applied behavior analysis research topics

5 Research Topics for Applied Behavior Analysis Students

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Whether you are in an ABA program right now or would like to be soon, it may be time to start thinking about research topics for your thesis or dissertation. All higher-level ABA courses will require students to have substantial independent research experience, which includes setting up a research experiment or trial, taking data, analyzing data, and suggesting next steps. And this also includes writing a professional paper either to turn in or submit to a scientific journal. 

Overall, there will be quite a bit of research and writing that occurs in an ABA program. 

If you’re currently in a program, read about these five research topic examples that might pique your curiosity.

1. Industrial Safety

In one classic study from 1987 , researchers examined how creating a token economy might increase safety at dangerous industrial sites. The study rewarded pit-mine workers when they and their colleagues avoided incidents that resulted in personal injury or equipment damage. They also rewarded workers who took extra steps to ensure the safety of others and report incidents. By using applied behavior analysis to incentivize self-motivated conduct modification, the researchers created improvements that persisted for years.

Behavior-Based Safety (BBS) “is an approach to occupational risk management that uses the science of behavior to increase safe behavior and reduce workplace injuries.”

Successful applications of BBS programs adhere to the following key principles ( Geller, 2005) :

• Focus interventions on specific, observable behaviors.
• Look for external factors to understand and improve behavior.
• Use signals to direct behaviors, and use consequences to motivate workers.
• Focus on positive consequences (not a punishment) to motivate behavior.
• Use a science-based approach to test and improve BBS interventions.
• Don’t let scientific theory limit the possibilities for improving BBS interventions.
• Design interventions while considering the feelings and attitudes of workers within the organization.

The field of BBS can always improve, and your contribution to it through research can help. Consider choosing industrial safety and ABA as one of your research topics.  

2. Autism Spectrum

Advocates also note that there remains a small but significant portion of autism sufferers who don’t respond to conventional techniques. There’s an ongoing need to study alternative methods and explore why certain approaches don’t work with some individuals. ABA techniques and their relation to autism-spectrum disorders will continue to pose important research questions for some time.

Not only can you conduct your own research (legally and ethically), and study other works of scientific literature, but you can be in the middle of it all like the professionals at the Marcus Autism Center do.

The center at Marcus is one of the most highly-regarded in the field of autism in the United States. They have a behavioral analysis research lab where clinician-researchers with expertise in applied behavior analysis. 

According to their site: 

“Although this work continues, the Behavior Analysis Research Lab recently expanded its research focus to include randomized clinical trials of behavioral interventions for core symptoms of autism, as well as co-occurring conditions or behaviors, such as elopement (e.g., wandering or running away) and encopresis (e.g., toileting concerns). Our goal is to disseminate the types of interventions and outcomes that can be achieved using ABA-based interventions to broader audiences by studying them in larger group designs.”

Depending on where you live, there may be experiential research opportunities for you as a student to dive into, such as the positions they have open at Marcus. 

3. Animal and Human Intelligence

For example, researchers note that in 2010, dogs bit 4.5 million Americans annually, with 20 percent of bites needing medical intervention. They further suggest that ABA can provide a valid framework for understanding why such bites occur and preventing them. Similarly, studies that examine why rats may be able to detect tuberculosis or how service dogs help people involve learning about these creatures’ behaviors. 

AAB, or Applied Animal Behavior , is an example of an organization that conducts research, supports animal behaviorists, and promotes the well-being of all animals that work in an applied setting. 

The Animal Behavior Society is another example, which is the leading professional organization in the United States that studies animal behavior. They say that animal behaviorists can be educated in a variety of disciplines, including psychology biology, zoology, or animal science. 

There is definitely room for more research in the field of animal behavior and its impact on humans. 

4. Criminology

One study showed a potential correlation between allowing high-risk students to choose their schools and their likelihood of criminal involvement. While school choice didn’t affect academic achievement, it generally lowered the risk that people would commit crimes later in life. 

Criminologists, behavioral psychologists, and forensic psychologists are all hired to work with local law enforcement and even the FBI to determine the motives of criminals along with the societal impacts, generational changes and other trends that might help be more proactive in the future. Mostly, they investigate why people commit crimes.

If you have ever watched a forensics TV show like Crime Scene Investigation (CSI) then you have a good idea of what their job entails. Between criminal profiling, working directly with a team, and investigating and solving cases is what it’s all about. 

Experts on applied behavior analysis state: 

“Its value to law enforcement investigations and criminal rehabilitation efforts make it an essential tool for any forensic psychologist. Research shows that successful application of applied forensic behavior analysis can lead to lower recidivism rates in convicts and a higher success rate in apprehending criminal suspects.”

Applied behavior analysis students who research these fields could play big roles in advancing societal knowledge.

5. Education

ABA is all around in education––you just cannot escape it! Everything, even academics, revolves around behavior . Whether it is on the county level or the classroom, there are FBAs, BIPs, data collection, positive reinforcement, consequences, token economies, trial and error, behavioral interventions, and much more. 

And teachers aren’t the only staff privy to ABA. School social workers, school counselors, behavioral specialists, and paraprofessionals all have access to ABA and can implement strategies based on individual student needs. 

Education techniques rely heavily on applied behavior analysis. Instructors may be tasked with giving consequences to students or devising custom lessons, and these tasks often involve understanding how to incentivize appropriate behavior while motivating learners.

Like other kinds of ABA, applied education research also provides the opportunity for internships and postgraduate residency programs. Because many of this field’s modern foundations lie in education, classroom-based research is a natural fit for students who want to apply their discoveries.

Research Topics for Applied Behavior Analysis Students: Conclusion

Applied behavior analysis is complex, but studying it is extremely rewarding. This field provides students at all educational levels with ample opportunities to contribute to scientific knowledge and better people’s lives in the process. There are almost too many fields to choose from in terms of where you want to lean. Think about your interests, what you have access to in your surrounding area (unless you are willing to move), and consider what type of research will help you move forward in your educational career and beyond. There are ABA programs and careers out there waiting for each of you! 

Brittany Cerny

Master of Education (M.Ed.) | Northeastern State University

Behavior and Learning Disorders | Georgia State University

Updated December 2021

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Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice is a multidisciplinary journal committed to increasing the communication between the subdisciplines within behavior analysis and psychology, and bringing up-to-date information on current developments within the field.

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Joel E. Ringdahl University of Georgia, United States

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Special issue of APA’s journal Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, Vol. 21, No. 3, August 2021. This special issue highlights works that offer new or innovative perspectives on the role behavior analysis plays in growing this area of research and practice via (a) informing health and fitness behavior change; (b) designing and evaluating interventions to support health-behavior change or improve fitness and sport performance; and (c) identifying opportunities and recommendations to advance research and inform practice in the areas of health, sport, and fitness.

Special issue of the APA journal Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, Vol. 18, No. 1, February 2018. Themes of the articles include addressing difficulties associated with neurocognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and the use of stimulus preference assessment procedures.

Special issue of the APA journal Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, Vol. 16, No. 4, November 2016. Articles discuss behavioral pharmacology's contributions to understanding the behavioral effects of drugs of abuse and other substances, the variables that modulate those effects, and the mechanisms through which they are produced, and offer novel and important suggestions for advancing the discipline.

Special issue of the APA journal Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, Vol. 17, No. 3, August 2017. The articles in this issue address behavior analysis in education in three domains: replicating procedures established in controlled evaluations in classrooms, expanding access to behavioral intervention, and evaluating variations of procedures designed for school use.

Special issue of the APA journal Behavioral Analysis: Research and Practice, Vol. 15, No. 1, February 2015. Includes articles about operant discrimination learning, class size effects, game research, and behavior research using animals.

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Applied Behavior Analysis Research Paper Topics

This page provides a comprehensive list of applied behavior analysis research paper topics , designed to serve as an invaluable resource for students delving into the intricacies of behavior analysis. With a focus on both foundational theories and practical applications, this collection spans a wide array of subjects within the field, from the fundamental principles of behavior analysis to cutting-edge research in autism spectrum disorders, ethical considerations, and beyond. Whether you are a novice in the field of applied behavior analysis or seeking to deepen your expertise with advanced research topics, this curated list aims to inspire and guide your academic inquiries, ensuring you find a topic that not only meets your educational requirements but also sparks your intellectual curiosity.

100 Applied Behavior Analysis Research Paper Topics

Choosing the right topic for your applied behavior analysis (ABA) research is pivotal, as it not only determines the direction of your study but also impacts its relevance and potential contribution to the field. The diversity within applied behavior analysis research paper topics is vast, reflecting the field’s broad applicability to various behavioral issues and settings. From foundational theories to innovative interventions, the range of topics available offers students the opportunity to explore areas of personal interest or professional relevance, fostering a deeper understanding and engagement with the subject matter.

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• The History and Evolution of Applied Behavior Analysis
• Key Principles of Behavior Analysis
• Behaviorism: The Theoretical Underpinning
• The Role of Reinforcement and Punishment
• Comparing ABA with Other Behavioral Therapies
• The Science of Behavior Change: Core Concepts
• Understanding Behavioral Assessments
• The Significance of Operational Definitions in ABA
• Generalization and Maintenance of Behavioral Changes
• Ethical Foundations in Applied Behavior Analysis
• Functional Behavior Assessments (FBA)
• Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPs)
• Single-Subject Design in ABA Research
• Data Collection Methods in ABA
• Interpreting and Using ABA Data for Decision Making
• The Role of Indirect and Descriptive Assessments
• Reliability and Validity in Behavioral Assessments
• Use of Technology in Behavioral Assessment
• Comparative Analysis of Assessment Tools
• Behavioral Skills Training
• Discrete Trial Training (DTT)
• Natural Environment Training (NET)
• Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT)
• Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI)
• Token Economies in ABA
• The Use of Visual Supports in ABA
• Response Interruption and Redirection (RIRD)
• Functional Communication Training (FCT)
• Behavioral Activation Techniques
• Crisis Intervention Strategies in ABA
• Digital Data Collection Tools
• The Use of Virtual Reality in Behavior Analysis
• Mobile Applications for Behavioral Interventions
• Telehealth and Remote ABA Services
• Augmented Reality for Social Skills Development
• Wearable Technology in Behavioral Monitoring
• Gamification of Behavioral Interventions
• Online Training Programs for ABA Practitioners
• Enhancing Parental Engagement through Technology
• Data Analytics and Machine Learning in ABA
• Early Detection and Intervention Strategies
• Social Skills Training for Children with ASD
• Addressing Challenging Behaviors in ASD
• Parent-Implemented Interventions for Autism
• The Impact of ABA on Language Development
• Integrating ABA with Other Therapeutic Approaches
• School-Based Interventions for ASD
• Transition Planning for Adolescents with ASD
• Adult Outcomes and Interventions for Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Novel Therapeutic Technologies for ASD
• Informed Consent in Behavioral Research
• Privacy and Confidentiality Issues
• Cultural Competency and Sensitivity
• Ethical Decision-Making Models
• Balancing Efficacy and Ethics in Intervention Planning
• Rights of Participants in Behavioral Studies
• Addressing Professional Conflicts of Interest
• The Use of Restraint and Seclusion
• Ethical Issues in Telehealth Services
• Maintaining Professional Boundaries
• Classroom Management Strategies
• Inclusive Education Practices
• Peer-Mediated Interventions
• Curriculum Modifications and Accommodations
• Functional Literacy in Special Education
• Behavioral Strategies for Academic Engagement
• Addressing Bullying in Schools
• Teacher Training in Behavioral Techniques
• Assessment and Intervention in School Settings
• Promoting Generalization Across Educational Contexts
• Assessing Social Competence
• Group Interventions for Social Skills Training
• Modeling and Role-Playing Techniques
• Enhancing Emotional Intelligence through ABA
• Social Narratives and Story-Based Interventions
• Peer Feedback and Social Interaction Strategies
• Technology-Assisted Social Skills Training
• Social Skills in Early Childhood Education
• Strategies for Adolescents and Adults
• Measuring Outcomes in Social Skills Interventions
• Principles of Effective Parent Training Programs
• Implementing Behavioral Strategies at Home
• Supporting Families of Children with Special Needs
• Culturally Responsive Parent Training
• Training for Caregivers of Adults with Disabilities
• Stress Management for Parents and Caregivers
• Community-Based Support Programs
• Enhancing Communication between Parents and Professionals
• Online and Remote Training Options
• Evaluating the Impact of Parent Training
• Precision Teaching and Personalized Learning
• The Intersection of ABA and Neuroscience
• Behavioral Economics and Decision Making
• Sustainability and Environmental Behavior Change
• The Future of ABA Certification and Training
• Integrative Approaches to Health and Wellness
• The Role of ABA in Public Policy Making
• Advances in Behavioral Gerontology
• ABA and Technology: The Next Frontier
• Global Perspectives and International Applications of ABA

The breadth and depth of applied behavior analysis research paper topics reflect the dynamic and evolving nature of the field. By exploring these diverse areas, students can contribute valuable insights and advancements to the practice and theory of ABA. We encourage students to delve into these topics, pursuing research that not only fulfills academic requirements but also propels the field forward, enhancing the efficacy and reach of applied behavior analysis in improving lives.

What is Applied Behavior Analysis

Introduction to Applied Behavior Analysis

Historical Context and Evolution of ABA

The roots of Applied Behavior Analysis trace back to the early 20th century, with the work of pioneers like B.F. Skinner, who laid the groundwork with his studies on operant conditioning. Skinner’s research highlighted the influence of environmental factors on behavior, setting the stage for the development of ABA. Over the decades, ABA has evolved from a focus on basic research to a broader application that addresses a wide range of human behaviors and challenges. This evolution reflects a growing recognition of the versatility and effectiveness of ABA methods in bringing about positive behavior change.

Key Principles and Techniques in ABA

Central to ABA are principles such as reinforcement, punishment, and extinction, which are used to increase or decrease targeted behaviors. Techniques such as discrete trial training, pivotal response training, and functional behavior assessments are instrumental in implementing these principles. ABA interventions are characterized by their individualized approach, where strategies are tailored based on the assessment of each person’s behavior and environment. This customization ensures that interventions are not only effective but also respectful of the individual’s unique circumstances and needs.

The Scope of ABA in Various Settings

Applied behavior analysis research paper topics often explore the diverse applications of ABA across settings such as schools, clinics, workplaces, and homes. In educational environments, ABA strategies support students with learning disabilities, behavioral challenges, and autism spectrum disorders, enhancing their educational outcomes and social integration. Clinically, ABA is pivotal in treating various psychological disorders, including phobias, OCD, and ADHD, by helping individuals develop new skills and reduce problematic behaviors. At home, ABA techniques empower families and caregivers with strategies to support their loved ones, promoting independence and improving quality of life.

Exploration of ABA’s Impact on Autism and Developmental Disorders

One of the most profound applications of Applied Behavior Analysis is in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and other developmental disorders. ABA’s impact on autism is significant, with a multitude of studies demonstrating its efficacy in improving communication, social skills, and adaptive behaviors among individuals with ASD. Through individualized assessment and intervention plans, ABA facilitates meaningful progress, helping individuals with autism lead more fulfilling lives. The emphasis on early intervention and the adaptability of ABA techniques have made it a cornerstone in autism therapy.

Ethical Considerations and Future Directions in ABA Research

As the field of ABA continues to grow, so too does the attention to its ethical considerations. Ensuring the dignity and rights of those receiving ABA services is paramount. This includes obtaining informed consent, ensuring privacy, and maintaining a commitment to do no harm. Looking to the future, ABA research is poised to explore new technologies, interdisciplinary approaches, and global applications. The integration of ABA with fields such as neuroscience and technology promises to enhance the understanding and treatment of behavior further.

The Significance of ABA in Advancing Understanding and Interventions for Behavior Modification

The significance of Applied Behavior Analysis in advancing our understanding and interventions for behavior modification cannot be overstated. Its evidence-based approach has transformed the lives of many, offering hope and practical solutions to individuals and families navigating behavioral challenges. As ABA continues to evolve, its capacity to foster positive change remains its most enduring legacy, underscoring the importance of continued research, ethical practice, and innovation in the field. Through the dedicated efforts of researchers, practitioners, and educators, ABA will continue to illuminate the path toward understanding human behavior and creating meaningful change.

iResearchNet’s Writing Services for ABA Students

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Digital Commons @ USF > College of Behavioral and Community Sciences > Child and Family Studies > Applied Behavior Analysis > Theses and Dissertations

Applied Behavior Analysis Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2009 2009.

It is Time to Play! Peer Implemented Pivotal Response Training with a Child with Autism during Recess , Leigh Anne Sams

Theses/Dissertations from 2008 2008

The Evaluation of a Commercially-Available Abduction Prevention Program , Kimberly V. Beck

Expert Video Modeling with Video Feedback to Enhance Gymnastics Skills , Eva Boyer

Behavior Contracting with Dependent Runaway Youth , Jessica Colon

Can Using One Trainer Solely to Deliver Prompts and Feedback During Role Plays Increase Correct Performance of Parenting Skills in a Behavioral Parent Training Program? , Michael M. Cripe

Evaluation of a Functional Treatment for Binge Eating Associated with Bulimia Nervosa , Tamela Cheri DeWeese-Giddings

Teaching Functional Skills to Individuals with Developmental Disabilities Using Video Prompting , Julie A. Horn

Evaluation of a Standardized Protocol for Parent Training in Positive Behavior Support Using a Multiple Baseline Design , Robin Lane

Publicly Posted Feedback with Goal Setting to Improve Tennis Performance , Gretchen Mathews

Improving Staff Performance by Enhancing Staff Training Procedures and Organizational Behavior Management Procedures , Dennis Martin McClelland Jr.

Supporting Teachers and Children During In-Class Transitions: The Power of Prevention , Sarah M. Mele

Effects of Supervisor’s Presence on Staff Response to Tactile Prompts and Self-Monitoring in a Group Home Setting , Judy M. Mowery

Social Skills Training with Typically Developing Adolescents: Measurement of Skill Acquisition , Jessica Anne Thompson

Theses/Dissertations from 2007 2007

Evaluating the effects of a reinforcement system for students participating in the Fast Forword language program , Catherine C. Wilcox

Theses/Dissertations from 2006 2006

The Acquisition of Functional Sign Language by Non-Hearing Impaired Infants , Kerri Haley-Garrett

Response Cards in the Elementary School Classroom: Effects on Student and Teacher Behavior , Shannon McKallip-Moss

The Effects of a Parent Training Course on Coercive Interactions Between Parents and Children , Lezlee Powell

The Effects of Role-Playing on the Development of Adaptive Skills in a Parent Training Program , Chantell A. Rodriguez-Del Valle

Archival evaluation of a proactive school wide discipline plan , Beth Rutz-Beynart

Effects of a multi-component interdependent group contingency game on the classroom behavior of typically developing elementary school children , Stacey D. Simonds

Establishing a Functional Analysis Protocol for Examining Behavioral Deficits using Social Withdrawal as an Exemplar , Melissa Penaranda Walters

Theses/Dissertations from 2005 2005

The Role of Choice Versus Preference: An Analysis of Why Choice Interventions Work , John D. Adelinis

The Effect of Direct Instruction Math Curriculum on Higher-Order Problem Solving , Pamela Christofori

The Effects of Response Cards on the Performance and Generalization of Parenting Skills , Bennie L. Colbert

A Comparison of Two Prompting Procedures on Tacting Behavior , Kelley N. Gardner

The Effects Of The Presence Of A Dog On The Social Interactions Of Children With Developmental Disabilities , Stephanie Walters

The Effects of Fluency Training on Performance, Maintenance, and Generalization of Parenting Skills , Gertie Williams

Theses/Dissertations from 2004 2004

Use of the Power Card Strategy as an Intervention with an Elementary School Student with Asperger Syndrome: Increasing On-Task Behavior in the General Education Setting , Jane M. Devenport

The Importance of Program-Delivered Differential Reinforcement in the Development of Classical Music Auditory Discrimination , Gudmundur Torfi Heimisson

The Impact of a Goal Setting Procedure on the Work Performance of Young Adults with Behavioral/Emotional/Learning Challenges , Robin Wagner Hogsholm

The Effects of Graphic Display and Training in Visual Inspection on Teachers' Detection of Behavior Change , Allana Duncan Luquette

Imitation and its Reciprocity in the Treatment of Autism , Roxana I. Nedelcu

Utility of Positive Peer Reporting to Improve Interactions Among Children in Foster Care , Jenny L. Van Horn

Behavioral Analysis of Interactions Between Teachers and Children with Selective Mutism , Jason D. Wallace

Theses/Dissertations from 2003 2003

Creating Positive Experiences: Increasing Parent Participation In A Low Income Elementary School , Krista Stinson Cayer

Evaluation Of A Presentation And Measurement Method For Assessing Activity Preference , Tara L. Lieblein

Using The ABLLS with English Language Learners: Implications for Students and Teachers , Lorie G. Schultz

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Research Methods in Applied Behavior Analysis

• Jon S. Bailey - Florida State University School of Social Work
• Mary R. Burch - Behavior Management Consultants, Inc.
• Description

This very practical, how-to text provides the beginning researcher with the basics of applied behavior analysis research methods. In 10 logical steps, this text covers all of the elements of single-subject research design and it provides practical information for designing, implementing, and evaluating studies. Using a pocketbook format, the authors provide novice researcher with a "steps-for-success" approach that is brief, to-the-point, and clearly delineated. 

See what’s new to this edition by selecting the Features tab on this page. Should you need additional information or have questions regarding the HEOA information provided for this title, including what is new to this edition, please email [email protected] . Please include your name, contact information, and the name of the title for which you would like more information. For information on the HEOA, please go to http://ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/hea08/index.html .

For assistance with your order: Please email us at [email protected] or connect with your SAGE representative.

SAGE 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, CA 91320 www.sagepub.com

"The topic is timely and the writing style is pragmatic and user-friendly. The field needs an updated book on research methods."

"There is a definite need for a ‘how to’ book such as this to train behavior analysts…The authors have a very thorough and understandable approach to the topics. They include lots of examples and everyday insights and practical tips that are valuable to new researchers…The strength of this book seems to be in the authors’ experience and sharing of practical advice to readers." 

"I like the conversational style, and I think my students would enjoy reading this book…There is no other how-to text on this topic. I think it will make a useful and much-needed addition to the behavioral textbook market." 

I'm teaching a research course including single subject design.

Research methods in applied behavior analysis introduces the reader to behaviour analysis and its purpose: to produce empirically tested treatments and interventions which have been shown to help modify an individual's behaviour. This text covers good research design practices and methods used in applied behaviour analysis. The research design section consists of 10 steps which the reader can use when planning out their research project and covers topics such as: choosing a research topic to research, developing research questions using literature searches, identifying dependent and independent variables, establishing validity in research, selecting an appropriate data collection system, pilot and testing variables for accuracy, ethical issues in conducting social research and presenting and publishing research findings. This book is recommended reading for researchers and students conducting social research or social-psycho research related to behavior in individuals. This text is well written in terms of the language being accessible to researchers and students new to this topic, or field and provides a useful research project check list as a guide to help the reader follow good practices in social research.

• Pedagogical devices in the form of a "How to Use This Book" section at the end of the first chapter, chapter-opening lists of Main Topics and Learning Objectives, key terms bolded in text, and a format that includes lists of procedures, cautions, steps, etc., clearly guide novice researchers each step of the way through a project.
• Step Eight details how to conduct an ethics check, introducing students to Behavior Analyst Certification Board Guidelines for Responsible Conduct, the ins and outs of an institutional review board, and more.
• Step Nine includes both daily and weekly "Checklists for Success" to help students keep on track with a research project using convenient at-a-glance checklists.

Sage College Publishing

You can purchase this book and request an instructor sample on our US College site:

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This title is also available on SAGE Research Methods , the ultimate digital methods library. If your library doesn’t have access, ask your librarian to start a trial .

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English & Psychology Librarian

Welcome to RBD Library! This guide is intended to help you find research on topics related to Applied Behavior Analysis by highlighting relevant databases, journals, and other resources.  The guide also includes information about using a variety of the resources and services available through Auburn University Libraries.

If you have any questions or run into any issues with your research, please don't hesitate to get in touch! You can contact your librarian, Jaena Alabi, or you can stop by the RBD Help Desk on the 2nd floor of the library for help with general questions. 

Databases: Best Bets to Get Started

• APA PsycINFO This link opens in a new window Contains summaries of the world's journal literature in psychology and related disciplines, as well as dissertations and technical reports. Covers over 1300 journals in over 30 languages from approximately 50 countries. To integrate behavioral information from other fields, PsycINFO scans publications from related disciplines such as sociology, linguistics, education, medicine, law, physiology, business, psychiatry, and anthropology, and represents those relevant to psychology.
• Psychiatry Online This link opens in a new window PsychiatryOnline Provides online access to the most important publications of the American Psychiatric Press including the most recent Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and The American Journal of Psychiatry. In addition to various psychiatric references, including books, journals, and self-assessment tools this database provides online versions of the following journals: The American Journal of Psychiatry (AJP), Psychiatric Services , Academic Psychiatry, The Journal of Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences , and Psychosomatics.
• CINAHL This link opens in a new window Provides authoritative coverage of the literature related to nursing and allied health fields including: cardiopulmonary technology, emergency service, health education, medical laboratory, medical assistant, medical records, occupational therapy, physical therapy, physician assistant, radiologic technology, technology therapy, social service and surgical technology.
• MEDLINE (EBSCO) This link opens in a new window The complete MEDLINE database, including such topics as microbiology, delivery of health care, nutrition, pharmacology, and environmental health. The categories covered in the database include anatomy, organisms, diseases, chemicals and drugs, techniques and equipment, psychiatry and psychology, biological sciences, physical sciences, social sciences and education, technology, agriculture, food, industry, humanities, information science and communications, and health care.
• PubMed This link opens in a new window PubMed comprises more than 22 million citations for biomedical literature from MEDLINE, life science journals, and online books. PubMed citations and abstracts include the fields of biomedicine and health, covering portions of the life sciences, behavioral sciences, chemical sciences, and bioengineering. Citations may include links to full-text content from PubMed Central and publisher web sites.

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Contact the Librarian at your campus for more help!

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• PsycINFO (via ProQuest) This link opens in a new window The best database for articles in Psychology, including ABA and autism. Unlike most library databases, it enables you to search for studies by research methodology, participcants' age and gender, and other helpful categories. more... less... PsycINFO provides access to international literature in psychology and related disciplines. Unrivaled in its depth of psychological coverage and respected worldwide for its high quality, the database is enriched with literature from an array of disciplines related to psychology such as psychiatry, education, business, medicine, nursing, pharmacology, law, linguistics, and social work. Nearly all records contain nonevaluative summaries, and all records from 1967 to the present are indexed using the Thesaurus of Psychological Index Terms.
• ERIC (ProQuest) This link opens in a new window Articles, reports, and other literature on ABA, from an Education perspective. more... less... ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) is the major database for education literature, sponsored by the U.S. Department. of Education. The same database content is available on many platforms.
• PubMed (Medline) This link opens in a new window Articles and other ABA resources from a biological/medical perspective. more... less... PubMed is a web interface that allows you to search MEDLINE, the National Library of Medicine's premier database of citations and abstracts for biomedical research articles. The core subject is medicine, but subject coverage also includes bioethics, biology, chemistry, dentistry, environmental health, genetics, gerontology, health care planning and administration, history of medicine, hospital administration, microbiology, nutrition, nursing (International Nursing Index), physiology, pre-clinical sciences, public health, sports medicine, veterinary medicine and zoology. MEDLINE covers over 4,800 journals published in the United States and 70 other countries. The database contains over 15 million citations dating back to 1950. Coverage is worldwide and updated weekly. Learn more about PubMed at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/about/. or Try the Tutorial at: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/pubmed_tutorial/m1001.html
• LionSearch This link opens in a new window An integrated search of books, e-books, research articles, and other material available at Penn State.
• DOAJ Directory of Open Access Journals This link opens in a new window Articles that are freely accessible on the internet, including many that are not included in library databases. more... less... Search journal articles at the 'one stop shop for users to Open Access Journals'.
• Google Scholar This link opens in a new window Google's search engine for scholarly articles. more... less... Google Scholar enables you to search specifically for scholarly literature, including peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, preprints, abstracts and technical reports from all broad areas of research. Use Google Scholar to find articles from a wide variety of academic publishers, professional societies, preprint repositories and universities, as well as scholarly articles available across the web. Once you set your institutional preferences, links to full-text, if available at Penn State, should appear.

Other Research Guides

• Communication Sciences and Disorders by Christina L. Wissinger, Ph.D. Last Updated Feb 18, 2024 494 views this year
• Nutrition by Christina L. Wissinger, Ph.D. Last Updated Jan 16, 2024 1176 views this year
• Psychology by Nonny Schlotzhauer Last Updated Dec 5, 2023 6691 views this year
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Applied Behavior Analysis

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Basics of a Literature Review

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Useful Books

• Conducting Research Literature Reviews Pius Library Q180.55.M4 F56 2010
• Preparing Literature Review Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches Pius Library Q180.55.E9 P36 2008 There are several example literature reviews in the appendix of this book.
• Evaluating Research Articles From Start to Finish Pius Library Q180.55.E9 G57 2011
• Evaluating Research Methodology for People Who Need to Read Research Pius Library Q180.55 .E9 D355 2011
• Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics eBook
• Encyclopedia of Research Design
• Statistics for People Who Think They Hate Statistics Pius Library HA29 .S2365 2009
• Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences Pius Library H62.P457 2006
• Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review Pius Library LB1047.3.B66 2012

A literature review may be conducted in order to inform practice and/or policy, serve as a basic element in a thesis or dissertation or as part of a proposal to obtain funding. The process can be divided into a series of steps:

• Choose a topic. Look at recent literature for ideas and do a bit of preliminary searching of the existing literature.
• Clarify your review question and the scope of your review
• Brainstorm search terms to use and think about your search strategy
• Begin searching for articles. I strongly recommend you keep a search log to document which databases you searched and what search terms you used.
• Capture and manage search results. You may want to export results to Endnote or other citation management tool (see Managing Citations tab in this guide)
• Screen results for inclusion based on critera you define
• Evaluate the  the articles. A worksheet which includes the bibliographic information about the article and summarizes elements of the article such as research design, interventions, findings, main variables etc. may give you a helpful overview
• Synthesize results (this is the whole point!).

Literature reviews are part of a PhD dissertation. Use the Dissertations and Theses Full Text database to see the literature review chapters in the two PhD theses listed below. Just enter the dissertation title in quotes and you will retrieve the full text of the dissertation.

• Using concurrent operants to evaluate perserverative conversation in children and adolescents diagnosed with Asperger's disorder by Matthew J. O'Brien
• The effectiveness of specialized applied behavior analysis (ABA) on daily living skills for individuals with autism and related disorders ages 8 to 19 by Adriana Weyandt

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• v.37(1); 2014 May

The Evidence-Based Practice of Applied Behavior Analysis

Timothy a. slocum.

Utah State University, Logan, UT USA

Ronnie Detrich

Wing Institute, Oakland, CA USA

Susan M. Wilczynski

Ball State University, Muncie, IN USA

Trina D. Spencer

Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ USA

Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR USA

Katie Wolfe

University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC USA

Evidence-based practice (EBP) is a model of professional decision-making in which practitioners integrate the best available evidence with client values/context and clinical expertise in order to provide services for their clients. This framework provides behavior analysts with a structure for pervasive use of the best available evidence in the complex settings in which they work. This structure recognizes the need for clear and explicit understanding of the strength of evidence supporting intervention options, the important contextual factors including client values that contribute to decision making, and the key role of clinical expertise in the conceptualization, intervention, and evaluation of cases. Opening the discussion of EBP in this journal, Smith ( The Behavior Analyst, 36 , 7–33, 2013 ) raised several key issues related to EBP and applied behavior analysis (ABA). The purpose of this paper is to respond to Smith’s arguments and extend the discussion of the relevant issues. Although we support many of Smith’s ( The Behavior Analyst, 36 , 7–33, 2013 ) points, we contend that Smith’s definition of EBP is significantly narrower than definitions that are used in professions with long histories of EBP and that this narrowness conflicts with the principles that drive applied behavior analytic practice. We offer a definition and framework for EBP that aligns with the foundations of ABA and is consistent with well-established definitions of EBP in medicine, psychology, and other professions. In addition to supporting the systematic use of research evidence in behavior analytic decision making, this definition can promote clear communication about treatment decisions across disciplines and with important outside institutions such as insurance companies and granting agencies.

Almost 45 years ago, Baer et al. ( 1968 ) described a new discipline—applied behavior analysis (ABA). This discipline was distinguished from the experimental analysis of behavior by its focus on social impact (i.e., solving socially important problems in socially important settings). ABA has produced remarkably powerful interventions in fields such as education, developmental disabilities and autism, clinical psychology, behavioral medicine, organizational behavior management, and a host of other fields and populations. Behavior analysts have long recognized that developing interventions capable of improving client behavior solves only one part of the problem. The problem of broad social impact must be solved by having interventions implemented effectively in socially important settings and at scales of social importance (Baer et al. 1987 ; Horner et al. 2005b ; McIntosh et al. 2010 ). This latter set of challenges has proved to be more difficult. In many cases, demonstrations of effectiveness are not sufficient to produce broad adoption and careful implementation of these procedures. Key decision makers may be more influenced by variables other than the increases and decreases in the behaviors of our clients. In addition, even when client behavior is a very powerful factor in decision making, it does not guarantee that empirical data will be the basis for treatment selection; anecdotes, appeals to philosophy, or marketing have been given priority over evidence of outcomes (Carnine 1992 ; Polsgrove 2003 ).

Across settings in which behavior analysts work, there has been a persistent gap between what is known from research and what is actually implemented in practice. Behavior analysts have been concerned with the failed adoption of research-based practices for years (Baer et al. 1987 ). Even in the fields in which behavior analysts have produced powerful interventions, the vast majority of current practice fails to take advantage of them.

Behavior analysts have not been alone in recognizing serious problems with the quality of interventions used employed in practice settings. In the 1960s, many within the medical field recognized a serious research-to-practice gap. Studies suggested that a relatively small percentage (estimates range from 10 to 25 %) of medical treatment decisions were based on high-quality evidence (Goodman 2003 ). This raised the troubling question of what basis was used for the remaining decisions if it was not high-quality evidence. These concerns led to the development of evidence-based practice (EBP) of medicine (Goodman 2003 ; Sackett et al. 1996 ).

The research-to-practice gap appears to be universal across professions. For example, Kazdin ( 2000 ) has reported that less than 10 % of the child and adolescent mental health treatments reported in the professional literature have been systematically evaluated and found to be effective and those that have not been evaluated are more likely to be adopted in practice settings. In recognition of their own research-to-practice gaps, numerous professions have adopted an EBP framework. Nursing and other areas of health care, social work, clinical and educational psychology, speech and language pathology, and many others have adopted this framework and adapted it to the specific needs of their discipline to help guide decision-making. Not only have EBP frameworks been helping to structure professional practice, but they have also been used to guide federal policy. With the passage of No Child Left Behind ( 2002 ) and the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act ( 2005 ), the federal department of education has aligned itself with the EBP movement. A recent memorandum from the federal Office of Management and Budget instructed agencies to consider evidence of effectiveness when awarding funds, increase the use of evidence in competitions, and to encourage widespread program evaluation (Zients 2012 ). The memo, which used the term evidence-based practice extensively, stated: “Where evidence is strong, we should act on it. Where evidence is suggestive, we should consider it. Where evidence is weak, we should build the knowledge to support better decisions in the future” (Zients 2012 , p. 1).

EBP is more broadly an effort to improve decision-making in applied settings by explicitly articulating the central role of evidence in these decisions and thereby improving outcomes. It addresses one of the long-standing challenges for ABA; the need to effectively support and disseminate interventions in the larger social systems in which our work is embedded. In particular, EBP addresses the fact that many decision-makers are not sufficiently influenced by the best evidence that is relevant to important decisions. EBP is an explicit statement of one of ABA’s core tenets—a commitment to evidence-based decision-making. Given that the EBP framework is well established in many disciplines closely related to ABA and in the larger institutional contexts in which we operate (e.g., federal policy and funding agencies), aligning ABA with EBP offers an opportunity for behavior analysts to work more effectively within broader social systems.

Discussion of issues related to EBP in ABA has taken place across several years. Researchers have extensively discussed methods for identifying well-supported treatments (e.g., Horner et al. 2005a ; Kratochwill et al. 2010 ), and systematically reviewed the evidence to identify these treatments (e.g., Maggin et al. 2011 ; National Autism Center 2009 ). However, until recently, discussion of an explicit definition of EBP in ABA has been limited to conference papers (e.g., Detrich 2009 ). Smith ( 2013 ) opened a discussion of the definition and critical features of EBP of ABA in the pages of The Behavior Analyst . In his thought-provoking article, Smith raised many important points that deserve serious discussion as the field moves toward a clear vision of EBP of ABA. Most importantly, Smith ( 2013 ) argued that behavior analysts must carefully consider how EBP is to be defined and understood by researchers and practitioners of behavior analysis.

Definitions Matter

We find much to agree with in Smith’s paper, and we will describe these points of agreement below. However, we have a core disagreement with Smith concerning the vision of what EBP is and how it might enhance and expand the effective practice of ABA. As behavior analysts know, definitions matter. A well-conceived definition can promote conceptual understanding and set the context for effective action. Conversely, a poor definition or confusion about definitions hinders clear understanding, communication, and action.

In providing a basis for his definition of EBP, Smith refers to definitions in professions that have well-developed conceptions of EBP. He quotes the American Psychological Association (APA) ( 2005 ) definition (which we quote here more extensively than he did):

Evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP) is the integration of the best available research with clinical expertise in the context of patient characteristics, culture, and preferences. This definition of EBPP closely parallels the definition of evidence-based practice adopted by the Institute of Medicine ( 2001 , p. 147) as adapted from Sackett et al. ( 2000 ): “Evidence-based practice is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values.” The purpose of EBPP is to promote effective psychological practice and enhance public health by applying empirically supported principles of psychological assessment, case formulation, therapeutic relationship, and intervention.

The key to understanding this definition is to note how APA and the Institute of Medicine use the word practice . Clearly, practice does not refer to an intervention; instead, it references one’s professional behavior. This is the sense in which one might speak of the professional practice of behavior analysis. American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force of Evidence-Based Practice ( 2006 ) further elaborates this point:

It is important to clarify the relation between EBPP and empirically supported treatments (ESTs)…. ESTs are specific psychological treatments that have been shown to be efficacious in controlled clinical trials, whereas EBPP encompasses a broader range of clinical activities (e.g., psychological assessment, case formulation, therapy relationships). As such, EBPP articulates a decision-making process for integrating multiple streams of research evidence—including but not limited to RCTs—into the intervention process. (p. 273)

In contrast, Smith defined EBP not as a decision-making process but as a set of interventions that have been shown to be efficacious through rigorous research. He stated:

An evidence-based practice is a service that helps solve a consumer’s problem. Thus it is likely to be an integrated package of procedures, operationalized in a manual, and validated in studies of socially meaningful outcomes, usually with group designs. (p. 27).

Smith’s EBP is what APA has clearly labeled an empirically supported treatment . This is a common misconception found in conversation and in published articles (e.g., Cook and Cook 2013 ) but at odds with formal definitions provided by many professional organizations; definitions which result from extensive consideration and debate by representative leaders of each professional field (e.g., APA 2005 ; American Occupational Therapy Association 2008 ; American Speech-Language Hearing Association 2005 ; Institute of Medicine 2001 ).

Before entering into the discussion of a useful definition of EBP of ABA, we should clarify the functions that we believe a useful definition of EBP should perform. First, a useful definition should align with the philosophical tenets of ABA, support the most effective current practice of ABA, and contribute to further improvement of ABA practice. A definition that is in conflict with the foundations of ABA or detracts from effective practice clearly would be counterproductive. Second, a useful definition of EBP of ABA should enhance social support for ABA practice by describing its empirical basis and decision-making processes in a way that is understandable to professions that already have well-established definitions of EBP. A definition that corresponds with the fundamental components of EBP in other fields would promote ABA practice by improving communication with external audiences. This improved communication is critical in the interdisciplinary contexts in which behavior analysts often practice and for legitimacy among those familiar with EBP who often control local contingencies (e.g., policy makers and funding agencies).

Based on these functions, we propose the following definition: Evidence-based practice of applied behavior analysis is a decision-making process that integrates (a) the best available evidence with (b) clinical expertise and (c) client values and context. This definition positions EBP as a pervasive feature of all professional decision-making by a behavior analyst with respect to client services; it is not limited to a narrowly restricted set of situations or decisions. The definition asserts that the best available evidence should be a primary influence on all decision-making related to services for clients (e.g., intervention selection, progress monitoring, etc.). It also recognizes that evidence cannot be the sole basis for a decision; effective decision-making in a discipline as complex as ABA requires clinical expertise in identifying, defining, and analyzing problems, determining what evidence is relevant, and deciding how it should be applied. In the absence of this decision-making framework, practitioners of ABA would be conceptualized as behavioral technicians rather than analysts. Further, the definition of EBP of ABA includes client values and context. Decision-making is necessarily based on a set of values that determine the goals that are to be pursued and the means that are appropriate to achieve them. Context is included in recognition of the fact that the effectiveness of an intervention is highly dependent upon the context in which it is implemented. The definition asserts that effective decision-making must be informed by important contextual factors. We elaborate on each component of the definition below, but first we contrast our definition with that offered by Smith ( 2013 ).

Although Smith ( 2013 ) made brief reference to the other critical components of EBP, he framed EBP as a list of multicomponent interventions that can claim a sufficient level of research support. We agree with his argument that such lists are valuable resources for practitioners and therefore developing them should be a goal of researchers. However, such lists are not, by themselves , a powerful means of improving the effectiveness of behavior analytic practice. The vast majority of decisions faced in the practice of behavior analysis cannot be made by implementing the kind of manualized, multicomponent treatment packages described by Smith.

There are a number of reasons a list of interventions is not an adequate basis for EBP of ABA. First, there are few interventions that qualify as “practices” under Smith’s definition. For example, when discussing the importance of manuals for operationalizing treatments, Smith stated that the requirement that a “practice” be based on a manual, “sharply reduces the number of ABA approaches that can be regarded as evidence based. Of the 11 interventions for ASD identified in the NAC ( 2009 ) report, only the three that have been standardized in manuals might be considered to be practices, and even these may be incomplete” (p. 18). Thus, although the example referenced the autism treatment literature, it seems apparent that even a loose interpretation of this particular criterion would leave all practitioners with a highly restricted number of intervention options.

Second, even if more “practices” were developed and validated, many consumers cannot be well served with existing multicomponent packages. In order to meet their clients’ needs, behavior analysts must be able to selectively implement focused interventions alone or in combination. This flexibility is necessary to meet the diverse needs of their clients and to minimize the response demands on direct care providers or staff, who are less likely to implement a complicated intervention with fidelity (Riley-Tillman and Chafouleas 2003 ).

Third, the strategy of assembling a list of treatments and describing these as “practices” severely limits the ways in which research findings are used by practitioners. With the list approach to defining EBP, research only impacts practice by placing an intervention on a list when a specific criteria has been met. Thus, any research on an intervention that is not sufficiently broad or manualized to qualify as a “practice” has no influence on EBP. Similarly, a research study that shows clear results but is not part of a sufficient body of support for an intervention would also have no influence. A study that provides suggestive results but is not methodologically strong enough to be definitive would have no influence, even if it were the only study that is relevant to a given problem.

The primary problem with a list approach is that it does not provide a strong framework that directs practitioners to include the best available evidence in all of their professional decision-making. Too often, practitioners who consult such lists find that no interventions relevant to their specific case have been validated as “evidence-based” and therefore EBP is irrelevant. In contrast, definitions of EBP as a decision-making process can provide a robust framework for including research evidence along with clinical expertise and client values and context in the practice of behavior analysis. In the next sections, we explore the components of this definition in more detail.

Best Available Evidence

The term “best available evidence” occupies a critical and central place in the definition and concept of EBP; this aligns with the fundamental reliance on scientific research that is one of the core tenets of ABA. The Behavior Analyst Certification Board ( 2010 ) Guidelines for Responsible Conduct for Behavior Analysts repeatedly affirm ways in which behavior analysts should base their professional conduct on the best available evidence. For example:

Behavior analysts rely on scientifically and professionally derived knowledge when making scientific or professional judgments in human service provision, or when engaging in scholarly or professional endeavors.

• The behavior analyst always has the responsibility to recommend scientifically supported most effective treatment procedures. Effective treatment procedures have been validated as having both long-term and short-term benefits to clients and society.
• Clients have a right to effective treatment (i.e., based on the research literature and adapted to the individual client).

A Continuum of Evidence Quality

The term best implies that evidence can be of varying quality, and that better quality evidence is preferred over lower quality evidence. Quality of evidence for informing a specific practical question involves two dimensions: (a) relevance of the evidence and (b) certainty of the evidence.

The dimension of relevance recognizes that some evidence is more germane to a particular decision than is other evidence. This idea is similar to the concept of external validity. External validity refers to the degree to which research results apply to a range of applied situations whereas relevance refers to the degree to which research results apply to a specific applied situation. In general, evidence is more relevant when it matches the particular situation in terms of (a) important characteristics of the clients, (b) specific treatments or interventions under consideration, (c) outcomes or target behaviors including their functions, and (d) contextual variables such as the physical and social environment, staff skills, and the capacity of the organization. Unless all conditions match perfectly, behavior analysts are necessarily required to use their expertise to determine the applicability of the scientific evidence to each unique clinical situation. Evidence based on functionally similar situations is preferred over evidence based on situations that share fewer important characteristics with the specific practice situation. However, functional similarity between a study or set of studies and a particular applied problem is not always obvious.

The dimension of certainty of evidence recognizes that some evidence provides stronger support for claims that a particular intervention produced a specific result. Any instance of evidence can be evaluated for its methodological rigor or internal validity (i.e., the degree to which it provides strong support for the claim of effectiveness and rules out alternative explanations). Anecdotes are clearly weaker than more systematic observations, and well-controlled experiments provide the strongest evidence. Methodological rigor extends to the quality of the dependent measure, treatment fidelity, and other variables of interest (e.g., maintenance of skill acquisition), all of which influence the certainty of evidence. But the internal validity of any particular study is not the only variable influencing the certainty of evidence; the quantity of evidence supporting a claim is also critical to its certainty. Both systematic and direct replication are vital for strengthening claims of effectiveness (Johnston and Pennypacker 1993 ; Sidman 1960 ). Certainty of evidence is based on both the rigor of each bit of evidence and the degree to which the findings have been consistently replicated. Although these issues are simple in principle, operationalizing and measuring rigor of research is extremely complex. Numerous quality appraisal systems for both group and single-subject research have been proposed and used in systematic reviews (see below for more detail).

Under ideal circumstances, consistently high-quality evidence that closely matches the specifics of the practice situation is available; unfortunately, this is not always the case, and evidence-based practitioners of ABA must proceed despite an imperfect evidence base. The mandate to use the best available evidence specifies that the practitioner make decisions based on the best evidence that is available. Although this statement may seem rather obvious, the point is worth underscoring because the implications are highly relevant to behavior analysts. In an area with considerable high-quality relevant research, the standards for evidence should be quite high. But in an area with more limited research, the practitioner should take advantage of the best evidence that is available. This may require tentative reliance on research that is somewhat weaker or is only indirectly relevant to the specific situation at hand. For example, ideally, evidence-based practitioners of ABA would rely on well-controlled experimental results that have been replicated with the precise population with whom they are working. However, if this kind of evidence is not available, they might have to make decisions based on a single study that involves a similar but not identical population.

This idea of using the best of the available evidence is very different from one of using only extremely high-quality evidence (i.e., empirically supported treatments). If we limit EBP to considering only the highest quality evidence, we leave the practitioner with no guidance in the numerous situations in which high-quality and directly relevant evidence (i.e., precise matching of setting, function, behavior, motivating operations and precise procedures) simply does not exist. This approach would lead to a form of EBP that is irrelevant to the majority of decisions that a behavior analyst must make on a daily basis. Instead, our proposed definition of EBP asserts that the practitioner should be informed by the best evidence that is available.

Expanding Research on Utility of Treatments

Smith ( 2013 ) argued that the research methods used by behavior analysts to evaluate these treatments should be expanded to more comprehensively describe the utility of interventions. He suggested that too much ABA research is conducted in settings that do not approximate typical service settings, optimizing experimental control at the expense of external validity. Along this same line of reasoning, he noted that it is important to test the generality of effects across clients and identify variables that predict differential effectiveness. He suggested systematically reporting results from all research participants (e.g., the intent-to-treat model), and purposive selection of participants would provide a more complete account of the situations in which treatments are successful and those in which they are unsuccessful. Smith argued that researchers should include more distal and socially important outcomes because with a narrow target “behavior may change, but remain a problem for the individual or may be only a small component of a much larger cluster of problems such as addiction or delinquency.” He pointed out that in order to best support effective practice, research must demonstrate that an intervention produces or contributes to producing the socially important outcomes that would cause a consumer to say that the problem is solved.

Further, Smith argues that many of the questions most relevant to EBP—questions about the likely outcomes of a treatment when applied in a particular type of situation—are well suited to group research designs. He argued that RCTs are likely to be necessary within a program of research because:

most problems pose important actuarial questions (e.g., determining whether an intervention package is more effective than community treatment as usual; deciding whether to invest in one intervention package or another, both, or neither; and determining whether the long-term benefits justify the resources devoted to the intervention)…. A particularly important actuarial issue centers on the identification of the conditions under which the intervention is most likely to be effective. (p. 23)

We agree that selection of research methods should be driven by the kinds of questions being asked and that group research designs are the methods of choice for some types of questions that are central to EBP. Therefore, we support Smith’s call for increased use of group research designs within ABA. If practice decisions are to be informed by the best available evidence, we must take advantage of both group and single-subject designs. However, we disagree with Smith’s statement that EBP should be limited to treatments that are validated “usually with group designs” (Smith, p. 27). Practitioners should be supported by reviews of research that draw from all of the available evidence and provide the best recommendations possible given the state of knowledge on the particular question. In most areas of behavior analytic practice, single-subject research makes up a large portion of the best available evidence. The Institute for Education Science (IES) has recognized the contribution single case designs can make toward identifying effective practices and has recently established standards for evaluating the quality of single case design studies (Institute of Educational Sciences, n.d. ; Kratochwill et al. 2013 ).

Classes of Evidence

Identifying the best available evidence to inform specific practice decisions is extremely complex, and no single currently available source of evidence can adequately inform all aspects of practice. Therefore, we outline a number of strategies for identifying and summarizing evidence in ways that can support the EBP of ABA. We do not intend to cover all sources of evidence comprehensively, but merely outline some of the options available to behavior analysts.

Empirically Supported Treatment Reviews

Empirically supported treatments (EST) are identified through a particular form of systematic literature review. Systematic reviews bring a rigorous methodology to the process of reviewing research. The development and use of these methods are, in part, a response to the recognition that the process of reviewing the literature is subject to threats to validity. The systematic review process is characterized by explicitly stated and replicable methods for (a) searching for studies, (b) screening studies for relevance to the review question, (c) appraising the methodological quality of studies, (d) describing outcomes from each study, and (e) determining the degree to which the treatment (or treatments) is supported by the research. When the evidence in support of a treatment is plentiful and of high quality, the treatment generally earns the status of an EST. Many systematic reviews, however, find that no intervention for a particular problem has sufficient evidence to qualify as an EST.

Well-known organizations in medicine (e.g., Cochrane Collaboration), education (e.g., What Works Clearinghouse), and mental health (e.g., National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices) conduct EST reviews. Until recently, systematic reviews have focused nearly exclusively on group research; however, systematic reviews of single-subject research are quickly becoming more common and more sophisticated (e.g., Carr 2009 ; NAC 2009 ; Maggin et al. 2012 ).

Systematic reviews for EST status is one important way to summarize the best available evidence because it can give a relatively objective evaluation of the strength of the research literature supporting a particular intervention. But systematic reviews are not infallible; as with all other research and evaluation methods, they require skillful application and are subject to threats to validity. The results of reviews can change dramatically based on seemingly minor changes in operational definitions and procedures for locating articles, screening for relevance, describing treatments, appraising methodological quality, describing outcomes, summarizing outcomes for the body of research as a whole, and rating the degree to which an intervention is sufficiently supported (Slocum et al. 2012a ; Wilczynski 2012 ). Systematic reviews and claims based upon them must be examined critically with full recognition of their limitations just as one examines primary research reports.

Behavior analysts encounter many situations in which no ESTs have been established for the particular combination of client characteristics, target behaviors, functions, contexts, and other parameters for decision-making. This dearth may exist because no systematic review has addressed the particular problem or because a systematic review has been conducted but failed to find any well-supported treatments for the particular problem. For example, in a recent review of all of the recommendations in the empirically supported practice guides published by the IES, 45 % of the recommendations had minimal support (Slocum et al. 2012b ). As Smith noted ( 2013 ), only 3 of the 11 interventions that the NAC identified as meeting quality standards might be considered practices in the sense that they are manualized. In these common situations, a behavior analyst cannot respond by simply selecting an intervention from a list of ESTs. A comprehensive EBP of ABA requires additional strategies for reviewing research evidence and drawing practice recommendations from existing evidence—strategies that can glean the best available evidence from an imperfect research base and formulate practice recommendations that are most likely to lead to favorable outcomes under conditions of uncertainty.

Other Methods for Reviewing Research Literature

The three strategies outlined below may complement systematic reviews in guiding behavior analysts toward effective decision-making.

Narrative Reviews of the Literature

There has been a long tradition across disciplines of relying on narrative reviews to summarize what is known with respect to treatments for a class of problems (e.g., aggression) or what is known about a particular treatment (e.g., token economy). The author of the review, presumably an expert, selects the theme and synthesizes the research literature that he or she considers most relevant. Narrative reviews allow the author to consider a wide range of research including studies that are indirectly relevant (e.g., those studying a given problem with a different population or demonstrating general principles) and studies that may not qualify for systematic reviews because of methodological limitations but which illustrate important points nonetheless. Narrative reviews can consider a broader array of evidence and have greater interpretive flexibility than most systematic reviews.

As with all sources of evidence, there are difficulties with narrative reviews. The selection of the literature is left up to the author’s discretion; there are no methodological guidelines and little transparency about how the author decided which literature to include and which to exclude. There is always the risk of confirmation bias that the author emphasized literature that is consistent with her preconceived opinions. Even with a peer-review process, it is always possible that the author neglected or misinterpreted research relevant to the discussion. These concerns not withstanding, narrative reviews may provide the best available evidence when no systematic reviews exist or when substantial generalizations from the systematic review to the practice context are needed. Many textbooks (e.g., Cooper et al. 2007 ) and handbooks (e.g., Fisher et al. 2011 ; Madden et al. 2013 ) provide excellent examples of narrative reviews that can provide important guidance for evidence-based practitioners of ABA.

Best Practice Guides

Best practice guides are another source of evidence that can inform decisions in the absence of available and relevant systematic reviews. Best practice guides provide recommendations that reflect the collective wisdom of an expert panel. It is presumed that the recommendations reflect what is known from the research literature, but the validity of recommendations is largely derived from the panel’s expertise rather than from the rigor of their methodology. Recommendations from best practice panels are usually much broader than the recommendations from systematic reviews. The recommendations from these guides can provide important information about how to implement a treatment, how to adapt the treatment for specific circumstances, and what is necessary for broad scale or system-wide implementation.

The limitations to best practice guides are similar to those for narrative reviews; specifically, potential bias and lack of transparency are significant concerns. Panel members are typically not selected using a specific set of operationalized criteria. Bias is possible if the panel is drawn too narrowly. If the panel is drawn too broadly; however, the panel may have difficulty reaching a consensus (Wilczynski 2012 ).

Empirically Supported Practice Guides

Empirically supported practice guides, a more recently developed strategy, integrate the strengths of systematic reviews and best practice panels. In this type of review, an expert panel is charged with developing recommendations on a topic. As part of the process, a systematic review of the literature is conducted. Following the systematic review, the panel generates a set of recommendations and objectively determines the strength of evidence for the recommendation and assigns an evidence rating. When there is little empirical evidence directly related to a specific issue, the panel’s recommendations may have weak research support but nonetheless may be based on the best evidence that is available. The obvious advantage of empirically supported practice guides is that there is greater transparency about the review process and certainty of recommendations. Practice recommendations are usually broader than those derived from systematic reviews and address issues related to implementation and acceptable variations to enhance the treatment’s contextual fit (Shanahan et al. 2010 ; Slocum et al. 2012b ). Although empirically supported practice guides offer the objectivity of a systematic review and the flexibility of best practice guidelines, they also face potential sources of error from both methods. Systematic and explicit criteria are used to review the research and rate the level of evidence for each recommendation; however, it is the panel that formulates recommendations. Thus, results of these reviews are influenced by the selection of panel members. When research evidence is incomplete or equivocal, panelists must exercise judgment in interpreting the evidence and drawing conclusions (Shanahan et al. 2010 ).

Other Units of Analysis

Smith ( 2013 ) weighed in on the critical issue of the unit of analysis when describing and evaluating treatments (Slocum and Wilczynski 2008 ). The unit of analysis refers to whether EBP should focus on (a) principles, such as reinforcement; (b) tactics, such as backward chaining; (c) multicomponent packages, such as Functional Communication Training; or (d) even more comprehensive systems, such as Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention. After reviewing the ongoing debate between those favoring a smaller unit of analysis that focuses on specific procedures and those favoring a larger unit of analysis that evaluates the effects of multicomponent packages, Smith made a case that the multicomponent treatment package is the key unit in EBP. Smith noted that practitioners rarely solve a client’s problem with a single procedure; instead, solutions typically involve combinations of procedures. He argued that the unit should be “a service aimed at solving people’s problems” and procedures that are merely components of such services are not sufficiently complete to be the proper unit of analysis for EBP. He further stated that these treatment packages should include strategies for implementation in typical service settings and an intervention manual.

We concur that the multicomponent treatment package is a particularly significant and strategic unit of treatment because it specifies a suite of procedures and exactly how they are to be used together to solve a problem. Validated treatment packages are far more than the sum of their parts. A well-developed treatment package can be revised and optimized over many iterations in a way that would be difficult or impossible for a practitioner to accomplish independently. In addition, research outcomes from implementation of treatment packages reflect the interaction of the components, and these interactions may not be evident in the research literature on the individual components. Further, research on the outcomes from multicomponent packages can evaluate broader and more socially important outcomes than is generally possible when evaluating more narrowly defined treatments. For example, in the case of teaching a child with autism to communicate, research on a focused procedure such as time delay may indicate that its use leads to more independent communicative responses; however, research on a comprehensive Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention can evaluate the impact of the program on children’s global development or intellectual functioning.

Having recognized our agreement with Smith ( 2013 ) on the special importance of multicomponent treatment packages for EBP, we hasten to add that this type of intervention is not enough to support a broad and robust EBP of ABA. EBP must also provide guidance to the practitioner in the frequently encountered situations in which well-established treatment packages are not available. In these situations, problems may be best addressed by building an intervention from a set of elemental components. These components, referred to as practice elements (Chorpita et al. 2005 , 2007 ) or kernels (Embry 2004 ; Embry and Biglan 2008 ), may be validated either directly or indirectly. The practitioner assembles a particular combination of components to solve a specific problem. Because this newly constructed package has not been evaluated as a whole, there is additional uncertainty about the effectiveness of the package, and the quality of evidence may be considered lower than a well-supported treatment package (Slocum et al. 2012b ; Smith 2013 ; however, see Chorpita ( 2003 ) for a differing view). Nonetheless, treatment components that are supported by strong evidence provide the practitioner with tools to solve practical problems when EST packages are not relevant.

In some cases, behavior analysts are presented with problems that cannot be addressed even by assembling established components. In these cases, the ABA practitioner must apply principles of behavior to construct an intervention and must depend on these principles to guide sensible modifications of interventions in response to client needs and to support sensible implementation of interventions. Principles of behavior are broadly generalized statements describing behavioral relations. Their empirical base is extremely large and diverse including both human and nonhuman participants across numerous contexts, behaviors, and consequences. Although principles of behavior are based on an extremely broad research literature, they are also stated at a broad level. As a result, the behavior analyst must use a great deal of judgment in applying principles to particular problems and a particular attempt to apply a principle to solve a problem may not be successful. Thus, although behavioral principles are supported by evidence, newly constructed interventions based on these principles have not yet been evaluated. These interventions must be considered less certain or validated than treatment packages or elements that have been demonstrated to be effective for specific problems, populations, and context (Slocum et al. 2012b ).

Evidence-based practitioners of ABA recognize that the process of selecting and implementing treatments always includes some level of uncertainty (Detrich et al. 2013 ). One of the fundamental tenets of ABA shared with many other professions is that the best evidence regarding the effectiveness of an intervention does not come from systematic literature reviews, best practice guides, or principles of behavior, but from close continual contact with the relevant outcomes (Bushell and Baer 1994 ). The BACB guidelines ( 2010 ) state that, “behavior analysts recognize limits to the certainty with which judgments or predictions can be made about individuals” (item 3.0 [c]). As a result, “the behavior analyst collects data…needed to assess progress within the program” (item 4.07) and “modifies the program on the basis of data” (item 4.08). Thus, an important feature of the EBP of ABA is that professional decision-making does not end with the selection of an initial intervention. The process continues with ongoing progress monitoring and adjustments to the treatment plan as needed to achieve the targeted outcomes. Progress monitoring and data-based decision-making are the ultimate hedge against the inherent uncertainties of imperfect knowledge derived from research. As the quality of the best available evidence decreases, the importance of frequent direct measurement of client progress increases.

Practice decisions are always accompanied by some degree of uncertainty; however, better decisions are likely when multiple of sources of evidence are integrated. For example, a multicomponent treatment package may be an EST for clients who differ slightly from those the practitioner currently serves. Confidence in the use of this treatment may be increased if there is evidence showing the central components are effective with clients belonging to the population of interest. The principles of behavior might further inform sensible variations appropriate for the specific context of practice. When considered together, numerous sources of evidence increase the confidence the behavior analyst can have in the intervention. And when the plan is implemented, progress monitoring may reveal the need for additional adjustments. Each of these different classes of evidence provides answers to different questions for the practitioner, resulting in a more fine-grained analysis of the clinical problem and solutions to it (Detrich et al. 2013 ).

Client Values and Context

In order to be compatible with the underlying tenets of ABA, parallel with other professions, and to promote effective practice, a definition of EBP of ABA must include client values and context among the primary contributors to professional decision-making. Baer et al. ( 1968 ) suggested that the word applied refers to an immediate and important change in behavior that has practical value and that this value is determined “by the interest which society shows in the problems” (p. 92)—that is, by social values. Wolf ( 1978 ) went on to specify that behavior analytic practice can only be termed successful if it addresses goals that are meaningful to our clients, uses procedures that are judged appropriate by our clients, and produces effects that are valued by our clients. These foundational tenets of ABA correspond with the centrality of client values in classic definitions of EBP (e.g., Institute of Medicine 2001 ). Like medical professionals and those in the many other fields that have adopted similar conceptualizations of EBP, behavior analysts have long recognized that client values are critical contributors to responsible decision-making.

Behavior analysts have defined the client as the individual who is the focus of the behavior change, other individuals who are critical to the behavior change process (Baer et al. 1968 ; Heward et al. 2005 ), as well as outside individuals or groups who may have a stake in the target behavior or improved outcomes (Baer et al. 1987 ; Wolf 1978 ). Wolf ( 1978 ) argued that only our clients can judge the social validity of our work and suggested that behavior analysts address three levels of social validity: (a) the social significance of the goals, (b) the social desirability of the procedures, and (c) the social importance of the outcomes. With respect to selection of interventions, Wolf noted, “not only is it important to determine the acceptability of treatment procedures to participants for ethical reasons, it may also be that the acceptability of the program is related to effectiveness, as well as to the likelihood that the program will be adopted and supported by others” (p. 210). He further maintained that clients are the ultimate arbiters of whether or not the effects of a program are sufficiently helpful to be termed successful.

The concept of social validity directs our attention to some of the important aspects of the context of intervention. Intervention always occurs in some context and features of that context can directly influence the fidelity with which the intervention is implemented and its effectiveness. Albin et al. ( 1996 ) expanded further on the contextual variables that might be critical for designing and implementing effective interventions. They described the concept of contextual fit or the congruence of a behavioral support plan and the context and indicate that this fit will determine its implementation, effectiveness, and maintenance.

Contextual fit includes the issues of social validity, but also explicitly encompasses issues associated with the individuals who implement treatments and manage other aspects of the environments within which treatments are implemented. Behavioral intervention plans prescribe the behavior of implementers. These implementers may include professionals, such as therapists and teachers, as well as nonprofessionals, such as family and community members. It is important to consider characteristics of these implementers when developing plans because the success of a plan may hinge on how it corresponds with the values, skills, goals, and stressors of the implementers. Effective plans must be within the skill repertoire of the implementers, or training to fidelity must occur to introduce the plan components into that repertoire. Values, goals, and stressors refer to motivating operations that determine the reinforcing or punishing value of implementing the plan. Plans that provide little reinforcement and substantial punishment in the process of implementation or outcomes are unlikely to be implemented with fidelity or maintained over time. The effectiveness of behavioral interventions is also influenced by their compatibility with other aspects of their context. Plans that are compatible with ongoing routines are more likely to be implemented than those that conflict (Riley-Tillman and Chafouleas 2003 ). Interventions require various kinds of resources to be implemented and sustained. For example, financial resources may be necessary to purchase curricula, equipment, or other goods. Interventions may require human resources such as direct service staff, training, supervision, administration, and consultation. Fixsen et al. ( 2005 ) have completed an extensive review of contextual variables that can potentially influence the quality of intervention implementation. Behavior analytic practice is unlikely to be effective if it does not consider the context in which interventions will be implemented.

Extensive behavior analytic research has documented the importance of social validity and other contextual factors in producing behavioral changes with practical value. This research tradition is as old as our field (e.g., Jones and Azrin 1969 ) and continues through the present day. For example, Strain et al. ( 2012 ) provided multiple examples of the impact of social validity considerations on relevant outcomes. They reported that integrating client values, preferences, and characteristics in the selection and implementation of an intervention can successfully inform decisions regarding (a) how to design service delivery systems, (b) how to support implementers with complex strategies, (c) when to fade support, (e) how to identify important and unanticipated effects, and (f) how to focus on future research efforts.

Benazzi et al. ( 2006 ) examined the effect of stakeholder participation in intervention planning on the acceptability and usability of behavior intervention plans (BIP) based on descriptive functional behavior assessments (FBA). Plans developed by behavior experts were rated as high in technical adequacy, but low in acceptability. Conversely, plans developed by key stakeholders were highly acceptable, but lacked technical adequacy. However, when the process included both behavior experts and key stakeholders, BIPs were considered both acceptable and technically adequate. Thus, the BIPs developed by behavior analysts may be marginalized and implementation may be less likely to occur in the absence of key stakeholder input. Thus, a practical commitment to effective interventions that are implemented and maintained with integrity over time requires that behavior analysts consider motivational variables such as the alignment of interventions with the values, reinforcers, and punishers of relevant stakeholders.

Clinical Expertise

All of the key components for expert behavior analytic practice (i.e., identification of important behavioral problems, recognition of underlying behavioral processes, weighing of evidence supporting various treatment options, selecting and implementing treatments in complex social contexts, engaging in ongoing data-based decision making, and being responsive to client values and context) require clinical expertise. Clinical expertise refers to the competence attained by practitioners through education, training, and experience that results in effective practice (American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force of Evidence-Based Practice 2006 ). Clinical expertise is the means by which the best available evidence is applied to individual cases in all their complexity. Based on the work of Goodheart ( 2006 ), we suggest that clinical expertise in EBP of ABA includes (a) knowledge of the research literature and its applicability to particular clients, (b) incorporation of the conceptual system of ABA, (c) breadth and depth of clinical and interpersonal skills, (d) integration of client values and context, (e) recognition of the need for outside consultation, (f) data-based decision making, and (g) ongoing professional development. In the sections that follow, we describe each component of clinical expertise in ABA.

Knowledge and Application of the Research Literature

ABA practitioners must be skilled in applying the best available evidence to unique cases in specific contexts. The role of the best available evidence in EBP of ABA was discussed above. Practitioners need to be knowledgeable about the scientific literature and able to appropriately apply the literature to behaviors, clients, and contexts that are rarely a perfect match to the behaviors, clients, and contexts in any particular study. This confluence of knowledge and skillful application requires that the behavior analyst respond to the functionally important features of cases. A great deal of training is necessary to build the expertise required to discriminate critical functional features from those that are incidental. These discriminations must be made with respect to the presenting problem (i.e., the behavioral patterns that have been identified as problematic, their antecedent stimuli, motivating operations, and consequences); client variables such as histories, skills, and preferences; and contextual variables that may impact the effectiveness of various treatment options as applied to the particular case. These skills are reflected in BACB Guidelines 1.01 and 2.10 cited above.

Incorporation of the Conceptual System

The critical features of a case must be identified and mapped onto the conceptual system of ABA. It is not enough to recognize that a particular feature of the environment is important; it must also be understood in terms of its likely behavioral function. This initial conceptualization is necessary in order to generate reasonable hypotheses that may be tested in more thorough analyses. Developing the skill of describing cases in terms of likely behavioral functions typically requires a great deal of formal and informal training as well as ongoing learning from experience. These repertoires are usually acquired through extensive training, supervised practice, and the ongoing feedback of client outcomes. This is recognized in BACB Guidelines; for example, 4.0 states that “the behavior analyst designs programs that are based on behavior analytic principles” (BACB 2010 ).

Breadth and Depth of Clinical and Interpersonal Skills

Evidence-based practitioners of behavior analysis must be able to implement various assessment and intervention procedures with fidelity, and often to train and supervise others to implement such procedures with fidelity. Further, clinical expertise in ABA requires that the practitioner have effective interpersonal skills. For example, he must be able to explain the behavioral philosophy and approach, in nonbehavioral terms, to various audiences who may have different theoretical orientations. BCBA Guidelines 1.05 specifies that behavior analysts “use language that is fully understandable to the recipient of those services” (BACB 2010 ).

Integration of Client Values and Context

In all aspects of their work, practitioners of evidence-based ABA must integrate the values and preferences of the client and other stakeholders as well as the features of the specific context that may impact the effectiveness of an intervention. These factors can be considered additional variables that the behavior analyst must attend to when planning and providing behavior-analytic services. For example, when assessment data suggest behavior serves a particular function, a range of intervention alternatives may be considered (see Geiger, Carr, and LeBlanc for an example of a model for selecting treatments for escape-maintained problem behavior). A caregiver’s statements might suggest that one type of intervention may not be viable due to limited resources while another treatment may be acceptable based on financial considerations, available resources, or other practical factors; the behavior analyst must have the training and expertise to evaluate and incorporate these factors into initial treatment selection and to re-evaluate these concerns as a part of progress monitoring for both treatment integrity and client improvement. BACB Guideline 4.0 states that the behavior analyst “involves the client … in the planning of … programs, [and] obtains the consent of the client” and 4.1 states that “if environmental conditions hamper implementation of the behavior analytic program, the behavior analyst seeks to eliminate the environmental constraints, or identifies in writing the obstacles to doing so” (BACB 2010 ).

Recognition of Need for Outside Consultation

Behavior analysts engaging in responsible evidence-based practice discriminate between behaviors and contexts that are within the scope of their training and those that are not, and respond differently based on this discrimination. For example, a behavior analyst who has been trained to provide assessment and intervention for severe problem behavior may not have the specific training to provide organizational behavior management services to a corporation; in this case, a behavior analyst with clinical expertise would make this discrimination and seek additional consultation or make appropriate referrals. This aspect of expertise is described in BACB ( 2010 ) Guidelines 1.02 and 2.02.

Data-Based Decision Making

Data-based decision making plays a central role in the practice of ABA and is an indispensable feature of clinical expertise. The process of data-based decision making includes identifying useful measurement pinpoints, constructing measurement systems, and graphing results, as well as identifying meaningful patterns in data, interpreting these patterns, and making appropriate responses to them (e.g., maintaining, modifying, replacing, or ending a program). The functional features of the case, the best available research evidence, and the new evidence obtained through progress monitoring must inform these judgments and are central to this model of EBP of ABA. BACB ( 2010 ) Guidelines 4.07 and 4.08 specify that behavior analysts collect data to assess progress and modify programs on the basis of data.

Ongoing Professional Development

Clinical expertise is not static; rather, it requires ongoing professional development. Clinical expertise in ABA requires ongoing contact with the research literature to ensure that practice reflects current knowledge about the most effective and efficient assessment and intervention procedures. The critical literature includes primary empirical research as well as reviews and syntheses such as those described in the section on “ Best Available Evidence ”. In addition, professional consensus on important topics for professional practice evolves over time. For example, in ABA, there has been increased emphasis recently on ethics and supervision competence. All of these dynamics point to the need for ongoing professional development. This is reflected in the requirement that certified behavior analysts “undertake ongoing efforts to maintain competence in the skills they use by reading the appropriate literature, attending conferences and conventions, participating in workshops, and/or obtaining Behavior Analyst Certification Board certification” (Guideline 1.03, BACB 2010 ).

Conclusions

We propose that EBP of ABA be understood as a professional decision-making framework that draws on the best available evidence, client values and context, and clinical expertise. We argue that this conception of EBP of ABA is more compatible with the basic tenets of ABA and more closely aligned with definitions of EBP in other fields than that provided by Smith ( 2013 ). It is noteworthy that this notion of EBP is not necessarily in conflict with many of the observations and arguments put forth by Smith ( 2013 ). His concerns were primarily about how to define and validate EST, which is an important way to inform practitioners about the best available evidence to integrate into their overall EBP.

Given the close alignment between the proposed framework of EBP of ABA and broadly accepted descriptions of behavior analytic practice, one might wonder whether EBP offers anything new. We believe that the EBP of ABA framework, offered here, has several important implications for our field. First, this framework draws together numerous elements of ABA practice into a single coherent system, which can help behavior analysts provide an explicit rationale for their decision-making to clients and other stakeholders. The EBP of ABA provides a decision-making framework that supports a cogent and transparent description of (a) the evidence considered, including direct and frequent measurement of the client’s behavior; (b) why this evidence was identified as the “best available” for the particular case; (c) how client values and contextual factors influenced the process; and (d) the ways in which clinical expertise was used to conceptualize the case and integrate the various considerations. This transparency and explicitness allows the behavior analyst to offer empirically based treatment recommendations while addressing the concerns raised by stakeholders. It also highlights the critical analysis required to be an effective behavior analyst. For example, if an EST is available and appropriate, the behavior analyst can describe the relevance and certainty of the evidence for this intervention. If no relevant EST is available, the behavior analyst can describe how the best available evidence supports the intervention and emphasize the importance of progress monitoring.

Second, the EBP framework prompts the behavior analyst to refer to the important client values that underlie the goals of intervention, the specific methods of intervention, and describe how the intervention is supported by features of the context. This requires the behavior analyst to explicitly recognize that the effectiveness of an intervention is always context dependent. By serving as a prompt, the EBP framework should increase behavior analysts’ adherence to this central tenet of ABA.

Third, by explicitly recognizing the role of clinical expertise, the framework gives the behavior analyst a way to talk about the complex skills required to make appropriate decisions about client needs. In addition, the fact that the proposed definition of EBP of ABA is so closely aligned with definitions in other professions such as medicine and psychology that it provides a common framework and language for communicating about a particular case that can enhance collaboration between behavior analysts and other professionals.

Fourth, this framework for EBP of ABA suggests further development of behavior analysis as well. Examination of the meaning of best available evidence encourages behavior analysts to continue to refine methods for systematically reviewing research literature and identifying ESTs. Further, behavior analysts could better support EBP if we developed methods for validating other units of intervention such as practice elements, kernels, and even the principles of behavior; when these are invoked to support interventions, they must be supported by a clearly specified research base.

Finally, the explicit recognition of the role of clinical expertise in the EBP of ABA has important implications for training behavior analysts. This framework suggests that decision-making is at the heart of EBP of ABA and could be an organizing theme for ABA training programs. Training programs could systematically teach students to articulate the chain of logic that is the basis for their treatment recommendations. The chain of logic would include statements about which research was considered and why, how the client’s values influenced decision-making, and how contextual factors influenced the selection and adaptation (if necessary) of the treatment. This type of training could be embedded in all instructional activities. Formally requiring students to articulate a rationale for the decisions and receiving feedback about their decisions would sharpen their clinical expertise.

In addition to influencing our behavior analytic practice, the EBP of ABA framework impacts our relationship with other members of the broader human service field as well as individuals and agencies that control contingencies relevant to practitioners and scientists. Methodologically rigorous reviews that identify ESTs and other treatments supported by the best available evidence are extremely important for working with organizations that control funding for behavior analytic research and practice. Federal funding for research and service provision is moving strongly towards EBP and ESTs. This trend is clear in education through the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 , the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 , the funding policies of IES, and the What Works Clearinghouse. The recent memorandum by the Director of the Office of Management and Budget (Zients 2012 ) makes it clear that the importance of EBP is not limited to a single discipline or to one political party. In addition, insurance companies are increasingly making reimbursement decisions based, in part, on whether or not credible scientific evidence supports the use of the treatment (Small 2004 ). The insurance companies have consistently adopted criteria for scientific evidence that are closely related to EST (Bogduk and Fraifeld 2010 ). As a result, reimbursement for ABA services may depend on the scientific credibility of EST reviews, a critical component of EBP. Methodologically rigorous reviews that identify ESTs within a broader framework of EBP appear to be critical for ABA to maintain and expand its access to federal funding and insurance reimbursement for services. Establishment of this literature base will require behavior analysts to develop appropriate methods for reviewing and summarizing research based on single-subject designs. IES has established such standards for reviewing studies, but to date, there are no accepted methods for calculating a measure of effect size as an objective basis for combining result across studies (Kratochwill et al. 2013 ). If behavior analysts develop such a measure, it would reflect a significant methodological advance as a field and it would increase the credibility of behavior analytic research with agencies that fund research and services.

EBP of ABA emphasizes the research-supported selection of treatments and data-driven decisions about treatment progress that have always been at the core of ABA. ABA’s long-standing recognition of the importance of social validity is reflected in the definition of EBP. This framework for EBP of ABA offers many positive professional consequences for scientists and practitioners while promoting the best of the behavior analytic tradition and making contact with developments in other disciplines and the larger context in which behavior analysts work.

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Dr. Mary Barbera

Research Topics in ABA for Practitioners with Dr. Amber Valentino

As professionals, practitioners, clinicians, and even parents we share a common goal of wanting to make the world a better place for our children, a big way to do this is through research. Dr. Amber Valentino, author of Applied Behavior Analysis Research Made Easy, is on the podcast to discuss the importance as well as logistics of research in the field. 

ABA Research Design

Many peer reviewed, published journal requirements involve really drilling down to specific topics and definitive objects of change. This can be an obstacle in the ABA field for practitioners. But this isn’t the end of the line for research. In its truest form, Applied Behavior Analysis research is messy, it’s a combination of big ideas and discussion. Knowledge is one of the biggest barriers in the profession of ABA, more research and more access to research is the solution.

Transfer Trial ABA 

I’ve been able to work on several studies and trials with my mentor, Dr. Rick Kubina, that I talk about in this episode. In 2005, I coauthored a peer reviewed journal article, Using Transfer Procedures to Teach Tacts to a Child with Autism. This study was born out of work done with my son Lucas to correct a tact error with greetings. I never published this study because of the mixed procedures but I did present, and all 4 of the subjects learned equally as well with this method and Lucas only learned this way. Just a few years later, I was able to meet a Doctor who did his dissertation on transfer procedures and actually quoted my work on that study. The need for studies and for information is there.

Dr. Valentino is the Chief Clinical Officer for Trumpet Behavioral Health, she is very passionate about advocating for research with practitioners. Her book Applied Behavior Analysis Research Made Easy: A Handbook for Practitioners Conducting Research Post-Certification, is a great read for professionals who want to contribute research to the field, break barriers, and get started. You can find out more about her on the TBH website as well as her personal blog, Behavior-Mom.

Dr. Amber Valentino On The Turn Autism Around Podcast

Dr. Valentino currently serves as the Chief Clinical Officer for Trumpet Behavior Health where she develops workplace culture initiatives, supports clinical services, leads all research and training activities, and builds clinical standards. Her primary clinical and research interests span a variety of topics including verbal behavior, ways to connect the research to practice gap, professional ethics, and effective supervision. Dr. Valentino serves as an Associate Editor for Behavior Analysis in Practice and previously served as an Associate Editor for The Analysis of Verbal Behavior. She is on the editorial board for the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) and serves as a frequent reviewer for several behavior analytic journals. She is the author of the book: Applied Behavior Analysis Research Made Easy: A Handbook for Practitioners Conducting Research Post-Certification. She works to support dissemination of behavior analysis to the general parent population through her personal website, behavior-mom.com.

YOU’LL LEARN:

• Why is it important for practitioners to conduct research?
• How can applied research help the field of ABA and autism?
• What are obstacles for practitioners to complete or publish research?
• How to navigate solutions when your study isn’t approved for publishing?
• What are the many ways practitioners can initiate studies and research?
• Do you have to identify a mechanism of change in a study?
• How to access knowledge to conduct research? 

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New Case Study: Online Parent ABA Training and Expressive Language in a Toddler Diagnosed with Autism

• Autism Success Story with Michele C. – Autism Mom, ABA Help for Professionals and Parents 
• Autism Case Study with Michele C : From 2 Words to 500 Words with ABA Online Course
• Using Transfer Procedures to Teach Tacts to a Child with Autism
• The Effects of Fluency-Based Autism Training on Emerging Educational Leaders
• The Experiences of “Autism Mothers” who become Behavior Analysts: A Qualitative Study
• Teaching a Child With Autism to Mand for Information Using “How”
• Dr. Rick Kubina: Fluency and Precision Teaching
• Dr. Mark Sundberg – Using VB-MAPP to Assess and Teach Language
• Free Potty Guide
• Essentialism: The Disciplined Pursuit of Less: McKeown, Greg: 8601407068765: Amazon.com: Books
• Applied Behavior Analysis Research Made Easy – Amazon.com
• Amber Valentino, Chief Clinical Officer – Trumpet Behavioral Health
• Behavior Mom

Dr. Amber Valentino – Turn Autism Around Podcast Transcript

Transcript for Podcast Episode: 165 Research Topics in ABA for Practitioners with Dr. Amber Valentino Hosted by: Dr. Mary Barbera Guest: Dr. Amber Valentino

Mary: You're listening to the Turn Autism Around podcast, episode number one hundred and sixty five. Today we are talking about applied research and how to get research from practice to publication and how to make the world a better place for our kids and our clients. Dr. Amber Valentino is the guest. She serves as chief clinical officer for Trumpet Behavior Health. She's also the author of a brand new book called Applied Behavior Analysis. Research Made Easy. And she works to support dissemination of behavior analysis to the general parent population. And she also has a personal website called Behavior-Mom.com. So you should check that out. The episode is really great. I know when you hear research, you're thinking, Oh, this is going to be boring. It is not boring. I think it's filled with really good, practical information for everyone listening. So let's get to this important episode with Dr. Amber Valentino.

Welcome to the Turn Autism Around podcast for both parents and professionals in the autism world who want to turn things around, be less stressed and lead happier lives. And now your host, Autism Mom, Behavior Analyst, and bestselling author, Dr. Mary Barbera.

Mary: OK, thank you so much Amber for joining us today. I'm super excited to talk to you.

Dr. Valentino: Thank you so much. Overjoyed to be here. Thanks for having me.

Mary: Yeah. So why don't you tell our listeners and I don't know the answer to this? Describe your fall into the autism and ABA world.

Amber Valentino on the Turn Autism Around Pocast

Dr. Valentino: Yeah. So I imagine I have a story that's very similar to other people's story, and that is I was 18 years old. I was a new college freshman and I had a work study job in Ohio and I ran out of money. The work study program sort of capped. I needed a way to pay my bills. So I was searching around campus. This was in the 90s, not to date myself, but I was searching around campus trying to find a job. And I saw this just lovely flier for working with a kid in his home and doing this thing called ABA. And at that time, I was an English major, so I think that I had any interest in children or working with children in any way. But, you know, fast forward, I applied for the job, got the job, and that just started now over a 20 year career and commitment to people with autism and applied behavior analysis. And I just I fell in love with the work then, and I still love it to this day.

Mary: Yeah, that is a very common pathway. I think, you know, almost all of the professionals I've interviewed have started that way.

Dr. Valentino: So, yeah, and it was, you know, I was listening to one of your other podcasts and you were talking about how around that time there really was no managed care at all. There was no support in that caught me thinking of my own experience. And at the time, you know, in Ohio and I mean everywhere, these families just paid out of pocket. So this family was paying me out of pocket for my time and all of the therapists 40 hours a week for their young son. They were flying a consultant in from Wisconsin to work with them. And it was interesting to listen to your experience and just to remember where we are and where we are today with services. And there's still a lot of work to be done, but certainly cares a lot more accessible now than it was then.

Mary: Yeah, definitely. OK, so you wrote a book and I just found out about it. I reached out to you for this interview and you were nice enough to send me an electronic copy of the book, so I don't have it to hold up at this moment. But it's called Applied Behavior Analysis: Research Made Easy a Handbook for Practitioners Conducting Research Post Certification.

Dr. Valentino: It's a mouthful.

Mary: Yeah, I'm you know, ABA Research Made Easy, that's easy. So why did you write this book and how did you get into the whole research world?

ABA Research Made Easy:

Dr. Valentino: Oh, awesome. Well, I'll answer the second question first, because that kind of leads into how I wrote this book. You know, I've always been a practitioner, I've always wanted to be a practitioner, and I have always wanted to help families. And so I early in my career was fortunate to be in a position where I applied research was kind of a thing. It was it was a thing people did. And I got integrated early in my career and did some applied studies, published some, but made it made a pretty significant career change about a decade ago. And at that time, I thought, Well, I'm not really going to do research anymore. I'm taking a job as a clinician. I'm going to have a caseload and work with families and provide supervision and all that good stuff. And that was the case for a few months. And then a wonderful mentor of mine, Dr. Linda LeBlanc, who was at Trumpet Behavioral Health at that time, really showed me that you can be a practitioner and you can do applied research and you can be both. And so I opened the door to seeing research in a different way and just continued on that path and was able to do some really good work with my clients. That was systematic and had good experimental control and had a story to tell. And so over the years, I've been able to to publish that, which has been which has been wonderful.

Mary: Yeah. So I I know I've seen Dr. Linda LeBlanc present at conferences and I know her great work. I've read a lot of her research studies. I haven't had her on the show yet, so I will definitely be...

Dr. Valentino: Next guest. Yeah, yeah.

Mary: So your book came out and then recently came out just at the end of the year.

Dr. Valentino: It recently came out. Yeah, so. So the second part of that was how did I write a book? It's really funny. I was not planning to write a book. I don't know that a lot of people are right. It certainly was a distant goal for me. I thought someday I'd like to write a book and it's kind of funny. The new Harbinger publications contacted me and said, Would you like to write a book and I was very pregnant with my son, and I said, no, I don't want to write a book, that's crazy. But, you know, I sat back and thought about it and I said, Well, if not now when, you know, this might be the opportunity. And so I signed the contract the day before my son was due. And you know, it's funny. When we first started working together, we actually didn't have a topic. They kind of contacted me on what we saw, how they got my name. But we were talking about supervision, ethics, you some of the publications that I, I have done and I threw this one in here because we had published a study. My colleague doctor just wanted go, and I had published a study about barriers to for practitioners in conducting research. And I said, Oh, this might be kind of cool. And the publisher did their research and examined it a little bit and said, We think this is the topic. And, you know, and then it was born. And so I feel blessed that the opportunity came my way. And several years later, here we are. We have it in print and it's available for people to buy.

Mary: Yeah. So I know we're going to talk about your research studies and my research studies that I publish because I have also been in the autism world for over two decades, and I am very interested in research that really makes a difference. And I get super frustrated when people, you know, are trying to reference 1995 study on some specific a little thing and trying to justify, you know, procedures that just don't make sense anymore. But let's start with and I was able to read a good chunk of your book, maybe half or three quarters of your book, which was great and I would highly recommend it. So the first few chapters you talk about why we as practitioners should do research. And so why? Why should people listening? And we have a lot of parents listening and we are going to pull it back to be practical and kind of have you thinking about you and your team and and just how you can benefit from knowing about research and looking into it and encouraging your professionals who are working with your child to also do research? So so why should we as practitioners do research?

Dr. Valentino: Yeah, it's such a great question and so great. I think I have a whole chapter dedicated to that in the book. You know, behavior analysis is really unique in that the methods that researchers use to examine basic and applied topics are the same methods that practitioners use to figure out if their interventions are effective. And so there are a whole host of reasons, but the first one that comes to mind and the one that's really at the forefront is that it makes you a better practitioner. Right. So all of those things that we do from a research perspective, we have good treatment integrity we have inner observer agreement. We have a good experimental control. Those things aren't just good for a research study, they're good for your client, they're good for effective intervention and evaluating the impact of your services. And so I like to give this analogy, and I like to say, well, you know, let's say you implement an intervention with a child and you simply just do an AB design, right? So you have baseline and then you go in intervention and you say it, that's it. It works, and you want to start to disseminate that. And so you're about to invest a whole lot of time and effort into training people to implement this intervention. Will you want to make sure that that intervention is actually the thing that caused the change, right? So a reversal, whatever design that you have is going to help you make sure that that investment is going to be worth it both for a client. But then it also happens to be good for research study as well. So. So the benefits to practitioners, even if you're study or your case never gets published, you're still doing really good clinical work, which I think is the take home message and super important.

Mary: Yeah, I know early on from 2003 to 2010, I was the lead behavior analyst for the Pennsylvania Verbal Behavior Project, which is now known as the Patten ABA Supports Initiative. But in that in part of that, it was a whole it was a whole big project is still is going strong many, many years later. But part of that was we wanted to not only train behavior analysts and kind of home grow, if you will, behavior analysts, but we wanted to show that our interventions were effective because we were getting lots of money from a state government agency. And so we wanted to show that what we were doing was better than what was previously done for kids in public school autism classrooms. And so part of the initiative was was actually requiring behavior analyst. To set up a little research studies and to have real designs and have inter observer agreement and then to meet once or twice a year or to to actually present those those publications and. And I think when you when you do research and I have done research and we're going to talk about your research and my research, but when you do research and you, you publish it or you present it, you do tend to think differently then. Yeah. After that, you're like, Wow, you know? Yeah. One one example. And I think people in my audience will relate to this is is one of the case studies I remember was trying to see if teaching kids to answer questions like an intraverbal response. If that was better with a tact, a label to enterable transfer or if that was better as an echoic to interverbral transfer and just. Kicking out these these questions to ask, you know, we had lists of questions and we were trying to figure out like what to ask, and I remember one question was where are prisoners kept? And I was like, Oh my God, that is so confusing, because you would need to know, you know, a prison is synonymous with a jail. You would need to know the past tense of keeping is kept. You would need to know, you know, all of this abstract language. It makes you realize how complicated languages. And so when you are really picking out, you know these things in it, it makes you really think differently.

Dr. Valentino: Oh, it really does in such a good example. And you know, the other part of that is that when you're conducting research, you're also reading. Right. And so if you want to dig in and kind of figure out what questions haven't been answered in the literature yet, a huge part of that is reading and being knowledgeable on a topic and knowing what's out there already just naturally makes you a better practitioner. So there's this whole process of reading and formulating a question and digging in like you described that we just we all benefit our clients benefit and you benefit as a practitioner by by engaging in it. It's that even if nothing comes of it in terms of a publication or a presentation, there's still a process there that's extraordinarily valuable.

Mary: Yeah. So you talk in your book about two big research gaps. Can you tell us what they are? Yeah.

Dr. Valentino: So I think about the research to practice gap as being pretty bi directional, right? So if you just do a Google search for research to practice Gap, it's present in all disciplines. All disciplines have this in a human resources. You know, every discipline identifies this. And so it's it's the same for behavior analysis. And so there's sort of two ways this can go. The first is that obviously there is research that's being published that is sort of delayed or doesn't hit the practitioner population as quickly as it could. So there's best practices out there, but practitioners just don't know about them because they're not keeping in contact with the literature and not aware of of best practices. And I talk a little bit about ways to overcome those in my book. I mean, obviously a big part of that is is reading, but I think we need to break down the barriers associated with accessing literature, which is huge. But the part that my book is really focused on is the opposite, which is practitioners who are out there coming up with research questions every day, asking really wonderful questions and answering them and doing so in the context of their clinical practice. But that population could really be informing the literature and help to resolve that research practice gap in a way that is informed by what clients are experiencing and what issues that they have. So that's really what the book is about, that sort of second part of the gap and how practitioners can contribute back to the research literature.

Mary: Sure, sounds good. So when I was reading your book, there was a reference to a research study you had published on manding for information. And I know you have lots of publications like how many peer reviewed journal articles have you published? Do you know?

Dr. Valentino’s Publications:

Dr. Valentino: Oh gosh, I haven't looked in a while. It's probably somewhere in the 30 40 range. It's not. It's not huge. It's it's it's the, I would say, doublings of a busy, busy practitioner. But yeah, I've managed to stay pretty productive over the years.

Mary: Awesome. Yeah. Why don't you tell us about the manding for information study? What kind of design, was it? And then...

Dr. Valentino: Sure, absolutely. And I know this is something very near and dear to your heart, and you probably know that the mand for information repertoire is a critical one. It's super, super important for kids to learn it. To me, it's this one of these critical skills that helps the child learn naturally from their environment. Right. So if they're told to do something but they don't know how to do it and they can ask somebody, How do I do that? And then obviously follow the instructions you just you're in a different space, language wise than you are if you don't have that skill.

Mary: And I'm thinking before we explain the study, there's probably a lot of people that don't know what a mand for information please do.

Dr. Valentino: Yeah. Or do you want me to go ahead? Go ahead? Oh yeah, yeah. So a man is just another word for a request. And the most often you heard the hear the word mand associated with those early requests, so juice, candy, cookie. These are all those meaningful things that a person maybe wants in their life. But as that repertoire gets more sophisticated, people can start to request. Ah, man, four different things and one of those things being information, so when we talk about man's information, we're talking about what people might traditionally consider wage questions. So why did you do that? What is that? Where did you go? The thing that makes this a difficult topic of study is that the man is a verbal operant part of language that is controlled by something very unique and that is the motivating operation. And so in order to teach somebody to ask a question, you have to do so under the right conditions. You have to make sure that they're motivated in the demand for information literature. You have to make sure that they're motivated for that information, which is actually conceptually a very difficult thing to do and set up, right. So I have several studies on manding for information, and I will do a shout out to my previous supervisor, Dr. Alex Schillingsberg, who really is at the forefront of this body of literature. She's published a time and in fact, several of my publications are with her as first author in me somewhere else in the line. But the most recent mand for information study that I published was the first one that I'm aware of that taught kids to ask why? So up into that point, we had not had any studies that demonstrated how to teach that. And it makes sense because it's a little bit more complicated to teach somebody to ask why they they have to be motivated for information, but in a very unique way. And so we had a handful of clients in a clinic that needed this as a goal. They had learned other forms of manding for information. And so it was published in the Journal of Civil Behavior a couple of years ago. We did it, set multiple baseline design and looked at just some creativity in the conditions that would enable us to make sure that the kids were asking why under the right conditions, that is when they were motivated to have that answer versus when, when they were not. So yeah, some of those study very applied, though something we would have done even if it weren't a research study. We still need to teach them why, and we still need to do it under the right conditions.

Mary: Yeah, yeah, that's great. And we can put that in the show notes your show notes are going to be at MaryBarbera.com/165. So you can go there, you can send people there. You can watch this video and then look at all the show notes, which is great. And the one thing I will add is if you're listening and your child is not talking or just requesting with sign language or requesting vocally, just, you know, a handful of things, you're a far way away from teaching. Why? And so we usually get items insight as your first mands, which is kind of combined, as a tact. And then there's bands for actions like open up and those sorts of things. Then there's madns for help mands. Yes and no, which is super complicated. Man's for attention, which is what we consider joint control, which is complicated like you can't prompt. And in my case, Lucas, when he was little, you can't promote mom, look at the cow when he has no, you know, no interest in the cow, no interest in sharing that. So what you can get is a lot of weird language that gets shaped up if you're trying to teach, you know why. For instance, when the child doesn't even have mands for attention appropriately, so you can really get messy language. And as part of my Verbal Behavior Bundle course, I have a whole lesson on how to teach the first three what, where and which. Now they don't have to be the first three, but they tend to be easiest to teach. So I have videos to show people how to do that, but each child is different and their motivations are different. And so you really have to know ABA well to be able to pull off teaching mands for information. And some kids just develop it naturally and then you're great. But for the kids that don't, it's a fine line between teaching rote language and weird language and teaching appropriate language. And it so research studies like you're describing Amber are awesome.

Dr. Valentino: Yeah, it's really interesting when you look back at the mand for information literature, and it wasn't called that. So when you look back historically, I mean, people didn't know they were navigating this and figuring it out, but it very much taught those mands under faulty stimulus control, meaning they would basically change the topography of the mand to get a kid to ask for candy. So it would be like, What is it? And or they hold a piece of candy and he'd say, Tell them, say what is it? And then kid would say, What is it? And they'd give the candy? Right? So in order for that was effective, they would be able to show that it was effective. But they really just taught the kid that what they were holding up was, what is it? That's the new label now instead of candy. So in order to end, you've seen that evolve over the years, but in order to teach it effectively, you have to have something that obviously the child doesn't know what it is and then teach the child to ask. And then that, of course, can lead later to something reinforcing. But that's very much the early studies was just changing the topography of a basic mand to what is it? And it was effective. But as we've evolved, we've changed the way we set up those experiments. Yeah, yeah.

Applied Research:

Mary: Yes. No is also an area that can get messed up very quickly. And I know I I didn't publish a yes no case study, but I did one. I presented one. I have a whole lesson within the verbal behavior bundle on how to teach. Yes, no and I consider myself, you know, pretty expert at teaching. Yes and no. And there's really there's a wide open gap. At least there was last time I logged on on how to teach yes and no. So these are these are all good topics and very much related to the content in my courses, in both of my books. Let's talk before we move on to different kinds of research. I do want to talk about the two peer reviewed journal articles that I published. One is using transfer procedures to teach tacts to a child with autism, and that was. I coauthored that in 2005 with my mentor, Dr. Rick Kubina, now. I also interviewed him on the podcast and we talked about the article so we can link that in the show notes. So we don't have to go in-depth. But you know, I came up with that study idea actually, because Lucas went to a private ABA school for a year and a half. Otherwise, he was in public school his whole life. But he went there and he would have errors when when his therapists to come home and go to school said by Lucas, he would say by Hayley, which was this teacher's name at the time, because she was the only one practicing greetings with her name. And but I knew because I was a new BCBA and I lived and worked with Lucas his whole life that I knew that was a tacting error. Like, he knew all 16 kids in his typical preschool class because we used pictures and quote unquote drilled him with these names. And we also taught him greetings with video modeling. So I knew that he had if he knew the tact, he would have the greeting. So I knew there was a tact error. So I asked the school to send me pictures. They were on a three week break. At the end, he learned all the pictures, all the people's names, and went back and generalized it immediately to greetings. So I called up recombined and I said. Here's a great study, I mean, this is people's names. Greetings, I mean, how functional and applied is this? It's a great site. We should publish it. And he as a researcher, so Mary, you can't just publish stuff like this set up this study. And I had just taken my exam and he's like, We can't publish that, but we can set up a study to publish something to to show he's like, What did you do as the intervention? I'm like, We drilled. And then he really challenged me like, No, what exactly did you do? And it was a mixture of receptive to tact transfers and echoic to tact transfers. But the literature up until that point, there really wasn't any peer reviewed journal articles studies on it. But what there was was Dr. Mark Sundberg, who's also been on a podcast. We can link in the show notes in his Ables book at the time, right? in the big book. I forget what the title of that was, but the main book he talked about teaching everything as echoic to tact transfers, hold up a pen and say, This is a pen. What is it? pen? But Lucas would just zone out. He would echo you and he would zone out. So if it wasn't part receptive? It wasn't going to work for Lucas. He would just zone out, he would never learn it. But if if you combine a touch, Amber, touch Susie Touch and then who's this called Touch Amber, wh's this? Amber. Then he would get it, and I would also use partial echoics. So Rick Kubina to be in to help me set up a study with tax that he didn't know. And we did a multiple baseline. And Jack Michael, Dr. Jack Michael, rest in peace to our grandfather verbal behavior. He was the editor of the analysis, The Verbal Behavior, and I emailed him. He's just like, Where are you? Where did you come from? My mom? Mean lying. Like, you know, it was truly applied Research well, that

Dr. Valentino: That is a beautiful example. What you just described is what I hope every practitioner does, which is I found this really great thing and it worked. And maybe you can't exactly define why it worked and how or how it worked. Or maybe you can. But to go down this path of being able to describe that and demonstrate it, that's huge. And that's a huge contribution. And practitioners are doing this every day. They're doing what you've described every day, but they're just not thinking about it like you were thinking about it and Rick kind of coached you along to say, Let's investigate.

Mary: If I wouldn't have had Rick Kubina and Dr. Jack Michael was like, We are publishing this. And in fact, he sent it to our reviewer and it was late. It was like, I mean, I had no idea when things were due or anything. He's just like, This is really good. And he's like, the reviewer said, no, because, you know, it was a mixture of an echoic. And, you know, I did set a timer and I did have intra observer agreement. So it wasn't like completely, you know, winging it. But I didn't know how much a part of the receptive was important. But I knew. And they also the reviewers, like they didn't know if it was like a Mary/Lucas thing.

Dr. Valentino: Mm-Hmm.

Mary: So he basically Dr. Michael just said in the discussion, You say you don't know how much of this further research is needs to be done splitting out receptive to tact and echoic to tact and a mixture. So what I did was I developed an alternating treatment design and used for different students. And I never published that, but I did present that, and all four of them learned equally as well with the mix procedure. And Lucas only learned that way.

Dr. Valentino: Yeah, that's awesome. And I think that a lot of times practitioners might come into the situation like you did, where there's still a question about what the mechanism of change was or what exactly. And they think, well, I couldn't publish it then. Well, people published studies all the time where they don't know exactly what the mechanism of change was or they can't pinpoint something, exactly, but that's what research is all about. And as long as you can pinpoint that and discussion sections are great for that, you say we did it, but this is not exactly how we set up the study, but the next one should look like this. That's beautiful, and that's acceptable. And that's what research is all about. And in fact, that's really what applied research is all about in and in its truest form, applied research. Really, it's a little bit messy, and that's OK. Yeah.

Mary: Then later, I think it was 2007 or 2008. I was at the ABAI conference and there was analysis of verbal behavior had just come out and people were like, Mary, this this study is quoting your work like this. And I ended up meeting the guy. His name is Dr Chris Flou, and he did his whole doctoral dissertation on transfer procedures using the Barbora and could be in the 2005 study. He's like, I feel like I typed that a zillion times, but there's been multiple studies on transfer procedures. Even I the the is where our prisoners cap. I mean, that was all based on my original study and trying to figure out which transfer procedures work best. So we'll link that in the show notes, you know, sorry to go on it. I feel like I'm I want to get your expertize. But at the same time, how real this need is, and these examples in my world are just so prevalent.

Dr. Valentino: I think it's perfect, and I think it really is exemplifying what I try and talk about in the book that process that you went through. So I'm happy that you went off on a tangent to talk about it a little bit more in depth.

Mary: Well, I want to get into the obstacles one more or actually two more things I'm going to link in, the show notes. One is a qualitative study that I did when I was going for my doctoral dissertation, I did a qualitative research design study, and so I published the experiences of autism mothers who become behavioral analysts, a qualitative study which we can link in the show notes that was 2007. And then in 2011, I published my dissertation. I didn't publish it as an actual study, but we can link that in the show notes as well that time fluency based procedures. But I do want to get into the obstacles for publication, which you have several chapters as well as additional things. But what do you think are the main obstacles for people to publish research or even to do research?

Obstacles for Practitioners Publishing Research:

Dr. Valentino: Yeah, it's a good question. And exactly there's a whole chapter dedicated to this. So in the book, I differentiate between obstacles and barriers, and I consider obstacles to be sort of the things that you need as an individual to address, like how do you overcome these personally and individually? And then barriers I consider to be more institutional right, where you need help from other people to get over that barrier and to overcome it. And so, you know, the obstacles that are I write about in my book and this section, I should note, just as a side sidebar is based on a research study, my colleague, Dr. Jessica Quantico and I published in Behavior Analysis and Practice, which was a survey about this very topic. What are the obstacles and barriers that you face as a practitioner? And so I use that article and that survey data to talk about some of these things in the book. But you know, one of the reported obstacles that people struggle with is lack of knowledge. They're just scared that they don't know enough and that they are going to make a mistake or do something wrong. And so what I try and encourage in the book is for people just to to know that they do have the knowledge by the very basis of you having to be CPA. You have learned this now. You might not be thinking about experimental design in an applied way. You might not be thinking about it in a way that lends itself to a research study right now. But the skills are very easily acquired because you already have the foundation. So I just try and minimize people's fears in that regard like you're it's OK, you're going to be fine, it's going to be OK. And then one other obstacle that comes up a lot and this is much like anything we want to do in life this time. And so people obviously report, that's great. Amber, I love that I don't have the time and so much luck with anything you want to do in life. I usually try and encourage people to realize that they're never going to wake up one day and suddenly have a ton of free time. I think we're all just waiting for the next moment. Well, when I get a new job or I change, I move to a new city or my kid gets a little older, I'll have time. You'll never have that in. So you have to make it. You have to make the time you have to say, I'm going to commit in some way. And maybe that commitment is only 30 minutes or an hour or a week. But that's a commitment and get going. And as I was preparing for this interview, it's interesting. I was looking back at my own research publications and I graphed them like, grab me number of your read publications per year just as a self-monitoring to see how productive I am. And it's funny to look back because the year that was the most productive for me was the year that I was carrying nearly a full caseload. So I was seeing clients. I had no research as part of my job. And so I think about that and I read about that in the book that the times that you feel like you don't have the the time is probably the time when you should start so that you can convince yourself that you can indeed do it. And so the whole book is really geared toward that population. You know, those BCBAs wake up in the morning, they do an observation in a school. They go supervise an r.b.g. They go to a center and they have a meeting. They go back to another school. You know that their days are just packed. They're not sitting in an office all day. And how you can integrate it. And so, so so obstacles of big ideas, time and then some of the institutional barriers, lack of opportunities and then limited access to literature are probably two of the big ones. And I try and recommend ways for people to overcome those. I do recommend being involved in an organization that can support you. So I'm very proud at Trumpet Behavioral Health that we have a lot of supports around this. We have access to literature, free access to literature. We really cultivate a space where people can learn and read and commit to this in a way where you might have to make those. You might have to make those opportunities and get those opportunities yourself. But it's it's very doable.

Mary: Yeah, yeah, that's great. So I think one of the barriers for me is. You know, when you're doing research. People really want to have control and study one little thing like transfer procedures to teach tact, you know, like break it down to one slice, a small slice. And for me, I have a four step approach that I've created over the years based on my my background as a registered nurse, as a mom, as a BCBA, as an advocate, as a researcher with a Ph.D.. And so I want to get the word out to help kids with the whole thing, you know? So it's not even just the time. It's like, I can't slice out one little minuscule thing and I get frustrated when applied research is just not, you know, well, it's too big. It's, you know, even within the transfer study that got published thanks to Rick Kubina and Jack Michael, you know, advocating for it. There's big issues like with my toddler course, for instance, we use, you know, a shoebox, for instance, and then we say Banana, Banana, Banana as we hand the child a picture of a banana that he puts in the box. So if he says nana or banana, it's part mand because he wants the item to put in the box. It's part tact because you can see it is part echoic and its listener responding and attention and everything like that. That is multiple control, there's a lot of variables. You know, we're training online, we have no control over what people are actually doing. But I know my methods work. So it's like, how do we get from massive testimonials and transformation? And people are saying, even within trumpet, you know, I'm sure you have success stories and things that are work, you know? But it's like having the, you know, setting up the study. And, you know, even even, you know, like my example of Lucas tacting the people's names and stuff like that like that actually would have been a more applicable study to names and, you know, to greetings generalizing the greetings. But it's like it's too late. It's already you already made the progress. And there's just so many millions of people that need my stuff that I just not that I've given up on research, but has said it is. It's not just the time, it's like we're in a hurry to help people. And I know in your situation you're the same. So like, do you talk about that in your book?

Dr. Valentino Yeah, that that's a really great analysis. I appreciate that you thought about it and you're right. You know, single subject design in particular has this level of specificity to it that, you know, people are trying to replicate your procedures and determine the exact mechanism for change which has its space and has its importance. And so I think anytime we can do that, particularly when we're doing that with early learners, we should do it. We should demonstrate that and that makes a contribution. But you know, as you were talking, I also started to consider and I talk about this in my book, that he rallies tend to talk to themselves a lot. We tend to publish in our own journals. We tend to speak our own language and there is a space for that and I've done a lot of that in my career. But there's also a lot of different avenues for different types of research, right? And so maybe what you're called to or other practitioners are called to is more outcome kind of studies, right? Or treatment package kind of evaluations. And there's a space for that. It may not be a particular behavior analytical journal. Or maybe it's in a completely different profession altogether, but there's a lot of really great behavior analysts who have sort of expanded their scope and done things that were different, that were bigger outcomes, larger outcomes, evaluating bigger treatment packages. And Pat is a really good example of this right who who wrote the book, the book's forward. A lot of his stuff is more mainstream, and it's out to psychologists and folks that aren't necessarily looking at single subject design as the only way that you can demonstrate something. Or that is a space where you can demonstrate a particular thing, but there are all sorts of avenues. So I would encourage practitioners to certainly do the small, single subject design, demonstrate when you can and when there's that level of specificity involved. But to think outside of the box in terms of audiences and maybe what you're trying to do is evaluate a bigger treatment package and some bigger picture outcomes with lots of kids that there's certainly an audience for that and certainly an outlet for that.

Mary: Yeah, yeah. So one of the obstacles to is is getting things accepted for publication. I know I had pretty good luck with, you know, the two studies that I published without a lot of revisions and that sort of thing, but recently actually Rick Kubina and I also wrote up a case study recently and within a month, I actually we wrote it up about a year ago or over a year ago, and it doesn't have as good of a design. Well, it was retrospective, so it kind of like it happened. What happened was Michelle C., who's in podcast Seventy Eight. We can link that on the show notes, and she's actually her latest update podcast is going to be 164. So one week ago, her updated podcast is going to happen, as well as the publication of a case study with Michelle C's daughter, Elena. And so we can link all that in the show notes. But what happened was Elena was diagnosed with autism in February of 2020 and with mom, who is a high school teacher by training, who just had a second baby, was at home and was trying to get the diagnosis and into ABA quickly. Her daughter was, you know, had two words as she would scream, she would scratch herself open wounds. That's how bad she would tantrum at times. And the world shut down and the world shut down to the point where she got no services, no Zoom services, nothing. And she found my online course. And within thirty three days and part of my online courses, baseline language assessment, you know, writing down. So she actually had an excel sheet with two words in one hour. And then at the end of the course, we say the same thing get a language assessment. And at that point, she had in one hour one hundred eighty words and phrases, prepositions, contractions, miraculous turnaround, which Michelle talks about in podcast 78. And she also then, you know, because she was posting in the group like, Oh my god, I have all this. I'm like, I need to talk to you. So before I hit, I asked her if I could record it and just kind of pretend it was a podcast. I had no idea what she was going to say. And in that podcast, she was talking about how she had a standardized language test from right before the diagnosis at a zero to three month level. You know, one of the lowest the lowest test was zero three months, probably functioning at more of a nine month low level for language. And then right after she took the course, she again got the test. And at that point, Alan was only 26 months old and her standardized speech test, one of them was a high of 30 months. So. That to me, as somebody like I have had this before, where the VB map really correlates with a standardized assessment that matches like a 30 month low level or something. Meanwhile, you know, I don't think we do enough of that where we're pulling in other standardized tests to show progress. And one of the good things about that case study, which we can link in the show notes, is all the variables were gone. Like she didn't have any services. She didn't leave the house. Her mom was the only person. She was just going by the videos. She wasn't even asking for help. Nobody looked at the videos. Nobody gave her any feedback, which can only certainly help. So, you know, at some point, then Rick Kubina and I just decided we're going to publish this as a white paper because we do think it's important to get out there. So is it would you have any advice for practitioners in that situation where, you know, should you just present it, you know, on your own?

Dr. Valentino/b> Yeah, absolutely. You know, I'll send you the reference afterwards. But Gina Green wrote an article around like the two thousand eight time frame where she she published a traditional case study in in traditional kind of psychology research. There is such a thing as a case study that is not single subject design per se, but is a very detailed and documented history of somebody who's hit somebody's diagnosis, their symptoms, and then a very detailed description of the intervention that took place. And so what you just described to me was a traditional case study that absolutely could be published. And the really great thing about Gina Green's paper is she talks about how these case studies are very important for people to publish. Because, as you probably know, one of the criticisms of ABA is there haven't been any large scale, randomized clinical controlled trials of ABA, and managed care companies are starting to highlight this and talk about it. And her point, and this was beyond, you know, this is before that the discussions that we're having today. But was the more of these case studies that we can publish, the more we can demonstrate the effectiveness of our intervention. And that has been historically how interventions have been demonstrated to be effective is with these single case studies. So I absolutely think there's an avenue for that. And again, it takes thinking outside of the ABA world and the traditional publications outlets and exploring where people might have published something very similar. And so there's that. And then I also really encourage practitioners to not always see publication as the end goal, at least in its traditional form, and that there's all sorts of ways to disseminate information, you know, white paper that you just described is beautiful newsletters and presenting at conferences and sharing information that way. And so with dissemination and sharing is really at the heart of your motivation. That doesn't always have to be in the form of a peer reviewed publication. You can look at these other ways to contribute to the field, the profession and the literature. It may not always fit that perfect experimental control box, and those are absolutely valuable, and they mean something to somebody and to the right audience are going to absolutely have an impact them and let you share that example.

Mary: Yeah. And when you said about, you know, you published a survey results, you know, I'd love to link that in the show notes as well because, you know, I have a free potty guide, for instance, which is 20 pages. And there really isn't the literature that there needs to be on potty training, especially kids with autism. And so I was looking at that the other day. We can link that in the show notes, and I had done a survey in 2013, which is highlighted in the potty guide. And it shows that, you know, typically developing kids are potty trained by three a usually and definitely by four and only 50 percent of kids with autism are were potty trained. I mean, this is like 300 people in 2013, but I'm thinking, you know, now with my audience, I mean, I could do surveys all day long. And that's the other thing is you can also partner with agencies or schools or, you know, I might even in the future, open up a whole research arm of my turn autism around courses and community. I'm very open to people taking anything and researching it because I know the interventions work and maybe some of them don't. Maybe some of them need to be tweaked. I'm sure that with coaching on top of the online, we could make massive improvements. But you know, I think one of the great things about you, Amber, is like presenting publication doesn't have to be the goal. We just want to get the best procedures out to the world as quickly as possible. And I think you are an example to show that we can collaborate, we can work together to, you know, really make the world a better place.

Dr. Valentino: Thank you so much, you and I. I think what you just described is the other piece of advice I would give practitioners is to not only think about different outlets, but think about different ways. So survey studies are beautiful, especially. We don't know a lot about a topic. So I published a little bit in the supervision space and a lot of my my studies have been a surprise because we don't know a whole lot about supervision and behavior analysis. And so that's a great way to get some meat under a topic that will probably facilitate single subject research later down the line and get things going. But survey studies are beautiful. There's also different outlets, too, like literature reviews and recommended practice papers. Then there's different ways to contribute that don't always involve these manipulations of a variable with one particular client which has its base, and I've done a fair share of. But if you open up the possibilities to these both those different types of writing and different types of contributions, and then you open up to outside of the behavioral analytic world. You don't have to force yourself into something you aren't interested in or doesn't work for the work you're doing. You can take what you're doing. You just have to find the right audience and the right outlet in the right way to do it. And that's really what I want practitioners to do. And at the heart of the book, I really try and help them through.

More on Dr. Amber Valentino:

Mary: Cool. So the book is called Apply Behavior Analysis Research Made Easy. It's available on Amazon and home. How can people follow your work?

Dr. Valentino: Oh goodness, I do have a LinkedIn page, so that's probably the best place to find me and trumpet behavioral health, TBH.com, constantly talking about the work that we're doing and trying to disseminate and share the excellent clinical work that we're doing. So that's my that's my home, that's my work home trumpet. So you certainly can find me there.

Mary: Awesome. Well, we will put a bunch of these documents in the show notes. I think it'll be a really valuable resource for for practitioners, especially and even for parents. Before I let you go, I'd like to end with a question. You know, part of my podcast goals is is not to just help the kids, but also help the parents and practitioners listening be less stressed and lead happier lives. So do you have any self-care tips or stress management tools that you use?

Dr. Valentino: I do, so I will recommend a book, not a behavioral analytic book. It's called Essentialism, and it's by an author named Greg McCowan. I can send you the details if you want to put it in the notes. I have that book. Yeah, you have the book. So I read that book right before I became a mom, and it really helped me narrow the things in my life down to what was critically important. And I think in this profession, it's so easy to do a lot and those things are important and they're good. But there there comes a point in your life, and maybe you're not a behavior analyst. If you're somebody in another profession or doing something else where you have to look at your life and you have to say, Am I doing the most important and meaningful things in my life and the things that don't really fit with my mission statement for my life have to go, and I'll I'll never forget the day. The first day I said, notice somebody who asked me to volunteer for something and I was shaking like, Oh my gosh, what's going to happen? They were fine with it. I recommended some somebody else and it was fine. And so self-care tip is to don't do things that aren't essential to your life, do the things that are meaningful for you, that are important to you and get rid of the other stuff. And that's how you get. There's no more extra time in the day, but that's how you'll get more time to focus on the things that you really care about. But I think a lot of times we just don't. We don't think to do that, but we should read that book if you have it, and I'm glad you have it too. It's a really great one. Yeah.

Mary: All right. Well, it's been an absolute pleasure talking to you. Dr. Amber Valentino and this will be podcast number 165. So thanks so much for your time.

Dr. Valentino: Yes, thank you. It was a joy.

Mary: If you're a parent or an autism professional and enjoy listening to this podcast, you have to come check out my online course and community where we take all of this material and we apply it. You'll learn life changing strategies to get your child or clients to reach their fullest potential. Join me for a free online workshop at MaryBarbera.com/workshop, where you can learn how to avoid common mistakes. You can see videos of me working with kids with and without autism. And you can learn more about joining my online course and community at a very special discount. Once again, go to MaryBarbera.com/workshop. For all the details, I hope to see you there.

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Applied Behavior Analysis

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a type of therapy frequently applied to children with autism and other developmental disorders that focuses on imparting skills in specific domains of functioning, such as social skills, communication, academic and learning skills, motor dexterity, hygiene and grooming, and more. Tailored to individual needs, ABA is delivered in a variety of settings, including school, home, clinic, and other community settings. The goal of treatment is to help children function as independently and successfully as possible.

Originally developed by psychologist Ole Ivar Lovaas in the 1960s reflecting traditional principles of behaviorism, the therapy has evolved somewhat as understanding of autism has increased. ABA utilizes positive reinforcement to teach and promote social skills, communication abilities, learning and academic skills, and self-care habits. ABA therapy is intensive; sessions typically last two or more hours and are conducted several days a week. Ideally, the therapy is attuned to each patient’s specific developmental needs, and a course of therapy typically spans two or more years.

Nevertheless, the therapy has garnered criticism over the years. In its earliest iterations ABA relied not only on positive reinforcement of behavior but also on negative reinforcement, including outright punishment , if children failed to learn skills. Many critics considered it too harsh. Today’s ABA generally relies on positive reinforcement to promote behavior change. More recent criticism of the therapy reflects a “ neurodiversity ” perspective: It rejects attempts to “normalize” behavior because it considers autism not a disorder but a normal variation of the brain’s operations.

• When It's Used
• What to Expect
• How It Works
• What to Look For in an Applied Behavioral Analyst

ABA is commonly practiced as a therapeutic intervention for individuals with autism . According to the Center for Autism, ABA helps people with autism improve social interactions, learn new skills, and maintain positive behaviors. ABA also helps transfer skills and behavior from one situation to another, controlling situations where negative behaviors arise and minimizing negative behaviors. With autism, ABA is most successful when intensely applied for more than 20 hours a week and prior to the age of 4.

ABA can also help aging adults cope with the losses that come with age, like memory , strength, and relationships. For young and old, ABA can help individuals manage some of the lifestyle challenges that accompany many mental and physical health conditions.

When working with an ABA therapist, clients will:

• Determine which behaviors require change
• Set goals and expected outcomes
• Establish ways to measure changes and improvements
• Evaluate where you are now
• Learn new skills and or learn how to avoid negative behaviors
• Regularly review your progress
• Decide whether or not further behavior modification is necessary

The length of time spent in ABA depends on the severity of the problem and individual rate of improvement.

First, a trained behavior analyst assesses a person’s needs and ability level and designs a bespoke program of therapy with specific treatment goals typically focused on several skill areas. These include:

• communication

• social skills

• self-care

• play and leisure

• motor skills

• learning and academic skills

ABA therapists deploy a variety of techniques depending on the individual’s treatment needs and the target behavior. Among them:

Discrete trial training (DTT), which is usually conducted in a one-on-one session with a therapist, breaks skills into small (discrete) units, and teaches them one by one, with the appropriate reinforcement as each unit is mastered. For example, in teaching speech skills, one unit may be devoted to producing the vocal sound S. The therapist will typically ask for the desired behavior, reward the correct response, and repeat the process until the sound is produced spontaneously. DTT may be used for teaching communication skills, social skills, motor skills like writing letters of the alphabet.

Modeling is a technique in which the therapist presents an example of the desired behavior, either personally demonstrating it or providing a video or audio recording of the desired behavior. The learner is then asked to imitate the target behavior. For example, in teaching social skills, a learner might be shown a video of a person saying thank you when given a toy or other object, and then asked to repeat the behavior as the teacher hands them an object.

Picture exchange communication system (PECS) involves the use of pictures to teach communication and vocabulary skills to children. The child, working with a set of cards having pictures of foods or other objects, gives the therapist a picture of a desired object. In exchange, the therapist provides the object shown in the picture. The technique can be used with children who do not have speech skills as a way for them to communicate their needs. But it is also used to expand the communication skills of those who can speak and teach them how to express their wants and needs in socially adaptive ways as they progress through increasingly sophisticated vocabulary and sentence structure.

Reinforcement systems involves the use of methods to teach children the consequences of engaging in specific behaviors and activities, with the purpose of increasing the likelihood such behaviors will be repeated in the future. For example, one method of reinforcement might be a token system. A child earns tokens as a form of reward for accomplishing a target behavior. Those tokens may then be used in exchange for some desired activity, such as access to a specific toy or computer game, which functions as a backup reinforcer.

All desired behaviors are broken into smaller steps, and as each step is learned, the child is rewarded for carrying out the target behavior successfully. ABA therapists typically conduct training to parents and caregivers, to that behavioral progress occurs outside the clinical setting. .

For every behavior where change is desired, the therapist identifies the ABCs—the antecedent, the behavior, and consequence of the behavior. The antecedent is what prompts the person to act. The behavior is the response itself, which could be an action or verbal expression, which the therapy aims to change. The consequence is what immediately follows the behavior.

For example, if the goal is to reduce tantrums when the child has to go to sleep, the parent might reward the child with praise if the child gets ready for bed. The parent would not provide those positive reinforcements if the child threw a tantrum instead.

An ABA therapist is a licensed mental health professional who has additional training and experience in ABA. Most states now have regulations requiring specific licensure for ABA therapists.

Certification programs for practicing ABA therapy are provided by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB). Board-Certified Behavior Analysts with a master’s degree and appropriate training are identified by the initials BCBA after their name; those with a doctorate-level degree are identified by the initials BCBA-D. (In Florida only, a BCBA may use the initials FL-CBA or the term Florida Certified Behavior Analyst).

In addition, there is a certification program for those who serve as supportive ABA therapy team members. Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analysts have bachelor’s degrees and ABA training and are identified by the initials BCaBA. A BCaBA cannot practice alone but can work in therapeutic settings when supervised by someone who is certified at a higher level.

The BACB also certifies Registered Behavior Technicians with a minimum of a high school diploma and 40 hours of specialized training who work only under the direct supervision of a BCBA or BCaBA.

When seeking an ABA therapist, experience counts. It is advisable to seek a therapist who has had not just extensive training but experience using ABA to treat patients presenting with concerns such as your child’s.

Important as qualifications and experience are, so is good fit. As with all forms of therapy, it is also advisable to find an ABA therapist with whom you and your child feels comfortable. Look for someone with whom you can establish clarity of communication.

Here are some important questions to ask a prospective ABA therapist:

• How often have you dealt with problems such as my child presents?
• How do you know whether child is a good candidate for ABA therapy?
• How does ABA therapy work?
• What is a typical plan of treatment and how long is a typical course of therapy?
• How do you measure progress?
• What is the nature of your training in ABA therapy?
• What is your policy on communication with parents?
• What length of time do you initially ask a client to commit to?
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Rollins Scholarship Online

Home > MABACS > MABACS_THESIS

Thesis Projects

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Participant Preferences of Identified Maintaining Contingencies , Aubrey Ashby

An Assessment Process and Guide for Intervention to Increase Procedural Fidelity , Silvia Cabal

Functional Analysis and Intervention of Multiply Controlled Behavior , Nicole Carbonelli Rosa

The Efficacy of Contingent Positive and Negative Reinforcement in the Treatment of Compliance and Reduction of Disruptive Behavior with Medical Demands , Michelle Rebecca Davidson

An Evaluation of Rate Calculations During Extinction , Madison Holland

Using Behavioral Skills Training Within the Pyramidal Training Model to Teach Caregivers a New Skill , Caitlyn Hutton

An Extension of the Response-Restriction Preference Assessment , Jazmin Ramos

Socialization Procedure for an Adult Feral Cat in a Home Setting , Erica Serito

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Assessing Visual Analysis Skills with Board-Certified Behavior Analysts , Marina Forsythe

Determining the Utilization of Trial-Based Functional Analyses in a Clinical Setting , Cayla Thomas

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Pre-Session Pairing and Instructional Fading Prior to Instruction , Claudia Aguayo

Trial-based Measurements as an Index of Response Strength , Vasily Belichenko

A Comparison of Positive and Negative Reinforcement to Decrease Disruptive Behavior During Medical Demands , Rachel Commodario

Comparing Operant Discrimination Training and Response Contingent Pairing for Eliciting Vocalizations , Jade Grimes

The Effectiveness of a Skills Assessment Sequence on Evaluating Independent Handwriting , Rebecca Mischuck

A Comparison of Models in Video Modeling to Teach Vocal Skills , Caroline Phan

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Refining the Stimulus Pairing Observation Procedure for Tact and Listener Responding , Jennifer Brennan

Comparing the Effects of Feedback Types on Caregiver Training of Hispanic Parents , Natasha Cintron

Effectiveness of Visual Prompts on Correct Disposal of Trash and Recyclable Materials , Ronni Hemstreet

An Analysis of the Effects of Extinction Relative to Baseline Measures Including and Excluding Consumption Time , Kelti Keister

Assessing the Interference of Stereotypy During Unmastered Academic Tasks , Taylor LaBour

Investigating Maintaining Variables of Physical Activity , Michelle Loaiza

Evaluation of a Vocal Mand Assessment and Vocal Mand Training Procedures: A Systematic Replication , Toni O'Connell

Noncontingent Reinforcement in the Treatment of Attention Maintained Problem Behavior: Schedule Thinning Within Extended Sessions , Kelly O'Donnell

A Functional Analysis of Physical Activity in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder , Nicole Ramirez

Behavioral Skills Training to Teach Online Safety Responses to Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder , John Zinicola

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Assessing TAGteach Methodology to Improve Oral Reading Fluency in English Learners , Luz G. Cabrera

Evaluating the Diverted Attention Condition in a Trial-Based Functional Analysis , Kyle Frank

An Experimental Analysis of Voice Volume for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder , Arturo Garcia

Assessing Controlling Stimuli for Safety Responses in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder , Andrea Giraldo

A Functional Analysis of Physical Activity in Children with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities , Alexandra Knerr

Validity Analysis of a Modified Questions About Behavioral Function (QABF) Assessment: Preliminary Analysis , Christina Marie Sheppard

Assessing Displacement and Magnitude Effects on Relative Preferences of Edible and High-tech Leisure Items , Morgan Smith

Teaching Safe Dog-Greeting Skills with Parents and Children , Ashley Torres

Resurgence of Caregiver and Therapist Responses: The Recurrence of Unwanted Responses Under a Negative Reinforcement Context , Gabrielle Wiggins

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Varying Inter-Stimulus and Inter-Trial Intervals During Stimulus-Stimulus Pairing: A Translational Extension of Autoshaping , Patricia Eberhardt

Evaluating Correspondence Between Preference Assessments Requiring Motor and Vocal Responses , Marie Gilbert

Increasing Variable Play in Children with Autism Using a Lag Schedule and Stimulus Fading , Amelia Nelson

Using Video-Based Training to Teach Students the Conservative Dual-Criteria Method , Chandler Pelfrey

A Model for the Treatment of Food Selectivity , Angie Van Arsdale

An Evaluation of Differential Positive Reinforcement without Extinction for Escape-Maintained Problem Behavior , Sabrina Veilleux

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Using Response Card Technology to Reduce Disruptive Behavior in the College Classroom , Meera Aggarwal

Teaching Children with ASD Intraverbal Responses About the Past , Jeanne Gonzalez

A Comparison of Traditional and Culturally Sensitive Parent Training of Functional Communication Training , Adriana Rodriguez

Assessment and Treatment of Behavior Maintained by Automatic Reinforcement , Nicolette Yatros

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Generalized Reinforcement Effects on Manding: A Replication , Christina Rose Greco

Evaluating Preference Stability Among Individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease , Sabrine Maali

Functional Analysis and Treatment of Self-Injurious Feather Plucking in a Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus) , Kristen L. Morris

Evaluating TAGteach as a Training Procedure for Novice-to-Advanced Fastpitch Softball Pitchers , Breanna Sniffen

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General Information

Scientific support for applied behavior analysis from the neurobehavioral unit (nbu).

Over the past 40 years, an extensive body of literature has documented the successful use of ABA-based procedures to reduce problem behavior and increase appropriate skills for individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID), autism, and related disorders. The literature consists of numerous controlled studies employing single-case experimental designs, consecutive controlled case-series studies, controlled group studies, and some randomized controlled trials.

Types of Research Designs:

A number of different research designs are used to evaluate treatments and answer other questions about treatment procedures. Each type of design has its own scientific and practical strengths and limitations, and each is ideally suited to answer particular types of questions. The designs are discussed further below.

Single-case experimental designs:

Many studies demonstrating the outcomes obtained with ABA-based procedures use single-case experimental designs (also termed “single-subject designs”; Kazdin, 2010 & 2013) because this type of design is ideal for examining how the behavior of an individual changes as a function of changes in the environment – which is the subject of interest in the field of ABA. These studies often include a small number of individuals (typically between one to four). It should be noted that published studies using single-case experimental designs are not the same as “case reports” (often seen in clinical journals), which are typically simply descriptive in nature. Rather, studies using single-case designs are controlled studies where treatment is applied in a manner that allows one to demonstrate that the treatment was responsible for the change in behavior. These studies are methodologically rigorous because they involve direct observation of behavior and objective data collection where behaviors are defined and counted (often using a computerized data collection system). A second observer also collects data independently to ensure reliable and accurate data collection.

The most common type of single-case design is a reversal design, which involves the following: a pre-treatment baseline level of behavior is obtained, then treatment is applied, and after a change is observed, the treatment is withdrawn, then reapplied to replicate the treatment effect (Kazdin, 2010; Kratochwill & Levin, 2010). The “replication” of the treatment effect illustrates that the treatment (and not some other event) is responsible for the change. This type of design has excellent “internal validity,” which refers to the extent to which the change in behavior can be attributed to the intervention and not some other variable. Single-case designs are limited, however, in that one cannot determine the extent to which the findings for one study are applicable to other individuals or situations (that is, it has weak “external validity”). It is possible that only cases for which treatment was successful were included in the published study (a concern termed “publication bias”). On the other hand, the ABA literature spans four decades and describes the efficacy of these treatments across a wide range of populations, settings, and problems. Collectively, this extensive body of literature provides strong evidence supporting the external validity of ABA-based interventions.

In the field of ABA, single-case experimental designs are not reserved for exclusive use in research studies. Rather, their use represents good clinical practice. During assessment, single-case designs permit one to identify what factors cause the behavior in question. These findings are then prescriptive for developing an individualized treatment. In addition, single-case designs enable one to determine whether a prescribed treatment (or what particular elements of a treatment) is responsible for behavior change. Isolating the active ingredients of treatment is crucial in saving time and resources.

Consecutive controlled case series designs:

Consecutive controlled case-series studies describe a series of cases where single-case experimental designs were used (see Rooker et al., 2013 for a recent example). These studies describe all individuals encountered who were treated with a certain procedure (regardless of whether the treatment was effective or not), and thus have better external validity than cases involving fewer participants. Because all the cases in the series evaluated treatment using single-case experimental designs, consecutive controlled case-series studies have excellent internal validity as well. Moreover, because a large number of individuals are included, they provide an opportunity to answer other questions, including determining what characteristics predict good outcomes. Several large scale consecutive controlled case series studies describing ABA-based assessment and treatment procedures have been published, and their findings nicely correspond to the broader body of single-case studies describing smaller numbers of individuals.

Group designs:

In contrast to single-case experimental designs where the individual’s behavior change during treatment is compared to his/her own behavior without treatment, group designs evaluate treatments based on a comparison of a group of individuals receiving one treatment relative to another similar group of individuals who received no treatment (or a different treatment; Kazdin, 2003). In contrast to single-case designs, where the behaviors of an individual are observed extensively and repeatedly (often for many hours or days) before and after treatment, group designs involve fewer observations of each individual in the group but obtain these measures across large numbers of individuals. Statistical analyses are used to determine whether overall differences between the groups are large enough to conclude that they are not due to normal variation or “chance” (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003).

The most rigorous type of group design is a randomized controlled trial, which involves randomly assigning participants to a particular group (e.g., treatment or no treatment), and observers who evaluate the outcomes of the treatment do not know whether the participant received treatment or not (i.e., observers are “blinded”). When certain types of treatments, such as medications are being evaluated, the participant may also be “blind” to which group s/he is assigned through the administration of an inactive pill (a placebo). Several group studies describing comprehensive ABA-based interventions for individuals with autism have been published, including some that have used randomization (e.g., Sallows & Graupner, 2005; Smith, Groen, & Wynn, 2000). The most appropriate design to use in a particular situation depends on numerous factors, including the research question, consideration of the relative costs and benefits to participants, and the current state of knowledge about the topic of interest.

Findings from Controlled Studies Employing Single-Case Experimental Designs:

Small-n controlled studies:.

Over a thousand studies reporting on ABA-based assessment and treatment techniques have been published since the 1960’s. As discussed in the “types of research designs” section above, these controlled studies have strong internal validity as they use experimental designs that permit one to conclude that the intervention was responsible for the change in behavior. Studies on topics relevant to the use of ABA with persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities are most frequently published in journals such as: Behavioral Interventions, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, Research in Developmental Disabilities, Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. Topics of these studies include communication training, social skills training, behavioral assessment and treatment of problem behavior (e.g., self-injury, aggression), educational instruction, early intensive behavioral intervention, etc. For further information, the reader is referred to these journals or to an on-line search engine (i.e., PsychINFO, Google Scholar).

Consecutive Case-Series Studies:

As discussed on the types of research designs section above, consecutive controlled case-series studies describe a series of cases where single-case experimental designs were used with all individuals encountered (regardless of whether the treatment was effective or not).

Functional Analysis of Problem Behavior:

Focused ABA interventions for problem behavior are designed for each individual based on an understanding of what antecedents may “trigger” problem behavior and what consequences may reinforce (reward) it. Functional behavioral assessment can be performed using a range of procedures, including interviews, questionnaires, direct observation in the individual’s natural setting, and / or systematically presenting situations that can function as potential triggers or rewards and observing and recording how behavior changes with these events. This latter type of procedure, called a functional analysis, is the most rigorous type of functional behavioral assessment. In most cases, the results can reveal why problem behavior occurs and persists – and thus provides a foundation for focused interventions targeting these behaviors.

Literature reviews by Hanley, Iwata, and McCord (2003) and Beavers, Iwata, and Lerman (2013) collectively identified 435 peer-reviewed articles where functional analysis of problem behavior was reported. Studies listed below represent a sample of the large-scale consecutive controlled case series studies involving functional analysis. These studies demonstrate that functional analysis is highly effective in identifying the controlling variables for problem behavior.

Functional analysis across a variety of settings (inpatient, residential) Participants: 154 cases Results: Conclusive assessment results in over 90% of cases Reference:  Iwata BA, Pace GM, Dorsey MF, Zarcone JR, Vollmer TR, Smith RG, Rodgers TA, Lerman DC, Shore BA, Mazalesk JL, et al. (1994).  The functions of self-injurious behavior: An experimental-epidemiological analysis .  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(2) , 215-240.

Functional analysis in school settings Participants: 69 cases Results: Conclusive assessment results in over 90% of cases Reference: Mueller MM, Nkosi A, Hine JF. (2011). Functional analysis in public schools: A summary of 90 functional analyses . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(4) , 807-818.

Functional analysis of severe problem behavior Participants: 176 cases with severe problem behavior Results: Conclusive assessment results in over 90% of cases References: Hagopian LP, Rooker GW , Jessel J, DeLeon IG . (2013). Initial functional analysis outcomes and modifications in pursuit of differentiation: A summary of 176 inpatient cases . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(1) , 88-100.

ABA-Based Focused Treatment for Problem Behavior:

Studies employing rigorous single-case experimental designs describing ABA focused interventions for problem behavior have been reported for four decades. The following sample of large-scale consecutive controlled case series studies provide further support for the effectiveness of these interventions. Findings from these studies parallel findings from reviews and meta-analysis of small-n studies.

Functional communication training for treatment of problem behavior Participants: 21 inpatient cases with IDD Results: 80% or greater reduction in problem behavior in 90% of cases Reference: Hagopian LP , Fisher WW, Sullivan MT, Acquisto J, LeBlanc LA. (1998). Effectiveness of functional communication training with and without extinction and punishment: A summary of 21 inpatient cases . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31(2) , 211-235.

Function-based treatment for severe problem behavior Participants: 138 inpatient cases with IDD Results: 90% or greater reduction in problem behavior in over 83% of cases Reference: Asmus JM, Ringdahl JE, Sellers JA, Call NA, Andelman MS, Wacker DP. (2004). Use of a short-term inpatient model to evaluate aberrant behavior: Outcome data summaries from 1996 to 2001 . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(3) , 283-304.

Functional-based treatment delivered by care providers (mostly parents) for severe problem behavior Participants: 42 outpatient cases with IDD Results: 80% or greater reduction in problem behavior in 95% of cases Reference: Kurtz PF , Fodstad JC, Huete JM, Hagopian LP . (2013). Caregiver- and staff-conducted functional analysis outcomes: A summary of 52 cases . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(4) , 738-749.

Functional communication training for treatment of severe problem behavior Participants: 50 inpatient and outpatient cases with IDD Results: 80% or greater reduction in problem behavior in 86% of cases Reference: Rooker GW , Jessel J, Kurtz PF, Hagopian LP . (2013). Functional communication training with and without alternative reinforcement and punishment: An analysis of 58 applications . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(4) , 708-722.

Review Papers:

Broadly speaking, review papers summarize the published literature on a specific topic (e.g., diagnosis, type of assessment or treatment procedure). The reader is referred to recent reviews on comprehensive and focused ABA-based interventions for problems associated with autism:

• Anderson C,  Law JK , Daniels A, Rice C, Mandell DS,  Hagopian L , Law PA. (2012).  Occurrence and family impact of elopement in children with autism spectrum disorders .  Pediatrics, 130(5) , 870-877.
• Dawson G, Burner K. (2011). Behavioral interventions in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: A review of recent findings . Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 23(6) , 616-620.
• Doehring P, Reichow R, Palk T, Phillips C, Hagopian L . (2012). Behavioral approaches to managing severe problem behaviors in children with Autism Spectrum and Related Developmental Disorders: A descriptive analysis . Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Clinics of NA, 23(1), 25-40.
• Lang R, Mahoney R, El Zein F, Delaune E, Amidon M. (2011). Evidence to practice: Treatment of anxiety in individuals with autism spectrum disorders . Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 7 , 27-30.
• Myers SM, Johnson CP. (2007). Management of children with autism spectrum disorders . Pediatrics, 120(5) , 1162-1182.
• Reichow B, Volkmar FR. (2010). Social skills interventions for individuals with autism: Evaluation for evidence-based practices within a best evidence synthesis framework . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(2), 149-166.

Recent reviews on ABA-based procedures for persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD):

• Brosnan J, Healy O. (2011). A review of behavioral interventions for the treatment of aggression in individuals with developmental disabilities . Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(2) , 437-446.
• Hanley GP, Iwata BA, McCord BE. (2003).  Functional analysis of problem behavior: A review .  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36(2) , 147–185.
• Kahng S, Iwata BA, Lewin AB. (2002). Behavioral treatment of self-injury, 1964 to 2000 . American Journal on Mental Retardation, 107(3) , 212-221.
• Lang R, Rispoli M, Machalicek W, White PJ, Kang S, Pierce N, Mulloy A, Fragale T, O'Reilly M, Sigafoos J, Lancioni G. (2009).  Treatment of elopement in individuals with developmental disabilities: A systematic review .  Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30(4) , 670-681.
• Lilienfeld SO. (2005). Scientifically unsupported and supported interventions for childhood psychopathology: A summary . Pediatrics, 115(3) , 761-764.
• Sturmey P. (2002). Mental retardation and concurrent psychiatric disorder: Assessment and treatment . Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 15 , 489-495.
• Tiger JH, Hanley GP, Bruzek J. (2008). Functional communication training: A review and practical guide . Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1(1) , 16-23.

Review articles indicating that treatments for autism and intellectual disability derived from ABA-based procedures are empirically supported treatments also have been published in non-behavioral journals. For example, the journal Current Opinion in Psychiatry is a journal designed to assist clinicians and researchers by synthesizing the psychiatric literature. An article that reviewed the assessment and treatment of individuals with intellectual disabilities and psychiatric disorders concluded that: "Interventions based on applied behavior analysis have the strongest empirical basis, although there is some evidence that other therapies have promise" (Sturmey, 2002, p. 489). Also, in the journal Pediatrics, the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), an article offering guidelines on scientifically supported treatments for childhood psychiatric disorders concluded: "The most efficacious psychosocial treatment for autism is applied behavior analysis" (Lilienfeld, 2005, p. 762). The AAP issued a Clinical Report in Pediatrics regarding the management of children with autism, and the authors noted: “Children who receive early intensive behavioral treatment have been shown to make substantial, sustained gains in IQ, language, academic performance, and adaptive behavior as well as some measures of social behavior, and their outcomes have been significantly better than those of children in control groups” (Myers, & Johnson, 2007, p. 1164). In the Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Barbaresi et al. (2006) concluded, “ABA should be viewed as the optimal, comprehensive treatment approach in young children with ASD.”

Review papers finding support for ABA can be found in the following non-behavioral journals:

• Current Opinion in Psychiatry (Grey & Hastings, 2005; Sturmey, 2002)
• Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice (Herbert, Sharp, & Gaudiano, 2002)
• American Journal on Mental Retardation (Kahng, Iwata, & Lewin, 2002)
• Psychiatric Times (Erickson, Swiezy, Stigler, McDougle, & Posey, 2005)
• Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine (Barbaresi, Katusic, & Voigt, 2006)
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America (Doehring, Reichow, Palka, Phillips, & Hagopian, 2014)

Meta-Analyses:

In general, meta-analysis involves quantitative re-analysis of data reported in published studies. This requires standardizing treatment outcomes by statistically calculating “effect sizes” obtained within each study, for the purpose of evaluating data obtained across a group of studies on a particular treatment.

Similarly, seven meta-analyses (Campbell, 2003; Didden, Duker, & Korzilius, 1997; Harvey, Boer, Meyer, & Evans, 2009; Heyvaert, Maes, Van den Noortgate, Kuppens, & Onghena, 2012; Lundervold & Bourland, 1988; Ma, 2009; Weisz, Weiss, Han, Granger, & Morton, 1995) that collectively analyzed hundreds of studies concluded that ABA-based procedures were more effective for reducing problem behavior displayed by individuals with ID (as well as typically-developing individuals) than were alternative treatments. The large body of literature reviewed in these studies provides empirical evidence indicating that focused ABA interventions are effective at assessing and treating a variety of socially important behaviors emitted by individuals with a variety of diagnoses.

Furthermore, several meta-analytic studies also have found comprehensive ABA-based approaches for educating children with autism result in favorable outcomes (Eldevik, Hastings, Hughes, Jahr, Eikeseth, & Cross, 2010; Makrygianni & Reed, 2010; Reichow, 2012; Reichow, Barton, Boyd, & Hume, 2012; Virues-Ortega, 2010). In a recent meta-analytic study involving 22 studies, Virues-Ortega (2010) concluded: “Results suggest that long-term, comprehensive ABA intervention leads to (positive) medium to large effects in terms of intellectual functioning, language development, and adaptive behavior of individuals with autism” (p. 397).

Systematic Evaluative Reviews:

Systematic approaches for formally evaluating a body of research have been developed to determine if a particular intervention can be characterized as “empirically supported” or “established” based on the number, quality, and outcomes of published treatment studies. These efforts have been undertaken for the purpose of guiding clinical practice, influencing regulations and standards, providing priorities for funding (for both research and treatment), and guiding professional training (see Mesibov & Shea, 2011). For example, the American Psychological Association (Task Force Promoting Dissemination of Psychological Procedures, 1995) described a process to identify “empirically supported treatments.” Those interventions with the highest level of support are characterized as “well-established” (Chambless, et al, 1996).

Evaluations of the most commonly used focused ABA-based interventions (functional communication training and noncontingent reinforcement) indicated that these interventions meet criteria as “well-established” empiricially supported treatments (Carr, Severtson, & Lepper, 2009; Kurtz, Boelter, Jarmolowicz, Chin, & Hagopian, 2011). ABA-based treatments for pica (Hagopian, Rooker, & Rolider, 2011), and for treatment of phobic avoidance (Jennett & Hagopian, 2008) displayed by individuals with intellectual disabilities also have been characterized as “well-established.”

The National Standard Project of the National Autism Center developed a similar model to evaluate interventions for problems associated with autism (2009), which used the term “established” to describe interventions with the highest level of support. Using their evaluative method, the National Autism Center (2009) characterized comprehensive ABA-based interventions as being “established” treatments for autism.

Wong and colleagues (2013), as part of the Autism Evidence-Based Practice Review Group, describe a process for the identification of clinical practices that have sufficient empirical support to be termed “evidence-based.” The group stated in regards to the strength of evidence of ABA “Twenty-seven practices met the criteria for being evidence-based (see table 7, page 20)….evidence-based practices consist of interventions that are fundamental applied behavior analysis techniques (e.g., reinforcement, extinction, prompting), assessment and analytic techniques that are the basis for intervention (e.g., functional behavior assessment, task analysis), and combinations of primarily behavioral practices…”

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Teams of faculty and students have formed to study topics such as social skills training, translational research, and behavior-based safety. ABA students present their research at state and national conferences, such as the annual meeting of the Florida Association for Behavior Analysis (FABA) and the Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI). Many students have even been authors on manuscripts published in professional journals in behavior analysis. These journals include the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , Behavioral Interventions , the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management , the Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions,  and more!

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Award of $500 to assist in funding graduate student-driven research. Applicants must be a FABA member attending a graduate-level program in Florida. The proposal must be for a student-driven research project, thesis or dissertation approved by their department of study. Applicants do not have to be in a behavior analysis graduate program, but the research must be behavior analytic in nature. Consideration will be given to proposals that describe research with a focus on observable and measurable behavior (or the products thereof) as the dependent variable and the manipulation of well-defined environmental events as independent variables. 

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Welcome to our online space for ABA Parent Training Information and Resources. Find quality, research-supported information from a BCBA on all things Applied Behavior Analysis Parent Training.

Oct 11 6 Must - Teach Topics in ABA Parent Training: Be Sure to Cover These Topics in Applied Behavior Analysis Parent Training

Ever wonder what the essential topics are that you should focus on in ABA parent training services?

Sometimes, its hard to clarify exactly what it is that we should be teaching since there is, literally, unlimited number of things that we could teach.

Let’s take a closer look at what the literature says about what the most important topics are to teach parents when providing ABA-based parent training.

There are some common themes across the credible resources available on applied behavior analysis, parent training, and autism spectrum disorder (for those parents who have a child with ASD).

Parent Training Topic #1:

Antecedents, Behaviors, & Consequences (ABCs)

One common theme that arises throughout the literature that is important to address in parent training services is the topic of ABCs: Antecedents - Behaviors - Consequences.

Understanding the specific antecedents, behaviors, and consequences for a particular child’s behaviors can help a parent to learn “why” their child is doing something which can then help them to figure out what to do to proactively address and reactively respond to their child’s behaviors in order to help their child grow and develop in more productive and appropriate ways (Boone, 2018).

To learn more about the parent training topic of ABCs of behavior, get the free parent training lesson on this topic by entering your email below.

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The lesson plan that you can download above is taken directly from our ‘ One-Year ABA Parent Training Curriculum ’ and can be used with parents that you are working with. It includes

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Parent Training Topic #2:

Function-Based Intervention

Related to parent training topic #1, the second topic recommendation addresses function-based intervention.

Function-based intervention helps a parent to implement strategies that truly make a difference in helping their child improve skills and behaviors (Luiselli, 2017).

It can be helpful to teach parents how to analyze the ABC data they may collect on their child’s behavior and how to really observe their child’s behaviors in order to identify the function of the identified behavior.

Included in function-based intervention, parents should learn about the four functions of behavior:

After teaching parents about the functions of behaviors, help them to learn how to identify function-based strategies they can use to help their child reduce maladaptive behaviors and increase adaptive behaviors.

Here is a snippet of text from the ‘ One-Year ABA Parent Training Curriculum ’ about functions of behavior:

4 Functions of Behavior

Escape: The individual behaves in order to get out of or avoid doing something he or she does not want to do.

NOTE ABOUT ESCAPE : Escape-maintained behaviors may be due to lack of motivation to perform the task (they don’t want to) or lack of skill (it is too difficult).

Attention: The individual behaves to get focused attention from parents, teachers, siblings, peers, or other people around them.

NOTE ABOUT ATTENTION : Attention doesn’t have to simply be positive attention. Unpleasant examples include the caregiver talking in a stern voice or trying to explain reasons why the child should behave.

Access to Tangibles: The individual behaves in a certain way to get a preferred item or participate in an enjoyable activity.

NOTE ABOUT ACCESS: Access-maintained behavior may be simply the child gesturing toward something he wants, or it can be more problematic behaviors like whining, throwing, etc.

Automatic Reinforcement: The individual behaves in a specific way because it is reinforcing to them and is not maintained by behaviors from others or outside stimuli. This is sometimes referred to as sensory behaviors.

NOTE ABOUT AUTOMATIC REINFORCEMENT: Sometimes behaviors that look like self-harm may have an internal cause (such as medical issues).

Parent Training Topic #3:

Positive Reinforcement

Although positive reinforcement is a very common and regularly used concept in typical ABA-based direct service intervention, it may not be as common as a topic emphasized in parent training.

Positive reinforcement is one of the most effective and most highly recommended strategies for changing behavior and improving skills. This is why it should be emphasized in parent training services. Parents can help their children grow, learn, and succeed through the use of positive reinforcement in their daily lives.

Plus, by using positive reinforcement, parents can experience greater personal well-being as well as improve the quality of life and well-being of their family overall. By focusing on what is going right, what their child is doing well, on a regular basis, parenting and life in general can be more enjoyable as compared to focusing on the bad stuff - what the child is doing wrong or what is not going so well.

Positive reinforcement can be used to teach countless behaviors and skills and can be used in practically any setting. From teaching a child to tie his shoes to teaching a child to learn to speak in vocal words, sign language, or picture exchange communication, to teaching a child to display appropriate mealtime behaviors and any other skill you can think of, parents can use positive reinforcement in their everyday routines to help their child (Boone, 2018).

If you’d like a parent training handout on the topic: “Reinforcement & Punishment in ABA” you can get one by entering your email below.

Reinforcement & Punishment in ABA Parent Training

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Parent Training Topic #4:

Life Skills

Life skills is a name for a broad category of behaviors or abilities that everyone needs and uses (to some degree) on a daily basis.

Teaching parents about how to help their child develop life skills is an excellent topic for parent training services.

By learning more about effectively helping their child develop a variety of life skills, parents can have such great impact on positively influencing their child’s current and future life.

Parents who focus on supporting their child’s life skill development in a deliberate, committed, and strategic manner can have great influence on helping their child live life on a journey toward their greater potential.

By supporting a child’s life skills or daily living skills, that child can live life with more independence and strength. No matter the developmental level of a child compared to their biological age, life skills are important (Myers, 2010).

Jennifer McIlwee Myers, author of “ How to Teach Life Skills to Kids with Autism or Aspergers ,” makes an excellent point. She says (Myers, 2010, p. 5-6):

“The nature of schooling and our society mean that children are often judged and ranked by their academic skills. But there are jobs you can hold if you can’t read. There are jobs you can hold if you can’t write. There are even jobs you can hold if you can’t talk.

There are few or no jobs you can keep if you yell or scream when you don’t get what you expected. There are very rarely jobs you can hold if you can’t stop talking when your boss is trying to tell you something. Being on time and being dressed right for that activity are so important to employment that being late to or dressing badly for an interview are job-killers….

And even kids who will probably never be independent adults get more respect and more support if they can do the little things… A guy who has occasional meltdowns but mostly understands the idea of doing his fair share and of apologizing for causing others pain or inconvenience is simply more likely to be treated with a modicum of respect and friendliness than one whose behavior constantly triggers defensive responses from those around him.”

To get a handout on the topic of life skills (or daily living skills), enter your email below. You can give this to parents for a very brief overview of life skills.

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Parent Training Topic #5:

Generalization & Maintenance

In addition to teaching parents about basic ABA concepts including those listed above in this article as well as how to individualize it all to their own child, it is also essential to teach parents about generalization and maintenance of behavior and skill development (Kazdin, 2005).

Parents have the ability to help ensure that the progress their child makes in therapy, at school, or even at home with the parent is maintained over time and generalized to new settings, to new situations, and with new stimuli (Luiselli, 2017).

No one else has as much power as a parent does to help a child maintain progress and expand upon what the child has learned.

The below text about generalization is a sample extracted from our ‘ One-Year ABA Parent Training Curriculum :’

What is Generalization? A behavior has generalized if it has appeared in a wide variety of environments, it has spread to other related behaviors, or it lasts over time. Generalization can be defined as: “the occurrence of relevant behavior under different, non-training conditions (i.e., across subjects, settings, people, behaviors, and/or time) without the scheduling of the same events in those conditions. (Stokes and Baer, 1977 as cited in Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).

The three types of generalized behavior change include:

Response maintenance : Response maintenance refers to whether a behavior continues to be displayed even after treatment or intervention has stopped. The behavior lasts over time.

Setting/situation generalization : Setting/situation generalization is when a behavior occurs in settings other than where it was originally taught.

Response generalization : Response generalization is when a learner displays untrained responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained behavior

Parent Training Topic #6:

Rapport Building (Pairing)

Although the topic of rapport building (or pairing) between parent and child seems to be less often emphasized in the literature within the field of applied behavior analysis, the topic does seem extremely relevant and is often recommended in traditional parent training interventions such as in treatment of children with disruptive behaviors or in the evidence-based intervention known as Parent Child Interaction Therapy.

When parents are taught or learn to implement any strategy with the intent to change their child’s behavior in some way, it is very important for them to also focus on developing a healthy relationship with that child - in behavioral terms, the parent should pair themselves with positive reinforcement so that the child will view the parent as a positive reinforcer and be more willing to comply when demands and pressures are placed on them.

By associating the parent with the child’s preferred stimuli (activities, toys, etc.), the parent can become a generalized reinforcer for the child. The child then prefers the presence of the parent. He will be more likely to make choices that align with what the parent wants to see.

To develop rapport and engage in pairing activities, a parent should spend time with the child and around the child following the child’s lead, showing interest in the child, making no demands, only speaking with declarative language (which serves to share information about your positive observations and feelings such as “This is fun.” or “We’re playing with blocks.”).

Although parents can spend set time each day with their child engaging in pairing activities such as by spending 15 minutes of quality time together, pairing should regularly be intertwined with learning opportunities so that the child can easily go back and forth from experiencing the parent in a pairing activity and then within a learning opportunity.

It shouldn’t typically be clear to the child that there is a difference between playing and “working” with the parent (Schramm & Miller, 2014).

For instance, while playing at the park in a fun way consistent with “pairing,” the parent can insert a learning opportunity by saying “What’s this called?” for a child learning to tact items in the natural environment.

Since rapport building is strongly related to instructional control, you may also want to check out “T he Seven Steps to Earning Instructional Control .”

This article provided you with an overview of the top 6 recommendations that a service provider should address in parent training services based upon research within relevant literature.

As a review, the top 6 parent training topics to address in parent training services include:

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES

Aba parent training certificate course.

Advance your training in ABA-based parent training services. BCBAs get 30 CEUs. Self-paced online course. Learn more here .

Get the One-Year ABA Parent Training Curriculum VOLUME 1 & VOLUME 2 with the course!

One-Year ABA Parent Training Curriculum VOLUME 1: Introduction to Meaningful Change

Get 27 lessons to use in your parent training services. Includes parent handouts, forms to use during sessions, parent activities, and research to support your services. Learn more here.

One-Year ABA Parent Training Curriculum VOLUME 2: Supporting Daily Living Skills in Children and Teens

Learn more here.

Must-Teach Topics in ABA Parent Training Reference List

*The links below include affiliate links.

Boone, V. M. (2018). Positive parenting for autism: powerful strategies to help your child overcome challenges and thrive . Emeryville, CA: Althea Press.

Kazdin, A. E. (2009). Parent management training: treatment for oppositional, aggressive, and antisocial behavior in children and adolescents . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Luiselli, J. K. (2017). Applied behavior analysis advanced guidebook: a manual for professional practice . Amsterdam: Academic Press, Elsevier.

Myers, J. M. I., & Grandin, T. (2010). How to teach life skills to kids with autism or Aspergers . Future Horizons: Arlington, Tex.

Schramm, R., & Miller, M. (2014). The 7 steps to earning instructional control: a program guide for developing learner cooperation with Aba and verbal behavior . Place of publication not identified: publisher not identified.

Oct 23 3 Tips to Help Parents Connect - or "Pair" - with Their Teen with a Disability

Oct 5 Using ACT (Acceptance and Commitment Therapy) in ABA Parent Training

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Mar 7 ABA Parent Training (Tips for Quality Applied Behavior Analysis Parent Training)

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Feb 8 Why is Parent Training Important in ABA (Applied Behavior Analysis)?

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	Jun 16, 2024   2024-2025 Undergraduate Catalog     2024-2025 Undergraduate Catalog | TOTAL MINOR HOURS: 18 The Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) minor is for students seeking knowledge and skills in the field and is especially valuable for those seeking to become a Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analyst (BCaBA)® or those seeking to prepare for a graduate program in ABA. The ABA minor is open to all students. Minor Requirements Minor core (18 credit hours). MHS 3204 - Fundamentals of Applied Behavior Analysis Credit(s): 3 CLP 4414 - Behavior Modification Credit(s): 3 (Students who take CLP 4414    may not be eligible to take the national certification exam. Contact the ABA minor coordinator with questions.) MHS 4202 - Behavioral Assessment and Intervention Planning Credit(s): 3 MHS 4204 - Skills Assessment and Training in Applied Behavior Analysis Credit(s): 3 MHS 4208 - Organizational Behavior Management Credit(s): 3 MHS 4412 - Research Methods in Applied Behavior Analysis Credit(s): 3 MHS 4704 - Ethics in Applied Behavior Analysis Credit(s): 3 Grading Requirements A grade of B- or higher is required in every course in the minor. If a student gets a grade lower than a B- in a course, the student must retake that course to stay in the minor. Residency Requirement Fifty percent (50%) of the minor must be completed through USF coursework. Advising Information Students may contact the Coordinator of the ABA Minor for general questions at [email protected] . 451 IMAGES Principles of Applied Behavior Analysis for Behavior Therapists and 7 Dimensions of ABA [Applied Behavior Analysis] and ABA Therapy Details Applied Behavior Analysis PowerPoint and Google Slides Template 5 Research Topics for Applied Behavior Analysis Students What is Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) in Simple Term? 7 Dimensions of ABA [Applied Behavior Analysis] and ABA Therapy Details VIDEO Applied Behavior Analysis, early intervention ABA Beyond ASD Applied Behavior Analysis Webinar Applied Behavior Analysis Develop Behavior Analysis Skills to Improve Your Clients Quality of Life Experimental Designs- Unplugged Edition COMMENTS 5 Research Topics for Applied Behavior Analysis Students Research shows that successful application of applied forensic behavior analysis can lead to lower recidivism rates in convicts and a higher success rate in apprehending criminal suspects.". Applied behavior analysis students who research these fields could play big roles in advancing societal knowledge. 5. Education. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice is a multidisciplinary journal committed to increasing the communication between the subdisciplines within behavior analysis and psychology, and bringing up-to-date information on current developments within the field.. It publishes original research, reviews of the discipline, theoretical and conceptual work, applied research, translational research ... Applied Behavior Analysis Research Paper Topics The breadth and depth of applied behavior analysis research paper topics reflect the dynamic and evolving nature of the field. By exploring these diverse areas, students can contribute valuable insights and advancements to the practice and theory of ABA. We encourage students to delve into these topics, pursuing research that not only fulfills ... Applied Behavior Analysis Theses and Dissertations Effects of a multi-component interdependent group contingency game on the classroom behavior of typically developing elementary school children, Stacey D. Simonds. PDF. Establishing a Functional Analysis Protocol for Examining Behavioral Deficits using Social Withdrawal as an Exemplar, Melissa Penaranda Walters 47360 PDFs Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is the branch of behavior science focused on solving problems of social significance. For over six decades, ABA researchers and practitioners have sought to improve ... ABA from A to Z: Behavior Science Applied to 350 Domains of Socially In the early days of applied behavior analysis (ABA), its founding generation could have gathered at a single corner bar (e.g., see Rutherford, 2009).Today ABA subsumes numerous scholarly journals and professional organizations, many graduate training programs, and more than 54,000 certified practitioners worldwide at the master's level and above (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2022). Recommended ABA Journals Recommended ABA Journals (online only) Today, various journals contain articles about ABA, autism spectrum disorders, and related topics. Below are the current scholarly journals that are most heavily used by Penn State faculty and students. If you'd like additional recommendations, contact ABA librarians Nonny Schlotzhauer (University Park ... Research Methods in Applied Behavior Analysis This text covers good research design practices and methods used in applied behaviour analysis. The research design section consists of 10 steps which the reader can use when planning out their research project and covers topics such as: choosing a research topic to research, developing research questions using literature searches, identifying ... Subject Guides: Applied Behavior Analysis: Getting Started This guide is intended to help you find research on topics related to Applied Behavior Analysis by highlighting relevant databases, journals, and other resources. The guide also includes information about using a variety of the resources and services available through Auburn University Libraries. If you have any questions or run into any issues ... Research Methods in Applied Behavior Analysis Part II: Research Methods in Applied Behavior Analysis: Ten Steps for Successful Research. Step 1: Select Your General Topic, Find A Good Setting, and Choose Appropriate Participants. Step 2: Narrow Down Your Research Question. Step 3: Decide on Your Dependent and Independent Variables. Step 4: Establish Social Validity. Applied Behavior Analysis Summary. Applied behavior analysis refers to an approach toward treatment that includes an emphasis on antecedents, behaviors, and consequences and how these can be arranged to promote behavior change and a methodological approach toward assessment and evaluation. The interventions rely on principles of operant conditioning (reinforcement ... Library Guides: Applied Behavior Analysis: Finding Articles Applied Behavior Analysis. Links to databases for Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA), the use of operant conditioning in clinical and everyday settings. Also helpful for behavior modification, behavior therapy, autism spectrum disorders, and related topics. The best database for articles in Psychology, including ABA and autism. Research Guides: Applied Behavior Analysis: Literature Review A literature review may be conducted in order to inform practice and/or policy, serve as a basic element in a thesis or dissertation or as part of a proposal to obtain funding. The process can be divided into a series of steps: Choose a topic. Look at recent literature for ideas and do a bit of preliminary searching of the existing literature. The Evidence-Based Practice of Applied Behavior Analysis Abstract. Evidence-based practice (EBP) is a model of professional decision-making in which practitioners integrate the best available evidence with client values/context and clinical expertise in order to provide services for their clients. This framework provides behavior analysts with a structure for pervasive use of the best available ... Research Topics in ABA for Practitioners with Dr. Amber Valentino Her primary clinical and research interests span a variety of topics including verbal behavior, ways to connect the research to practice gap, professional ethics, and effective supervision. Dr. Valentino serves as an Associate Editor for Behavior Analysis in Practice and previously served as an Associate Editor for The Analysis of Verbal Behavior. PDF Basic Research in Behavior Analysis years; it is collectively called applied behavior analysis (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). For many years, behavior analysts have de-bated the extent to which basic research is rel-evant to applied behavior analysis applications and some, including one of us (Poling, 2010), have gone so far as to suggest that most basic Applied Behavior Analysis Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a type of therapy frequently applied to children with autism and other developmental disorders that focuses on imparting skills in specific domains of ... Thesis Projects Theses/Dissertations from 2024. PDF. Participant Preferences of Identified Maintaining Contingencies, Aubrey Ashby. PDF. An Assessment Process and Guide for Intervention to Increase Procedural Fidelity, Silvia Cabal. PDF. Functional Analysis and Intervention of Multiply Controlled Behavior, Nicole Carbonelli Rosa. PDF. Get Started Welcome to the Library's Guide to Research in Applied Behavior Analysis Use the menu on the left side of the screen to access research and writing tools which will help you complete assignments throughout your ABA program. Children enjoy ... activities during Autism Awareness Walk image by NARA & DVIDS Public Domain Archive is in the Public Domain Scientific Support for Applied Behavior Analysis from the Studies on topics relevant to the use of ABA with persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities are most frequently published in journals such as: Behavioral Interventions, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, Research in Developmental ... ABA Resources Applied behavior analysis : fifty case studies in home, school, and community settings by Kimberly Maich, Darren Levine, Carmen Hall This textbook offers real-world case studies for using Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) to create, implement, and appraise behavior intervention programs across a variety of client situations. Its chapters are formatted for ease of use and retention and organized ... ABA Research Teams ABA Research Teams. ABA students are encouraged to get involved in behaviorally-based research projects under the mentorship of a faculty member to learn about the science of behavior analysis outside of the classroom. ABA research topics range from functional analysis of problem behavior, to the assessment and treatment of feeding disorders ... 6 Must Find quality, research-supported information from a BCBA on all things Applied Behavior Analysis Parent Training. ... between parent and child seems to be less often emphasized in the literature within the field of applied behavior analysis, the topic does seem extremely relevant and is often recommended in traditional parent training ... Program: Applied Behavior Analysis Minor MHS 4412 - Research Methods in Applied Behavior Analysis Credit(s): 3; MHS 4704 - Ethics in Applied Behavior Analysis Credit(s): 3; Grading Requirements. A grade of B- or higher is required in every course in the minor. If a student gets a grade lower than a B- in a course, the student must retake that course to stay in the minor. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): Mental Health Term Definition Applied behavior analysis is a form of behavioral therapy often used to support Autistic children, teens, and adults that focuses on building skills in areas like communication, hygiene, and socialization. ... ABA therapy has changed as research on autism has expanded and understanding of neurodivergence has increased, so punishment is rarely a ... assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review speech thesis