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Article Contents

Introduction, 1 smart-home definition, 2 smart-home infrastructures, 3 smart-home energy-management scheme, 4 technical challenges of smart homes, 5 conclusion, conflict of interest.

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Smart homes: potentials and challenges

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Rasha El-Azab, Smart homes: potentials and challenges, Clean Energy , Volume 5, Issue 2, June 2021, Pages 302–315, https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkab010

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Decentralized distributed clean-energy sources have become an essential need for smart grids to reduce the harmful effects of conventional power plants. Smart homes with a suitable sizing process and proper energy-management schemes can share in reducing the whole grid demand and even sell clean energy to the utility. Smart homes have been introduced recently as an alternative solution to classical power-system problems, such as the emissions of thermal plants and blackout hazards due to bulk plants/transmission outages. The appliances, sources and energy storage of smart homes should be coordinated with the requirements of homeowners via a suitable energy-management scheme. Energy-management systems are the main key to optimizing both home sources and the operation of loads to maximize home-economic benefits while keeping a comfortable lifestyle. The intermittent uncertain nature of smart homes may badly affect the whole grid performance. The prospective high penetration of smart homes on a smart power grid will introduce new, unusual scenarios in both generation and loading. In this paper, the main features and requirements of smart homes are defined. This review aims also to address recent proposed smart-home energy-management schemes. Moreover, smart-grid challenges with a high penetration of smart-home power are discussed.

Smart homes provide comfortable, fully controlled and secure lifestyles to their occupants. Moreover, smart homes can save energy and money with the possibility of profiting from selling clean renewable energy to the grid. On the other hand, the probable decrease in total domestic-energy loads encourages many governments to support promising smart-home technologies. Some countries have already put out many rules, laws and subsidy programmes to encourage the integration of smart homes, such as encouraging the optimization of the heating system, supporting building energy storage and/or deploying smart meters. For instance, the European Standard EN 15232 [ 1 ] and the Energy Performance of Building Directive 2010/31/EU [ 2 ], which is in line with Directive 2009/72/EC as well as the Energy Road Map 2050 [ 3 ], encourage the integration of smart-home technologies to decrease power demand in residential areas.

To control the environment, a smart home is automated by controlling some appliances, such as those used for lighting and heating, based on different climatic conditions. Now, recent control schemes adapt many functions besides classical switching ones. They can monitor the internal environment and the activities of the home occupants. They also can independently take pre-programmed actions and operate devices in set predefined patterns, independently or according to the user’s requirements. Besides the ease of life, smart homes confirm efficient usage of electricity, lowering peak load, reducing energy bills and minimizing greenhouse-gas emissions [ 4 , 5 ].

Smart homes can be studied from many points of view. The communication systems [ 6 ], social impacts [ 7 ], thermal characteristics [ 8 ], technologies and trends of smart homes [ 9 ] are reviewed individually. Moreover, the monitoring and modelling of smart-home appliances via smart meters are reviewed for accurate load forecasting, as in [ 10 , 11 ]. Recently, power-grid authorities have modified residential electrical tariffs to encourage proper demand-side management by homeowners. Different from previous reviews, this paper introduces smart homes from the electrical/economic point of view. It also discusses smart-home energy-management systems (SHEMS) in two different modes, offline load scheduling and real-time management. The prospective impacts of unusual smart-home power profiles on future smart grids are also summarized.

After this introductory section, Section 1 describes the different definitions of smart homes within the last two decades. Smart-home communication schemes and other infrastructures of smart homes are discussed in Section 2. Section 3 discusses in more detail the existing functions of SHEMS, their pre-proposed optimization techniques and related technical/economical objective functions. The impacts of smart homes on modern grids are also discussed in Section 4. Finally, in Section 5, the main conclusions and contributions of the paper are highlighted.

The term ‘smart home’ has been commonly used for about two decades to describe houses with controlled energy schemes. This automation scheme confirms easier lifestyles for homeowners than normal un-automated homes, especially for elderly or disabled persons. Recently, the concept of ‘smart home’ has a wider description to include many applications of technologies in one place.

Sowah et al. [ 12 ] define smart homes as: ‘Houses that provide their occupants a comfortable, secure, and energy efficient environment with minimum possible costs regardless their occupants.’ The Smart Homes Association defines a smart home as: ‘The integration of technology and services through home networking for a better quality of living’ [ 13 ].

Makhadmeh et al. define them as: ‘Incorporated residential houses with smart technology to improve the comfort level of users (residents) by enhancing safety and healthcare and optimizing power consumption. Users can control and monitor smart-home appliances remotely through the home energy-management system (HEMS), which provides a remote monitoring system that uses telecommunication technology’ [ 14 ].

Smart homes can be defined as: any residential buildings using different communication schemes and optimization algorithms to predict, analyse, optimize and control its energy-consumption patterns according to preset users’ preferences to maximize home-economic benefits while preserving predefined conditions of a comfortable lifestyle.

Distributed clean energy generated by smart homes provides many benefits for prospective smart grids. Consequently, the effects of smart homes on future power grids should be extensively studied. In the near future, smart homes will play a major role as a power supplier in modern grids, not only as a power consumer.

The general infrastructure of smart homes consists of control centres, resources of electricity, smart meters and communication tools, as shown in Fig. 1 . Each component of the smart-home model will be discussed in the following subsections.

Infrastructure of SHEMS source

2.1 The control centre

The control centre provides home users with proper units to monitor and control different home appliances [ 15 ]. All real-time data are collected by SHEMS to optimize the demand/generation coordination and verify the predefined objectives. The main functions of the control centre can be summarized as follows [ 15 ]:

(i) collecting data from different meters, homeowners’ commands and grid utility via a proper communication system;

(ii) providing proper monitoring and analysing of home-energy consumption for homeowners;

(iii) coordinating between different appliances and resources to satisfy the optimal solution for predefined objectives.

2.2 Smart meter

The smart meter receives a demand-response signal from power utilities as an input to the SHEMS system [ 16 , 17 ]. Recently, advanced smart-metering infrastructures can monitor many home features such as electrical consumption, gas, water and heating [ 18 ].

2.3 Appliances

Smart-home loads can be divided according to their operating nature into two categories: schedulable and non-schedulable loads. Non-schedulable loads are operated occasionally according to the homeowner’s desires without any predictable operating patterns, such as printers, televisions and hairdryers, whereas schedulable loads have a predictable operating pattern that can be shifted or controlled via SHEMS, such as washing machines and air conditioners [ 19 ].

According to [ 19 ], controllable devices are also classified into interruptible and non-interruptible load according to the effect of supply interruption on their tasks. Electric vehicles (EVs) can be considered as an exceptional load [ 20 , 21 ]. EVs have two operating modes: charging and discharging. Therefore, EVs are interruptible schedulable loads during the charging mode. Moreover, EV battery energy can also be discharged to supply power to the grid during critical events, which is known as vehicle-to-grid [ 22 ]. By SHEMS, EVs can participate in supplying loads during high-priced power periods. In low-priced power periods, EVs restore their energy from the grid [ 23 , 24 ].

2.4 Resources of electricity

Solar and wind plants are the most mature renewable-energy sources in modern grids. Nowadays, many buildings have installed photovoltaic (PV) modules, thermal solar heaters or micro wind turbines. For smart homes, various functions can be supplied by solar energy besides generating electricity, such as a solar water heater (SWH), solar dryer and solar cooler [ 25 ]. Moreover, PV plants are cheap with low requirements of maintenance [ 26 ], whereas hot water produced by SWHs can be used in many home functions, such as washing and cooking, which increases the home-energy efficiency [ 27 ].

Energy storage may be considered as the cornerstone for any SHEMS. SHEMS are usually installed with energy-storage systems (ESSs) to manage their stored energy according to predefined objectives. Many energy-storage technologies are available in the power markets. Batteries and fuel cells are the most compatible energy-storage types of smart-home applications [ 28 ]. A fuel-cell structure is very similar to a battery. During the charging process, hydrogen fuel cells use electricity to produce hydrogen. Hydrogen feeds the fuel cell to create electricity during the discharging process. Fuel cells have relatively low efficiency compared to batteries. Fuel cells provide extra clean storage environments with the capability of storing extra hydrogen tanks. That perfectly matches isolated homes in remote areas [ 29 ].

Although wind energy is more economical for large-scale plants, it has a very limited market for micro wind turbines in homes. Typically, micro wind turbines require at least a wind speed of 2.7 m/s to generate minimum power, 25 m/s for rated power and 40 m/s for continuous generated power [ 30 ]. A micro wind turbine is relatively expensive, intermittent and needs special maintenance requirements and constraints compared to a solar plant [ 31 ].

Recently, biomass energy has been a promising renewable resource alternative for smart homes. Many pieces of research have recommended biomass energy for different types of buildings [ 32 ]. Heating is the main function of biomass in smart homes, as discussed in [ 33 , 34 ]. In addition, a biomass-fuelled generation system is examined for many buildings [ 35 , 36 ].

2.5 Communication schemes

Recently, communication systems are installed as built-in modules in smart homes. Both home users and grid operators will be able to monitor and control several home appliances in the near future to satisfy the optimum home-energy profile while preserving a comfortable lifestyle. Therefore, both wired and wireless communication schemes are utilized, which is known as a home area network (HAN), to cover remote-control signals as home occupants’ ones. Fig. 1 shows an example of a HAN that consists of Wi-Fi and cloud computing networks for both indoor and outdoor data exchange, respectively [ 37 , 38 ].

Energy-management systems for homes require three main components: the computational embedded controllers, the local-area network communication middleware and the transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) communication for wide-area integration with the utility company using wide-area network communication [ 37 ].

According to home characteristics, many wired communication schemes can be selected, such as power-line communication (PLC), inter-integrated circuit (I2C) and serial peripheral interface or wireless technologies such as Zigbee, Wi-Fi, radio-frequency identification (RFID) and the Internet of Things (IoT) to develop HANs. A few of the most common techniques will be discussed briefly in the following subsections [ 38 ].

PLC is a technique that uses power lines to transmit both power and data via the same cable to customers simultaneously. Such wired schemes provide fast communication with low interference of data. Moreover, PLC provides many communication terminals, as all power plugs can be used for data transferring. As all electrical home devices are connected by power cables, PLC can communicate with all these devices via the same cable.

PLC set-up has a low cost, as it uses pre-installed power cables with minimum hardware requirements. With a PLC communication scheme, home controllers can also be integrated easily with a high speed of data transfer. On the other hand, PLC has a high probability of data-signal attenuation. Furthermore, data signals suffer from electromagnetic interference of transmitted power signals.

2.5.2 Zigbee

Zigbee is a wireless communication technique [ 37–46 ]. Zigbee follows the IEEE 802.15.4 standard as a radio-frequency wireless communication scheme. It does not require any licenses for limited zones such as homes [ 37 ]. Also, Zigbee is a low-power-consuming technique. Therefore, it is suitable for basic home appliances, such as lighting, alarm systems and air conditioners [ 39 , 40 ]. Zigbee usually considers all home devices as slaves with a master coordinator/controller, which is known as a master–slave architecture.

Zigbee provides highly secured transferred data [ 38 , 41 ] with high reliability and capacity [ 42 ]. It also has self-organizing capabilities [ 42 ]. Conversely, Zigbee is relatively expensive due to special hardware requirements with low data-transfer rates. Moreover, Zigbee is not compatible with many other protocols, such as internet-supported protocols and Wi-Fi.

2.5.3 Wi-Fi technology

Wi-Fi is a wireless communication technique that follows the IEEE 802.11 standard. Wi-Fi provides high-rate data transfer that is compatible with many information-based devices such as computers, laptops, etc. [ 43 , 44 ].

Wi-Fi is a highly secured scheme with many of the familiar internet capabilities and low data-transfer delays (<3 ms) [ 45 ]. On the contrary, it is a relatively high-power-consuming scheme compared to Zigbee schemes [ 45 ]. Also, home devices can affect transmitted data signals by their emitted electromagnetic fields [ 46 ]. Wi-Fi can also suffer from interference from other communication protocols such as Zigbee and Bluetooth [ 43 ].

RFID is a wireless communication technique that conforms to the electronic product code protocol [ 47–52 ]. It can coincide with other communication schemes such as Wi-Fi and Zigbee. It can be utilized for a relatively widespread range of frequencies, from 120 kHz to 10 GHz. It also covers a wide range of distances, from 10 cm to 200 m [ 48 ]. Many researchers are investigating RFID home applications, such as energy-management systems [ 49 ], door locks [ 50 ] and lighting controls [ 51 ].

RFID operates on tags and reader-identification systems with a high data-transfer rate. Nevertheless, RFID has expensive chips with low bandwidth. The possibility of tag collision within the same zone decreases the accuracy of the RFID scheme.

This scheme connects home devices, users and grid operators via the internet to monitor and manage smart homes [ 6 , 38 , 53–65 ]. Consequently, the IoT and cloud computing have proven to be cheap, popular and easy services for smart homes. Moreover, IoT schemes are compatible with many other communication protocols, such as Zigbee, Bluetooth, etc., as listed in Table 1 . Internet hacking is the main problem with IoT schemes. System security and privacy are critical challenges for such internet-based schemes.

IoT protocols features

Today, building energy-management systems (BEMS) are utilized within residential, commercial, administration and industrial buildings. Moreover, the integration of variable renewable-energy sources with proper ESSs deployed in buildings represents an essential need for reliable, efficient BEMS.

For small-scale residential buildings or ‘homes’, BEMS should deal with variable uncertain load behaviours according to the home occupants’ desires and requirements, which is known as SHEMS. Throughout recent decades, many SHEMS have been presented and defined in many research studies.

In [ 66 ], SHEMS are defined as services that efficiently monitor and manage electricity generation, storage and consumption in smart houses. Nazabal et al. [ 67 ] include a collaborative exchange between smart homes and the utility as a main function of SHEMS. In [ 68 ], SHEMS are defined from the electrical-grid point of view as important tools that provide several benefits such as flattening the load curve, a reduction in peak demand and meeting the demand-side requirements.

3.1 Functions of SHEMS

Adaptive SHEMS are required to conserve power, especially with the increasing evolution in home loads. SHEMS should control both home appliances and available energy resources according to the real-time tariff and home user’s requirements [ 4 ]. Home-management schemes should provide an interface platform between home occupants and the home controller to readjust occasionally the load priority [ 5 ].

As shown in Fig. 2 , the majority of smart-home centres can be summarized as having five main functions [ 5 ], as follows:

Functions of SHEMS

(i) Monitoring: provides home residents with visual instantaneous information about the consumed power of different appliances and the status of several home parameters such as temperature, lights, etc. Furthermore, it can guide users to available alternatives for saving energy according to the existing operating modes of different home appliances.

(ii) Logging: collects and saves data pertaining to the amount of electricity consumed by each appliance, generated out of energy-conservation states. This functionality includes analysing the demand response for real-time prices.

(iii) Control: both direct and remote-control schemes can be implemented in smart homes. Different home appliances are controlled directly by SHEMS to match the home users’ desires, whereas other management functions are controlled remotely via cell phones or laptops, such as logging and controlling the power consumption of interruptible devices.

(iv) Management: the main function of SHEMS. It concerns the coordination between installed energy sources such as PV modules, micro wind turbines, energy storage and home appliances to optimize the total system efficiency and/or increase economic benefits.

(v) Alarms: SHEMS should respond to specific threats or faults by generating proper alarms according to fault locations, types, etc.

3.2 Economic analysis

Economic factors affecting home-management systems are classified into two classes. First, sizing costs include expanses of smart-home planning. Second, operating costs consist of bills of consumed energy. These costs depend mainly on the electrical tariff.

3.2.1 Sizing costs

These include capital, maintenance and replacement costs of smart-home infrastructures, such as PV systems, wind turbines, batteries/fuel cells and communication systems. In most previous SHEMS, such planning costs usually are not taken into consideration, as management schemes usually concern the daily operating costs only [ 69 ].

3.2.2 Operating costs

The electricity tariff is the main factor that gives an indication of the value of saving energy, according to the governmental authority; there are many types of tariffs, as follows [ 70–74 ]:

(i) Flat tariffs: the cost of consumed energy is constant regardless of the continuous change in the load. Load-rescheduling schemes do not affect the electricity bills in this scheme. Therefore, homeowners are not encouraged to rearrange their consumed energy, as they have no any economic benefits from managing the consumption of their appliances.

(ii) Block-rate tariffs: in this scheme, the monthly consumed energy price is classified into different categories. Each category has its own flat-rate price. Therefore, the main target of SHEMS is minimizing the total monthly consumed energy to avoid the risk of high-priced categories.

(iii) Seasonal tariffs: in this scheme, the total grid-demand load is changed significantly from one season to another. Therefore, the utility grid applies a high flat-rate tariff in high-demand seasons and vice versa. SHEMS should minimize the total consumption in such high-priced seasons and get the benefit of consumption in low-priced seasons.

(iv) Time-of-use (TOU) tariff: there are two or three predefined categories of tariffs daily in this scheme. First, a high-priced-hours tariff is applied during high-demand hours, which is known as a peak-hours tariff. Second, an off-peak-hours tariff is applied during low-demand hours with low prices for energy consumption. Sometimes, three levels of pricing are defined by the utility grid during the day, i.e. off-, middle- and high-peak costs, as discussed in [ 75 ]. SHEMS shift interruptible loads with low priority to off-peak hours to minimize the bill.

(v) Super peak TOU: this can be considered as a special case of the previously described TOU tariff but with a short peak-hours period of ~4 hours daily.

(vi) Critical peak pricing (CPP): the utility grid uses this tariff scheme during expected critical events of increasing the gap between generation and power demand. The price is increased exceptionally during these critical events by a constant predefined rate.

(vii) Variable peak pricing: this is a subcategory of the CPP tariff in which the exceptional increase in the tariff is variable. The utility grid informs consumers of the exceptional dynamic price increase according to its initial expectations.

(viii) Real-time pricing (RTP): the price is changing continuously during pre-identified intervals that range from several minutes to an hour. This tariff is the riskiest pricing scheme for homeowners. The electricity bill can increase significantly without a proper management system. SHEMS should communicate with grid utility and reschedule both home appliances, sources and energy storage continuously to minimize the total bill.

(viii) Peak-time rebates (PTRs): a proper price discount is considered for low-consumption loads during peak hours, which can be refunded later by the grid.

Depending on the electricity tariff, SHEMS complexity varies dramatically. In the case of using a flat-rate tariff, the algorithm becomes simpler, as one value is recorded for selling or buying the electricity. Tariffs may be published from the proper authority or predicted according to historical data. Prediction of the dynamic tariff is a main step in any SHEMS. Many time frames of tariff prediction are proposed that vary from hourly, daily or even a yearly prediction. Many optimization techniques with various objective functions are proposed to handle different features of both smart-home infrastructures and electricity tariffs, as will be discussed in the following section.

3.3 Pre-proposed SHEMS

Different SHEMS may be classified according to four features: operational planning of load-scheduling techniques, system objective functions, optimization techniques and smart-home model characteristics, as will be discussed in the following subsections.

3.3.1 Load-scheduling techniques

SHEMS concern the generation/load power balance to provide a comfortable lifestyle with the minimum possible costs. Scheduling loads according to their priority and the periods of renewable energy (solar, wind and EV state) can help in reducing the overall energy consumption daily. According to data collected by the management system, an initial load schedule is suggested daily to minimize the daily cost of consumed energy [ 76 ].

By using a proper optimal scheduling algorithm, electricity bills can be reduced by shifting loads from high-priced to low-priced intervals [ 77 , 78 ]. Many techniques have been proposed for home load scheduling, as will be discussed in the following subsections:

(i) Rule-based scheduling: in this algorithm, all home appliances and resources are connected to smart data-collector taps. By processing the collected data, different appliances are scheduled according to their priorities and based on the if/then rule. Also, some high-priority loads are supplied by home renewable sources/storage to maintain their function during predicted peak hours [ 79 , 80 ].

(ii) Artificial intelligence (AI): many AI controllers have been proposed for home load scheduling, such as artificial neural networks (ANNs), fuzzy logic (FL) and adaptive neural fuzzy inference systems (ANFISs). Table 2 compares between the three types of scheduling scheme based on AI.

Optimization techniques for load scheduling

3.3.2 Objective functions

(i) Single-objective techniques: in these schemes, only one criterion is minimized or maximized according to the home-user requirements. Several minimization objective functions were proposed, as follows:

lifetime degradation [ 47–49 ];

life-cycle costs [ 93 ];

gas emissions [ 94–96 ];

both active and reactive losses [ 97 , 98 ].

On the other hand, some research defined other single maximizing objective functions, such as:

net present value [ 96 ].

economic profits [ 97 , 98 ].

increased system reliability: according to many well-known reliability indices, such as loss of power supply probability, loss of load probability and others [ 99 , 100 ].

generated power [ 101 , 102 ].

loadability [ 103 ];

Multi-objective techniques: homeowners may have several criteria to be optimized together. Multi-objective optimization (MOO) problems consider many functions simultaneously. MOO finds a proper coordination that moderately satisfies the considered objectives. In [ 102 ], SHEMS with MOO techniques are summarized. Table 3 lists some examples of such multi-objective functions.

Multi-objective functions of SHEMS

3.3.3 Optimization techniques

Optimization techniques aim usually to identify the best coordination taking into consideration predefined constraints. Many approaches are available for addressing optimization problems. These approaches can be classified into two categories: classical and AI-based techniques. Table 4 lists various SHEMS optimization techniques and their main features.

Optimization techniques in SHEMS

Classical methods, especially linear programming types, have been usually applied in the last decade for smart homes with limited objective functions and simple model characteristics of tariff and home appliances. Recently, AI-based techniques have been proposed to cover more complicated models of smart homes with multi-objective functions with high levels of comfortable lifestyles.

3.3.4 Home-model characteristics

The smart-home model differs significantly according to three factors: installed variable energy sources, applied tariff and EV deployment. PV systems have been applied for nearly all studied smart homes due to their low price, simplicity of installation, low maintenance requirements and easily predicted daily power profile. On the other hand, a few pieces of research have considered micro wind turbines in their home models, such as [ 120 ]. Wind turbines are limited by high-wind-speed zones that are usually located in rural areas. In addition, homeowners usually do not prefer wind turbines due to their high prices, mechanical maintenance requirements and the unpredictable variation in wind power.

Dynamic tariffs are applied in most smart-home research. Specifically, the TOU tariff is analysed in a lot of studies, such as [ 121 , 122 ], whereas little research uses RTP, such as [ 123 , 124 ]. EV is studied as an energy source in the parking period or vehicle-to-grid (V2G) mode. In [ 75 , 125 ], EV in V2G mode reduces the electricity bill in peak hours, whereas, in [ 126–130 ], ESSs are managed only to reduce the electricity usage from the grid.

Many technical challenges arise for modern grids due to the increasing mutual exchange between smart homes and utility grids, especially power-quality control. Electric-power-quality studies usually confirm the acceptable behaviour of electrical sources such as voltage limits and harmonics analysis. Recently, smart power grids have diverse generation sources from different technologies that depend mainly on power electronics devices that increase the difficulty in power-quality control. Power-quality constraints should be taken into consideration for any energy-management systems to provide harmony between modern sources and loads.

On the other hand, power-quality issues should not form an additional obstacle against the integration of new technologies in modern grids. Therefore, both advanced communication schemes and AI-based techniques make modern grids ‘smart’ enough to cope with selective power-quality management. Smart homes exchange power with utility grids. With the prospective increase in such smart homes, the effect of their behaviour should be studied and controlled. Smart homes affect the grid-power quality in three different areas, as will be discussed in the following paragraphs [ 154–156 ].

4.1 Generating equipment

Integrated micro generation schemes in smart homes are mainly single-phase sources based on inverters with high switching frequencies that reach to many kHz. Low-order harmonics of such a generation type can usually be disregarded. However, with the expected continuous increase in such micro generators, the harmonics of low-voltage networks may shift into a range of higher frequencies, perhaps from 2 to 9 kHz [ 157 ]. Therefore, more research is needed to re-evaluate the appropriate limits for generation equipment in smart homes. Moreover, single-phase generation increases the risk of an unbalanced voltage in low-voltage grids. Therefore, negative-sequence voltage limits should be re-evaluated particularly for weak distribution networks. Also, a need for zero-sequence voltage limits may arise [ 154 ].

4.2 Home appliances

Modern home appliances depend mainly on electronic devices, such as newer LED lighting systems, EV battery chargers, etc., with relatively low fundamental current and high harmonic contents compared to traditional ones. According to many power-system analysers, many harmonics will increase significantly to risky levels, particularly fifth-harmonic voltage, with increase in such new electronic appliances [ 155 ].

4.3 Distribution network

In future grids, significant unusual operating scenarios may be possible with high penetration of domestic generation, especially with the possibility of an islanded (self-balanced) operation of smart homes. Short-circuit power will differ significantly during different operating conditions compared to classical grids. Moreover, low-voltage networks may suffer from damping-stability problems due to the continuous decrease in resistive loads, in conjunction with the increase in capacitive loads of electronic equipment. In addition, resonance problems may occur with low frequencies according to the continuous change in the nature of the load [ 156 ].

Although smart homes have bad impacts on utility grids, there are no charges applied from the grid authority to homeowners based on their buildings’ effects on grid-power quality. Therefore, home planners and SHEMS designers are usually concerned only with the economic benefits of their proposed schemes.

Smart homes, using new revolutions in communication systems and AI, provide residential houses with electrical power of a dual nature, i.e. as producer and consumer or ‘prosumer’. The energy-management system includes many components that mainly depend on a suitable communication scheme to coordinate between available sources, loads and users’ desire. Among many proposed communication systems, the IoT has many advantages and was chosen in many studies. Besides the popularity of the IoT, it does not need any special equipment installation and is compatible with many other communications protocols.

Many functions are applied by management systems such as monitoring and logging to facilitate a proper interaction between home occupants and the management scheme. Home security also should be confirmed via the management scheme by using different alarms corresponding to preset threats. Home users control different home appliances according their desires by SHEMS and via cell phones or manually.

The electricity tariff plays an important role in defining management-system characteristics. Tariffs vary from simple fixed flat rates to complicated variable dynamic ones according to the electrical-grid authority’s rules for residential loads. According to the tariff and selected objective functions, pre-proposed optimization techniques vary significantly from simple classical linear programming to sophisticated AI ones.

Modern electronic-based home appliances increase power-grid-quality problems, such as high harmonic contents, unbalanced loading and unpredictable short-circuit currents. On the other hand, power-grid authorities do not charge homeowners according to their buildings’ effects on the power quality. Therefore, all proposed energy-management systems are concerned mainly with the economic profits from reducing electricity consumption or even selling electrical power to the utility grids. In the future, price-based power-quality constraints should be defined by the grid authorities to confirm proper power exchange between both smart homes and grids. A possible future direction is behaviour modelling of aggregated smart homes/smart cities in different operating scenarios to conclude probable power-grid scenarios for stability and quality.

This work was supported by the project entitled ‘Smart Homes Energy Management Strategies’, Project ID: 4915, JESOR-2015-Cycle 4, which is sponsored by the Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and Technology (ASRT), Cairo, Egypt.

None declared.

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Home > Books > Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications

Smart Home Systems Based on Internet of Things

Submitted: 17 September 2018 Reviewed: 01 February 2019 Published: 28 February 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84894

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Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications

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Smart home systems achieved great popularity in the last decades as they increase the comfort and quality of life. Most smart home systems are controlled by smartphones and microcontrollers. A smartphone application is used to control and monitor home functions using wireless communication techniques. We explore the concept of smart home with the integration of IoT services and cloud computing to it, by embedding intelligence into sensors and actuators, networking of smart things using the corresponding technology, facilitating interactions with smart things using cloud computing for easy access in different locations, increasing computation power, storage space and improving data exchange efficiency. In this chapter we present a composition of three components to build a robust approach of an advanced smart home concept and implementation.

• cloud computing
• event processing
• home appliances
• rule-based event processing

Author Information

Menachem domb *.

• Computer Science Department, Ashkelon Academic College, Ashkelon, Israel

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Classic smart home, internet of things, cloud computing and rule-based event processing, are the building blocks of our proposed advanced smart home integrated compound. Each component contributes its core attributes and technologies to the proposed composition. IoT contributes the internet connection and remote management of mobile appliances, incorporated with a variety of sensors. Sensors may be attached to home related appliances, such as air-conditioning, lights and other environmental devices. And so, it embeds computer intelligence into home devices to provide ways to measure home conditions and monitor home appliances’ functionality. Cloud computing provides scalable computing power, storage space and applications, for developing, maintaining, running home services, and accessing home devices anywhere at anytime. The rule-based event processing system provides the control and orchestration of the entire advanced smart home composition.

Combining technologies in order to generate a best of breed product, already appear in recent literature in various ways. Christos Stergioua et al. [ 1 ] merge cloud computing and IoT to show how the cloud computing technology improves the functionality of the IoT. Majid Al-Kuwari [ 2 ] focus on embedded IoT for using analyzed data to remotely execute commands of home appliances in a smart home. Trisha Datta et al. [ 3 ] propose a privacy-preserving library to embed traffic shaping in home appliances. Jian Mao et al. [ 4 ] enhance machine learning algorithms to play a role in the security in a smart home ecosystem. Faisal Saeed et al. [ 5 ] propose using sensors to sense and provide in real-time, fire detection with high accuracy.

In this chapter we explain the integration of classic smart home, IoT and cloud computing. Starting by analyzing the basics of smart home, IoT, cloud computing and event processing systems. We discuss their complementarity and synergy, detailing what is currently driving to their integration. We also discuss what is already available in terms of platforms, and projects implementing the smart home, cloud and IoT paradigm. From the connectivity perspective, the added IoT appliances and the cloud, are connected to the internet and in this context also to the home local area network. These connections complement the overall setup to a complete unified and interconnected composition with extended processing power, powerful 3rd party tools, comprehensive applications and an extensive storage space.

In the rest of this chapter we elaborate on each of the four components. In Section 1, we describe the classic smart home, in Section 2, we introduce the internet of things [IoT], in Section 3, we outline cloud computing and in Section 4, we present the event processing module. In Section 5, we describe the composition of an advanced smart home, incorporating these four components. In Section 6, we provide some practical information and relevant selection considerations, for building a practical advanced smart home implementation. In Section 7, we describe our experiment introducing three examples presenting the essence of our integrated proposal. Finally, we identify open issues and future directions in the future of advanced smart home components and applications.

2. Classic smart home overview

Smart home is the residential extension of building automation and involves the control and automation of all its embedded technology. It defines a residence that has appliances, lighting, heating, air conditioning, TVs, computers, entertainment systems, big home appliances such as washers/dryers and refrigerators/freezers, security and camera systems capable of communicating with each other and being controlled remotely by a time schedule, phone, mobile or internet. These systems consist of switches and sensors connected to a central hub controlled by the home resident using wall-mounted terminal or mobile unit connected to internet cloud services.

Smart home provides, security, energy efficiency, low operating costs and convenience. Installation of smart products provide convenience and savings of time, money and energy. Such systems are adaptive and adjustable to meet the ongoing changing needs of the home residents. In most cases its infrastructure is flexible enough to integrate with a wide range of devices from different providers and standards.

The basic architecture enables measuring home conditions, process instrumented data, utilizing microcontroller-enabled sensors for measuring home conditions and actuators for monitoring home embedded devices.

The popularity and penetration of the smart home concept is growing in a good pace, as it became part of the modernization and reduction of cost trends. This is achieved by embedding the capability to maintain a centralized event log, execute machine learning processes to provide main cost elements, saving recommendations and other useful reports.

2.1 Smart home services

2.1.1 measuring home conditions.

A typical smart home is equipped with a set of sensors for measuring home conditions, such as: temperature, humidity, light and proximity. Each sensor is dedicated to capture one or more measurement. Temperature and humidity may be measured by one sensor, other sensors calculate the light ratio for a given area and the distance from it to each object exposed to it. All sensors allow storing the data and visualizing it so that the user can view it anywhere and anytime. To do so, it includes a signal processer, a communication interface and a host on a cloud infrastructure.

2.1.2 Managing home appliances

Creates the cloud service for managing home appliances which will be hosted on a cloud infrastructure. The managing service allows the user, controlling the outputs of smart actuators associated with home appliances, such as such as lamps and fans. Smart actuators are devices, such as valves and switches, which perform actions such as turning things on or off or adjusting an operational system. Actuators provides a variety of functionalities, such as on/off valve service, positioning to percentage open, modulating to control changes on flow conditions, emergency shutdown (ESD). To activate an actuator, a digital write command is issued to the actuator.

2.1.3 Controlling home access

Home access technologies are commonly used for public access doors. A common system uses a database with the identification attributes of authorized people. When a person is approaching the access control system, the person’s identification attributes are collected instantly and compared to the database. If it matches the database data, the access is allowed, otherwise, the access is denied. For a wide distributed institute, we may employ cloud services for centrally collecting persons’ data and processing it. Some use magnetic or proximity identification cards, other use face recognition systems, finger print and RFID.

In an example implementation, an RFID card and an RFID reader have been used. Every authorized person has an RFID card. The person scanned the card via RFID reader located near the door. The scanned ID has been sent via the internet to the cloud system. The system posted the ID to the controlling service which compares the scanned ID against the authorized IDs in the database.

2.2 The main components

Sensors to collect internal and external home data and measure home conditions. These sensors are connected to the home itself and to the attached-to-home devices. These sensors are not internet of things sensors, which are attached to home appliances. The sensors’ data is collected and continually transferred via the local network, to the smart home server.

Processors for performing local and integrated actions. It may also be connected to the cloud for applications requiring extended resources. The sensors’ data is then processed by the local server processes.

A collection of software components wrapped as APIs, allowing external applications execute it, given it follows the pre-defined parameters format. Such an API can process sensors data or manage necessary actions.

Actuators to provision and execute commands in the server or other control devices. It translates the required activity to the command syntax; the device can execute. During processing the received sensors’ data, the task checks if any rule became true. In such case the system may launch a command to the proper device processor.

Database to store the processed data collected from the sensors [and cloud services]. It will also be used for data analysis, data presentation and visualization. The processed data is saved in the attached database for future use.

Smart home paradigm with optional cloud connectivity.

3. Internet of things [IoT] overview

The internet of things (IoT) paradigm refers to devices connected to the internet. Devices are objects such as sensors and actuators, equipped with a telecommunication interface, a processing unit, limited storage and software applications. It enables the integration of objects into the internet, establishing the interaction between people and devices among devices. The key technology of IoT includes radio frequency identification (RFID), sensor technology and intelligence technology. RFID is the foundation and networking core of the construction of IoT. Its processing and communication capabilities along with unique algorithms allows the integration of a variety of elements to operate as an integrated unit but at the same time allow easy addition and removal of components with minimum impact, making IoT robust but flexible to absorb changes in the environment and user preferences. To minimize bandwidth usage, it is using JSON, a lightweight version of XML, for inter components and external messaging.

4. Cloud computing and its contribution to IoT and smart home

Cloud computing is a shared pool of computing resources ready to provide a variety of computing services in different levels, from basic infrastructure to most sophisticated application services, easily allocated and released with minimal efforts or service provider interaction [ 6 , 7 ]. In practice, it manages computing, storage, and communication resources that are shared by multiple users in a virtualized and isolated environment. Figure 2 depicts the overall cloud paradigm.

Cloud computing paradigm.

IoT and smart home can benefit from the wide resources and functionalities of cloud to compensate its limitation in storage, processing, communication, support in pick demand, backup and recovery. For example, cloud can support IoT service management and fulfillment and execute complementary applications using the data produced by it. Smart home can be condensed and focus just on the basic and critical functions and so minimize the local home resources and rely on the cloud capabilities and resources. Smart home and IoT will focus on data collection, basic processing, and transmission to the cloud for further processing. To cope with security challenges, cloud may be private for highly secured data and public for the rest.

IoT, smart home and cloud computing are not just a merge of technologies. But rather, a balance between local and central computing along with optimization of resources consumption. A computing task can be either executed on the IoT and smart home devices or outsourced to the cloud. Where to compute depends on the overhead tradeoffs, data availability, data dependency, amount of data transportation, communications dependency and security considerations. On the one hand, the triple computing model involving the cloud, IoT and smart home, should minimize the entire system cost, usually with more focus on reducing resource consumptions at home. On the other hand, an IoT and smart home computing service model, should improve IoT users to fulfill their demand when using cloud applications and address complex problems arising from the new IoT, smart home and cloud service model.

Some examples of healthcare services provided by cloud and IoT integration: properly managing information, sharing electronic healthcare records enable high-quality medical services, managing healthcare sensor data, makes mobile devices suited for health data delivery, security, privacy, and reliability, by enhancing medical data security and service availability and redundancy and assisted-living services in real-time, and cloud execution of multimedia-based health services.

5. Centralized event processing, a rule-based system

Smart home and IoT are rich with sensors, which generate massive data flows in the form of messages or events. Processing this data is above the capacity of a human being’s capabilities [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Hence, event processing systems have been developed and used to respond faster to classified events. In this section, we focus on rule management systems which can sense and evaluate events to respond to changes in values or interrupts. The user can define event-triggered rule and to control the proper delivery of services. A rule is composed of event conditions, event pattern and correlation-related information which can be combined for modeling complex situations. It was implemented in a typical smart home and proved its suitability for a service-oriented system.

The system can process large amounts of events, execute functions to monitor, navigate and optimize processes in real-time. It discovers and analyzes anomalies or exceptions and creates reactive/proactive responses, such as warnings and preventing damage actions. Situations are modeled by a user-friendly modeling interface for event-triggered rules. When required, it breaks them down into simple, understandable elements. The proposed model can be seamlessly integrated into the distributed and service-oriented event processing platform.

The evaluation process is triggered by events delivering the most recent state and information from the relevant environment. The outcome is a decision graph representing the rule. It can break down complex situations to simple conditions, and combine them with each other, composing complex conditions. The output is a response event raised when a rule fires. The fired events may be used as input for other rules for further evaluation. Event patterns are discovered when multiple events occur and match a pre-defined pattern. Due to the graphical model and modular approach for constructing rules, rules can be easily adapted to domain changes. New event conditions or event patterns can be added or removed from the rule model. Rules are executed by event services, which supply the rule engine with events and process the evaluation result. To ensure the availability of suitable processing resources, the system can run in a distributed mode, on multiple machines and facilitate the integration with external systems, as well. The definition of relationships and dependencies among events that are relevant for the rule processing, are performed using sequence sets, generated by the rule engine. The rule engine constructs sequences of events relevant to a specific rule condition to allow associating events by their context data. Rules automatically perform actions in response when stated conditions hold. Actions generate response events, which trigger response activities. Event patterns can match temporal event sequences, allowing the description of home situations where the occurrences of events are relevant. For example, when the door is kept open too long.

The following challenges are known with this model: structure for the processed events and data, configuration of services and adapters for processing steps, including their input and output parameters, interfaces to external systems for sensing data and for responding by executing transactions, structure for the processed events and data, data transformations, data analysis and persistence. It allows to model which events should be processed by the rule service and how the response events should be forwarded to other event services. The process is simple: data is collected and received from adapters which forward events to event services that consume them. Initially the events are enriched to prepare the event data for the rule processing. For example, the response events are sent to a service for sending notifications to a call agent, or to services which transmit event delay notifications and event updates back to the event management system.

5.1 Event processing languages

Event processing is concerned with real-time capturing and managing pre-defined events. It starts from managing the receptors of events right from the event occurrence, even identification, data collection, process association and activation of the response action. To allow rapid and flexible event handling, an event processing language is used, which allows fast configuration of the resources required to handle the expected sequence of activities per event type. It is composed of two modules, ESP and CEP. ESP efficiently handles the event, analyzes it and selects the appropriate occurrence. CEP handles aggregated events. Event languages describe complex event-types applied over the event log.

5.2 Rediscovering workflow from events

In some cases, rules relate to discrepancies in a sequence of events in a workflow. In such cases, it is mandatory to precisely understand the workflow and its associated events. To overcome this, we propose a reverse engineering process to automatically rediscover the workflows from the events log collected over time, assuming these events are ordered, and each event refers to one task being executed for a single case. The rediscovering process can be used to validate workflow sequences by measuring the discrepancies between prescriptive models and actual process executions. The rediscovery process consists of the following three steps: (1) construction of the dependency/frequency table. (2) Induction of dependency/frequency graphs. (3) Generating WF-nets from D/F-graphs.

6. Advanced smart home

In this section, we focus on the integration of smart home, IoT and cloud computing to define a new computing paradigm. We can find in the literature section [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ] surveys and research work on smart home, IoT and cloud computing separately, emphasizing their unique properties, features, technologies, and drawbacks. However, our approach is the opposite. We are looking at the synergy among these three concepts and searching for ways to integrate them into a new comprehensive paradigm, utilizing its common underlying concepts as well as its unique attributes, to allow the execution of new processes, which could not be processed otherwise.

Figure 3 depicts the advanced smart-home main components and their inter-connectivity. On the left block, the smart home environment, we can see the typical devices connected to a local area network [LAN]. This enables the communication among the devices and outside of it. Connected to the LAN is a server and its database. The server controls the devices, logs its activities, provides reports, answers queries and executes the appropriate commands. For more comprehensive or common tasks, the smart home server, transfers data to the cloud and remotely activate tasks in it using APIs, application programming interface processes. In addition, IoT home appliances are connected to the internet and to the LAN, and so expands smart home to include IoT. The connection to the internet allows the end user, resident, to communicate with the smart home to get current information and remotely activate tasks.

Advanced smart home—integrating smart home, IoT and cloud computing.

To demonstrate the benefits of the advanced smart home, we use RSA, a robust asymmetric cryptography algorithm, which generates a public and private key and encrypts/decrypts messages. Using the public key, everyone can encrypt a message, but only these who hold the private key can decrypt the sent message. Generating the keys and encrypting/decrypting messages, involves extensive calculations, which require considerable memory space and processing power. Therefore, it is usually processed on powerful computers built to cope with the required resources. However, due to its limited resources, running RSA in an IoT device is almost impossible, and so, it opens a security gap in the Internet, where attackers may easily utilize. To cope with it, we combine the power of the local smart home processors to compute some RSA calculations and forward more complicated computing tasks to be processed in the cloud. The results will then be transferred back to the IoT sensor to be compiled and assembled together, to generate the RSA encryption/decryption code, and so close the mentioned IoT security gap. This example demonstrates the data flow among the advanced smart home components. Where, each component performs its own stack of operations to generate its unique output. However, in case of complicated and long tasks it will split the task to sub tasks to be executed by more powerful components. Referring to the RSA example, the IoT device initiates the need to generate an encryption key and so, sends a request message to the RSA application, running in the smart home computer. The smart home computer then asks the “prime numbers generation” application running on cloud, to provide p and q prime numbers. Once p and q are accepted, the encryption code is generated. In a later stage, an IoT device issues a request to the smart home computer to encrypt a message, using the recent generated RSA encryption key. The encrypted message is then transferred back to the IoT device for further execution. A similar scenario may be in the opposite direction, when an IoT device gets a message it may request the smart home to decrypt it.

To summarize, the RSA scenarios depict the utilization of the strength of the cloud computing power, the smart home secured computing capabilities and at the end the limited power of the IoT device. It proves that without this automatic cooperation, RSA would not be able to be executed at the IoT level.

A more practical example is where several detached appliances, such as an oven, a slow cooker and a pan on the gas stove top, are active in fulfilling the resident request. The resident is getting an urgent phone call and leaves home immediately, without shutting off the active appliances. In case the relevant IoTs have been tuned to automatically shut down based on a predefined rule, it will be taken care at the IoT level. Otherwise, the smart home realizes the resident has left home [the home door has been opened and then locked, the garage has been opened, the resident’s car left, the main gate was opened and then closed, no one was at home] and will shut down all active devices classified as risk in case of absence. It will send an appropriate message to the mailing list defined for such an occasion.

7. Practical aspects and implementation considerations for IoT and smart home

Smart home has three components: hardware, software and communication protocols. It has a wide variety of applications for the digital consumer. Some of the areas of home automation led IoT enabled connectivity, such as: lighting control, gardening, safety and security, air quality, water-quality monitoring, voice assistants, switches, locks, energy and water meters.

Advanced smart home components include: IoT sensors, gateways, protocols, firmware, cloud computing, databases, middleware and gateways. IoT cloud can be divided into a platform-as-a-service (PaaS) and infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS). Figure 4 demonstrates the main components of the proposed advanced smart home and the connection and data flow among its components.

Advanced smart home composition.

The smart home application updates the home database in the cloud to allow remote people access it and get the latest status of the home. A typical IoT platform contains: device security and authentication, message brokers and message queuing, device administration, protocols, data collection, visualization, analysis capabilities, integration with other web services, scalability, APIs for real-time information flow and open source libraries. IoT sensors for home automation are known by their sensing capabilities, such as: temperature, lux, water level, air composition, surveillance video cameras, voice/sound, pressure, humidity, accelerometers, infrared, vibrations and ultrasonic. Some of the most commonly used smart home sensors are temperature sensors, most are digital sensors, but some are analog and can be extremely accurate. Lux sensors measure the luminosity. Water level ultrasonic sensors.

Float level sensors offer a more precise measurement capability to IoT developers. Air composition sensors are used by developers to measure specific components in the air: CO monitoring, hydrogen gas levels measuring, nitrogen oxide measure, hazardous gas levels. Most of them have a heating time, which means that it requires a certain time before presenting accurate values. It relies on detecting gas components on a surface only after the surface is heated enough, values start to show up. Video cameras for surveillance and analytics. A range of cameras, with a high-speed connection. Using Raspberry Pi processor is recommended as its camera module is very efficient due to its flex connector, connected directly to the board.

Sound detectors are widely used for monitoring purposes, detecting sounds and acting accordingly. Some can even detect ultra-low levels of noise, and fine tune among various noise levels.

Humidity sensors sense the humidity levels in the air for smart homes. Its accuracy and precision depend on the sensor design and placement. Certain sensors like the DHT22, built for rapid prototyping, will always perform poorly when compared to high-quality sensors like HIH6100. For open spaces, the distribution around the sensor is expected to be uniform requiring fewer corrective actions for the right calibration.

Smart home communication protocols: bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or GSM. Bluetooth smart or low energy wireless protocols with mesh capabilities and data encryption algorithms. Zigbee is mesh networked, low power radio frequency-based protocol for IoT. X10 protocol that utilizes powerline wiring for signaling and control. Insteon, wireless and wireline communication. Z-wave specializes in secured home automation. UPB, uses existing power lines. Thread, a royalty-free protocol for smart home automation. ANT, an ultra-low-power protocol for building low-powered sensors with a mesh distribution capability. The preferred protocols are bluetooth low energy, Z-wave, Zigbee, and thread. Considerations for incorporating a gateway may include: cloud connectivity, supported protocols, customization complexity and prototyping support. Home control is composed of the following: state machine, event bus, service log and timer.

Modularity: enables the bundle concept, runtime dynamics, software components can be managed at runtime, service orientation, manage dependencies among bundles, life cycle layer: controls the life cycle of the bundles, service layers: defines a dynamic model of communication between various modules, actual services: this is the application layer. Security layer: optional, leverages Java 2 security architecture and manages permissions from different modules.

OpenHAB is a framework, combining home automation and IoT gateway for smart homes. Its features: rules engine, logging mechanism and UI abstraction. Automation rules that focus on time, mood, or ambiance, easy configuration, common supported hardware:

Domoticz architecture: very few people know about the architecture of Domoticz, making it extremely difficult to build applications on it without taking unnecessary risks in building the product itself. For example, the entire design of general architecture feels a little weird when you look at the concept of a sensor to control to an actuator. Building advanced applications with Domoticz can be done using OO based languages.

Deployment of blockchain into home networks can easily be done with Raspberry Pi. A blockchain secured layer between devices and gateways can be implemented without a massive revamp of the existing code base. Blockchain is a technology that will play a role in the future to reassure them with revolutionary and new business models like dynamic renting for Airbnb.

8. Smart home and IoT examples

We can find in the literature and practical reports, many implementations of various integrations among part of the main three building blocks, smart home, IoT and cloud computing. For example, refer to [ 12 – 14 ]. In this section we outline three implementations, which clearly demonstrate the need and the benefits of interconnecting or integrating all three components, as illustrated in Figure 5 . Each component is numbered, 1–6. In the left side, we describe for each implementation, the sequence of messages/commands among components, from left to right and from bottom up. Take for example the third implementation, a control task constantly runing at the home server (2) discovers the fact that all residents left home and automatically, initiates actuators to shut down all IoT appliances (3), then it issues messages to the relevant users/residents, updating them about the situation and the applied actions it took (6).

Advanced smart home implementations chart.

The use of (i) in the implementations explanation, corresponds to the circled numbers in Figure 5 .

8.1 Discovery of water leaks and its prevention

First step is deploying water sensors under every reasonable potential leak source and an automated master water valve sensor for the whole house, which now means the house is considered as an IoT.

In case the water sensor detects a leak of water (3), it sends an event to the hub (2), which triggers the “turn valve off” application. The home control application then sends a “turn off” command to all IoT (3) appliances defined as sensitive to water stopping and then sends the “turn off” command to the main water valve (1). An update message is sent via the messaging system to these appearing in the notification list (6). This setup helps defending against scenarios where the source of the water is from the house plumbing. The underlying configuration assumes an integration via messages and commands between the smart home and the IoT control system. It demonstrates the dependency and the resulting benefits of combining smart home and IoT.

8.2 Smoke detectors

Most houses already have the typical collection of smoke detectors (1), but there is no bridge to send data from the sensor to a smart home hub. Connecting these sensors to a smart home app (2), enables a comprehensive smoke detection system. It is further expanded to notify the elevator sensor to block the use of it due to fire condition (1), and so, it is even further expanded to any IoT sensor (3), who may be activated due to the detected smoke alert.

In [ 5 ] they designed a wireless sensor network for early detection of house fires. They simulated a fire in a smart home using the fire dynamics simulator and a language program. The simulation results showed that the system detects fire early.

8.3 Incident management to control home appliances

Consider the scenario where you leave home while some of the appliances are still on. In case your absence is long enough, some of the appliances may over heat and are about to blowout. To avoid such situations, we connect all IoT appliances’ sensors to the home application (2), so that when all leave home it will automatically adjust all the appliances’ sensors accordingly (3), to avoid damages. Note that the indication of an empty home is generated by the Smart Home application, while the “on” indication of the appliance, is generated by IoT. Hence, this scenario is possible due to the integration between smart home and IoT systems.

9. Conclusions and summary

In this chapter we described the integration of three loosely coupled components, smart home, Iot, and cloud computing. To orchestrate and timely manage the vast data flow in an efficient and balanced way, utilizing the strengths of each component we propose a centralized real time event processing application.

We describe the advantages and benefits of each standalone component and its possible complements, which may be achieved by integrating it with the other components providing new benefits raised from the whole compound system. Since these components are still at its development stage, the integration among them may change and provide a robust paradigm that generates a new generation of infrastructure and applications.

As we follow-up on the progress of each component and its corresponding impact on the integrated compound, we will constantly consider additional components to be added, resulting with new service models and applications.

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The Internet of Things has brought unprecedented technological innovation to smart homes, but the impact of this change on technology and users is limited and dispersed. Based on a systematic literature review, the present research conducted a quantitative analysis of 2874 papers (published in 2008–2020) obtained from the Web of Science to bridge the research gap. The current research identifies the development status and trends, country distribution, and journal categories in this area. Then, based on the main topics covered by smart homes, we proposed a holistic research framework that integrates the infrastructure layer, the communications technology layer, the data analytics layer, and the user service layer. The framework analyzed wireless sensing networks, communication protocols, and security threats, as well as the activity identification process and user services, highlighting the lack of some degree of integration in this area. This study also discussed the evolution of hot spots in the field of smart homes and summarized potential future research directions. Finally, in the discussion section, this paper summarized the research contribution and compared the main proposed technical solutions. We hope this work will provide a solid basis for research and practical guidance for scholars and developers interested in smart homes based on the Internet of Things.

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This study was supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (71802126), and a grant from the Shanghai Pujiang Program (18PJC060).

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Sun, Y., Li, S. A systematic review of the research framework and evolution of smart homes based on the internet of things. Telecommun Syst 77 , 597–623 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11235-021-00787-w

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How to Design Smart Homes? 8 Tips for Incorporating Domotics Into Architecture

• Written by José Tomás Franco
• Published on February 15, 2021

Home automation has long been associated with high costs, a burdening assembly time, and a cumbersome process that impelled us to discard the idea of automating projects. However, these days are long gone. 

With lower costs and easier assembly, today, developing a new project without home automation seems somewhat absurd. Below, with the help of AVE Chile , we've compiled a series of tips to help you incorporate domotics into your next project.

1. Experiencing home automation is key to understanding its value

The vast majority of people who have ever inhabited an automated space will hardly feel comfortable returning to traditional systems. To convince a new client, it's key that they can experience in situ the benefits of home automation: test the different options of a control panel, manage the environmental conditions of a space, change the intensity and color of the light, adjust the temperature, and/or interact with the different types of switches and their sensors .

2. The user must identify what they really want to control

Once the user experiences home automation, they may want to control everything, without much reason. By definition, home automation seeks to be globally intelligent, so it must function as a system that facilitates processes, without unnecessarily complicating the user's life . Automating the operation of an iron or a coffee machine, for example, may not make a real difference in the user's quality of life. However, the ability to program lights, alarms and/or heating at certain times of the day, will.

3. It's more effective to apply home automation to 'generate integrated solutions,' than to fulfill individual functions

Once the needs of the user have been identified, it's advisable to plan integrated solutions that allow programming and controlling of environments . For example, when selecting a predefined environment for the night, the system will execute, in a single process, the attenuation and shutdown of lights, the closing of curtains, and the activation of the alarm. This doesn't prevent the management of each option separately, but it's easier and more effective to consider them, from the outset, as responses as a whole.

4. There is no difference between a traditional electrical plan and a domotics plan

When bringing home automation into a built project, the architect must simply define the locations of the switches and other devices, and the specific functions of each one of them. With this plan, the company in charge of the installation of the automation system is responsible for intervening the electrical installation on site, giving the specialist the instruction to incorporate the wiring required by the home automation . This UTP ( Unshielded Twisted Pair ) cabling is much simpler than the one traditionally used, and occupies a single pipeline.

It's important to point out that home automation must be included in the construction plan before beginning the heavy work since in more advanced stages the complete process becomes more complex.

5. In just a couple of hours, an electrical specialist can learn to install a home automation system

It's not necessary for the electrical specialist chosen by the architect or client to be an expert in home automation in order to install it. The training related to this process can be done in just a few hours.

6. Properly programmed, the home automation system greatly reduces the energy consumption of the building

In the case of hotels, home automation allows spaces and rooms that are not in use to be kept completely off, taking detailed control of the use that each guest gives to each room. For example, if a guest has the heating on in his room and opens a window, the thermal system will shut down to avoid energy waste. Even during the night, while the guest sleeps, the system can be programmed to reduce the temperature slightly, saving a large amount of energy without the user noticing.

In addition, in buildings that use three-phase systems , it's possible to determine a maximum monthly energy consumption, avoiding that the expense exceeds the predetermined limit at the end of the month. The control panel gives the user a complete detail of this consumption: daily, weekly, monthly or yearly.

7. Home automation can improve the quality of life for elderly or differently abled people

Through centralized control panels and motion sensors, home automation can greatly facilitate and support the way in which older adults or people with disabilities inhabit their daily spaces. Among other benefits, it is possible to program the lighting of lights at a certain time of the day, increasing its intensity with the passing of the hours, or turning on and off automatically when the person enters certain rooms . In addition, people with Parkinson's disease or other motor diseases can solve the handling of the switches without touching them.

8. Integrate alarms in the home automation system to control remote intrusions or dangers

Including the alarm in a home automation system avoids the need to connect to a central, notifying the user directly on his mobile phone and showing in detail which door or window has been intruded. If surveillance cameras have been included, it's possible to see in real time what is happening in the building.

In the case of other hazards, such as a gas or water leak, the system warns the user to close the passage of these elements, while a definitive solution to the problem is found.

Editor's Note:  This article was published originally on January 08, 2019.

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设计一个家庭自动化的智能家居的8个技巧

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What Is a Smart Home?

How smart homes work, smart home systems, how to create a smart home.

• Pros and Cons
• Smart Home FAQs

The Bottom Line

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Smart Home: Definition, How They Work, Pros and Cons

Adam Hayes, Ph.D., CFA, is a financial writer with 15+ years Wall Street experience as a derivatives trader. Besides his extensive derivative trading expertise, Adam is an expert in economics and behavioral finance. Adam received his master's in economics from The New School for Social Research and his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in sociology. He is a CFA charterholder as well as holding FINRA Series 7, 55 & 63 licenses. He currently researches and teaches economic sociology and the social studies of finance at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

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A smart home refers to a convenient home setup where appliances and devices can be automatically controlled remotely from anywhere with an internet connection using a mobile or other networked device. Devices in a smart home are interconnected through the internet, allowing the user to control functions such as security access to the home, temperature, lighting, and a home theater remotely.

Key Takeaways

• A smart home allows homeowners to control appliances, thermostats, lights, and other devices remotely using a smartphone or tablet through an internet connection.
• Smart homes can be set up through wireless or hardwired systems.
• Smart home technology provides homeowners with convenience and cost savings.
• Security risks and bugs continue to plague makers and users of smart home technology.
• Though full-scale home automation may cost thousands of dollars, smaller individual products costing less than $100 can get homeowners started on smart home products.

A smart home’s devices are connected with each other and can be accessed through one central point—a smartphone , tablet, laptop, or game console. Door locks, televisions, thermostats, home monitors, cameras, lights, and even appliances such as the refrigerator can be controlled through one home automation system. The system is installed on a mobile or other networked device, and the user can create time schedules for certain changes to take effect.

Smart home appliances come with self-learning skills so they can learn the homeowner’s schedules and make adjustments as needed. Smart homes enabled with lighting control allow homeowners to reduce electricity use and benefit from energy-related cost savings. Some home automation systems alert the homeowner if any motion is detected in the home when they're away, while others can call the authorities—police or the fire department—in case of imminent situations.

Once connected, services such as a smart doorbell, smart security system, and smart appliances are all part of the internet of things (IoT) technology, a network of physical objects that can gather and share electronic information.

Security and efficiency are the main reasons behind the increase in smart home technology use.

Smart homes can feature either wireless or hardwired systems—or both. Wireless systems are easier to install. Putting in a wireless home automation system with features such as smart lighting, climate control, and security can cost several thousand dollars, making it very cost-friendly.

The downside to wireless systems is you likely need strong Wi-Fi coverage and broadband service throughout your entire house. This may require you to invest in range extenders or hardwired wireless access points. Wireless smart home systems are generally more appropriate for smaller existing homes or rental properties due to their smaller size.

Hardwired systems, on the other hand, are considered more reliable and are typically more difficult to hack. A hardwired system can increase the resale value of a home. In addition, hardwired smart home systems can easily be scaled; therefore, it is often the default method when designing a new build or performing a major renovation.

There is a drawback—it's fairly expensive. Installing a luxury and hardwired smart system can cost homeowners tens of thousands of dollars. In addition, you must have space for network hardware equipment including Ethernet cables.

Smart home products now allow for greater control over heating devices including when products are turned on, turned off, and controlled. Smart products may be armed with temperature or humidity sensors to automatically turn on or off if certain criteria are met. This line of smart home innovations also extends to air conditioners.

Often with the use of a mobile phone, table, or custom remote specific to a product, lighting products now enhance the capabilities of homeowners. Lights can be switched on and off, placed on a schedule, or set to change based on sunrise or sunset times. Like some more traditional products, lights can often set to change based on motion. Smart bulbs can communicate over Wi-Fi and display statistics or metrics to your phone.

This lighting category may also contain smart home products that control or prevent light. Automatic blinds may be installed and set to close based on sunrise schedules. Alternatively, electronic curtains allow users to manage their blinds using a handheld device.

Audio/Visual

One of the more fun aspects of smart homes, many entertainment products are now heavily connected to each other and can be controlled with a single remote. Television and speakers now have greater capabilities to be played on command using applications, including being maintained on a schedule or being voice-controllable.

One of the most reasonable aspects of a smart home is the enhanced security capabilities. Many products now have camera capabilities that track motion, capture video, or allow for live video feeds. This may be installed to sync with a ringing doorbell or set to display on certain areas of your property. These videos may allow for video-calling with the individual at your door, including audio capabilities.

Many smart homes are also refit with modern security kits. This includes motion sensor detectors when individuals should not be home, home monitoring, notifications and alerts of suspicious behavior, and the ability to lock doors or windows remotely using a phone.

A very large section of smart homes relates to digital assistants or home hubs. These products are often interacted with using your voice and can take commands, field questions, organize your calendar, schedule conference calls , or provide alerts. Though not specifically related to one's home, these digital assistants provide a broad range of controlling smart assets, their schedules, and their statuses.

Smart smoke and carbon monoxide detectors not only sound an alarm but can be synced to your phone to alert you should you be away from your property. These devices can often be set up to send emergency notifications to specified contacts.

Automated irrigation systems have had the ability to be programmed for a while. Now, smart irrigation systems field climate and environmental conditions an factor those traits into existing water schedules. Smart irrigation systems monitor moisture-related conditions and strive to conserve water.

When budgeting for smart home products, consider any required or necessary labor/installation costs from professionals.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Smart Homes

Installing a smart home technology system provides homeowners with convenience. Rather than controlling appliances, thermostats, lighting, and other features using different devices, homeowners can control them all using one device—usually a smartphone or tablet.

Since they're connected to a portable device, users can get notifications and updates on issues in their homes. For instance, smart doorbells allow homeowners to see and communicate with people who come to their doors even when they're not at home. Users can set and control the internal temperature, lighting, and appliances as well.

For the cost of setting up the smart system, homeowners can benefit from significant cost savings . Appliances and electronics can be used more efficiently, lowering energy costs.

While the smart home offers convenience and cost savings, there are still challenges. Security risks and bugs continue to plague makers and users of the technology. Adept hackers, for example, can gain access to a smart home's internet-enabled appliances. For example, in October 2016, a botnet called Mirai infiltrated interconnected devices of DVRs, cameras, and routers to bring down a host of major websites through a denial of service attack , also known as a DDoS attack.

Measures to mitigate the risks of such attacks include protecting smart appliances and devices with a strong password, using encryption when available, and only connecting trusted devices to one's network.

As noted above, the costs of installing smart technology can run anywhere from a few thousand dollars for a wireless system to tens of thousands of dollars for a hardwired system. It's a heavy price to pay, especially since there may be a steep learning curve to get used to the system for everyone in the household.

Smart Homes

Are often more convenient than traditional methods of scheduling, controlling, or accessing products

May enhance security due to notifications or alerts

Offers multiple ways of performing a certain task (i.e. lights can be manually turned on or scheduled)

May result in long-term cost savings when considering efficient energy use

May pose security risk as products are connected to networks and can be hacked

May require additional work for homeowner to track additional passwords and monitor product security

Are often more expensive than their less smart counterpart products

May result in steep learning curve, especially for those not technologically-savvy

Home Much Does a Smart Home Cost?

On one hand, more and more smart home products being brought to market will continually put pressure on manufacturers, competition, and product prices. On the other hand, these incredible innovations are continually expanding what they are capable of and may be assessed price premiums. When considering smart home products, perform a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether the price exceeds the convenience.

According to HomeAdvisor, it may cost up to $15,000 to fully automate a four-bedroom, three-bath home. Average total home automation costs is just under $800, though fully-connected luxury homes may run into the six figures.

In general, a smart home can start by being very focused on a specific product or room. This strategy allows individuals to invest in smart technology for minimal capital. Consider the following options priced at less than $100 as of April 2024:

• Google Nest Mini, the home audio and assistant device
• Amazon Smart Plug, a method of automating appliances
• Ring Smart Doorbell, a video-enabled camera for home security
• Wyze Thermostat, a digital, wireless, programmable heating device

What Is In a Smart Home?

Smart homes can choose to have smart speakers, lights, thermostats, doorbells, or home hubs. Smart technology can also extend to kitchen appliances or outdoor or landscaping equipment. New innovations are continually evolving what is in a smart home.

Why Is a Smart Home Important?

A smart home is important because it allows a household to become more energy efficient. In addition, it allows a household to save time and perform tasks more efficiently. A smart home is important because of the convenience it provides over traditional methods of performing tasks.

Can a Smart Home Be Hacked?

Yes. Because home automation often requires a live network connect, home automation systems can be hacked if the security protocol of the smart home product has inadequate security protocols. In addition, individuals must take additional care to not share or disclose sensitive log-in information as these devices may require a password or personal device access to control.

Is a Smart Home Worth It?

Investing in a smart home is a cost-benefit analysis that often requires an upfront investment to equip your house with the appropriate products. In addition, there is the cost of needing to train yourself and become competent in understanding how to use the products. However, the benefits of saving time performing tasks as well as potential utility cost savings may make a smart home worth it.

Leveraging innovation and technology, smart homes make it easier to do things. Whether it is controlling applications using your phone or scheduling products to perform tasks at certain times, smart homes have revolutionized the way individuals do things, consume energy, and interact with their home products.

Stolojescu-Crisan, Cristina and et al. " An IoT-Based Smart Home Automation System ." Sensors (Basel) , vol. 21, no. 11, June 2021.

Setayeshfar, Omid and et al. " Privacy Invasion via Smart-Home Hub in Personal Area Networks ." Pervasive and Mobile Computing , vol. 85, September 2022.

Antonakakis, Manos and et al. " Understanding the Mirai Botnet ." Proceedings of the 26th USENIX Security Symposium, August 2017, pp. 1093-1110.

HomeAdvisor. " How Much Does a Smart Home Cost? "

Google. " Nest Mini ."

Amazon. " Amazon Smart Plug | Works with Alexa ."

Ring. " Ring's Best-Selling Doorbell ."

Wyze. " Wyze Thermostat ."

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• Published: 06 May 2021

The social issues of smart home: a review of four European cities’ experiences

• Saeid Pira   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8176-4226 1  

European Journal of Futures Research volume  9 , Article number:  3 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The urban industrialization trend and the increasing urban population have posed global and local concerns related to urban management. Today, scientists introduce the “smart city” concept, among many others. The primary concept purpose is to empower cities to enhance the quality of life of their residents. To achieve this, one of the smart city components named “smart living” has a direct connection to citizens’ quality of life. This research aims to analyze the smart home as one of the sub-components of smart living. Consequently, based on the “smart home” residents’ viewpoint, the main question is which social barriers are more critical?

To achieve this essay’s objectives, the researcher conducts three phases: data collection, analysis based on the constructed conceptual model, and results. The researcher selected four leading smart cities in Europe, including Copenhagen, Berlin, London, and Barcelona, as case studies. The study collected primary data by cluster-random sampling by utilizing a questionnaire survey with 320 participants. In conclusion, according to the inhabitants, the research results list the most significant social challenges in smart homes. Eventually, suggestions offer for reducing the side effect of living in a smart home.

Introduction

The world has witnessed an increasing accumulation of its people in urban areas since 1990. This trend is not new and represents a substantial increase in urban residents’ number, from an approximate average of 57 million between 1990 and 2000 to 77 million between 2010 and 2015 [ 1 ]. It poses significant challenges for the environment and social sustainability. Also, the contemporary structure of cities is a source of environmental and social dilemmas. Cities consumed approximately 70% of the world’s resources and are also significant users of energy resources. Hence, they became the main contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The growth of the urban population and the intensity of economic and social activities are triggering this crisis. It is also a consequence of the built environment inefficiency. Current research in urban and academic circles focuses on sustainability in urban planning. Besides, they try to address the main urbanization challenges and the unsustainability of existing structures [ 2 ]. The smart cities concept emerged as an appropriate solution to this unprecedented urbanization and the need for sustainability. Therefore, this idea attracted plenty of academic interests in this field [ 3 ]. The International Telecommunication Union Focus Group on Smart Sustainable Cities (ITU-T FG-SSC) introduced a definition, which reads as follows: “A Smart Sustainable City is an innovative city that uses Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and other means to improve quality of life, the efficiency of urban operation and services, and competitiveness while ensuring that it meets the needs of present and future generations concerning economic, social, environmental as well as cultural aspects” [ 4 ]. One of the components of the smart city concept is “smart living.” I will explain these criteria in the following sections. The smart home is one of the essential sub-components of this component, which splits into two sections: (1) state-of-the-art technologies and applications and (2) the behavior of the residents who live in these homes. It is crucial to note that city dwellers have contradictory comments about smart home applications. According to the research findings, the way to overcome the social barrier and to communicate with state-of-the-art technologies is the key worry of smart home residents. This research aims to find the most concerning social issues for smart homeowners. For this purpose, four European cities (Barcelona, Copenhagen, Berlin, and London) select as case studies. Finally, this study suggests several recommendations to reduce identified social issues.

Literature review

The idea of smart cities was rooted in the 1970s when a digital configuration based on technology and non-material structures embedded in the urban physical spaces. Afterward, the new aspects of everyday life have been concentrating on more complex innovations. Broadband networks and collective intelligence determining the city development supported these new technologies [ 5 , 6 ]. There are different views regarding the origin of the concept of “smart city” in the literature. According to Caragliu et al. (2009), “The city could be smart when investments in human and social resources combined with traditional and modern ICT infrastructures boost sustainable economic growth and high quality of life, with wise natural resource management through participatory governance [ 7 ].”

Globalization trends and emerging new technologies are increasingly influencing urban and regional environments. ICTs are also heavily involved in the management and governance of cities. Authorities and planners use these innovations as tools and services to promote the quality of life, promote a sustainable development, and create a more dynamic and innovative urban landscape [ 7 ]. Over time, scholars, institutions, and large corporations provide expressions such as digital, smart, ubiquitous, wired, hybrid, information, creative, learning, humane, knowledge, and smart cities. The significant purpose is to describe the renewed configurations adopted within the local context [ 8 ].

Smart city definitions

There are different views regarding the origin of the concept of “smart city” in the literature. According to Garby (2014), the roots of the concept date back to the 1960s, and in urban development plans, it figures in proposals for networked cities since the 1980s. Also, Dameri and Cocchia (2013) claimed that specialists introduced this concept in 1994 [ 9 ]. The roots of this term, according to Neirotti et al. (2014), can be traced back to the late 1990s smart growth trend [ 10 ]. That said, it involves growing urban efficiency-related to energy, transport, land use, communication, economic development, service delivery, and so forth. A smart city is an effective strategy focusing on the ICT-based leadership of metropolitan areas [ 11 ]. The technological dimension is currently significant in the smart city definition: innovative approaches focused on the Internet network are the basis for a smart city. Besides, the development of a high-quality infrastructure for urban ICT is an integral part of a smart city. Coherent research produced by technology suppliers highlights the importance of this component. Furthermore, it claims that private companies engaged in telecommunications, transport, software, informatics, and electricity are pushing forward the smart city concept [ 12 ].

Two of the most relevant concepts will sum up the various variables that define the conceptualization of smart cities:

We believe that a city is smart when investments in human and social capital and conventional (transport) and modern (ICT) connectivity networks boost sustainable economic growth and high quality of life through participatory governance, wise management of natural resources.

The more recent interest in smart cities can be due to concern for sustainability and the emergence of new Web technologies, such as mobile devices, the semantic internet, cloud computing, and the Internet of Things (IoT), which facilitate the real-world user interfaces [ 13 ].

The central point posed by numerous scientists in the smart city concept is the role of ICT in today’s cities and the need to enhance emerging technologies. They claim that improving the quality of life of citizens is inevitable without access to these technologies.

Smart city features

The concept “smart city” is a bit fuzzy since it encompasses a wide range of dimensions and characteristics. According to Nam and Pardo, there are many definitions and considerations relevant to smart cities that contribute to technological, human, and institutional aspects (2011) [ 14 ].

Smart cities include the human capital variable as the main element of increasing interest in knowledge-based financial growth and innovation. In addition to being a “new engine” for sustainable development, the involvement of a trained and professional population and workforce is an essential component of this concept. The smart city’s employees should be well-trained and creative, with access to other knowledge-sharing opportunities [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. The combination of technical and human dimensions allows for the development of a technologically advanced and imaginative network. It is a common strategy to achieve urban development and de-industrialized finance. The utilization of development and social capital through “smart urban communities,” composed of firms, education, government, and individuals, depicts the smart city’s organization. These communities benefited from ICT and human capital to engage all participants to innovate and beneficially alter the urban environment [ 14 , 18 , 19 ].

Smart city characteristics

According to studies, a smart city would have five key components: contemporary technologies, buildings, utilities, transportation, and road infrastructure. In terms of technology, a smart city is a long-term collaboration between government, government institutes, and private companies to develop and implement computerized platforms. This cooperation is concerning with strengthening contemporary technologies, including mobile cloud computing, digital documents, networks, and emerging decision-making methods [ 20 , 21 ].

Smart city notions are as broad as the number of smart cities. Besides the three dimensions explained in Table 1 , the following six characteristics should include “smart economy,” “smart people,” “smart governance,” “smart mobility,” “smart environment,” and “smart living” Those three dimensions influence the outcomes of the six characteristics. Table 2 shows the theories and the characteristics of each of these six characteristics [ 14 ]:

Smart living is one of the characteristics of the smart city, according to the table, and the crucial purpose of this component is to boost citizens’ quality of life. There are also other aspects of smart living, such as education, safety, and social cohesion.

As stated, the primary goal of smart cities—especially smart living component—is to improve the quality of life of citizens. In this regard, one of the practical recommendations for achieving smart living is the idea of smart homes. One of the realistic alternatives to implementing smart living is the “smart home” idea. Its principal goal is to combine system, service, and management to provide people with an efficient, comfortable, safe, accessible, and environmentally friendly living environment.

Smart home definitions

Scientists used multiple notions to describe and conceptualize smart homes (Table 3 ). Among various approaches, the definition by Aldrich (2003) and Lutolf (1992) dealt inclusively with the nature of smart homes. A smart home, according to Aldrich (2003), is “a house designed with computer and information technologies that anticipates and responds to the needs of the inhabitants, functioning to facilitate their comfort, ease, security, and entertainment through the management of home technologies and connecting to the world beyond.” This definition encompasses the phenomenon’s technical component, as well as the services and functionality it provides. It is worth noting that smart homes would respond to a wide range of attitudes [ 23 ]. Besides, Lutolf (1992) described a smart home as “integrating various facilities through the use of a communication scheme in a home. It ensures an economical, safe, and comfortable home operation and involves a high level of smart functionality and flexibility.” [ 24 ] Although the two definitions share similar viewpoints, they differ in terms of the technology’s capabilities and the types of customers it seeks to serve. Many academics associate smart homes with technological features in general [ 25 ].

As mentioned above, there are differing views on the idea of the smart home. The author’s point of view in this article is closer to the theories of Aldrich and Lutolf. According to these two scientists, the smart home theory is based on the use of ICT and houses equipped with computer and information technologies. Also, the author considers two factors of functionality and flexibility in this article.

_ Smart home types of services:

Researchers used practical analyses to evaluate these home technologies, which would provide a variety of services to residents. The below are some of the smart home’s core features:

The smart home has the potential to improve the consumer and power grid relationship. It assists in data collection on power use, energy costs, and an energy use plan establishment. Smart homes also monitor the efficient use of resources and promote family awareness of energy conservation and environmental sustainability.

A smart home can enhance the lifestyle by promoting home security, safety, accessibility, and interactivity.

A smart home could support remote payment.

Smart homes can use a computer, a mobile phone, and a remote network to monitor and connect with the house.

Smart homes consider the real-time meter reading and security service of the water meter, electric energy meter, and gas meter to provide more efficient and high-quality services.

Supporting the “triple networks” industry and providing the ideal smart service [ 26 ].

In recent years, numerous scientists have conducted studies on smart home services, functions, and devices, as seen in Table 4 . The majority of the reviewed papers (41 articles) discussed ensuring a comfortable life. After that, most studies related to the monitoring service (31 references). In contrast, fewer articles focus on health therapy and the supportive functions of smart home technology. Only two papers discuss the consultancy service that smart sensors provide [ 22 ].

“Smart city” and “smart home” connection

The connection between smart cities and smart homes requires multiple applications across numerous fields. There is a term that defines this connection unequivocally, and that is “big data” ( https://www.smartcity.press/how-smart-homes-can-connect-smart-cities/ ). Data generates from multiple sources resulting in the formation of what is currently known as big data. Data sources are ubiquitous around us as smartphones, computers, environmental sensors, cameras, GPS (Geographical Positioning Systems), and even city dwellers. Multiple applications like social media, digital pictures and videos, commercial transactions, advertising applications, games, and many more exacerbated data generation in the past few years [ 27 , 28 ].

The significance of big data is undeniable. In other words, big data has a critical effect on several aspects of smart cities and, eventually, on citizens’ lives [ 29 ]. Smart city applications store information, and big data networks utilize this information. Also, big data systems gather information and process it to enhance the multiple services of smart cities. Big data will also help authorities to plan the development of smart city services. There are numerous instances of big data applications that serve the smart cities:

1 Smart education: Through education facilities, ICT offers solutions for improving the quality, efficiency, and profitability of educational systems. These facilities are adaptable in their use of information, better monitoring, and evaluation and expanded learning opportunities for citizens and stakeholders [ 30 ].

2 Smart traffic lights: one of the main features of smart cities is effective traffic flow control, which will improve transportation systems and improve the traffic patterns of citizens and the city as a whole [ 31 ].

3 Smart Grid: Smart grid is a vital component of smart cities. It is a reconstructed network that gathers and operates on existing data, such as information about suppliers and customers’ behaviors, utilizing information, and communication technology in an integrated manner to incorporate values [ 32 ].

Smart cities and big data are two modern approaches. Hence, numerous scientists have begun integrating them to develop smart city technologies that will enhance sustainability, improved resilience, efficient government, quality of life, and resource management. Big data applications have the potential to serve many sectors in a smart city. It provides clients improved experiences and lets businesses improve their performance (e.g., higher profits or market share). Also, improve healthcare by improving preventive care services, diagnosis and treatment tools, healthcare records management, and patient care. Big data will significantly help transportation networks to optimize roads, accommodate varying demands, and be more environmentally friendly. Deploying big data applications requires the support of adequate infrastructure for information and communication technology (ICT). Smart cities benefit from ICT since it provides appropriate solutions that would not be available without it [ 33 ].

On the other hand, some of the issues that smart cities face while using big data include:

Data sources and characteristics

Data and information sharing

Data quality

Security and privacy

Smart city population [ 34 ]

Some features of the smart city concept related to big data are mention in this section. Consequently, big data is an essential subject in smart cities to support the residents’ security, safety, education, and application. These features are part of the smart living sub-components. One of the six characteristics of the smart city concept—which includes many features including safety, housing, and education—is smart living. The findings of the study revealed that big data and smart living are inextricably connected.

This research aims to assess the social barriers in smart homes, one of the sub-components of smart living. As reviewed, big data interwove to smart homes and smart cities. Consequently, we can achieve the smart city’s established objective by developing big data services.

Pros and cons of smart homes

Smart homes are one of the EU’s ten main fields in the strategic energy technology plan: “Create technologies and services for smart homes that provide smart solutions to energy consumers.” The commission aims to promote creative ideas and manage consumers and authorities to optimize their energy consumption (and production). It also enables cities to manage energy usage, relying on smart grid services, through a more interactive/smart system [ 35 ].

Smart home technologies (SHTs) incorporate sensors, monitors, interfaces, appliances, and mobile devices to enable household environment automation and remote control. Sensors and monitoring systems control environmental variables like temperature, light, movement, and moisture. Computer applications (smartphones, tablets, laptops, PCs) or specialized hardware interfaces (e.g., wall-mounted controls) support the control systems. The main goals, vital advantages, and the most relevant problems of smart homes are listed in Table 5 [ 36 ]:

Smart homes’ social barriers

Despite the advantages and disadvantages of new technologies in current urban areas, the use of smart homes is inevitable. We concentrate on the most significant smart home issues in this article. Generally speaking, these problems can divide into two parts: (1) Technological and instrumental concerns and (2) obstacles raised by users of such tools. This paper aims to analyze the challenges of smart homes (especially societal barriers). Table 6 shows the research findings of several articles on this subject.

Multiple social barriers have been found in previous research, according to the table. In this research, a group of urban planners and social scientists looked at these obstacles and divided them into four categories. These components are as follows:

Privacy and security

Reliability

Satisfaction

Trust on device controlling.

Conceptual model

The previous reviews and the author’s findings support the conceptual model in this study. The following graph depicts the study’s conceptual model and, essentially, the researcher’s perspective. The “smart city” concept, according to scientists like Carlo Carpa, consists of six components, each of which is composed of several theories and features (Table 2 ). Smart living, among these different indicators, aims to improve the quality of life idea. And its features include education, culture and health, facilities, safety, housing, social cohesion, and tourist attractions. This research aims to analyze smart living and especially the social barriers of smart homes. In this regard, previous studies identified several factors as the most significant social issues of residents. These criteria include privacy, security, reliability, satisfaction, and device control. Finally, the author of this article selects these factors as criteria for assessing residents’ satisfaction with living in smart homes. Figure 1 describes the conceptual model in detail.

Conceptual model. Source “by the author”

This paper needs to examine its set indicators in a case study to achieve the research objectives. For this purpose, four European cities (Copenhagen, Berlin, Barcelona, and London) are selected as the case studies. It is worth noting that this paper aims to recognize the social barriers based on resident’s experience in smart homes. The author defines four criteria to measure the social issues, then conducts interviews with residents to assess the effect of these criteria. Finally, based on the residents’ comments, the significant social barriers of smart homes are identified.

In 2018, the Eden Strategy Institute ranked smart cities in the globe base on multiple criteria. This study rate 50 smart cities across the globe. The Berlin city is rated 29th in the report, Copenhagen 24th, Barcelona 9th, and London 1st. In this article, the researcher chose 4 European cities. Each of these countries made significant strides as a leader in the smart city concept. While residents are willing to embrace state-of-the-art technologies, several issues have created obstacles among these residents. The questionnaires will help evaluate the components after choosing the case studies to answers the research questions.

To accurately analyze these four components, a group of experts from various fields identified several sub-components. The group includes seven experts in the fields of urban planning, regional planning, urban design, and architecture. Also, these experts have extensive expertise in the area of urban planning and management. Table 7 is a list of the expert group criteria.

Table 8 presents the indicators and sub-indicators analyzed in this study. The author addresses these variables in the questionnaire questions.

The questions in the questionnaire comprise sub-components determined by the expert group. In this way, we will identify the social issues that trigger dissatisfaction among smart home residents. The questionnaire is composed of two parts. Part one contains socio-demographic questions (age of respondent, the gender of the respondent, profession, household income) and a specific question regarding smart homeowners’ academic studies. The screening question seeks to find the best people’s responses to the assessment. The screening query was “What are digital home technologies?” Options of response range from “no idea,” “primeval information,” and “good Information.” Respondents who replied “no idea” removed in this part. We will need residents who are knowledgeable regarding smart appliances to find the research goal. To this end, the research did not analyze the views of those who believed they lacked expertise in this field. The next section of the survey begins with an open-ended question asking respondents to give a few phrases about “What first comes to mind when you think of smart home technologies?” This question allows us to get a deeper understanding of how respondents think about smart home technology. Finally, the researcher assessed the interviewees’ opinions, and the responses were graded in the range 1 to 10 to evaluate each sub-indicator.

The research gathers primary data from 320 smart homeowners through random-cluster sampling via the adoption of a questionnaire study. So the researcher filled out 80 questionnaires at each sample city. The selection of interviewees is a crucial part of this research. Smart homeowners living in houses fitted with the latest technology are the interviewees in this study. Accordingly, the research group distributed the questionnaires to residents of the smart home in the four cities surveyed. Researchers select 80 residents of smart homes in each of those four cities. The investigator identified these families by associates in each of these cities. He contacted them and explained the goal of this study, and sent the questionnaire to them. To receive diverse viewpoints, the researcher chose interviewers with different characteristics. The characteristics of the people who filled out the questionnaires illustrate in Table 9 . It should mention that the author emailed the questionnaires to identified people due to the dispersion of the case studies. Then, the interviewees sent the completed questionnaires to the researcher.

The author picked the respondents from different age groups and genders as well as various social groups. The following tables provide some information about all 320 interviewees. Also, Fig. 2 presents the gender distribution:

The distribution of respondents by gender. Source “by the author”

Table 10 shows the number and percentage of respondents by age group.

The details of the interviewees’ academic rate are set out in Table 11

The author of this study explores four metrics as criteria for measuring social issues within smart home residents. The following graph depicts residents’ concerns regarding smart homes in four cities. The least concerning factor of these four indicators, according to the interviewees, was privacy and security. This measure has the highest percentage, meaning that residents are the most satisfied with it. In contrast, they state that their significant concern is trust in controlling devices (Fig. 3 ).

The contribution of each social barriers in smart home. Source “by the author”

The bar figure below illustrates each city’s score depending on the chosen measures. The city with the highest score is Copenhagen, while London has the lowest score. On the other hand, the two cities of Berlin and Barcelona also rank second and third respectively. It is worth noting that the lower a city’s ratings, the less effective it is in terms of social concerns, and residents face more social issues.

Copenhagen placed in the fifth position based on the world’s happiest cities in the World Happiness Report (WHR) 2020. The satisfaction of citizens living in this country is at a very high level. The survey included criteria such as life expectancy, security, and satisfaction with living in cities, which indicates a high level of quality of life in this city. On the other hand, in this research, the author aimed to make sure that the resident’s satisfaction in different cities does not affect how they react to the questionnaire. And only their concerns about the social factors mentioned in the questionnaire should analyze. Instead of dwelling on whether or not they are happy with living in their cities, the questionnaire focuses on the most significant social obstacles they face in their smart homes (Fig. 4 ).

The scores of each city based on the criteria. Source “by the author”

The bar figure below illustrates the scores for each indicator in 4 cities. Each indicator’s value was determined using a 1 to 10 ratio. It means that the higher a criterion’s indicator score is, the less worried residents are about it. Overall, Copenhagen outperformed the other three cities in each of these measures. Another point to remember is the low level of confidence in control devices. The privacy and security parameter, on the other hand, was the least troubling indicator. The following sections go into the details of each city’s situation:

Copenhagen: The “privacy and security” component in this city has the lowest level of concern among the smart home’s residents. Also, they state that “trust in controlling devices” is the significant troublesome among the indicators analyzed in this research. Also, the other two components are in a better position.

Berlin: “Privacy and security” in this city have a lower score than in Copenhagen. However, this component has more favorable conditions than the other two cities. In this city, “trust in controlling devices” has the lowest level of satisfaction among respondents.

Barcelona: The equality of the scores of the two components—“privacy and security” and “reliability”—is a significant point in this city. As a result, these two components have the highest level of satisfaction. While “trust in controlling devices” has the lowest level of residents’ satisfaction.

London: The point that clear in this city is that almost all the components scored fewer points than the other three cities. Also, the residents’ satisfaction trend in this research is similar to the other three examples. As a result, the highest level of satisfaction is associated with “privacy and security,” while the lowest level of satisfaction is related to “trust in controlling devices” (Fig. 5 ).

Criteria scores of social problems by city. Source “by the author”

The author appropriates several sub-components in this research for an accurate analysis of the components. These sub-components are the result of discussion and consultation obtained from the expert group. The conclusions derived from the sub-component analysis illustrates in the following diagram (Fig. 6 ).

Sub-criteria scores of social problems by city. Source “by the author”

Table 12 represents the scores of the sub-component by city. Furthermore, a separate column shows the average score of each component. Based on the average scores, the “privacy and security” component has the highest score (8.4), therefore has the highest level of satisfaction among smart home residents. In contrast, “trust in controlling devices” has the lowest score (6.4), reflecting resident frustration with smart homes. It is worth noting that among all the sub-components, “smart surveillance systems” with a score of 9.5 have the highest level of satisfaction in Copenhagen. In contrast, several sub-criteria in the two “satisfaction” and “trust on controlling devices” criteria scored the lowest.

According to interviews findings in Copenhagen, the reason for their high level of satisfaction is the government’s monitoring of smart surveillance systems. In other words, government agencies’ oversight of the non-governmental service providers has increased public satisfaction. On the other hand, some residents in the other three cities are dissatisfied with the smart services provided by private and public companies. They suppose that the operation of several smart devices at the same time will cause issues due to the lack of monitoring of these systems.

According to smart home definitions, scientists state that such houses seek to utilize up-to-date technologies such as the internet to create more beneficial homes. It is important to consider that smart homes aim to improve the inhabitants’ quality of life besides their satisfaction. The advantages of designing smart homes are increasing economic growth, security, time savings, and pollution mitigation. On the other hand, the utilization of such services raises multiple challenges and concerns. One of the obstacles is the residents’ satisfaction with the use of these services. For instance, dependency on the Internet, interference in people’s privacy, and high expense of accessing such services. The most significant purpose of this article is to analyze the social issues of smart home residents. The primary goal is to identify such barriers. Also, what is the most significant social obstacles for residents? The most concerning social barriers describe below according to the case studies findings.

Trust on controlling devices.

Service satisfaction.

The reliability of the services.

Privacy and security.

According to interviews, the most significant issue is related to devise management. Respondents are concerned about how several devices operate simultaneously. To prevent such disorders, control officials must supervise the accurate performance of each of these smart devices. Also, experts should perform experiments to examine how multiple devices interact at the same time to identify potential troubles. This surveillance would improve consumer’s trust and lead to the increased utilization of these technologies in non-smart homes. Besides, companies should have periodic checkups to inspect the equipment to resolve any new issues. Eventually, through these approaches, citizens’ services improved to offer people satisfaction with smart home services. The last section provides the most significant recommendations to mitigate the challenges and facilitate the safe and effective use of smart home applications.

User recommendations

Home energy services are primarily responsible for appliance power consumption data, performing energy efficiency assessments of household appliances, and making recommendations about household power consumption. The technology-based systems present recommendations for users to reduce energy consumption. A device provides suggestions for mobile users when an intruder is detected. To decrease power consumption and the cost of household appliances efficiently, we recommend that users commit to the set runtime.

Health recommendations

Health institutions are primarily responsible for assisting and ensuring high-quality medical applications in smart homes and healthcare in general. Health institutions support the elderly (at home) by providing correct instructions, such as appropriate exercises through TV tutorials. Recommendations are given to patients in smart homes, including medical guidelines, patient diagnoses, and assistance for the elderly and people with disabilities. Such technologies can also determine and predict unexpected incidents such as fall injuries in smart homes.

Safety recommendations

Another advantage of using technology-based devices in smart homes is increased safety. People of all ages require specific healthcare, especially the elderly, and children often need guidance and help from those around them. Using a monitoring system provides appropriate supervision for homeowners if they are not at home. Also, ensuring that strangers do not enter smart homes are other benefits of using these homes. As a result, homes equipped with these applications will bring higher satisfaction to homeowners. Furthermore, smart devices provide instructions on how fire systems and electrical appliances are utilized and managed. A recommendation system to manage IoT–network relationships between IoT devices, networks, and operation techniques helps implement appropriate schemes, diagnose errors in smart homes.

Limitations

The most crucial section in this research was designing the questionnaire and assessing questionnaire data. Several experts evaluated the questionnaire indicators, then sub-criteria were identified for a more detailed study. It should note that this process was very time-consuming. Another obstacle in this research was finding informed people about smart homes to fill out the questionnaire. To sum up, smart home technologies face serious challenges. Further study and practical solutions to address the problems that lay ahead would pave the way for such technologies extension.

Availability of data and materials

All sources of data and materials analyzed in the course of this paper a listed in the reference section.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express my very great appreciation to my professor for his valuable and constructive suggestions during the planning and development of this research work. His willingness to give his time so generously has been very much appreciated.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Pira, S. The social issues of smart home: a review of four European cities’ experiences. Eur J Futures Res 9 , 3 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40309-021-00173-4

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Smart House System Technology Explained

Introduction, energy management, security system, lighting system, smart appliances, entertainment, emergency management.

Smart House is a term used to describe a house that has Computer Controlled Automation System that controls various functions in a house such as appliances and lighting. This system employs smart technology allowing for networking of appliances hence enabling access and operation of the appliances from any part of the network. The system can be used in monitoring, warning and carrying out various functions according to selected criteria. The smart technology enables automatic communication via the mobiles phones, the internet and the fixed telephones.

Smart technology makes use of different electronics components, performing different functions. These components are divided into the following general groups:

• Sensors: for monitoring and submitting any changes, examples are humidity sensor, smoke detectors, movement and heat sensors, thermometers etc.
• Actuators: These components perform physical actions; examples are automatic light switches, relays and door and window openers.
• Controllers: these components make choice based on occurrences and programmed rules.
• Central units: Used in programming and making changes to a system, a good example is a computer.
• Interface: These are components which help user to communicate with the system.

The most important aspects to be taken care of for a house to be considered smart are:

• Energy management
• Emergency management
• Smart appliances.

Smart houses are considered very efficient in energy management.Electronics devices are installed in the house to monitor the usage of the energy and the number of people in the house at a particular time for energy regulation. When there is no one in the house, the temperatures settings are lowered automatically and all the appliances and lights that are not in use are turned off. The energy management system also controls heating system, fans and air conditioners in a way that will save energy. The smart house energy system also automatically turns off energy from an outlet that is not being used.

Smart house energy management system helps in saving energy cost by up to 65% compared to a house where energy usage is controlled manually.

A smart house is far much secure as it is easy to protect making it hard to break in than the current house. Alarm systems, similar in application to car alarm are installed in a smart house. The security system put the house in security mode, automatically shutting all windows and doors.

The smart house security system is programmed for a single day use or for a long time when the owner of the house is in a long trip or vacation. In this case, the security system is set to open the curtains and turn on and off the lights, making it look like there is a person in the house.

As part of the security system, surveillance cameras are installed and hidden around the house. These camera are monitored over the internet and the house owner can check at all aspects of the house include burglars and other unusual happening around and inside the house.

Smart house employs lighting system that makes the house safe and easier to live in by use of programmable lights or remotely accessed lighting system. With programmable lighting system, the house owner programs the lights to come on of off at a specific time and even dim depending with the mood. A central computer is used to turn specific lights at a specific time during the night. This helps in deterring criminals, hence improving security. With remote access, lights can be controlled remotely from any where inside or outside the house using mobile phones or PDAs.

For a house to be considered smart, smart appliances are installed to make use of the smart technology. The appliances are networked in the system to perform specific task at a given time.

Examples of smart appliances include remote controlled coffee maker which brews coffee just before the house owner wakes up. The coffee maker is linked to an alarm to wake up the house owner when the coffee is ready. A smart refrigerator automatically adjusts the temperatures inside based on the temperature of food inside. These smart appliances are connected to a computer which automatically turns the appliances on and off.

Smart appliances make the life of people calmer and better structured as the technology make planning of the day easier. This tranquility help people to concentrate on a specific task as other tasks are being carried on without a lot of monitoring and intervention.

Smart entertainment systems are designed to controls the way home entertainment system including the TV and Home theatre system functions. Smart TV user have the ability to change channels by either speaking or accessing the TV via the internet, instructing it on what to record and at what time. Ultra Thin rear projections TVs have been developed using Digital Light Technology (DLP), they have massive screen sizes, and they are slim and light enough to hang on the wall.

Smart internet enabled home theatres system stream music from multiple computers on the internet and store in an internal hard drives. This home theatre can be accessed remotely over the internet to control almost all aspects of the system.

A smart house emergency system is designed in a way that it will inform house occupant where there is an emergency and at the same time contact the relevant authority on the emergency for a quick response. If there is fire for example, the fire detector sends a signal to the central computer which triggers the alarm and at the same time make a call to the fire department.

Another example is when there is a gas leakage in the house; the emergency control system will shut down the main gas supply and turn off all electrical appliances to prevent any fire out break. The system will then turn on the alarm and send a signal to the house owner informing them on the gas leak though the mobile phone or through the internet to a personal computer.

Smart houses are the choice for most people as they improve the lives of people in a great way making it easier to live because of the convenience and safety they offer. With automatic smart appliances, people are able to plan their time and concentrate on important tasks in their lives.

Chris D. Nugent (2006) Smart Home and Beyond, IOS Publishers, United States.

David Heckman (2008) A Small World: Smart Houses and the Dream of the Perfect Day, Duke University Press, United Kingdom.

Richard Harper (2003) Inside the Smart Home, Springer Publishers, New York.

Smart House: Your wish is Their command, Web.

Smart House: The so called Sci-Fi Life, Web.

Smart House Designs, Web.

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Here’s What the ‘Matter’ Smart Home Standard Is All About

The ideal smart home seamlessly anticipates your needs and instantly responds to commands. You shouldn’t have to open a specific app for each appliance or remember the precise voice command and voice assistant combination that starts the latest episode of your favorite podcast on the nearest speaker. Competing smart home standards make operating your devices needlessly complicated. It’s just not very … well, smart.

Tech giants try to straddle standards by offering their voice assistants as a controlling layer on top, but Alexa can’t talk to Google Assistant or Siri or control Google or Apple devices, and vice versa. (And so far, no single ecosystem has created all the best devices.) But these interoperability woes may soon be remedied. Formerly called Project CHIP (Connected Home over IP), the open source interoperability standard known as Matter arrived in 2022. With some of the biggest tech names, like Amazon, Apple, and Google, on board, seamless integration may finally be within reach.

Updated May 2024: Added news of the Matter 1.3 specification release, progress with the major players, a section on what you can do with Matter, and more details on potential functions.

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What Is Matter?

What makes matter different, when did matter arrive, what about other smart home standards, what devices does matter work with, what can you do with matter, will manufacturers and platforms limit functionality, how do smart home hubs fit in, what do i need to use matter, what about security and privacy, will matter succeed.

Matter enables different devices and ecosystems to play nicely. Device manufacturers must comply with the Matter standard to ensure their devices are compatible with smart home and voice services such as Amazon’s Alexa, Apple’s Siri, Google’s Assistant, and others. For folks building a smart home, Matter theoretically lets you buy any device and use the voice assistant or platform you prefer to control it. (Yes, you can use different voice assistants to talk to the same product.)

For example, you can buy a Matter-supported smart bulb and set it up with Apple HomeKit, Google Assistant, or Amazon Alexa—without having to worry about compatibility. Right now, some devices already support multiple platforms (like Alexa or Google Assistant), but Matter will expand that platform support and make setting up your new devices faster and easier.

The first protocol runs on Wi-Fi and Thread network layers and uses Bluetooth Low Energy for device setup. While it supports various platforms, you must choose the voice assistants and apps you want to use—there is no central Matter app or assistant. Because Matter works on your local network, you can expect your smart home devices to be more responsive to you, and they should continue to work even when your internet goes down.

The Connectivity Standards Alliance (or CSA, formerly the Zigbee Alliance) maintains the Matter standard. What sets it apart is the breadth of its membership (more than 550 tech companies), the willingness to adopt and merge disparate technologies, and the fact that it is an open source project. Interested companies can use the software development kit (SDK) royalty-free to incorporate their devices into the Matter ecosystem. This is much simpler than certifying devices individually with each smart home platform.

Growing out of the Zigbee Alliance gives Matter a firm foundation. Bringing the main smart home platforms (Amazon Alexa, Apple HomeKit, Google Home, and Samsung SmartThings) to the same table is an achievement. It is optimistic to imagine a seamless adoption of Matter across the board, but it has enjoyed a rush of enthusiasm with many smart home brands jumping aboard, including August, Schlage, and Yale in smart locks; Belkin, Cync, GE Lighting, Sengled, Signify (Philips Hue), and Nanoleaf in smart lighting; and others like Arlo, Comcast, Eve, TP-Link, and LG.

Matter has been in the works for years. The first release of Project CHIP was due in late 2020, but it was delayed to the following year, rebranded as Matter, and then touted for a summer release. After another delay, the Matter 1.0 specification and certification program opened in 2022. The SDK, tools, and test cases were made available, and eight authorized test labs opened for product certification.

The first wave of Matter-supported smart home gadgets went on sale in the fall of 2022, and we have seen a steady trickle since then. The first update to the specification, Matter 1.1, arrived in May 2023 and consisted largely of bug fixes. Announced in October 2023, Matter 1.2 added support for nine new device types, including refrigerators, robot vacuums, and air purifiers, alongside improvements to existing categories.

The Matter 1.3 specification was published in May 2024, adding energy management, EV charging, and water management alongside support for new devices, including ovens, cooktops, and laundry dryers. It also brought improvements to Matter Casting, so on top of being able to cast from your phone to your TV, other smart devices—like your robot vacuum—can send messages to your TV to warn you if they're stuck, for example.

By Boone Ashworth

By Simon Hill

By Henri Robbins

It's important to note that the release of each new specification simply means that the SDK (software development kit) and test procedure are available for developers and manufacturers to integrate with their devices. Unfortunately, the actual integration from big players like Google, Apple, Amazon, and Samsung has been slow. Only Apple's iOS fully supports Matter 1.2 so far. Google Home currently supports a subset of Matter devices up to Matter 1.2.

We asked the other two about a timeline for Matter 1.2 and beyond, but only Amazon has responded so far saying, “We’re working to roll out Alexa support for more device types and features included in the latest version of the Matter spec. In fact, right now, we’re rolling out support for humidity sensors, ambient light sensors, and fans, as well as Matter Casting to compatible Fire TV devices.”

The road to smart home nirvana is paved with different standards, like Zigbee, Z-Wave, Samsung SmartThings, Wi-Fi HaLow, and Insteon, to name a few. These protocols and others will continue to exist and operate. Google has merged its Thread and Weave technologies into Matter. The standard also employs Wi-Fi and Ethernet standards and uses Bluetooth LE for device setup.

Matter is not a single technology and should evolve and improve over time. It won’t cover every possible use case for every device and scenario, so other standards will continue to develop. The more platforms and standards merge with Matter, the greater its potential to succeed, but the challenge of making it all work seamlessly also grows.

Some devices will work with Matter after a firmware update. Others won’t ever be compatible. There’s no simple answer here. Many devices that currently work with Thread, Z-Wave, or Zigbee should be able to work with Matter, but it’s not a given that they will get upgrades. It is best to check with manufacturers about specific devices and future support. According to the Alliance, 1,135 unique products, apps, and platforms have passed certification , though not all are available to buy yet. Look for the Matter logo to find compatible devices.

The first specification, or Matter 1.0, only covered certain categories of devices, including:

• Light bulbs and switches
• Smart plugs
• Smart locks
• Safety and security sensors
• Media devices including TVs
• Smart blinds and shades
• Garage door controllers
• Thermostats
• HVAC controllers

With Matter 1.2, nine new categories were added to the list:

• Refrigerators
• Room air conditioners
• Dishwashers
• Laundry washers
• Robotic vacuums
• Smoke and carbon monoxide alarms
• Air quality sensors
• Air purifiers

Matter 1.3 added eight new categories to the list:

• Energy management (devices can report usage or generation)
• Electric vehicle chargers
• Water management (leak and freeze detectors, rain sensors, controllable water valves)
• Microwave ovens
• Extractor hoods
• Laundry dryers

Sadly, there is still no support for home security cameras and video doorbells.

The functionality supported by Matter is mostly pretty basic for now, limited to on/off, start/stop, and notifications from devices like sensors and smoke alarms. For example, you can turn smart lights on or off and change the brightness and color, turn smart plugs on or off, lock and unlock smart locks, and open and close smart shades.

Matter casting enables you to cast content from supported smartphone apps to TVs or smart displays, though Amazon seems to be the only company using it so far (Prime Video). Matter 1.3 allows multiple clients to connect to a screen, so could be used for multiplayer gaming. It also enables devices like robot vacuums, smart locks, or dishwashers to send notifications, so you might get a pop-up on the TV when the dishes are done. But none of this is available in a device you can buy yet. We hope to see more functionality rolling out soon, but it is up to the platform providers and device manufacturers (see next section).

While the new functions in Matter 1.3 are just potential for now, some are very exciting. Energy management enables devices to report on their energy usage or generation in real time and to track it over time. That could give you much deeper insight into your power usage. Additions like EV charging might allow you to ask Google to charge your car for a set time next morning or to automate charging based on other conditions (solar panels, battery levels, current usage in the household, or even electricity prices). Current systems that allow this are proprietary and often require expensive installations.

While the big platform providers can see the benefit in a common standard, they are not going to open up full control of their devices to their competitors. There is a gap between the walled garden ecosystem experience and Matter functionality. So far, Matter functionality is limited, and manufacturers are keeping certain features proprietary.

For example, you may be able to turn an Apple device on or off with a Google Assistant voice command, but you will have to use Siri or an Apple app to tweak some settings or access advanced features. Manufacturers signing up to Matter are under no obligation to implement the entire specification, so the extent of support is likely to be mixed.

To achieve compatibility with Matter, some brands, like Philips Hue, Aqara, and SwitchBot, have updated their hubs or bridges. This is one way to sidestep the problem of incompatible older hardware. Updating hubs to work with the new Matter standard enables you to connect older systems, which will demonstrate that standards can coexist. But getting the full potential benefit of Matter will often require new hardware.

The underlying Thread technology in Matter allows devices, like smart speakers or lights, to act as Thread routers and create a mesh network that can pass data, increasing range and reliability. Unlike traditional smart home hubs, these Thread routers can’t see inside the packets of data they exchange. Data can be sent securely end-to-end by a network of devices from different manufacturers.

You need a Matter controller and a smart home platform app to use Matter. Any Matter controller can control any Matter device, and you can pick the smart home platform app that suits you best. You likely already have a Matter controller, since most of the smart speakers, displays, and hubs from major players like Apple, Amazon, Google, and Samsung are also Matter controllers. The Matter standard is also built into Android and iOS, so you can use smartphones and tablets to control your Matter devices.

For the best experience with Matter, you need a Thread border router. Some devices are both Matter controllers and Thread border routers, including:

• Amazon Echo (4th Gen)
• Amazon Eero 6 , 6 Plus , Pro 6 , Pro 6E , Max 7 , PoE 6 , and PoE Gateway
• Amazon Echo Show 8 (3rd Gen) and Echo Hub
• Apple HomePod (2nd Gen)
• Apple HomePod Mini
• Apple TV 4K (2nd Gen and 3rd Gen with Wi-Fi + Ethernet)
• Google Nest Hub (2nd Gen)
• Google Nest Hub Max
• Google Nest Wifi and Nest Wifi Pro
• Samsung SmartThings Station , Hub v3 , and Hub Dongle
• Samsung Smart TVs ( CU8000 , CU7000 , MNA89MS1BA , NEO QLED 8K and 4K )
• Aqara Smart Hub M3

Fears about security and privacy have cropped up frequently on the smart home scene. Matter is designed to be secure. The CSA has published a set of security and privacy principles and plans to use distributed ledger technology and public key infrastructure to validate devices. This should ensure folks are connecting authentic, certified, and up-to-date devices to their homes and networks. Data collection and sharing will still be between you and the device manufacturer or platform provider.

Where before you had a single hub to secure, Matter devices will mostly connect directly to the internet. That makes them potentially more susceptible to hackers and malware. But Matter also provides for local control, so the command from your phone or smart display doesn’t have to go through a cloud server. It can pass directly to the device on your home network.

Matter is presented as a smart home panacea, but only time will tell. Few, if any, innovations get everything right out of the gate. But there is potential value in seeing a Matter logo on a device and knowing it will work with your existing smart home setup, particularly in households with iPhones, Android phones, and Alexa devices. The freedom to be able to mix and match your devices and voice assistants is enticing.

The reality is sadly falling somewhat short of the promise so far. Setup of Matter devices is easy, but there are issues with multiple Thread networks , and we have experienced glitches when trying to use more than one platform simultaneously to control devices. No one wants to have to select devices based on compatibility. We want to choose devices with the best feature set, the highest quality, and the most desirable designs. Matter is slowly making that easier, but it still has a way to go.

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I Supervised New York City Judges. Juan Merchan Put On a Master Class in the Trump Trial.

By George Grasso

Mr. Grasso is a retired New York City administrative judge.

I spent almost 13 years as a judge in Brooklyn, Queens and the Bronx. I supervised judges presiding over a wide spectrum of cases, dealing with complex legal issues, angry victims, difficult defendants and intense media scrutiny. The job can at times be thankless and frustrating.

But for all the cases I saw, I never encountered anything remotely as challenging as what Justice Juan Merchan faced in his Manhattan courtroom while presiding over the first criminal trial of a former president. And since Donald Trump was found guilty on 34 counts, Justice Merchan has come under further vicious attack.

As a retiree, I was able to attend each day of the Trump trial. What I saw was a master class in what a judge should be — how one can serve fairly and impartially for the prosecution and the defense, and above all remain a pillar for the rule of law in America.

Since the indictment over the cover-up of hush-money payments was issued last year, Justice Merchan has been subjected to an unrelenting pressure campaign. The defendant, Mr. Trump, and his supporters viciously attacked the judge and his family in deeply personal terms. Most judges strive to maintain their composure under the greatest of stress, but few succeed — yet Justice Merchan remained cool, calm and collected at every step of the trial.

As a supervising judge, I always emphasized the importance of maintaining control to those under my charge. That is how a judge ensures that all defendants — especially the most difficult ones — get a fair trial. That is how everyone is treated with courtesy and how rulings are evenhanded and fair. In this area, Justice Merchan excelled.

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Structural health monitoring of civil infrastructures using smart sensor networks

• Nour, Marc Abdel
• Giordano, Pier Francesco
• Limongelli, Maria Pina

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) plays a vital role in maintaining the integrity of structures by providing continuous information about damage or anomalies. Vibration-based SHM, which focuses on the dynamic behavior of structures, offers insights into structural conditions through changes in dynamic properties. Among SHM approaches, damage localization is crucial for pinpointing the geometric location of damage. This paper proposes a method for damage localization using Short Time Fourier Transform and a Statistical Interpolation Damage Index. The proposed methodology is applied to a numerical case study involving a finite element beam model and to the S101 benchmark bridge, in Austria, demonstrating its efficacy in damage localization. The study also introduces a multi-level clustering approach to perform damage localization using smart decentralized sensor networks, able to reduce the volume of transmitted data and thereby the energy requirements. Results show promising outcomes in accurately identifying damage locations while minimizing data transmission.