailing winds in Montijo coming from the Northwest.

Identification (in red) of the most degraded areas of the base of the chimney

Regarding the nature of the salts responsible for the degradation, XRD results (Table  1 ) reveal that these are sodium chloride (NaCl) in the mortar and sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO 4 ) in the brick. It is likely that sodium chloride comes from contamination with seawater from groundwater or from the soil itself because in this zone, of estuary, there is a mixing of river water with sea water. Sea salts may also be deposited through fog or wind. Sodium sulfate, on the other hand, has probably its origin in the ceramic brick itself. This salt is commonly found in efflorescence in ceramic materials and is typically produced during calcination by the chemical action of flue gases. However, the hypothesis that a part of the salt came from the ashes deposited in the masonry over time, when the chimney was in operation cannot be ruled out. The verification of this hypothesis implies performing additional chemical analyses.

The occurrence of distinct salts in brick and mortar can be explained not only by sodium sulfate originating from the brick itself, but also by the differential migration of moisture in the two materials. The mortar, being more absorbent and forming a continuous network in the masonry, serves as the primary pathway for moisture. These characteristics allow mortars to act as sacrificial materials, which is crucial for the durability of this type of construction as they minimize the degradation of the masonry elements (ceramic bricks), which are considerably more challenging to repair.

4 Shaft and crown of the chimney

4.1 inspection methodology.

Inspection of the chimney’s outer surface was carried out through comprehensive visual observation and a photographic survey. The base was examined from ground level. The shaft and crown were observed using a self-crane equipped with a basket from which the authors conducted their observations and photographed the chimney (an appropriate drone was at the time not available). To ensure safety and prevent any damage to the chimney caused by the basket’s wind-induced oscillations, the upper sections were observed from a minimum distance of approximately 1 m. The interior of the chimney was visually inspected from the region adjacent to the opening on the south face of the base.

4.2 Chimney shaft

The shaft consists of bricks with dimensions similar to those of the base of the chimney but of toroidal shape and having the same manufacturer mark J. S. Oliveira (Fig.  18 ). The bricks are arranged in a stretcher bond and its coloration is heterogeneous (Fig.  19 ).

Toroidal shaped brick fallen from the shaft

No vertical slits or significant deviations from verticality were observed along the shaft. However, the recession of the joint mortar becomes more pronounced with increasing height. This heightened recession is likely due to increased exposure to rain and wind, leading to greater erosion of the mortar at higher levels (Fig.  19 ).

Different level of erosion of the mortar of the joints in the lower zone of the shaft, near the base of the chimney (below) and in the upper zone of the shaft, next to the crown (above)

Regarding the interior of the shaft, as far as it was possible to observe, here too there is a significant surface degradation of the masonry (Fig.  20 ), similar to that observed inside the base of the chimney (Fig.  7 ).

Inside the chimney shaft

An opening of rectangular shape which does not exist in the original blueprints, and appears to have been added later without much care, is also observed in the lower part of the shaft (Fig.  21 ). The opening arched the path of vertical loads in the opening zone, giving rise to cracks, with detachment of the bricks below the arch. Some careless repairs in this area, including filling of cracks and joints and the reconstitution of eroded brick zones, were carried out with cement mortar.

Opening in the lower area of the chimney shaft

4.3 Chimney crown

The chimney crown, located at the top of the shaft, 45 m from ground level, is constructed using toroidal-shaped bricks similar to those used in the shaft, arranged in a stretcher bond. Additionally, in the thickest area, it incorporates prismatic bricks like those used in the base of the chimney, arranged in a header bond (Fig.  22 ).

The main decay pattern observed in the crown is the structural collapse of the masonry itself, as a result of the laying and joint mortar disappearing, causing the bricks to collapse while remaining largely intact. The entire structure is in an advanced state of degradation, with approximately half of the perimeter having already collapsed and the remaining portion at imminent risk of collapse (Fig.  22 ). In the area still standing, which faces NE, the laying and joint mortar are nearly non-existent, leading many of the bricks to be simply stacked on top of each other. Additionally, vertical cracks intersecting the total thickness of the masonry are evident, indicative of the collapse mechanisms.

Partially collapsed crown of the chimney

The high level of degradation of the crown is consistent with it being the zone of the chimney most exposed to atmospheric agents. Furthermore, the zone that has already collapsed corresponds to a higher incidence of these agents, particularly wind, according to its dominant direction. The incidence of atmospheric rays could also be adding to the damage (an old lightning rod is still present but appears to be damaged). Additionally, as the masonry in the crown is less compressed, it disaggregates more easily than other more confined areas.

In the portion that has not yet collapsed, remnants of an outer mortar coating can be observed (Fig.  23 ). This coating was likely applied near the mouth of the chimney to facilitate the runoff of rainwater, thereby minimizing the risk of infiltration. However, it is unclear at which point during the construction’s lifespan this was applied. The mortar used for this purpose has a greyish colour and appears to possess greater mechanical strength than the lime mortar observed in the joints. Therefore, it is plausible that it is a cement or hydraulic lime mortar applied at a later stage to the original construction.

Surface coating on the upper area of the chimney crown

5 Damage mitigation measures

5.1 chimney base.

In the base of the chimney, the crystallization of salts is a key degradation process. Measures to mitigate this type of damage usually involve controlling one or both of its predisposing factors: soluble salts and moisture [ 16 ]. In the present case, since it is not feasible to eliminate the salts, especially sodium sulfate that probably comes from the brick itself, it is essential to control the presence of water.

First, it will be necessary to: (i) understand the possible contribution of phreatic water to the rising damp in the chimney; (ii) investigate the possible contribution of the adjacent supermarket to the soil moisture content in the chimney area, considering the possibility of poor storm water drainage, as well as the possibility that the construction or presence of these buildings has induced changes in the water table or the local evaporation conditions.

There are several techniques that could be used to limit rising damp, such as the following, all of which however have advantages and disadvantages [ 17 , 18 ]:

It is possible to inject products (water repellents or sealants) into the masonry, close to the ground, to create a barrier that prevents capillary rise. However, it is important that the barrier be effective in all its extension, which sometimes does not happen, particularly in thick and heterogeneous masonries. In addition, if there are leaks, the consequent reduction (without elimination) of the liquid flow that penetrates the masonry can lead to a retreat of the evaporation front, leading to the occurrence of destructive subflorescence where before only efflorescence appeared [ 16 ].

Another method to prevent capillary rise of water involves introducing watertight barriers such as metal sheets at the base of walls. However, this technique may compromise the structural resistance of chimneys concerning horizontal actions such as wind and seismic forces. The vulnerability to seismic activity is particularly pertinent in this case, given that the Montijo chimney is situated within the zone of higher seismic risk in Portugal. Furthermore, these types of structures were not initially designed to withstand seismic action, and their base is susceptible to failure due to the fundamental mode of vibration [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. Therefore, introducing vulnerability at the base of the chimney is not recommended.

There are also solutions that involve ventilating the lower levels of walls in order to increase the evaporation flow and thus limit the amount of moisture that progresses to the upper levels [ 17 ]. The chances of success of this type of solution needs to be well evaluated, preferably through preliminary site tests and monitoring.

Drainage of waters may also be considered, namely through the construction of wells [ 22 ]. But these techniques also require careful planning and monitoring, as there is a risk of inducing differential settlements in the constructions located throughout the whole affected area. In the case of surface water, drainage is simpler and can be carried out, for example, through peripheral ditches.

Whichever method is implemented to reduce the water content of the masonry at the base of the chimney, it must be accompanied by the application of a sacrificial layer on the chimney surface. This layer is intended to prevent that the progressive reduction of the liquid flow during drying give rise to destructive subflorescence in the masonry. Cellulose or clay compresses may be used for this purpose. These should be tested beforehand in the chimney, to evaluate their effectiveness and ease of removal.

In addition to those methods meant to control rising damp, it is recommended that measures be taken to minimize the ingress of rainwater through the surface of the masonry, which implies the reconstruction of the cornice of the south facing wall, or through the top, namely to repair the capping of the upper surface of the base.

5.2 Shaft and crown

Consolidation of the masonry in the shaft and crown should be carried out to limit the infiltration of rainwater and the consequent progression of decay. This should be carried out with a mortar that is compatible with the materials of the masonry [ 23 , 24 ]. It should include appropriate closing of the joints between bricks and filling of the cracks.

In the crown, this may involve dismantling the masonry and rebuilding it using the technique of anastylosis, which is used for reassembling existing but dismembered parts of a historical structure [ 25 ]. This technique requires thorough identification and cleaning of the bricks beforehand, and operations must be conducted with care to avoid damaging them, preferably under supervision of a specialized professional. Under no circumstances should the bricks be cut.

The filling of the joints and repair of the capping of the crown should contribute to the reduction of the penetration of rainwater into the masonry. If metal or plastic sheets are used to protect the top of the masonry, these should preferably be separated from the masonry by an air space. To avoid damage to the masonry, the sheets can be fastened to elements specifically embedded in the masonry for this purpose.

The damage detected in the crown of the chimney may also be in part due to the incidence of atmospheric rays, so a new lightning rod should be installed.

5.3 General care

The first general care measure is to restrict people’s access to the area surrounding the chimney, minimizing the risk of falling brick blocks from the crown until adequate consolidation works are completed.

Subsequently, in addition to controlling the presence of water in the masonry, restoration of the damaged areas of the base and crown of the chimney can be considered. This should be carried out by technicians with training and experience in conservation and restoration of historical monuments. Conservation and restoration are delicate operations that, according to the Venice Charter [ 25 ], must preserve both the work of art and the historical testimony that it conveys. Therefore, the works should be planned and carried out with regard for the ancient materials and their aesthetic and historical values. That means restoration should not be a reconstitution that totally eliminates the marks of time, which would lead to loss of historical character.

It is crucial to avoid applying water-repellent products to the masonry surface. Despite their intended use of preventing efflorescence by creating a surface layer of water-repellent material, these products unintentionally trap saline solutions within the masonry. As the water in these solutions evaporates, salts crystallize behind the water-repellent layer, resulting in more damaging subflorescence rather than efflorescence, ultimately worsening material degradation [ 26 , 27 ]. Instead, methods that reduce the water content of the masonry, as discussed in the previous section, should be utilized.

It is also necessary to use compatible materials and methods as a deficient intervention may potentiate an increase in degradation [ 27 ]. Ordinary cement mortars, for example, should not be used as they generally have mechanical properties too strong for this type of brick masonry, and may also be an additional source of salts. Cements with a high alkali content, such as Portland cement, give rise to destructive carbonate and bicarbonate salts.

6 Conclusions

The chimney of former cork processing factory Mundet, in Montijo, showcases varying types and degrees of degradation across its different zones.

At the base, salt crystallization causes efflorescence and leads to erosion of the masonry associated with flaking of the brick and sanding of the mortar. The main source of moisture is probably rising damp, as evidenced by the distribution profiles of moisture content (MC) and hygroscopic moisture content (HMC). The primary types of salts are sodium sulfate in the brick and sodium chloride in the mortar. Sodium sulfate may originate from the brick itself, while sodium chloride may come from the sand used in the mortar, the surrounding terrain, or the coastal environment. As the bedding and joint mortar disintegrate, the masonry collapses in less confined areas, such as the corners.

The shaft exhibits no significant signs of erosion, particularly in the brick and at lower heights. The contrast in erosion levels at the transition from the base to the shaft could stem from a hydric discontinuity in the masonry or differing wind dynamics around the cylindrical shaft and the parallelepiped base. Mortar erosion becomes more pronounced as we ascend, causing the joints between the bricks to recede further from the masonry surface. This variation likely results from environmental factors, particularly wind, intensifying with increasing distance from the ground. No other forms of degradation, such as structural risks like deviations from verticality, are observed.

At the crown, situated atop the shaft, mortar erosion is extensive, with many bricks now simply overlapping. Given the limited confinement by compression in this area, masonry collapse is already evident. Approximately half of the crown, facing NE, has already collapsed, with the remainder at risk of imminent collapse.

In the interior surface of the chimney, efflorescence and masonry material erosion are observed in the base and shaft areas, but to a lesser extent than on the outer surfaces of the base.

Regarding the damage mitigation measures, since eliminating salts is not feasible, moisture control becomes paramount. To address this, it is essential to investigate the contribution of phreatic and surface water, as well as the possible influence of the recent nearby supermarket. Further, various techniques can be used to limit rising damp, each with pros and cons. Injecting water repellents or sealants into the masonry can create a barrier against capillary rise, but effectiveness may vary, and it could lead to destructive subflorescence if leaks occur. Introducing watertight barriers like metal sheets may compromise structural resistance to horizontal forces, particularly seismic activity, a concern given the high seismic risk in the area. Drainage options like wells or surface water diversion are also viable, but require careful monitoring to prevent issues such differential settlements. Ventilating lower wall levels to increase evaporation flow requires specific project and preliminary testing. Regardless of the method chosen, applying a sacrificial layer on the chimney surface to prevent destructive subflorescence is crucial, with materials like cellulose or clay compresses being potential options. Additionally, measures to minimize rainwater ingress through masonry surfaces, such as reconstructing the cornice or repairing the capping, are recommended.

Data availability

Data analysed during the current study can be provided upon request.

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Acknowledgements

The work described in this article was conducted within a consulting study carried out by LNEC and supported by the Municipality of Montijo, to which we express gratitude for granting permission for this publication.

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Material pathology investigations were carried out by Teresa Diaz Gonçalves, with the support of LNEC technicians António Ferreira e José Costa. Structural investigations were carried out by Teresa Oliveira Santos. The XRD analysis were carried out under the responsibility of António Santos Silva. Both authors contributed to the study conception, inspections, and reporting and both read and approved the final manuscript.

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Diaz Gonçalves, T., Santos, T. State of conservation of an industrial brick masonry chimney: a case-study in Montijo, Portugal. J Build Rehabil 9 , 91 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-024-00443-1

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