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7 Depression Research Paper Topic Ideas

In psychology classes, it's common for students to write a depression research paper. Researching depression may be beneficial if you have a personal interest in this topic and want to learn more, or if you're simply passionate about this mental health issue. However, since depression is a very complex subject, it offers many possible topics to focus on, which may leave you wondering where to begin.

If this is how you feel, here are a few research titles about depression to help inspire your topic choice. You can use these suggestions as actual research titles about depression, or you can use them to lead you to other more in-depth topics that you can look into further for your depression research paper.

What Is Depression?

Everyone experiences times when they feel a little bit blue or sad. This is a normal part of being human. Depression, however, is a medical condition that is quite different from everyday moodiness.

Your depression research paper may explore the basics, or it might delve deeper into the definition of clinical depression or the difference between clinical depression and sadness .

What Research Says About the Psychology of Depression

Studies suggest that there are biological, psychological, and social aspects to depression, giving you many different areas to consider for your research title about depression.

Types of Depression

There are several different types of depression that are dependent on how an individual's depression symptoms manifest themselves. Depression symptoms may vary in severity or in what is causing them. For instance, major depressive disorder (MDD) may have no identifiable cause, while postpartum depression is typically linked to pregnancy and childbirth.

Depressive symptoms may also be part of an illness called bipolar disorder. This includes fluctuations between depressive episodes and a state of extreme elation called mania. Bipolar disorder is a topic that offers many research opportunities, from its definition and its causes to associated risks, symptoms, and treatment.

Causes of Depression

The possible causes of depression are many and not yet well understood. However, it most likely results from an interplay of genetic vulnerability and environmental factors. Your depression research paper could explore one or more of these causes and reference the latest research on the topic.

For instance, how does an imbalance in brain chemistry or poor nutrition relate to depression? Is there a relationship between the stressful, busier lives of today's society and the rise of depression? How can grief or a major medical condition lead to overwhelming sadness and depression?

Who Is at Risk for Depression?

This is a good research question about depression as certain risk factors may make a person more prone to developing this mental health condition, such as a family history of depression, adverse childhood experiences, stress , illness, and gender . This is not a complete list of all risk factors, however, it's a good place to start.

The growing rate of depression in children, teenagers, and young adults is an interesting subtopic you can focus on as well. Whether you dive into the reasons behind the increase in rates of depression or discuss the treatment options that are safe for young people, there is a lot of research available in this area and many unanswered questions to consider.

Depression Signs and Symptoms

The signs of depression are those outward manifestations of the illness that a doctor can observe when they examine a patient. For example, a lack of emotional responsiveness is a visible sign. On the other hand, symptoms are subjective things about the illness that only the patient can observe, such as feelings of guilt or sadness.

An illness such as depression is often invisible to the outside observer. That is why it is very important for patients to make an accurate accounting of all of their symptoms so their doctor can diagnose them properly. In your depression research paper, you may explore these "invisible" symptoms of depression in adults or explore how depression symptoms can be different in children .

How Is Depression Diagnosed?

This is another good depression research topic because, in some ways, the diagnosis of depression is more of an art than a science. Doctors must generally rely upon the patient's set of symptoms and what they can observe about them during their examination to make a diagnosis.

While there are certain laboratory tests that can be performed to rule out other medical illnesses as a cause of depression, there is not yet a definitive test for depression itself.

If you'd like to pursue this topic, you may want to start with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The fifth edition, known as DSM-5, offers a very detailed explanation that guides doctors to a diagnosis. You can also compare the current model of diagnosing depression to historical methods of diagnosis—how have these updates improved the way depression is treated?

Treatment Options for Depression

The first choice for depression treatment is generally an antidepressant medication. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most popular choice because they can be quite effective and tend to have fewer side effects than other types of antidepressants.

Psychotherapy, or talk therapy, is another effective and common choice. It is especially efficacious when combined with antidepressant therapy. Certain other treatments, such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) or vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), are most commonly used for patients who do not respond to more common forms of treatment.

Focusing on one of these treatments is an option for your depression research paper. Comparing and contrasting several different types of treatment can also make a good research title about depression.

A Word From Verywell

The topic of depression really can take you down many different roads. When making your final decision on which to pursue in your depression research paper, it's often helpful to start by listing a few areas that pique your interest.

From there, consider doing a little preliminary research. You may come across something that grabs your attention like a new study, a controversial topic you didn't know about, or something that hits a personal note. This will help you narrow your focus, giving you your final research title about depression.

Remes O, Mendes JF, Templeton P. Biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression: A review of recent literature . Brain Sci . 2021;11(12):1633. doi:10.3390/brainsci11121633

National Institute of Mental Health. Depression .

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition . American Psychiatric Association.

National Institute of Mental Health. Mental health medications .

Ferri, F. F. (2019). Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2020 E-Book: 5 Books in 1 . Netherlands: Elsevier Health Sciences.

By Nancy Schimelpfening Nancy Schimelpfening, MS is the administrator for the non-profit depression support group Depression Sanctuary. Nancy has a lifetime of experience with depression, experiencing firsthand how devastating this illness can be.

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233 Depression Research Topics & Essay Titles + Examples

If you’re looking for a good depression research title, you’re at the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared a list of titles for depression essays and research questions that you can use for your presentation, persuasive paper, and other writing assignments. Read on to find your perfect research title about depression!

🙁 TOP 7 Depression Title Ideas

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Teenage Depression: Causes and Symptoms
Depression: Case Conceptualization and Treatment Planning
Depression and Solutions in Psychiatry
Depression and Depressive Disorders
Adolescent Mental Health: Depression
Depression: Comprehensive Treatment Plan
CBT and Depression
Mitigating Postnatal Depression in New Mothers: A Recreational Program Plan Post-natal depression is a popular form of depression in women. This paper presents an activity plan for the use of leisure as a therapeutic response to post-natal depression.
Depression as It Relates to Obesity This paper will argue that there is a positive correlation between depression and obesity. The paper will make use of authoritative sources to reinforce this assertion.
Social Media as a Cause of Anxiety and Depression Anxiety and depression are considerable problems for world society. Numerous studies have linked high social media use with high levels of anxiety and depression.
Major Depression’ Symptoms and Treatment – Psychology A continuous sense of tiredness, unhappiness, and hopelessness are key signs of clinical or major depression. Such mood changes alter the daily life programs of an individual for sometimes.
African American Children Suffering From Anxiety and Depression Depression and anxiety are common among African American children and adolescents, and they face significant barriers to receiving care and treatment.
The Rise of Depression in the Era of the Internet Understanding how the Internet affects human lives is essential in ascertaining the reasons for the growing loneliness in the intrinsically connected world.
Geriatric Depression Scale, Clock Drawing Test and Mini-Mental Status Examination Depression is a common condition among geriatric patients. Around 5 million older adults in the US experience significant morbidity from depression.
History and Treatment of Depression Depression is currently one of the most common medical conditions among the adult population in the US. The paper aims to investigate the history and treatment of depression.
Self-Esteem and Depression in Quantitative Research The topic that has been proposed for quantitative research pertains to the problem of the relationship between self-esteem and depression.
Diagnosing and Managing Headaches and Weight Gain in a 21-Year-Old Young people are busy at studies or at work and do not pay much attention to primary symptoms unless they influence the quality of life.
Impact of Depression on a Family The article makes a very powerful argument about the effects of depression on the relatives of the patient by identifying the major factors that put the family into a challenging position.
The Causes of Depression and How to Overcome It In this self-reflection essay, the author describes the causes of his depression and the steps he is taking to overcome it.
Application of Analysis of Variance in the Analysis of HIV/AIDS-Related Depression Cases Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a commonly used approach in the testing of the equality of various means using variance.
Theories in Depression Treatment This study analyzes the theories pertinent to depression treatment, reviews relevant evidence, defines key concepts of the project, and explains the framework chosen for it.
Depression in Older Adults Depression is one of the most common mental illnesses in the world. Evidence-based holistic intervention would provide more effective treatment for elderly patients with depression.
Smoking Cessation and Depression It was estimated that nicotine affects the human’s reward system. As a result, smoking cessation might lead to depression and other mental disorder.
Guideline on Antidepressants’ Use During Depression The paper states that in cases when antidepressants are necessary, it is vital to follow the algorithm and ensure the most effective drug is selected.
Postnatal Depression: Prevention and Treatment This presentation will cover the reflection on the health promotion aimed at postnatal depression prevention and treatment in Mental Health UK.
Treating Psychological Disorders: Depression The best psychological treatment for clinical depression is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Psychodynamic Approach, which focus on altering negative thoughts.
Social Media as a Tool for Depression Detection This article would make a source for research on the link between social media and depression because it suggests an adequate technological tool for detecting depressive signs.
Anxiety, Depression, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Currently, many people experience anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder that affect their general health.
Women’s Mental Health Disorder: Major Depression The mental health disorder paper aims to explore major depression, its symptoms, assessment, and intervention strategies appropriate for women.
Depression in Young Adults: Annotated Bibliography The purpose of this study was to discover sociodemographic and health traits related to depression sufferers’ usage of various mental health services.
Depression in Middle-Aged African Women The research study investigates depression in middle-aged African women because the mental health of the population is a serious concern of the modern healthcare sector.
Detecting Depression in Young Adults: Literature Review The paper shows a need for early identification of depression symptoms in primary care practice. PHQ-2 and PHQ-9 are useful tools for portraying symptoms.
Predicting Barriers to Treatment for Depression Mental health issues such as depression and drug abuse are the most frequent among teenagers and young adults. In this age range, both disorders tend to co-occur.
Early Diagnosis of Depression: Public Health Depression in young adults has become a significant health problem across the US. It causes persistent feelings of loss of interest in activities and sadness.
Depression and Social Media in Scientific vs. Popular Articles The damage can come in the form of misinformation, which can result in an unjustified and unnecessary self-restriction of social media.
What Are the Characteristics and Causes of Depression?
Why Are Athletes Vulnerable to Depression?
Why and How Adolescents Are Affected by Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Clinical Depression?
Does Depression Assist Eating Disorders?
What Should You Know About Depression?
How Can Mother Nature Lower Depression and Anxiety?
How Can Video Games Relieve Stress and Reduce Depression?
When Does Teacher Support Reduce Depression in Students?
Why Are Teenagers Affected by Depression?
How Teens and Depression Today?
Are Mental Health Issues Like Depression Related to Race?
What Does Depression Mean?
How Did the Depression Affect France?
How Does Depression Stop?
When Postpartum Depression Leads to Psychosis?
How Do Medication and Therapy Combat Depression?
What Are the Leading Causes of Depression?
What About Drugs for Anxiety and Depression?
What’s the Big Deal About Anxiety and Depression in Students?
How Should Childhood Depression and Anxiety Be?
How Do Gender Stereotypes Warp Our View of Depression?
What Are the Signs of Teenage Depression?
Are Testosterone Levels and Depression Risk Linked Based on Partnering and Parenting?
How Psychology Helps People With Depression?
How Should Childhood Depression and Anxiety Be Treated or Dealt With?
Depression in Adolescence: Causes and Treatment Depression amongst young adults at the puberty stage comes in hand with several causes that one cannot imagine, and depression happens or is triggered by various reasons.
Addressing Depression Among Native Youths The current paper aims to utilize a Medicine Wheel model and a social work paradigm to manage depression among Native American Indian youths.
Psychological Assessments and Intervention Strategies for Depression The article presents two case studies highlighting the importance of psychological assessments and intervention strategies for individuals experiencing depression.
The Impact of Postpartum Maternal Depression on Postnatal Attachment This paper examines the influence of postpartum maternal depression on postnatal infant attachment, discusses the adverse effects of depression on attachment.
Marijuana Effects on Risk of Anxiety and Depression The current paper aims to find out whether medical cannabis can positively affect anxiety and depression and the process of their treatment.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety and Depression Cognitive behavioral therapy analyzes the unconscious processes influencing the normal functioning of the human body, causing different pathologies.
Hypnotherapy as an Effective Method for Treating Depression This paper explores the use of hypnotherapy as a treatment for depression and highlights the advantages of hypnosis in addressing depressive symptoms.
Depression and Anxiety: Mary’s Case Mary’s husband’s death precipitated her depression and anxiety diagnosis. She feels lonely and miserable as she struggles with her daily endeavors with limited emotional support.
Depression: Psychoeducational Intervention This paper considers the peculiarities of the application of psychoeducation in depression, including advantages, limitations, and ethical aspects.
Postpartum Depression in Women and Men The focus of the paper is health problems that affect women after giving birth to a child, such as depression. The author proposes that men also experience postpartum depression.
Repression and Depression in “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman In “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, the author highlighted the connection between repression and depression.
Men and Depression: Signs, Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment Depression in men and women has several incompatibilities as males suffer from health problems more often than women as they rarely express their emotions.
Promotion of Change Regarding Adolescent Depression In the essay, the author describes the methods to evaluate the symptoms of a patient who has been referred for counseling with depression.
Interventions to Cope With Depression Depression is characterized by sadness, anxiety, feelings of worthlessness, and helplessness. These feelings do not necessarily relate to life events.
Bipolar Depression and Bipolar Mania Although all bipolar disorders are characterized by periods of extreme mood, the main difference between them is the severity of the condition itself.
Post-Stroke Anxiety and Depression The purpose of the given study is to ascertain how cognitive behavior therapy affects individuals with post-stroke ischemia in terms of depression reduction.
Depression and Anxiety Management The medical staff will investigate the treatment modalities currently being utilized for the large population of patients experiencing symptoms of anxiety and depression.
Depression in Hispanic Culture There are different ways in which culture or ethnicity can impact the treatment of the development of mental health disorders.
Impacts of Stress of Low Income on the Risk of Depression in Children Socioeconomic hardships lead to a decline in the quality of parenting and the development of psychological and behavioral problems in children.
Depression: Diagnostics and Treatment Depression, when it remains unchecked, can cause detrimental effects to individuals, such as suicide, which will eventually equate to mental disorders.
Depression and Anxiety in Mental Health Nurses Depression and anxiety are the most common mental diseases in humans. Nurses who work in mental health are at significant risk of getting psychiatric illnesses.
Psychedelics in Depression and Anxiety Treatment Mental illnesses have become an essential part of health in the last few decades, with sufficient attention being devoted to interventions that resolve them.
Depression and Anxiety Among African-American Children Depression and anxiety are common among African-American children and adolescents, but they face significant barriers to receiving care and treatment due to their age and race.
Why Are Physical Activities Treatments for Depression? In this paper, the connection between physical activities and depression will be analyzed, and the common counterargument will be discussed.
Depression in the Older Population The paper discusses depression is an actual clinical disorder for older people with specific reasons related to their age.
Nutrition and Depression: A Psychological Perspective When discussing nutrition in toddlers and certain behavioral patterns, one of the first standpoints to pay attention to is the humanistic perspective.
Social Media and Depression in Adolescents: The Causative Link This paper explores how social media causes depression in adolescents during the social-emotional stage of life.
Physical Activities as Treatment for Depression This paper will discuss what factors are improved via physical exercise and how they help with treating depression.
“Yoga for Depression” Article by The Minded Institute One can say that depression is both the biological and mental Black Death of modern humanity in terms of prevalence and negative impact on global health.
Therapeutic Interventions for the Older Adult With Depression and Dementia The paper researches the therapeutic interventions which relevant for the older people with depression and dementia nowadays.
Depression Among Patients With Psoriasis Considering psoriasis as the cause of the development of depressive disorders, many researchers assign a decisive role to the severe skin itching that accompanies psoriasis.
Qi Gong Practices’ Effects on Depression Qi Gong is a set of physical and spiritual practices aimed at the balance of mind, body, and soul and the article demonstrates whether it is good or not at treating depression.
The Effects of Forgiveness Therapy on Depression for Women The study analyzes the impact of forgiveness therapy on the emotional state of women who have experienced emotional abuse.
Relation Between the COVID-19 Pandemic and Depression The paper is to share an insight into the detrimental effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of thousands of people and provide advice on how to reduce its impact.
Post-operative Breast Cancer Patients With Depression: Annotated Bibliography This paper is an annotated bibliography about risk reduction strategies at the point of care: Post-operative breast cancer patients who are experiencing depression.
Is depression a biological condition or a result of unrealistic expectations?
Should employers be legally required to provide support to workers with depression?
Do the media portrayals of depression accurately reflect people’s experiences?
Social media contributes to depression rates by eliciting the feeling of loneliness.
Should mental health screening be mandatory in schools?
Should depression be reclassified as a neurological disorder?
Antidepressants are an overused quick-fix solution to depression.
Should non-pharmacological treatments for depression be prioritized?
Should depression be considered a disability?
The use of electroconvulsive therapy for depression should be banned.
How Covid-19 Isolation Contributed to Depression and Adolescent Suicide The pandemic affected adolescents because of stringent isolation measures, which resulted in mental challenges such as depression and anxiety, hence suicidal thoughts.
Depression and Anxiety in Older Generation Depression and anxiety represent severe mental disorders that require immediate and prolonged treatment for patients of different ages.
Coping with Depression After Loss of Loved Ones This case is about a 60-year-old man of African American origin. He suffered from depression after his wife’s death, which made him feel lonely and isolated.
Postpartum Depression Screening Program Evaluation In order to manage the depression of mothers who have just delivered, it is important to introduce a routine postpartum depression-screening program in all public hospitals.
Depression: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment Depression interferes with daily routine, wasting valuable time and lowering production. Persistent downs or blues, sadness, and anger may be signs of depression.
Is Creativity A Modern Panacea From Boredom and Depression? Communication, daily life, and working patterns become nothing but fixed mechanisms that are deprived of any additional thoughts and perspectives.
Adolescent Males With Depression: Poly-Substance Abuse Depression is the most crucial aspect that makes young males indulge in poly-substance abuse. There are various ways in which male adolescents express their depression.
The Health of the Elderly: Depression and Severe Emotional Disturbance This study is intended for males and females over the age of 50 years who are likely to suffer from depression and severe emotional disturbance.
Suicidal Ideation & Depression in Elderly Living in Nursing Home vs. With Family This paper attempts to compare the incidence of suicidal ideation and depression among elderly individuals living in nursing homes and those living with family in the community.
Major Depression: Symptoms and Treatment Major depression is known as clinical depression, which is characterized by several symptoms. There are biological, psychological, social, and evolutionary causes of depression.
Health Disparity Advocacy: Clinical Depression in the U.S. Recent statistics show that approximately more than 10 million people suffer from severe depression each year in the U.S..
The Treatment of Anxiety and Depression The meta-analysis provides ample evidence, which indicates that CES is not only effective but also safe in the treatment of anxiety and depression.
Depression Intervention Among Diabetes Patients The research examines the communication patterns used by depression care specialist nurses when communicating with patients suffering from diabetes.
Postnatal Depression in New Mothers and Its Prevention Leisure activities keep new mothers suffering from postnatal depression busy and enable them to interact with other members of the society.
Literature Evaluation on the Depression Illness The evaluation considers the articles that study such medical illness as depression from different planes of its perception.
Treatment of Major Depression The purpose of the paper is to identify the etiology and the treatment of major depression from a psychoanalytic and cognitive perspective.
Edinburgh Depression Screen for Treating Depression Edinburgh Depression screen is also known as Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale which is used to screen pregnant and postnatal women for emotional distress.
Depression Treatment Variants in the US There is a debate regarding the best formula for depression treatment whereby some argue for using drugs, whereas others are advocating for therapy.
Effects of Music Therapy on Depressed Elderly People Music therapy has been shown to have positive effects among people, and thus the aim was to assess the validity of such claims using elderly people.
Depression in the Elderly: Treatment Options Professionals may recommend various treatment options, including the use of antidepressants, psychotherapy such as cognitive-behavioral therapy.
Depression Treatments and Therapeutic Strategies This article examines the effectiveness of different depression treatments and reviews the therapeutic strategies, which can be helpful if the initial treatment fails.
Depression and the Nervous System Depression is a broad condition that is associated with failures in many parts of the nervous system. It can be both the cause and the effect of this imbalance.
Depression: Types, Symptoms, Etiology & Management Depression differs from other disorders, connected with mood swings, and it may present a serious threat to the individual’s health condition.
The Effect of Music Therapy on Depression One major finding of study is that music therapy alleviates depression among the elderly. Music therapy could alleviate depression.
“Neighborhood Racial Discrimination and the Development of Major Depression” by Russell The study investigates how neighborhood racial discrimination influences this severe mental disorder among African American Women.
Adolescent Depression and Physical Health Depression in adolescents and young people under 24 is a factor that affects their physical health negatively and requires intervention from various stakeholders.
Family Support to a Veteran With Depression Even the strongest soldiers become vulnerable to multiple health risks and behavioral changes, and depression is one of the problems military families face.
Alcohol and Depression Article by Churchill and Farrell The selected article for this discussion is “Alcohol and Depression: Evidence From the 2014 Health Survey for England” by Sefa Awaworyi Churchill and Lisa Farrell.
Does Social Media Use Contribute to Depression? Social media is a relatively new concept in a modern world. It combines technology and social tendencies to enhance interaction through Internet-based gadgets and applications.
Negative Effects of Depression in Adolescents on Their Physical Health Mental disorders affect sleep patterns, physical activity, digestive and cardiac system. The purpose of the paper to provide information about adverse impacts of depression on health.
Depression in the Contemporary Society Public awareness about depression has increased in recent years, with more attention dedicated to the need for addressing this serious mental health illness and less stigmatization.
Elderly Depression: Symptoms, Consequences, Behavior, and Therapy The paper aims to identify symptoms, behavioral inclinations of older adults, consequences of depression, and treatment ways.
Major Depression Disorder: Causes and Treatment Loss in weight and appetite are some of the symptoms that a patient diagnosed with Major Depression Disorder could manifest.
Components of the Treatment of Depression The most effective ways of treating people with depression include pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy or a combination of both.
Mood Disorders: Depression Concepts Description The essay describes the nature of depression, its causes, characteristics, consequences, and possible ways of treatment.
Can physical exercise alone effectively treat depression?
Art therapy as a complementary treatment for depression.
Is there a link between perfectionism and depression?
The influence of sleep patterns on depression treatment outcomes.
Can exposure to nature and green spaces decrease depression rates in cities?
The relationship between diet and depression symptoms.
The potential benefits of psychedelic-assisted therapy in treating depression.
The role of outdoor experiences in alleviating depression symptoms.
The relationship between depression and physical health in older adults.
The role of workplace culture in preventing employee depression.
Geriatric Depression Diagnostics Study Protocol The research question is: how does the implementation of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines affect the accuracy of diagnosing of depression?
Mental Health Association of Depression and Alzheimer’s in the Elderly Depression can be a part of Alzheimer’s disease. Elderly people may have episodes of depression, but these episodes cannot be always linked to Alzheimer’s disease.
Protective Factors Against Youthful Depression Several iterations of multiple correlation, step-wise and hierarchical regression yielded inconclusive results about the antecedents of youthful depression.
Depression and Other Antecedents of Obesity Defeating the inertia about taking up a regular programme of sports and exercise can be a challenging goal. Hence, more advocacy campaigns focus on doing something about obesity with a more prudent diet.
Depression and Related Psychological Issues Depression as any mental disorder can be ascribed, regarding the use of psychoanalysis, to a person`s inability to control his destructive or sexual instincts or impulses.
Television Habituation and Adolescent Depression The paper investigates the theory that there is a link between heavy TV viewing and adolescent depression and assess the strength of association.
Physiological Psychology. Postpartum Depression Depression is a focal public health question. In the childbearing period, it is commoner in females than in males with a 2:1 ratio.
Adolescent Depression: Modern Issues and Resources Teenagers encounter many challenging health-related issues; mental health conditions are one of them. This paper presents the aspects of depression in adolescents.
Depression Among Rich People Analysis Among the myriad differences between rich and poor people is the manner in which they are influenced by and respond to depression.
Occupational Psychology: Depression Counselling The case involves a 28-year-old employee at Data Analytics Ltd. A traumatic event affected his mental health, causing depression and reduced performance.
Psychotherapeutic Group: Treatment of Mild-To-Moderate Depression The aim of this manual is to provide direction and employ high-quality sources dedicated to mild-to-moderate depression and group therapy to justify the choices made for the group.
Transition Phase of Depression and Its’ Challenges Providing psychoeducation to people with mild to moderate depression, strategies for recognizing and addressing conflict and reluctance are discussed in this paper
“Depression and Ways of Coping With Stress” by Orzechowska et al. The study “Depression and Ways of Coping With Stress” by Orzechowska et al. aimed the solve an issue pertinent to nursing since depression can influence any patient.
Action Research in Treating Depression With Physical Exercise Depression is one of the most common mental health disorders in the United States. The latest statistics showed that depression does not discriminate against age.
Postpartum Depression: Evidence-Based Practice Postpartum or postnatal depression refers to a mood disorder that can manifest in a large variety of symptoms and can range from one person to another.
Effectiveness of Telenursing in Reducing Readmission, Depression, and Anxiety The project is dedicated to testing the effectiveness of telenursing in reducing readmission, depression, and anxiety, as well as improving general health outcomes.
Adult Depression Treatment in the United States This study characterizes the treatment of adult depression in the US. It is prompted by the findings of earlier studies, which discover the lack of efficient depression care.
Nurses’ Interventions in Postnatal Depression Treatment This investigation evaluates the effect of nurses’ interventions on the level of women’s postnatal depression and their emotional state.
Postpartum Depression: Evidence-Based Care Outcomes In this evidence-based study, the instances of potassium depression should be viewed as the key dependent variable that will have to be monitored in the course of the analysis.
Postpartum Depression: Diagnosis and Treatment This paper aims to discuss the peculiarities of five one-hour classes on depression awareness, to implement this intervention among first-year mothers, and to evaluate its worth during the first year after giving birth.
Homelessness and Depression Among Illiterate People There are various myths people have about homelessness and depression. For example, many people believe that only illiterate people can be homeless.
Postpartum Depression In First-time Mothers The most common mental health problem associated with childbirth remains postpartum depression, which can affect both sexes, and negatively influences the newborn child.
The Diagnosis and Treatment of Postpartum Depression Postpartum depression has many explanations, but the usual way of referring to this disease is linked to psychological problems.
The Concept of Postpartum Depression Postpartum depression is a common condition involving psychological, emotional, social, and physical changes that many new mothers experience immediately after giving birth.
What Is Postpartum Depression? Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment The prevalence of postpartum depression is quite high as one in seven new American mothers develops this health issue.
Baby Blues: What We Know About Postpartum Depression The term Postpartum Depression describes a wide variety of physical and emotional adjustments experienced by a significant number of new mothers.
Depression in Adolescence as a Contemporary Issue Depression in adolescents is not medically different from adult depression but is caused by developmental and social challenges young people encounter.
Predictors of Postpartum Depression The phenomenon of postpartum depression affects the quality of women’s lives, as well as their self-esteem and relationships with their child.
Depression and Self-Esteem: Research Problem Apart from descriptively studying the relationship between depression and self-esteem, a more practical approach can be used to check how interventions for enhancing self-esteem might affect depression.
The Relationship Between Depression and Self-Esteem The topic which is proposed to be studied is the relationship between depression and self-esteem. Self-esteem can be defined as individual’s subjective evaluation of his or her worth.
The Impact of Depression on Motherhood This work studies the impact of depression screening on prenatal and posts natal motherhood and effects on early interventions using a literature review.
Depression and Workplace Violence The purpose of this paper is to provide an in-depth analysis how can workplace violence and verbal aggression be reduced or dealt with by employees.
Depression in Female Cancer Patients and Survivors Depression is often associated with fatigue and sleep disturbances that prevent females from thinking positively and focusing on the treatment and its outcomes.
Treating Mild Depression: Psychotherapy and Pharmacotherapy The project intends to investigate the comparative effectiveness of the treatments that are currently used for mild depression.
The Geriatric Population’s Depression This paper discusses how does the implementation of National Institute for Health and Care guidelines affect the accuracy of diagnosing of depression in the geriatric population.
Problem of Depression: Recognition and Management Depression is a major health concern, which is relatively prevalent in the modern world. Indeed, in the US, 6.7 % of adults experienced an episode of the Major Depressive Disorder in 2015.
Health and Care Excellence in Depression Management The introduction of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines can affect the accuracy of diagnosing and quality of managing depression.
Impact of COVID-19 on Depression and Suicide Rates among Adolescents and Young People The purpose of this paper is to explore the influence of coronavirus on these tragic numbers.
Mild Depression: Psychotherapy or Pharmacotherapy The research question in this paper is: in psychiatric patients with mild depression, what is the effect of psychotherapy on health compared with pharmacotherapy?
Postpartum Bipolar Disorder and Depression The results of the Mood Disorder Questionnaire screening of a postpartum patient suggest a bipolar disorder caused by hormonal issues and a major depressive episode.
Bipolar Disorder or Manic Depression Bipolar disorder is a mental illness characterized by unusual mood changes that shift from manic to depressive extremes. In the medical field, it`s called manic depression.
The Improvement of Depression Management The present paper summarizes the context analysis that was prepared for a change project aimed at the improvement of depression management.
Depression Management in US National Guidelines The project offers the VEGA medical center to implement the guidelines for depression management developed by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.
Women’s Health and Major Depression Symptoms The client’s complaints refer to sleep problems, frequent mood swings (she gets sad a lot), and the desire to stay away from social interactions.
Predictors of Postpartum Depression: Who Is at Risk? The article “Predictors of Postpartum Depression” by Katon, Russo, and Gavin focuses on the identification of risk factors related to postnatal depression.
Depression and Its Treatment: Racial and Ethnic Disparities The racial and ethnic disparities in depression treatment can be used for the development of quality improvement initiatives aimed at the advancement of patient outcomes.
Lamotrigine for Bipolar Depression Management Lamotrigine sold as Lamictal is considered an effective medication helping to reduce some symptoms that significantly affect epileptic and bipolar patients’ quality of life.
Citalopram, Methylphenidate in Geriatric Depression Citalopram typically ranges among 10-20 antidepressants for its cost-effectiveness and positive effect on patients being even more effective than reboxetine and paroxetine.
Depression and Self-Esteem Relationship Self-esteem can be defined as an “individual’s subjective evaluation of his or her worth as a person”; it does not necessarily describe one’s real talents.
Postpartum Depression: Methods for the Prevention Postpartum depression is a pressing clinical problem that affects new mothers, infants, and other family members. The prevalence of postpartum depression ranges between 13 and 19 percent.
Anxiety and Depression Among Females with Cancer The study investigated the prevalence of and the potential factors of risk for anxiety and/or depression among females with early breast cancer during the first 5 years.
Post-Partum Depression and Perinatal Dyadic Psychotherapy Post-partum depression affects more than ten percent of young mothers, and a method Perinatal Dyadic Psychotherapy is widely used to reduce anxiety.
VEGA Medical Center: Detection of Depression Practice guidelines for the psychiatric evaluation of adults, and they can be employed to solve the meso-level problem of the VEGA medical center and its nurses.
The Postnatal (Postpartum) Depression’ Concept Postnatal or postpartum depression (PPD) is a subtype of depression which is experienced by women within the first half a year after giving birth.
Postpartum Depression, Prevention and Treatment Postpartum depression is a common psychiatric condition in women of the childbearing age. They are most likely to develop the disease within a year after childbirth.
Smoking Cessation and Depression Problem The aim of the study is to scrutinize the issues inherent in the process of smoking cessation and align them with the occurrence of depression in an extensive sample of individuals.
Evidence-Based Pharmacology: Major Depression In this paper, a certain attention to different treatment approaches that can be offered to patients with depression will be paid, including the evaluation of age implications.
The Efficacy of Medication in Depression’ Treatment This paper attempts to provide a substantial material for the participation in an argument concerning the clinical effectiveness of antidepressant medications.
Depression and Cognitive Psychotherapy Approaches Cognitive psychotherapy offers various techniques to cope with emotional problems. This paper discusses the most effective cognitive approaches.
Treatment of Depression in Lesbians The aim of this paper is to review a case study of 45 years old lesbian woman who seeks treatment for depression and to discuss the biophysical, psychological, sociocultural, health system.
Women’s Health: Predictors of Postpartum Depression The article written by Katon, Russo, and Gavin is focused on women’s health. It discusses predictors of postpartum depression (PPD), including sociodemographic and clinic risk factors.
Depression Treatment and Management Treatment could be started only after patient is checked whether he has an allergy to the prescribed pills or not. If he is not allergic, he should also maintain clinical tests for depression.
Counseling Depression: Ethical Aspects This paper explores the ethical aspects required to work with a widower who diminished passion for food, secluding himself in the house, portraying signs of depression.
Postpartum Depression as Serious Mental Health Problem The research study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a two-step behavioral and educational intervention on the symptoms of postpartum depression in young mothers.
European Alliances, Wars, Dictatorships and Depression The decades leading to World War I had unusual alignments. The European nations were still scrambling for Asia, Africa and parts of undeveloped Europe.
Women’s Health: Depression as a Psychological Factor Women who identify themselves as lesbian are likely to experience depression. Biophysical, psychological, sociocultural, behavioral, and health system factors should be taken into consideration.
Childhood Obesity and Depression Intervention The main intervention to combat depressive moods in adolescents should be linked to improving the psychological health of young people in cooperation with schools.
Postnatal Depression Prevalence and Effects The paper analyzes the prevalence and risk factors of Postnatal (Postpartum) Depression as well as investigates the effect on the newborns whose mothers suffer from this condition.
Placebo and Treatments for Depression Natural alternative treatments for depression actually work better than the biochemical alternatives like antidepressants.
Care for Depression in Obstetrics and Gynecology This work analyzes the article developed by Melville et al. in which discusses the theme of depression in obstetrics and gynecology and improving care for it.
Effective Depression Screening in Long-Term Conditions Screening for depression in patients suffering from long term conditions (LTCs) or persistent health problems of the body, could largely be erroneous.
Patients with Depression’ Care: Betty Case Betty, a 45 years old woman, is referred to a local clinic because of feeling depressed. She has a history of three divorces and thinks that she is tired of living the old way.
Clinical Depression Treatment: Issues and Solvings The paper describes and justifies the design selected for research on depression treatment. It also identifies ethical issues and proposes ways of addressing them.
Depression in Older Persons – Psychology This article presents the research findings of a study conducted in Iran to assess how effective integrative and instrumental therapies are in the management of depression in older persons.
Major Types of Depression This paper will review and analyze two scholarly articles concerning depression, its sings in male and female patients, and its connection and similarity to other disorders.
Depression in the Elderly – Psychology This paper discusses how a person would know whether a relative had clinical depression or was sad due to specific changes or losses in life.
Depression in the Elderly Depression can be defined as a state of anxiety, sadness, hopelessness, and worthlessness. It can affect people across all ages, who present with diverse signs and symptoms
Postnatal Depression: Prevalence of Postnatal Depression in Bahrain The study was aimed at estimating the prevalence of postnatal depression among 237 Bahraini women who attended checkups in 20 clinical centres over a period of 2 months.

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StudyCorgi . "233 Depression Research Topics & Essay Titles + Examples." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/depression-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "233 Depression Research Topics & Essay Titles + Examples." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/depression-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Depression were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 21, 2024 .

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112 Depression Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Depression is a mental health disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. It can have a significant impact on an individual's life, their relationships, and their overall well-being. If you are tasked with writing an essay on depression, it can be challenging to come up with a unique and compelling topic. To help you get started, here are 112 depression essay topic ideas and examples:

The impact of depression on academic performance.
Depression: A silent epidemic.
The correlation between depression and substance abuse.
The role of genetics in depression.
The effects of childhood trauma on adult depression.
Depression among college students: Causes and solutions.
Depression in the elderly: Challenges and interventions.
The link between depression and social media usage.
The portrayal of depression in literature and art.
Depression and its impact on physical health.
The connection between depression and eating disorders.
Depression in men: Breaking the stigma.
The role of exercise in managing depression.
The impact of depression on sleep patterns.
Depression in minority communities: Understanding cultural factors.
The relationship between depression and anxiety.
Depression and its impact on creativity.
The efficacy of antidepressant medications.
The role of therapy in treating depression.
Depression and its effects on the immune system.
The impact of depression on cognitive function.
Depression and its effect on romantic relationships.
The connection between depression and unemployment.
Depression in adolescents: Identifying signs and providing support.
The impact of depression on parenting.
Depression and suicide: Addressing the link.
The role of nutrition in managing depression.
Depression and its effect on memory.
The impact of childhood neglect on adult depression.
Depression in the LGBTQ+ community: Understanding unique challenges.
The correlation between depression and chronic pain.
Depression and self-esteem: A vicious cycle.
The relationship between depression and postpartum depression.
The role of mindfulness in managing depression.
Depression and the impact on social relationships.
Depression and its effect on work productivity.
The connection between depression and perfectionism.
Depression and its effect on decision-making abilities.
The impact of depression on the brain's structure and function.
The role of early intervention in preventing depression.
Depression in veterans: Addressing the mental health crisis.
The correlation between depression and obesity.
Depression and the impact on personal hygiene.
The role of music therapy in treating depression.
Depression and its effect on creativity.
The connection between depression and academic burnout.
Depression and its impact on social skills.
The relationship between depression and sexual dysfunction.
Depression and its effect on the immune system.
The role of pets in managing depression.
Depression and its impact on decision-making in adolescents.
The correlation between depression and technology addiction.
Depression and its effect on body image.
The connection between depression and ADHD.
Depression and the impact on job satisfaction.
The role of peer support in managing depression.
Depression and its effect on impulse control.
The impact of depression on cognitive flexibility.
The relationship between depression and childhood bullying.
Depression and the role of spirituality in recovery.
Depression and its effect on academic motivation.
The correlation between depression and early childhood trauma.
Depression and the impact on creativity in children.
The role of sleep hygiene in managing depression.
Depression and its effect on emotional intelligence.
The connection between depression and body dysmorphia.
Depression and the impact on family dynamics.
The relationship between depression and attachment styles.
Depression and the role of exercise in brain health.
Depression and its effect on risk-taking behaviors.
The impact of depression on social isolation.
The correlation between depression and personality disorders.
Depression and the role of nutrition in brain health.
Depression and its effect on academic achievement.
The connection between depression and childhood abuse.
Depression and the impact on emotional regulation.
The role of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating depression.
Depression and its effect on executive functioning.
The correlation between depression and sleep disorders.
Depression and the impact on interpersonal relationships.
Depression and its effect on self-compassion.
The connection between depression and trauma.
Depression and the role of art therapy in recovery.
Depression and its impact on decision-making in adults.
The relationship between depression and social anxiety.
Depression and the link to perfectionism in adolescents.
Depression and the impact on academic motivation in college students.
The correlation between depression and chronic illness.
Depression and the role of mindfulness in self-care.
Depression and its effect on emotional regulation in children.
The connection between depression and seasonal affective disorder.
Depression and the impact on cognitive flexibility in older adults.
Depression and its effect on body image in adolescents.
The relationship between depression and self-harm.
Depression and the role of medication in managing symptoms.
Depression and its impact on decision-making in the elderly.
The correlation between depression and eating disorders in males.
Depression and the role of social support in recovery.
Depression and its effect on emotional intelligence in adolescents.
The connection between depression and chronic pain in older adults.
Depression and the impact on body image in males.
Depression and the role of narrative therapy in recovery.
Depression and its effect on self-esteem in adolescents.
The relationship between depression and cognitive decline in older adults.
Depression and the impact on academic motivation in high school students.
The correlation between depression and bullying in schools.
Depression and the role of animal-assisted therapy in recovery.
Depression and its effect on emotional regulation in adolescents.
The connection between depression and bipolar disorder.
Depression and the impact on cognitive flexibility in children.
Depression and its effect on body image in females.
The relationship between depression and self-compassion in adults.

These essay topic ideas provide a wide range of angles and perspectives to explore the complex issue of depression. Choose a topic that resonates with you and allows you to delve deep into the subject matter. Remember to conduct thorough research, cite relevant sources, and approach the topic with empathy and understanding. By doing so, you can create an impactful and informative essay that raises awareness about depression and promotes understanding and support for those affected by it.

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434 Depression Essay Titles & Research Topics: Argumentative, Controversial, and More

Depression is undeniably one of the most prevalent mental health conditions globally, affecting approximately 5% of adults worldwide. It often manifests as intense feelings of hopelessness, sadness, and a loss of interest in previously enjoyable activities. Many also experience physical symptoms like fatigue, sleep disturbances, and appetite changes. Recognizing and addressing this mental disorder is extremely important to save lives and treat the condition.

In this article, we’ll discuss how to write an essay about depression and introduce depression essay topics and research titles for students that may be inspirational.

🔝 Top Depression Essay Titles
✅ Essay Prompts
💡 Research Topics
🔎 Essay Titles
💭 Speech Topics
📝 Essay Structure

🔗 References

🔝 top 12 research titles about depression.

How is depression treated?
Depression: Risk factors.
The symptoms of depression.
What types of depression exist?
Depression in young people.
Differences between anxiety and depression.
The parents’ role in depression therapy.
Drugs as the root cause of depression.
Dangerous consequences of untreated depression.
Effect of long-term depression.
Different stages of depression.
Treatment for depression.

The picture provides a list of topics for a research paper about depression.

✅ Prompts for Essay about Depression

Struggling to find inspiration for your essay? Look no further! We’ve put together some valuable essay prompts on depression just for you!

Prompt for Personal Essay about Depression

Sharing your own experience with depression in a paper can be a good idea. Others may feel more motivated to overcome their situation after reading your story. You can also share valuable advice by discussing things or methods that have personally helped you deal with the condition.

For example, in your essay about depression, you can:

Tell about the time you felt anxious, hopeless, or depressed;
Express your opinion on depression based on the experiences from your life;
Suggest a way of dealing with the initial symptoms of depression ;
Share your ideas on how to protect mental health at a young age.

How to Overcome Depression: Essay Prompt

Sadness is a common human emotion, but depression encompasses more than just sadness. As reported by the National Institute of Mental Health, around 21 million adults in the United States, roughly 8.4% of the total adult population , faced at least one significant episode of depression in 2020. When crafting your essay about overcoming depression, consider exploring the following aspects:

Depression in young people and adolescents;
The main causes of depression;
The symptoms of depression;
Ways to treat depression;
Help from a psychologist (cognitive behavioral therapy or interpersonal therapy ).

Postpartum Depression: Essay Prompt

The birth of a child often evokes a spectrum of powerful emotions, spanning from exhilaration and happiness to apprehension and unease. It can also trigger the onset of depression. Following childbirth, many new mothers experience postpartum “baby blues,” marked by shifts in mood, bouts of tears, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. To shed light on the subject of postpartum depression, explore the following questions:

What factors may increase the risk of postpartum depression?
Is postpartum depression predictable?
How to prevent postpartum depression?
What are the symptoms of postpartum depression?
What kinds of postpartum depression treatments exist?

Prompt for Essay about Teenage Depression

Teenage depression is a mental health condition characterized by sadness and diminishing interest in daily activities. It can significantly impact a teenager’s thoughts, emotions, and behavior, often requiring long-term treatment and support.

By discussing the primary symptoms of teenage depression in your paper, you can raise awareness of the issue and encourage those in need to seek assistance. You can pay attention to the following aspects:

Emotional changes (feelings of sadness, anger, hopelessness, guilt, etc.);
Behavioral changes (loss of energy and appetite , less attention to personal hygiene, self-harm, etc.);
New addictions (drugs, alcohol, computer games, etc.).

💡 Research Topics about Depression

The role of genetics in depression development.
The effectiveness of different psychotherapeutic interventions for depression.
Anti-depression non-pharmacological and medication treatment.
The impact of childhood trauma on the onset of depression later in life.
Exploring the efficacy of antidepressant medication in different populations.
The impact of exercise on depression symptoms and treatment outcomes.
Mild depression: pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy.
The relationship between sleep disturbances and depression.
The role of gut microbiota in depression and potential implications for treatment.
Investigating the impact of social media on depression rates in adolescents.
Depression, dementia, and delirium in older people .
The efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy in preventing depression relapse.
The influence of hormonal changes on depression risk.
Assessing the effectiveness of self-help and digital interventions for depression.
Herbal and complementary therapies for depression.
The relationship between personality traits and vulnerability to depression.
Investigating the long-term consequences of untreated depression on physical health.
Exploring the link between chronic pain and depression.
Depression in the elderly male.
The impact of childhood experiences on depression outcomes in adulthood.
The use of ketamine and other novel treatments for depression.
The effect of stigma on depression diagnosis and treatment.
The conducted family assessment: cases of depression.
The role of social support in depression recovery.
The effectiveness of online support groups for individuals with depression.
Depression and cognitive decline in adults.
Depression: PICOT question component exploration .
Exploring the impact of nutrition and dietary patterns on depression symptoms.
Investigating the efficacy of art-based therapies in depression treatment.
The role of neuroplasticity in the development and treatment of depression.
Depression among HIV-positive women.
The influence of gender on depression prevalence and symptomatology.
Investigating the impact of workplace factors on depression rates and outcomes.
The efficacy of family-based interventions in reducing depression symptoms in teenagers.
Frontline nurses’ burnout, anxiety, depression, and fear statuses.
The role of early-life stress and adversity in depression vulnerability.
The impact of various environmental factors on depression rates.
Exploring the link between depression and cardiovascular health.
Depression detection in adults in nursing practice.
Virtual reality as a therapeutic tool for depression treatment.
Investigating the impact of childhood bullying on depression outcomes.
The benefits of animal-assisted interventions in depression management.
Depression and physical exercise.
The relationship between depression and suicidal behavior.
The influence of cultural factors on depression symptom expression.
Investigating the role of epigenetics in depression susceptibility.
Depression associated with cognitive dysfunction.
Exploring the impact of adverse trauma on the course of depression.
The efficacy of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating depression.
The relationship between depression and substance use disorders .
Depression and anxiety among college students.
Investigating the effectiveness of group therapy for depression.
Depression and chronic medical conditions.

Psychology Research Topics on Depression

The influence of early attachment experiences on the development of depression.
The impact of negative cognitive biases on depression symptomatology.
Depression treatment plan for a queer patient .
Examining the relationship between perfectionism and depression.
The role of self-esteem in depression vulnerability and recovery.
Exploring the link between maladaptive thinking styles (e.g., rumination, catastrophizing) and depression.
Investigating the impact of social support on depression outcomes and resilience.
Identifying depression in young adults at an early stage.
The influence of parenting styles on the risk of depression in children and adolescents.
The role of self-criticism and self-compassion in depression treatment.
Exploring the relationship between identity development and depression in emerging adulthood.
The role of learned helplessness in understanding depression and its treatment.
Depression in the elderly.
Examining the connection between self-efficacy beliefs and depression symptoms.
The influence of social comparison processes on depression and body image dissatisfaction.
Exploring the impact of trauma-related disorders on depression.
The role of resilience factors in buffering against the development of depression.
Investigating the relationship between personality traits and depression.
Depression and workplace violence .
The impact of cultural factors on depression prevalence and symptom presentation.
Investigating the effects of chronic stress on depression risk.
The role of coping strategies in depression management and recovery.
The correlation between discrimination/prejudice and depression/anxiety.
Exploring the influence of gender norms and societal expectations on depression rates.
The impact of adverse workplace conditions on employee depression.
Investigating the effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating depression.
Cognitive behavior and depression in adolescents .
Childhood emotional neglect and adult depression.
The influence of perceived social support on treatment outcomes in depression.
The effects of childhood bullying on the development of depression.
The impact of intergenerational transmission of depression within families.
Depression in children: symptoms and treatments.
Investigating the link between body dissatisfaction and depression in adolescence.
The influence of adverse life events and chronic stressors on depression risk.
The effects of peer victimization on the development of depression in adolescence.
Counselling clients with depression and addiction.
The role of experiential avoidance in depression and its treatment.
The impact of social media use and online interactions on depression rates.
Depression management in adolescent.
Exploring the relationship between emotional intelligence and depression symptomatology.
Investigating the influence of cultural values and norms on depression stigma and help-seeking behavior.
The effects of childhood maltreatment on neurobiological markers of depression.
Psychological and emotional conditions of suicide and depression.
Exploring the relationship between body dissatisfaction and depression.
The influence of self-worth contingencies on depression vulnerability and treatment response.
The impact of social isolation and loneliness on depression rates.
Psychology of depression among college students.
The effects of perfectionistic self-presentation on depression in college students.
The role of mindfulness skills in depression prevention and relapse prevention.
Investigating the influence of adverse neighborhood conditions on depression risk.
Personality psychology and depression.
The impact of attachment insecurity on depression symptomatology.

Postpartum Depression Research Topics

Identifying risk factors for postpartum depression.
Exploring the role of hormonal changes in postpartum depression.
“Baby blues” or postpartum depression and evidence-based care .
The impact of social support on postpartum depression.
The effectiveness of screening tools for early detection of postpartum depression.
The relationship between postpartum depression and maternal-infant bonding .
Postpartum depression educational program results.
Identifying effective interventions for preventing and treating postpartum depression.
Examining the impact of cultural factors on postpartum depression rates.
Investigating the role of sleep disturbances in postpartum depression.
Depression and postpartum depression relationship.
Exploring the impact of a traumatic birth experience on postpartum depression.
Assessing the impact of breastfeeding difficulties on postpartum depression.
Understanding the role of genetic factors in postpartum depression.
Postpartum depression: consequences.
Investigating the impact of previous psychiatric history on postpartum depression risk.
The potential benefits of exercise on postpartum depression symptoms.
The efficacy of psychotherapeutic interventions for postpartum depression.
Postpartum depression in the twenty-first century.
The influence of partner support on postpartum depression outcomes.
Examining the relationship between postpartum depression and maternal self-esteem.
The impact of postpartum depression on infant development and well-being.
Maternal mood symptoms in pregnancy and postpartum depression.
The effectiveness of group therapy for postpartum depression management.
Identifying the role of inflammation and immune dysregulation in postpartum depression.
Investigating the impact of childcare stress on postpartum depression.
Postpartum depression among low-income US mothers.
The role of postnatal anxiety symptoms in postpartum depression.
The impact of postpartum depression on the marital relationship.
The influence of postpartum depression on parenting practices and parental stress.
Postpartum depression: symptoms, role of cultural factors, and ways to support.
Investigating the efficacy of pharmacological treatments for postpartum depression.
The impact of postpartum depression on breastfeeding initiation and continuation.
The relationship between postpartum depression and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Postpartum depression and its identification.
The impact of postpartum depression on cognitive functioning and decision-making.
Investigating the influence of cultural norms and expectations on postpartum depression rates.
The impact of maternal guilt and shame on postpartum depression symptoms.
Beck’s postpartum depression theory: purpose, concepts, and significance .
Understanding the role of attachment styles in postpartum depression vulnerability.
Investigating the effectiveness of online support groups for women with postpartum depression.
The impact of socioeconomic factors on postpartum depression prevalence.
Perinatal depression: research study and design.
The efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions for postpartum depression.
Investigating the influence of birth spacing on postpartum depression risk.
The role of trauma history in postpartum depression development.
The link between the birth experience and postnatal depression.
How does postpartum depression affect the mother-infant interaction and bonding ?
The effectiveness of home visiting programs in preventing and managing postpartum depression.
Assessing the influence of work-related stress on postpartum depression.
The relationship between postpartum depression and pregnancy-related complications.
The role of personality traits in postpartum depression vulnerability.

🔎 Depression Essay Titles

Depression essay topics: cause & effect.

The effects of childhood trauma on the development of depression in adults.
The impact of social media usage on the prevalence of depression in adolescents.
“Predictors of Postpartum Depression” by Katon et al.
The effects of environmental factors on depression rates.
The relationship between academic pressure and depression among college students.
The relationship between financial stress and depression.
The best solution to predict depression because of bullying.
How does long-term unemployment affect mental health ?
The effects of unemployment on mental health, particularly the risk of depression.
The impact of genetics and family history of depression on an individual’s likelihood of developing depression.
The relationship between depression and substance abuse.
Child abuse and depression.
The role of gender in the manifestation and treatment of depression.
The effects of chronic stress on the development of depression.
The link between substance abuse and depression.
Depression among students at Elon University.
The influence of early attachment styles on an individual’s vulnerability to depression.
The effects of sleep disturbances on the severity of depression.
Chronic illness and the risk of developing depression.
Depression: symptoms and treatment.
Adverse childhood experiences and the likelihood of experiencing depression in adulthood.
The relationship between chronic illness and depression.
The role of negative thinking patterns in the development of depression.
Effects of depression among adolescents.
The effects of poor body image and low self-esteem on the prevalence of depression.
The influence of social support systems on preventing symptoms of depression.
The effects of child neglect on adult depression rates.
Depression caused by hormonal imbalance.
The link between perfectionism and the risk of developing depression.
The effects of a lack of sleep on depression symptoms.
The effects of childhood abuse and neglect on the risk of depression.
Social aspects of depression and anxiety.
The impact of bullying on the likelihood of experiencing depression.
The role of serotonin and neurotransmitter imbalances in the development of depression.
The impact of a poor diet on depression rates.
Depression and anxiety run in the family .
The effects of childhood poverty and socioeconomic status on depression rates in adults.
The impact of divorce on depression rates.
The relationship between traumatic life events and the risk of developing depression.
The influence of personality traits on susceptibility to depression.
The impact of workplace stress on depression rates.
Depression in older adults: causes and treatment.
The impact of parental depression on children’s mental health outcomes.
The effects of social isolation on the prevalence and severity of depression.
The role of cultural factors in the manifestation and treatment of depression.
The relationship between childhood bullying victimization and future depressive symptoms.
The impact of early intervention and prevention programs on reducing the risk of postpartum depression.
Treating mood disorders and depression.
How do hormonal changes during pregnancy contribute to the development of depression?
The effects of sleep deprivation on the onset and severity of postpartum depression.
The impact of social media on depression rates among teenagers.
The role of genetics in the development of depression.
The impact of bullying on adolescent depression rates.
Mental illness, depression, and wellness issues.
The effects of a sedentary lifestyle on depression symptoms.
The correlation between academic pressure and depression in students.
The relationship between perfectionism and depression.
The correlation between trauma and depression in military veterans.
Anxiety and depression during childhood and adolescence.
The impact of racial discrimination on depression rates among minorities.
The relationship between chronic pain and depression.
The impact of social comparison on depression rates among young adults.
The effects of childhood abuse on adult depression rates.

Depression Argumentative Essay Topics

The role of social media in contributing to depression among teenagers.
The effectiveness of antidepressant medication: an ongoing debate.
Depression treatment: therapy or medications?
Should depression screening be mandatory in schools and colleges?
Is there a genetic predisposition to depression?
The stigma surrounding depression: addressing misconceptions and promoting understanding.
Implementation of depression screening in primary care .
Is psychotherapy more effective than medication in treating depression?
Is teenage depression overdiagnosed or underdiagnosed: a critical analysis.
The connection between depression and substance abuse: untangling the relationship.
Humanistic therapy of depression .
Should ECT (electroconvulsive therapy) be a treatment option for severe depression?
Where is depression more prevalent: in urban or rural communities? Analyzing the disparities.
Is depression a result of chemical imbalance in the brain? Debunking the myth.
Depression: a serious mental and behavioral problem.
Should depression medication be prescribed for children and adolescents?
The effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in managing depression.
Should depression in the elderly be considered a normal part of aging?
Is depression hereditary? Investigating the role of genetics in depression risk.
Different types of training in managing the symptoms of depression.
The effectiveness of online therapy platforms in treating depression.
Should psychedelic therapy be explored as an alternative treatment for depression?
The connection between depression and cardiovascular health: Is there a link?
The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in preventing depression relapse.
Depression as a bad a clinical condition.
Should mind-body interventions (e.g., yoga, meditation) be integrated into depression treatment?
Should emotional support animals be prescribed for individuals with depression?
The effectiveness of peer support groups in decreasing depression symptoms.
The use of antidepressants: are they overprescribed or necessary for treating depression?
Adult depression and anxiety as a complex problem.
The effectiveness of therapy versus medication in treating depression.
The stigma surrounding depression and mental illness: how can we reduce it?
The debate over the legalization of psychedelic drugs for treating depression.
The relationship between creativity and depression: does one cause the other?
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for generalized anxiety disorder and depression.
The role of childhood trauma in shaping adult depression: Is it always a causal factor?
The debate over the medicalization of sadness and grief as forms of depression.
Alternative therapies, such as acupuncture or meditation, are effective in treating depression.
Depression as a widespread mental condition.

Controversial Topics about Depression

The existence of “chemical imbalance” in depression: fact or fiction?
The over-reliance on medication in treating depression: are alternatives neglected?
Is depression overdiagnosed and overmedicated in Western society?
Measurement of an individual’s level of depression.
The role of Big Pharma in shaping the narrative and treatment of depression.
Should antidepressant advertisements be banned?
The inadequacy of current diagnostic criteria for depression: rethinking the DSM-5.
Is depression a biological illness or a product of societal factors?
Literature review on depression .
The overemphasis on biological factors in depression treatment: ignoring environmental factors.
Is depression a normal reaction to an abnormal society?
The influence of cultural norms on the perception and treatment of depression.
Should children and adolescents be routinely prescribed antidepressants?
The role of family in depression treatment.
The connection between depression and creative genius: does depression enhance artistic abilities?
The ethics of using placebo treatment for depression studies.
The impact of social and economic inequalities on depression rates.
Is depression primarily a mental health issue or a social justice issue?
Depression disassembling and treating.
Should depression screening be mandatory in the workplace?
The influence of gender bias in the diagnosis and treatment of depression.
The controversial role of religion and spirituality in managing depression.
Is depression a result of individual weakness or societal factors?
Abnormal psychology: anxiety and depression case .
The link between depression and obesity: examining the bidirectional relationship.
The connection between depression and academic performance: causation or correlation?
Should depression medication be available over the counter?
The impact of internet and social media use on depression rates: harmful or beneficial?
Interacting in the workplace: depression.
Is depression a modern epidemic or simply better diagnosed and identified?
The ethical considerations of using animals in depression research.
The effectiveness of psychedelic therapies for treatment-resistant depression.
Is depression a disability? The debate on workplace accommodations.
Polysubstance abuse among adolescent males with depression.
The link between depression and intimate partner violence : exploring the relationship.
The controversy surrounding “happy” pills and the pursuit of happiness.
Is depression a choice? Examining the role of personal responsibility.

Good Titles for Depression Essays

The poetic depictions of depression: exploring its representation in literature.
The melancholic symphony: the influence of depression on classical music.
Moderate depression symptoms and treatment.
Depression in modern music: analyzing its themes and expressions.
Cultural perspectives on depression: a comparative analysis of attitudes in different countries.
Contrasting cultural views on depression in Eastern and Western societies.
Diagnosing depression in the older population.
The influence of social media on attitudes and perceptions of depression in global contexts.
Countries with progressive approaches to mental health awareness.
From taboo to acceptance: the evolution of attitudes towards depression.
Depression screening tool in acute settings.
The Bell Jar : analyzing Sylvia Plath’s iconic tale of depression .
The art of despair: examining Frida Kahlo’s self-portraits as a window into depression.
The Catcher in the Rye : Holden Caulfield’s battle with adolescent depression.
Music as therapy: how jazz artists turned depression into art.
Depression screening tool for a primary care center.
The Nordic paradox: high depression rates in Scandinavian countries despite high-quality healthcare.
The Stoic East: how Eastern philosophies approach and manage depression.
From solitude to solidarity: collective approaches to depression in collectivist cultures.
The portrayal of depression in popular culture: a critical analysis of movies and TV shows.
The depression screening training in primary care.
The impact of social media influencers on depression rates among young adults.
The role of music in coping with depression: can specific genres or songs help alleviate depressive symptoms?
The representation of depression in literature: a comparative analysis of classic and contemporary works.
The use of art as a form of self-expression and therapy for individuals with depression.
Depression management guidelines implementation.
The role of religion in coping with depression: Christian and Buddhist practices.
The representation of depression in the video game Hellblade: Senua’s Sacrifice .
The role of nature in coping with depression: can spending time outdoors help alleviate depressive symptoms?
The effectiveness of dance/movement therapy in treating depression among older adults.
The National Institute for Health: depression management.
The portrayal of depression in stand-up comedy: a study of comedians like Maria Bamford and Chris Gethard.
The role of spirituality in coping with depression: Islamic and Hindu practices .
The portrayal of depression in animated movies : an analysis of Inside Out and The Lion King .
The representation of depression by fashion designers like Alexander McQueen and Rick Owens.
Depression screening in primary care .
The portrayal of depression in documentaries: an analysis of films like The Bridge and Happy Valley .
The effectiveness of wilderness therapy in treating depression among adolescents.
The connection between creativity and depression: how art can help heal.
The role of Buddhist and Taoist practices in coping with depression.
Mild depression treatment research funding sources.
The portrayal of depression in podcasts: an analysis of the show The Hilarious World of Depression .
The effectiveness of drama therapy in treating depression among children and adolescents.
The representation of depression in the works of Vincent van Gogh and Edvard Munch.
Depression in young people: articles review.
The impact of social media on political polarization and its relationship with depression.
The role of humor in coping with depression: a study of comedians like Ellen DeGeneres.
The portrayal of depression in webcomics: an analysis of the comics Hyperbole and a Half .
The effect of social media on mental health stigma and its relationship with depression.
Depression and the impact of human services workers.
The masked faces: hiding depression in highly individualistic societies.

💭 Depression Speech Topics

Informative speech topics about depression.

Different types of depression and their symptoms.
The causes of depression: biological, psychological, and environmental factors.
How depression and physical issues are connected.
The prevalence of depression in different age groups and demographics.
The link between depression and anxiety disorders.
Physical health: The effects of untreated depression.
The role of genetics in predisposing individuals to depression.
What you need to know about depression.
How necessary is early intervention in treating depression?
The effectiveness of medication in treating depression.
The role of exercise in managing depressive symptoms.
Depression in later life: overview.
The relationship between substance abuse and depression.
The impact of trauma on depression rates and treatment.
The effectiveness of mindfulness meditation in managing depressive symptoms.
Enzymes conversion and metabolites in major depression.
The benefits and drawbacks of electroconvulsive therapy for severe depression.
The effect of gender and cultural norms on depression rates and treatment.
The effectiveness of alternative therapies for depression, such as acupuncture and herbal remedies.
The importance of self-care in managing depression.
Symptoms of anxiety, depression, and peritraumatic dissociation.
The role of support systems in managing depression.
The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating depression.
The benefits and drawbacks of online therapy for depression.
The role of spirituality in managing depression.
Depression among minority groups.
The benefits and drawbacks of residential treatment for severe depression.
What is the relationship between childhood trauma and adult depression?
How effective is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) for treatment-resistant depression?
The benefits and drawbacks of art therapy for depression.
Mood disorder: depression and bipolar.
The impact of social media on depression rates.
The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) in treating depression.
Depression in older people.
The impact of seasonal changes on depression rates and treatment options.
The impact of depression on daily life and relationships, and strategies for coping with the condition.
The stigma around depression and the importance of seeking help.

Persuasive Speech Topics about Depression

How important is it to recognize the signs and symptoms of depression ?
How do you support a loved one who is struggling with depression?
The importance of mental health education in schools to prevent and manage depression.
Social media: the rise of depression and anxiety .
Is there a need to increase funding for mental health research to develop better treatments for depression?
Addressing depression in minority communities: overcoming barriers and disparities.
The benefits of including alternative therapies, such as yoga and meditation, in depression treatment plans.
Challenging media portrayals of depression: promoting accurate representations.
Two sides of depression disease.
How social media affects mental health: the need for responsible use to prevent depression.
The importance of early intervention: addressing depression in schools and colleges.
The benefits of seeking professional help for depression.
There is a need for better access to mental health care, including therapy and medication, for those suffering from depression.
Depression in adolescents and suitable interventions.
How do you manage depression while in college or university?
The role of family and friends in supporting loved ones with depression and encouraging them to seek help.
The benefits of mindfulness and meditation for depression.
The link between sleep and depression, and how to improve sleep habits.
How do you manage depression while working a high-stress job?
Approaches to treating depression.
How do you manage depression during pregnancy and postpartum?
The importance of prioritizing employee mental health and providing resources for managing depression in the workplace.
How should you manage depression while caring for a loved one with a chronic illness?
How to manage depression while dealing with infertility or pregnancy loss.
Andrew Solomon: why we can’t talk about depression.
Destigmatizing depression: promoting mental health awareness and understanding.
Raising funds for depression research: investing in mental health advances.
The power of peer support: establishing peer-led programs for depression.
Accessible mental health services: ensuring treatment for all affected by depression.
Evidence-based screening for depression in acute care.
The benefits of journaling for mental health: putting your thoughts on paper to heal.
The power of positivity: changing your mindset to fight depression .
The healing power of gratitude in fighting depression.
The connection between diet and depression: eating well can improve your mood.
Teen depression and suicide in Soto’s The Afterlife .
The benefits of therapy for depression: finding professional help to heal.
The importance of setting realistic expectations when living with depression.

📝 How to Write about Depression: Essay Structure

We’ve prepared some tips and examples to help you structure your essay and communicate your ideas.

Essay about Depression: Introduction

An introduction is the first paragraph of an essay. It plays a crucial role in engaging the reader, offering the context, and presenting the central theme.

A good introduction typically consists of 3 components:

Hook. The hook captures readers’ attention and encourages them to continue reading.
Background information. Background information provides context for the essay.
Thesis statement. A thesis statement expresses the essay’s primary idea or central argument.

Hook : Depression is a widespread mental illness affecting millions worldwide.

Background information : Depression affects your emotions, thoughts, and behavior. If you suffer from depression, engaging in everyday tasks might become arduous, and life may appear devoid of purpose or joy.

Depression Essay Thesis Statement

A good thesis statement serves as an essay’s road map. It expresses the author’s point of view on the issue in 1 or 2 sentences and presents the main argument.

Thesis statement : The stigma surrounding depression and other mental health conditions can discourage people from seeking help, only worsening their symptoms.

Essays on Depression: Body Paragraphs

The main body of the essay is where you present your arguments. An essay paragraph includes the following:

a topic sentence,
evidence to back up your claim,
explanation of why the point is essential to the argument;
a link to the next paragraph.

Topic sentence : Depression is a complex disorder that requires a personalized treatment approach, comprising both medication and therapy.

Evidence : Medication can be prescribed by a healthcare provider or a psychiatrist to relieve the symptoms. Additionally, practical strategies for managing depression encompass building a support system, setting achievable goals, and practicing self-care.

Depression Essay: Conclusion

The conclusion is the last part of your essay. It helps you leave a favorable impression on the reader.

The perfect conclusion includes 3 elements:

Rephrased thesis statement.
Summary of the main points.
Final opinion on the topic.

Rephrased thesis: In conclusion, overcoming depression is challenging because it involves a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and environmental factors that affect an individual’s mental well-being.

Summary: Untreated depression heightens the risk of engaging in harmful behaviors such as substance abuse and can also result in negative thought patterns, diminished self-esteem, and distorted perceptions of reality.

We hope you’ve found our article helpful and learned some new information. If so, feel free to share it with your friends. You can also try our free online topic generator !

Pain, anxiety, and depression – Harvard Health | Harvard Health Publishing
Depression-related increases and decreases in appetite reveal dissociable patterns of aberrant activity in reward and interoceptive neurocircuitry – PMC | National Library of Medicine
How to Get Treatment for Postpartum Depression – The New York Times
What Is Background Information and What Purpose Does It Serve? | Indeed.com
Thesis | Harvard College Writing Center
Topic Sentences: How Do You Write a Great One? | Grammarly Blog

725 Research Proposal Topics & Title Ideas in Education, Psychology, Business, & More

414 proposal essay topics for projects, research, & proposal arguments.

Depression research topics for sociology papers

How can depression influence teens’ low self-esteem?
The reasons why stress and depression should be taken seriously.
Depression in adolescent females.
Art therapy and depression.
How can cognitive behavioral group therapy help reduce symptoms of PTSD and/or depression in female victims of sexual abuse?
Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
How does using smartphones influence anxiety and depression?
The impact of maternal depression on children.
Why will veterans that are diagnosed with depression show lower levels of depression if they attend support group therapy along with normal CBT?
Effects of depression on social interaction.
An overview of mood disorders with a focus on depression.
Depression among LGBTQ youth who uses social media.
Are biological processes the only factors that are the causes of depression?
Physical activity on kids with depression.
The relationship between weed and depression in young adults.
Music therapy and how it affects depression.
Helping campus students fight depression through anxiety relief.
The prevalence of depression and anxiety in our modern day world.
Culture and depression, and cross-cultural psychiatry.
Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression.
Evaluate the cognitive treatment of depression.
How do women have higher standards when related to depression?
Depression being more deadly than anxiety.
Recognizing bipolar depression.
Why does depression develop in humans?
Depression in Hollywood.
Is anyone, regardless of wealth, career success, and social status, susceptible to depression?
The relationship between perfectionism and depression in young adults.

If you need more ideas for your sociology paper, check out also our adoption research topics and urbanization research topics .

Depression topics for history papers

How does the Great Depression relate to the American Dream?
The stock market crash before the Great Depression and its effect on American literature and the authors of that time period.
How has entertainment changed from before the Great Depression to after? Do you think the New Deal resolved the economic issues of the Great Depression?
Depression in Germany and a comparison with global or regional data.
The Depression and Nazi Germany.
How and why did Hitler come to power in Germany? Were the conditions imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles responsible for the rise of Hitler? Was the Great Depression the primary reason for the rise of the Nazis?
Reasons for financial depression of the late 19th century.
Explain why the stock market crash of 1929 occurred, and tell how it turned into a major depression. Describe the major ways in which the Great Depression affected Americans. What were some of the measures taken to end the Depression?
Depression in middle-aged white women vs. black women and/or other cultures.
What caused the Great Depression?

Look at our Holocaust research paper topics if you need more ideas for a history paper.

Depression research paper topics for health care papers

Are pharmaceuticals an effective treatment for depression?
How can leading a healthy lifestyle prevent heart disease, obesity, and depression?
Depression and weight change after a kidney transplant.
Should drugs given to adolescents to treat depression be restricted?
Pharmacological prevention of postnatal depression.
Impacts of depression in our health.
Are antidepressants overpescribed?
Why is depression a major mental health problem?
A person’s functioning level and clinical symptoms and behaviors that reflect bipolar depression.
Association of hormonal contraception with depression.
Is there a relationship between cervical cancer treatment and the onset of depression?
How does an untreated depression change the brain over time?
Compare and contrast delirium, dementia, and depression.
Examine depression of the elderly in a nursing home to determine what specific therapeutic and holistic service improves one’s self-worth.

At our service, you can find more ideas for your assignments, for example, environmental research topics or technology research topics , based on your needs. But we offer even more assistance with your writing. If you have chosen a topic but don’t know how to write a good paper, get help from our research proposal writing service . Our prices are affordable, and we provide high-quality writing assistance. Our team of writers offers exceptional research paper writing services to satisfy customers’ needs. The writer will take all of your requirements into account to deliver the paper that you expect.

Pay for research paper on EssayShark.com, and the writer will write your project in the chosen format style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). We are always working to be an exemplary writing service that offers high-quality research papers for sale . Our writers conduct thorough research, write papers according to academic rules, and proofread before sending them to you.

If you buy a research paper or an essay on our site, we will provide many free features. For example, you can use our free AI checker essay , you can get free revisions, formatting and a title page.

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Research Topics & Ideas: Mental Health

100+ Mental Health Research Topic Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring mental health topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of mental health-related research topics and ideas.

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Mental Health Topic Ideas

Mood disorders
Anxiety disorders
Psychotic disorders
Personality disorders
Obsessive-compulsive disorders
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Neurodevelopmental disorders
Eating disorders
Substance-related disorders

Mood Disorders

Research in mood disorders can help understand their causes and improve treatment methods. Here are a few ideas to get you started.

The impact of genetics on the susceptibility to depression
Efficacy of antidepressants vs. cognitive behavioural therapy
The role of gut microbiota in mood regulation
Cultural variations in the experience and diagnosis of bipolar disorder
Seasonal Affective Disorder: Environmental factors and treatment
The link between depression and chronic illnesses
Exercise as an adjunct treatment for mood disorders
Hormonal changes and mood swings in postpartum women
Stigma around mood disorders in the workplace
Suicidal tendencies among patients with severe mood disorders

Anxiety Disorders

Research topics in this category can potentially explore the triggers, coping mechanisms, or treatment efficacy for anxiety disorders.

The relationship between social media and anxiety
Exposure therapy effectiveness in treating phobias
Generalised Anxiety Disorder in children: Early signs and interventions
The role of mindfulness in treating anxiety
Genetics and heritability of anxiety disorders
The link between anxiety disorders and heart disease
Anxiety prevalence in LGBTQ+ communities
Caffeine consumption and its impact on anxiety levels
The economic cost of untreated anxiety disorders
Virtual Reality as a treatment method for anxiety disorders

Psychotic Disorders

Within this space, your research topic could potentially aim to investigate the underlying factors and treatment possibilities for psychotic disorders.

Early signs and interventions in adolescent psychosis
Brain imaging techniques for diagnosing psychotic disorders
The efficacy of antipsychotic medication
The role of family history in psychotic disorders
Misdiagnosis and delayed treatment of psychotic disorders
Co-morbidity of psychotic and mood disorders
The relationship between substance abuse and psychotic disorders
Art therapy as a treatment for schizophrenia
Public perception and stigma around psychotic disorders
Hospital vs. community-based care for psychotic disorders

Research Topic Kickstarter - Need Help Finding A Research Topic?

Personality Disorders

Research topics within in this area could delve into the identification, management, and social implications of personality disorders.

Long-term outcomes of borderline personality disorder
Antisocial personality disorder and criminal behaviour
The role of early life experiences in developing personality disorders
Narcissistic personality disorder in corporate leaders
Gender differences in personality disorders
Diagnosis challenges for Cluster A personality disorders
Emotional intelligence and its role in treating personality disorders
Psychotherapy methods for treating personality disorders
Personality disorders in the elderly population
Stigma and misconceptions about personality disorders

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders

Within this space, research topics could focus on the causes, symptoms, or treatment of disorders like OCD and hoarding.

OCD and its relationship with anxiety disorders
Cognitive mechanisms behind hoarding behaviour
Deep Brain Stimulation as a treatment for severe OCD
The impact of OCD on academic performance in students
Role of family and social networks in treating OCD
Alternative treatments for hoarding disorder
Childhood onset OCD: Diagnosis and treatment
OCD and religious obsessions
The impact of OCD on family dynamics
Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Causes and treatment

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Research topics in this area could explore the triggers, symptoms, and treatments for PTSD. Here are some thought starters to get you moving.

PTSD in military veterans: Coping mechanisms and treatment
Childhood trauma and adult onset PTSD
Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR) efficacy
Role of emotional support animals in treating PTSD
Gender differences in PTSD occurrence and treatment
Effectiveness of group therapy for PTSD patients
PTSD and substance abuse: A dual diagnosis
First responders and rates of PTSD
Domestic violence as a cause of PTSD
The neurobiology of PTSD

Free Webinar: How To Find A Dissertation Research Topic

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

This category of mental health aims to better understand disorders like Autism and ADHD and their impact on day-to-day life.

Early diagnosis and interventions for Autism Spectrum Disorder
ADHD medication and its impact on academic performance
Parental coping strategies for children with neurodevelopmental disorders
Autism and gender: Diagnosis disparities
The role of diet in managing ADHD symptoms
Neurodevelopmental disorders in the criminal justice system
Genetic factors influencing Autism
ADHD and its relationship with sleep disorders
Educational adaptations for children with neurodevelopmental disorders
Neurodevelopmental disorders and stigma in schools

Eating Disorders

Research topics within this space can explore the psychological, social, and biological aspects of eating disorders.

The role of social media in promoting eating disorders
Family dynamics and their impact on anorexia
Biological basis of binge-eating disorder
Treatment outcomes for bulimia nervosa
Eating disorders in athletes
Media portrayal of body image and its impact
Eating disorders and gender: Are men underdiagnosed?
Cultural variations in eating disorders
The relationship between obesity and eating disorders
Eating disorders in the LGBTQ+ community

Substance-Related Disorders

Research topics in this category can focus on addiction mechanisms, treatment options, and social implications.

Efficacy of rehabilitation centres for alcohol addiction
The role of genetics in substance abuse
Substance abuse and its impact on family dynamics
Prescription drug abuse among the elderly
Legalisation of marijuana and its impact on substance abuse rates
Alcoholism and its relationship with liver diseases
Opioid crisis: Causes and solutions
Substance abuse education in schools: Is it effective?
Harm reduction strategies for drug abuse
Co-occurring mental health disorders in substance abusers

Choosing A Research Topic

These research topic ideas we’ve covered here serve as thought starters to help you explore different areas within mental health. They are intentionally very broad and open-ended. By engaging with the currently literature in your field of interest, you’ll be able to narrow down your focus to a specific research gap .

It’s important to consider a variety of factors when choosing a topic for your dissertation or thesis . Think about the relevance of the topic, its feasibility , and the resources available to you, including time, data, and academic guidance. Also, consider your own interest and expertise in the subject, as this will sustain you through the research process.

Always consult with your academic advisor to ensure that your chosen topic aligns with academic requirements and offers a meaningful contribution to the field. If you need help choosing a topic, consider our private coaching service.

Good morning everyone. This are very patent topics for research in neuroscience. Thank you for guidance

What if everything is important, original and intresting? as in Neuroscience. I find myself overwhelmd with tens of relveant areas and within each area many optional topics. I ask myself if importance (for example – able to treat people suffering) is more relevant than what intrest me, and on the other hand if what advance me further in my career should not also be a consideration?

This information is really helpful and have learnt alot

Phd research topics on implementation of mental health policy in Nigeria :the prospects, challenges and way forward.

This info is indeed help for someone to formulate a dissertation topic. I have already got my path from here.

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Depression articles from across Nature Portfolio

Depression refers to a state of low mood that can be accompanied with loss of interest in activities that the individual normally perceived as pleasurable, altered appetite and sleep/wake balance. Its severe form, major depression is classified as a mood disorder.

Latest Research and Reviews

Nicotine dependence and incident psychiatric disorders: prospective evidence from us national study.

Guillaume Airagnes
Marina Sánchez-Rico
Nicolas Hoertel

title for research paper about depression

Testing the causal relationship of fat and sugar intake with depression and cortisol: a Mendelian Randomisation study

Matylda Buczkowska
Eleonora Iob

The relationship between brain structure volumes, depressive symptoms and body composition in obese/overweight and normal-/underweight women

Lidia Łapińska
Aleksandra Szum-Jakubowska
Irina Kowalska

Orphan receptor-GPR52 inverse agonist efficacy in ameliorating chronic stress-related deficits in reward motivation and phasic accumbal dopamine activity in mice

Chenfeng Zhang
Diana Kúkeľová
Christopher R. Pryce

Predicting suicidal ideation from irregular and incomplete time series of questionnaires in a smartphone-based suicide prevention platform: a pilot study

Gwenolé Quellec
Sofian Berrouiguet
Philippe Courtet

Astrocytic RARγ mediates hippocampal astrocytosis and neurogenesis deficits in chronic retinoic acid-induced depression

Huixian Huang
Xuemin Wang

News and Comment

Found: a brain-wiring pattern linked to depression

The disease has a consistent mark in the brain even when symptoms are absent.

Sara Reardon

Diffuse glioma location is associated with extremes of depressive symptoms

Mood dysfunction is more common in people with brain tumors than in those with other tumor types, but the reasons for this association are unclear. Using various methods for lesion–symptom mapping, we identified brain locations in patients with diffuse glioma that are related to severe depressive symptoms or an absence of depressive symptoms.

The capacity of brain circuits to enhance psychiatry

Circuitry-based neuroimaging analyses can enhance our understanding of abnormal brain functioning in patients with major depressive disorder and other psychiatric conditions — but their utility for guiding treatment selection is less certain.

Boadie W. Dunlop
Helen S. Mayberg

Comment on: Antidepressants act by directly binding to TRKB neurotrophin receptors

Philip W. Gold

Association of fluvoxamine with mortality and symptom resolution among inpatients with COVID-19

Guangting Zeng
Jianqiang Li
Zanling Zhang

MDMA therapy for PTSD rejected by FDA panel

Scientific advisers to the US Food and Drug Administration vote overwhelmingly that the risks of MDMA treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder outweigh the benefits.

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213 Depression Research Topics & Essay Examples

📝 depression research papers examples, 💡 essay ideas on depression, 🎓 simple research topics about depression, 👍 good depression essay topics to write about, 🏆 best depression essay titles, ✍️ depression essay topics for college, 📣 depression discussion questions, ❓ depression research questions.

The Correlation Between Discrimination/Prejudice and Depression/Anxiety Psychology essay sample: The purpose of this research proposal is to identify the components of the study about the correlation between discrimination/prejudice and depression/anxiety.
Depression in Children: Symptoms and Treatments Psychology essay sample: Depression can make children not perform the duties they are assigned to do well. A caregiver can easily discover a small child’s depression by change of bowel habit.
Depression and Postpartum Depression Relationship Psychology essay sample: This article discusses the relationship between depression and postpartum depression, the possible causes, and forms of the disease, its consequences for the woman's psyche.
Depression as Bad a Clinical Condition Psychology essay sample: Specialists in mental health state that depression is the most common disorder they encounter on the daily basis. The following paper aims to provide evidence of the existence of it.
Different Types of Training in Managing the Symptoms of Depression Psychology essay sample: The proposed study will compare the effectiveness of different types of training in managing the symptoms of depression. It will be considered by people with moderate depression.
Postpartum Depression (PPD) and Its Identification Psychology essay sample: Katon, Russo, and Gavin focused on the problem of postpartum depression and its identification, because it is a common issue that leads to adverse health outcomes.
Diseases of Modern Life Psychology essay sample: Bipolar disorder and major depression are two very similar mood disorders that are often confused and misdiagnosed.
Mental Illness: Treatment Approaches and Challenges Psychology essay sample: The treatment of forensic populations, as with any clinical population, must be tailored to the individuals as well as to their mental illness.
Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder and Antidepressants Psychology essay sample: The variety of mental disorders may often confuse terms of disease differentiation due to the lack of proper education. Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder are examples of such confusion.
Adult Depression and Anxiety as a Complex Problem Psychology essay sample: The presence of a physical disability is a major factor in developing a mental health condition due to the increase in dissatisfaction and the presence of multiple irritants.
Abnormal Psychology: Anxiety and Depression Case Psychology essay sample: Abnormal psychology has many theories that emerged to describe the concept. It has components like biological, cognitive, behavioral as well as social-cultural models.
American Adolescence. Teenage Problems Psychology essay sample: There are those psychological problems that youngsters cannot omit simply because of the society they currently live in.
Treatment for Depressive and Bipolar Disorders Psychology essay sample: The study shows that an online intervention can be a part of treatment for people with BD, providing support not only for mania but also for depression.
Psychology: Mental Health Issues Psychology essay sample: This paper contains a review of primary causes leading to mental illnesses along with available social and individual measures intended to cope with them.
Depression Caused by Hormonal Imbalance, Socialisation of Children Psychology essay sample: Social life is utterly important for the mental health and socialization of children. They need parents to care about them and help to become a part of society.
Divorce Effect on Children's Mental Health Psychology essay sample: The family dissolution process, a conflict between parents, custody issues, and negative post-divorce relationships adversely influence the mental health of children.
Psychological Assessment Report Psychology essay sample: The client, Kyle Jones, is a 45-year-old professor working full-time at the Catholic University. The client’s cognitive functioning was impaired after a car accident.
What You Need to Know About Depression Psychology essay sample: The article is devoted to depression: a definition is given, the causes, signs, types, and methods of therapy are considered.
Personality Psychology and Depression Psychology essay sample: This paper presents an analysis of the connection between personality psychology and depression. Today, many attempts are made to investigate depressive symptoms.
Interacting in the Workplace: Depression Psychology essay sample: Depression is a menace that affects a number of people in different ways. In the workplace, there are a number of ways used to tell whether a person is undergoing mental stress.
Postpartum Depression. Consequences Psychology essay sample: These days more and more women approach the decision to have a baby very consciously, choosing the time when they are physically and emotionally prepared.
Cognitive Behavior and Depression in Adolescents Psychology essay sample: People of different ages are prone to various psychological and emotional issues, especially in the current world that is transforming at a high pace.
Social Problems Associated With Mental Illness and Health Promotion Psychology essay sample: Troubles with psychological health can create barriers to being employed, partially because mental illnesses are commonly stigmatized.
Females’ Instagram Use and Psychological Well-Being Psychology essay sample: Sherlock and Wagstaff tested the hypothesis that the time spent by women on Instagram was positively correlated with body dissatisfaction, depression, and social comparison.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Psychology essay sample: Rational emotive behavior therapy is a therapy approach that involves the identification and replacement of negative behaviors with positive ones.
Lack of Sleep at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Psychology essay sample: This paper aims to explore the detrimental effects of sleep deprivation among KFUPM students and techniques for how they can manage time and stress to get adequate sleep.
Aggression in Psychology Psychology essay sample: This emotion is difficult to define, and psychologists, judges, and lawyers have been trying to determine what actions should and should not be considered aggressive for a long time.
Childhood Trauma: Disorders and Risky Behavior Psychology essay sample: Young people with a history of childhood abuse have a higher likelihood of participating in HIV risk behaviors such as having sex with multiple partners and having unprotected sex.
Personality Psychology and Depression Psychology essay sample: The depression study in the personality psychology scope assesses the psychology models connection with personality traits, analyzing the depression propagation among adolescents.
Depression in Young People: Articles Review Psychology essay sample: Depression is one of the mental health disorders progressively observed among the world population. The articles included in the annotated bibliography research this disease.
Bipolar Type II Diagnosis and Treatment Psychology essay sample: The article examines the clinical differences between bipolar disorder type I and bipolar disorder type II since the difficulty in choosing a correct diagnosis.
Concepts of Clinical Psychology Psychology essay sample: This paper revises three scholarly articles about mental disorders. Psychological disorders are a list of ailments with behavioral symptoms and can affect different areas of life.
“Living With Depression” by Karp Psychology essay sample: In the article “Living with Depression: Illness and Identity Turning Points”, the author tries to investigate how different patients tend to interpret this incoherent illness.
Resource Listing on Depression and Anxiety Psychology essay sample: This paper aims at creating a list of resources, including private agencies, counselors, websites, and publications that can help individuals.
Two Sides of Depression Disease Psychology essay sample: Depression is a widespread disease in the modern world, and that is why people often do not fully understand how it works.
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An Exploratory Study of Students with Depression in Undergraduate Research Experiences

Katelyn M. Cooper
Logan E. Gin
M. Elizabeth Barnes
Sara E. Brownell

*Address correspondence to: Katelyn M. Cooper ( E-mail Address: [email protected] ).

Department of Biology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32816

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Biology Education Research Lab, Research for Inclusive STEM Education Center, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281

Depression is a top mental health concern among undergraduates and has been shown to disproportionately affect individuals who are underserved and underrepresented in science. As we aim to create a more inclusive scientific community, we argue that we need to examine the relationship between depression and scientific research. While studies have identified aspects of research that affect graduate student depression, we know of no studies that have explored the relationship between depression and undergraduate research. In this study, we sought to understand how undergraduates’ symptoms of depression affect their research experiences and how research affects undergraduates’ feelings of depression. We interviewed 35 undergraduate researchers majoring in the life sciences from 12 research-intensive public universities across the United States who identify with having depression. Using inductive and deductive coding, we identified that students’ depression affected their motivation and productivity, creativity and risk-taking, engagement and concentration, and self-perception and socializing in undergraduate research experiences. We found that students’ social connections, experiencing failure in research, getting help, receiving feedback, and the demands of research affected students’ depression. Based on this work, we articulate an initial set of evidence-based recommendations for research mentors to consider in promoting an inclusive research experience for students with depression.

INTRODUCTION

Depression is described as a common and serious mood disorder that results in persistent feelings of sadness and hopelessness, as well as a loss of interest in activities that one once enjoyed ( American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013 ). Additional symptoms of depression include weight changes, difficulty sleeping, loss of energy, difficulty thinking or concentrating, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt, and suicidality ( APA, 2013 ). While depression results from a complex interaction of psychological, social, and biological factors ( World Health Organization, 2018 ), studies have shown that increased stress caused by college can be a significant contributor to student depression ( Dyson and Renk, 2006 ).

Depression is one of the top undergraduate mental health concerns, and the rate of depression among undergraduates continues to rise ( Center for Collegiate Mental Health, 2017 ). While we cannot discern whether these increasing rates of depression are due to increased awareness or increased incidence, it is clear that is a serious problem on college campuses. The percent of U.S. college students who self-reported a diagnosis with depression was recently estimated to be about 25% ( American College Health Association, 2019 ). However, higher rates have been reported, with one study estimating that up to 84% of undergraduates experience some level of depression ( Garlow et al. , 2008 ). Depression rates are typically higher among university students compared with the general population, despite being a more socially privileged group ( Ibrahim et al. , 2013 ). Prior studies have found that depression is negatively correlated with overall undergraduate academic performance ( Hysenbegasi et al. , 2005 ; Deroma et al. , 2009 ; American College Health Association, 2019 ). Specifically, diagnosed depression is associated with half a letter grade decrease in students’ grade point average ( Hysenbegasi et al. , 2005 ), and 21.6% of undergraduates reported that depression negatively affected their academic performance within the last year ( American College Health Association, 2019 ). Provided with a list of academic factors that may be affected by depression, students reported that depression contributed to lower exam grades, lower course grades, and not completing or dropping a course.

Students in the natural sciences may be particularly at risk for depression, given that such majors are noted to be particularly stressful due to their competitive nature and course work that is often perceived to “weed students out”( Everson et al. , 1993 ; Strenta et al. , 1994 ; American College Health Association, 2019 ; Seymour and Hunter, 2019 ). Science course instruction has also been described to be boring, repetitive, difficult, and math-intensive; these factors can create an environment that can trigger depression ( Seymour and Hewitt, 1997 ; Osborne and Collins, 2001 ; Armbruster et al ., 2009 ; Ceci and Williams, 2010 ). What also distinguishes science degree programs from other degree programs is that, increasingly, undergraduate research experiences are being proposed as an essential element of a science degree ( American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2011 ; President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, 2012 ; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine [NASEM], 2017 ). However, there is some evidence that undergraduate research experiences can add to the stress of college for some students ( Cooper et al. , 2019c ). Students can garner multiple benefits from undergraduate research, including enhanced abilities to think critically ( Ishiyama, 2002 ; Bauer and Bennett, 2003 ; Brownell et al. , 2015 ), improved student learning ( Rauckhorst et al. , 2001 ; Brownell et al. , 2015 ), and increased student persistence in undergraduate science degree programs ( Jones et al. , 2010 ; Hernandez et al. , 2018 ). Notably, undergraduate research experiences are increasingly becoming a prerequisite for entry into medical and graduate programs in science, particularly elite programs ( Cooper et al. , 2019d ). Although some research experiences are embedded into formal lab courses as course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs; Auchincloss et al. , 2014 ; Brownell and Kloser, 2015 ), the majority likely entail working with faculty in their research labs. These undergraduate research experiences in faculty labs are often added on top of a student’s normal course work, so they essentially become an extracurricular activity that they have to juggle with course work, working, and/or personal obligations ( Cooper et al. , 2019c ). While the majority of the literature surrounding undergraduate research highlights undergraduate research as a positive experience ( NASEM, 2017 ), studies have demonstrated that undergraduate research experiences can be academically and emotionally challenging for students ( Mabrouk and Peters, 2000 ; Seymour et al. , 2004 ; Cooper et al. , 2019c ; Limeri et al. , 2019 ). In fact, 50% of students sampled nationally from public R1 institutions consider leaving their undergraduate research experience prematurely, and about half of those students, or 25% of all students, ultimately leave their undergraduate research experience ( Cooper et al. , 2019c ). Notably, 33.8% of these individuals cited a negative lab environment and 33.3% cited negative relationships with their mentors as factors that influenced their decision about whether to leave ( Cooper et al. , 2019c ). Therefore, students’ depression may be exacerbated in challenging undergraduate research experiences, because studies have shown that depression is positively correlated with student stress ( Hish et al. , 2019 ).

While depression has not been explored in the context of undergraduate research experiences, depression has become a prominent concern surrounding graduate students conducting scientific research. A recent study that examined the “graduate student mental health crisis” ( Flaherty, 2018 ) found that work–life balance and graduate students’ relationships with their research advisors may be contributing to their depression ( Evans et al. , 2018 ). Specifically, this survey of 2279 PhD and master’s students from diverse fields of study, including the biological/physical sciences, showed that 39% of graduate students have experienced moderate to severe depression. Fifty-five percent of the graduate students with depression who were surveyed disagreed with the statement “I have good work life balance,” compared to only 21% of students with depression who agreed. Additionally, the study highlighted that more students with depression disagreed than agreed with the following statements: their advisors provided “real” mentorship, their advisors provided ample support, their advisors positively impacted their emotional or mental well-being, their advisors were assets to their careers, and they felt valued by their mentors. Another recent study identified that depression severity in biomedical doctoral students was significantly associated with graduate program climate, a perceived lack of employment opportunities, and the quality of students’ research training environment ( Nagy et al. , 2019 ). Environmental stress, academic stress, and family and monetary stress have also been shown to be predictive of depression severity in biomedical doctoral students ( Hish et al. , 2019 ). Further, one study found that self-esteem is negatively correlated and stress is positively correlated with graduate student depression; presumably research environments that challenge students’ self-esteem and induce stress are likely contributing to depressive symptoms among graduate students ( Kreger, 1995 ). While these studies have focused on graduate students, and there are certainly notable distinctions between graduate and undergraduate research, the research-related factors that affect graduate student depression, including work–life balance, relationships with mentors, research environment, stress, and self-esteem, may also be relevant to depression among undergraduates conducting research. Importantly, undergraduates in the United States have reported identical levels of depression as graduate students but are often less likely to seek mental health care services ( Wyatt and Oswalt, 2013 ), which is concerning if undergraduate research experiences exacerbate depression.

Based on the literature on the stressors of undergraduate research experiences and the literature identifying some potential causes of graduate student depression, we identified three aspects of undergraduate research that may exacerbate undergraduates’ depression. Mentoring: Mentors can be an integral part of a students’ research experience, bolstering their connections with others in the science community, scholarly productivity, and science identity, as well as providing many other benefits ( Thiry and Laursen, 2011 ; Prunuske et al. , 2013 ; Byars-Winston et al. , 2015 ; Aikens et al. , 2016 , 2017 ; Thompson et al. , 2016 ; Estrada et al. , 2018 ). However, recent literature has highlighted that poor mentoring can negatively affect undergraduate researchers ( Cooper et al. , 2019c ; Limeri et al. , 2019 ). Specifically, one study of 33 undergraduate researchers who had conducted research at 10 institutions identified seven major ways that they experienced negative mentoring, which included absenteeism, abuse of power, interpersonal mismatch, lack of career support, lack of psychosocial support, misaligned expectations, and unequal treatment ( Limeri et al. , 2019 ). We hypothesize negative mentoring experiences may be particularly harmful for students with depression, because support, particularly social support, has been shown to be important for helping individuals with depression cope with difficult circumstances ( Aneshensel and Stone, 1982 ; Grav et al. , 2012 ). Failure: Experiencing failure has been hypothesized to be an important aspect of undergraduate research experiences that may help students develop some the most distinguishing abilities of outstanding scientists, such as coping with failure, navigating challenges, and persevering ( Laursen et al. , 2010 ; Gin et al. , 2018 ; Henry et al. , 2019 ). However, experiencing failure and the stress and fatigue that often accompany it may be particularly tough for students with depression ( Aldwin and Greenberger, 1987 ; Mongrain and Blackburn, 2005 ). Lab environment: Fairness, inclusion/exclusion, and social support within one’s organizational environment have been shown to be key factors that cause people to either want to remain in the work place and be productive or to want to leave ( Barak et al. , 2006 ; Cooper et al. , 2019c ). We hypothesize that dealing with exclusion or a lack of social support may exacerbate depression for some students; patients with clinical depression react to social exclusion with more pronounced negative emotions than do individuals without clinical depression ( Jobst et al. , 2015 ). While there are likely other aspects of undergraduate research that affect student depression, we hypothesize that these factors have the potential to exacerbate negative research experiences for students with depression.

Depression has been shown to disproportionately affect many populations that are underrepresented or underserved within the scientific community, including females ( American College Health Association, 2018 ; Evans et al. , 2018 ), first-generation college students ( Jenkins et al. , 2013 ), individuals from low socioeconomic backgrounds ( Eisenberg et al. , 2007 ), members of the LGBTQ+ community ( Eisenberg et al. , 2007 ; Evans et al. , 2018 ), and people with disabilities ( Turner and Noh, 1988 ). Therefore, as the science community strives to be more diverse and inclusive ( Intemann, 2009 ), it is important that we understand more about the relationship between depression and scientific research, because negative experiences with depression in scientific research may be contributing to the underrepresentation of these groups. Specifically, more information is needed about how the research process and environment of research experiences may affect depression.

Given the high rate of depression among undergraduates, the links between depression and graduate research, the potentially challenging environment of undergraduate research, and how depression could disproportionately impact students from underserved communities, it is imperative to begin to explore the relationship between scientific research and depression among undergraduates to create research experiences that could maximize student success. In this exploratory interview study, we aimed to 1) describe how undergraduates’ symptoms of depression affect their research experiences, 2) understand how undergraduate research affects students’ feelings of depression, and 3) identify recommendations based on the literature and undergraduates’ reported experiences to promote a positive research experience for students with depression.

This study was done with an approved Arizona State University Institutional Review Board protocol #7247.

In Fall 2018, we surveyed undergraduate researchers majoring in the life sciences across 25 research-intensive (R1) public institutions across the United States (specific details about the recruitment of the students who completed the survey can be found in Cooper et al. (2019c) ). The survey asked students for their opinions about their undergraduate research experiences and their demographic information and whether they would be interested in participating in a follow-up interview related to their research experiences. For the purpose of this study, we exclusively interviewed students about their undergraduate research experiences in faculty member labs; we did not consider students’ experiences in CUREs. Of the 768 undergraduate researchers who completed the survey, 65% ( n = 496) indicated that they would be interested in participating in a follow-up interview. In Spring 2019, we emailed the 496 students, explaining that we were interested in interviewing students with depression about their experiences in undergraduate research. Our specific prompt was: “If you identify as having depression, we would be interested in hearing about your experience in undergraduate research in a 30–60 minute online interview.” We did not define depression in our email recruitment because we conducted think-aloud interviews with four undergraduates who all correctly interpreted what we meant by depression ( APA, 2013 ). We had 35 students agree to participate in the interview study. The interview participants represented 12 of the 25 R1 public institutions that were represented in the initial survey.

Student Interviews

We developed an interview script to explore our research questions. Specifically, we were interested in how students’ symptoms of depression affect their research experiences, how undergraduate research negatively affects student depression, and how undergraduate research positively affects student depression.

We recognized that mental health, and specifically depression, can be a sensitive topic to discuss with undergraduates, and therefore we tried to minimize any discomfort that the interviewees might experience during the interview. Specifically, we conducted think-aloud interviews with three graduate students who self-identified with having depression at the time of the interview. We asked them to note whether any interview questions made them uncomfortable. We also sought their feedback on questions given their experiences as persons with depression who had once engaged in undergraduate research. We revised the interview protocol after each think-aloud interview. Next, we conducted four additional think-aloud interviews with undergraduates conducting basic science or biology education research who identified with having depression to establish cognitive validity of the questions and to elicit additional feedback about any questions that might make someone uncomfortable. The questions were revised after each think-aloud interview until no question was unclear or misinterpreted by the students and we were confident that the questions minimized students’ potential discomfort ( Trenor et al. , 2011 ). A copy of the final interview script can be found in the Supplemental Material.

All interviews were individually conducted by one of two researchers (K.M.C. and L.E.G.) who conducted the think-aloud interviews together to ensure that their interviewing practices were as similar as possible. The interviews were approximately an hour long, and students received a $15 gift card for their participation.

Personal, Research, and Depression Demographics

All student demographics and information about students’ research experiences were collected using the survey distributed to students in Fall 2018. We collected personal demographics, including the participants’ gender, race/ethnicity, college generation status, transfer status, financial stability, year in college, major, and age. We also collected information about the students’ research experiences, including the length of their first research experiences, the average number of hours they spend in research per week, how they were compensated for research, who their primary mentors were, and the focus areas of their research.

In the United States, mental healthcare is disproportionately unavailable to Black and Latinx individuals, as well as those who come from low socioeconomic backgrounds ( Kataoka et al. , 2002 ; Howell and McFeeters, 2008 ; Santiago et al. , 2013 ). Therefore, to minimize a biased sample, we invited anyone who identified with having depression to participate in our study; we did not require students to be diagnosed with depression or to be treated for depression in order to participate. However, we did collect information about whether students had been formally diagnosed with depression and whether they had been treated for depression. After the interview, all participants were sent a link to a short survey that asked them if they had ever been diagnosed with depression and how, if at all, they had ever been treated for depression. A copy of these survey questions can be found in the Supplemental Material. The combined demographic information of the participants is in Table 1 . The demographics for each individual student can be found in the Supplemental Material.

Student-level demographics, research demographics, and depression demographics of the 35 interview participants
Student-level demographics	Interview participants = 35 (%)	Research demographics	Interview participants = 35 (%)	Depression demographics	Interview participants = 35 (%)

Female	27 (77%)	Less than 6 months	7 (20%)	Yes	21 (60%)
Male	7 (23%)	6 months	6 (17%)	No	10 (29%)
Declined to state	1 (3%)	1 year	11 (31%)	Declined to state	4 (11%)
		1.5 years	4 (11%)
Asian	9 (26%)	2 years	2 (6%)	Medication	15 (43%)
Black	1 (3%)	3 years	3 (9%)	Counseling	17 (49%)
Latinx	5 (14%)	3.5 years	1 (3%)	Other	2 (6%)
Middle Eastern	1 (3%)	Declined to state	1 (3%)	No treatment	15 (43%)
Mixed race	1 (3%)			Declined to state	2 (6%)
White	17 (49%)	1–5 hours	6 (17%)
Declined to state	1 (3%)	6–10 hours	16 (46%)
		11–15 hours	7 (20%)
First generation	10 (29%)	16 + hours	5 (14%)
Continuing generation	24 (69%)	Declined to state	1 (3%)
Declined to state	1 (3%)
		Money	13 (37%)
Transfer	5 (14%)	Course credit	24 (69%)
Nontransfer	29 (83%)	Volunteer	7 (20%)
Declined to state	1 (3%)	Declined to state	2 (6%)

No	6 (17%)	PI	9 (26%)
Yes, but only sometimes	12 (34%)	Postdoc	3 (9%)
Yes	16 (46%)	Graduate student	14 (40%)
Declined to state	1 (3%)	Staff member	7 (20%)
		Undergraduate student	1 (3%)
First year	1 (3%)	Declined to state	1 (3%)
Second year	5 (14%)
Third year	6 (17%)	Cell/molecular biology	4 (11%)
Fourth year or greater	22 (63%)	Ecology/evolution	9 (26%)
Declined to state	1 (3%)	Genetics	5 (14%)
		Immunology	4 (11%)
Biology	32 (91%)	Neuroscience	3 (9%)
Biochemistry	2 (6%)	Physiology/health	3 (9%)
Declined to state	1 (3%)	Other	6 (17%)
		Declined to state	1 (3%)
18–19	5 (14%)
20–21	17 (49%)
22–23	11 (31%)
24 or older	1 (3%)
Declined to state	1 (3%)

a Students reported the time they had spent in research 6 months before being interviewed and only reported on the length of time of their first research experiences.

b Students were invited to report multiple ways in which they were treated for their depression; other treatments included lifestyle changes and meditation.

c Students were invited to report multiple means of compensation for their research if they had been compensated for their time in different ways.

d Students were asked whether they felt financially stable, particularly during the undergraduate research experience.

e Students reported who they work/worked with most closely during their research experiences.

f Staff members included lab coordinators or lab managers.

g Other focus areas of research included sociology, linguistics, psychology, and public health.

Interview Analysis

The initial interview analysis aimed to explore each idea that a participant expressed ( Charmaz, 2006 ) and to identify reoccurring ideas throughout the interviews. First, three authors (K.M.C., L.E.G., and S.E.B.) individually reviewed a different set of 10 interviews and took detailed analytic notes ( Birks and Mills, 2015 ). Afterward, the authors compared their notes and identified reoccurring themes throughout the interviews using open coding methods ( Saldaña, 2015 ).

Once an initial set of themes was established, two researchers (K.M.C. and L.E.G.) individually reviewed the same set of 15 randomly selected interviews to validate the themes identified in the initial analysis and to screen for any additional themes that the initial analysis may have missed. Each researcher took detailed analytic notes throughout the review of an interview, which they discussed after reviewing each interview. The researchers compared what quotes from each interview they categorized into each theme. Using constant comparison methods, they assigned quotes to each theme and constantly compared the quotes to ensure that each quote fit within the description of the theme ( Glesne and Peshkin, 1992 ). In cases in which quotes were too different from other quotes, a new theme was created. This approach allowed for multiple revisions of the themes and allowed the authors to define a final set of codes; the researchers created a final codebook with refined definitions of emergent themes (the final coding rubric can be found in the Supplemental Material). Once the final codebook was established, the researchers (K.M.C. and L.E.G.) individually coded seven additional interviews (20% of all interviews) using the coding rubric. The researchers compared their codes, and their Cohen’s κ interrater score for these seven interviews was at an acceptable level (κ = 0.88; Landis and Koch, 1977 ). One researcher (L.E.G.) coded the remaining 28 out of 35 interviews. The researchers determined that data saturation had been reached with the current sample and no further recruitment was needed ( Guest et al. , 2006 ). We report on themes that were mentioned by at least 20% of students in the interview study. In the Supplemental Material, we provide the final coding rubric with the number of participants whose interview reflected each theme ( Hannah and Lautsch, 2011 ). Reporting the number of individuals who reported themes within qualitative data can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the generalizability of the results to a broader population. These qualitative data are meant to characterize a landscape of experiences that students with depression have in undergraduate research rather than to make claims about the prevalence of these experiences ( Glesne and Peshkin, 1992 ). Because inferences about the importance of these themes cannot be drawn from these counts, they are not included in the results of the paper ( Maxwell, 2010 ). Further, the limited number of interviewees made it not possible to examine whether there were trends based on students’ demographics or characteristics of their research experiences (e.g., their specific area of study). Quotes were lightly edited for clarity by inserting clarification brackets and using ellipses to indicate excluded text. Pseudonyms were given to all students to protect their privacy.

The Effect of Depressive Symptoms on Undergraduate Research

We asked students to describe the symptoms associated with their depression. Students described experiencing anxiety that is associated with their depression; this could be anxiety that precedes their depression or anxiety that results from a depressive episode or a period of time when an individual has depression symptoms. Further, students described difficulty getting out of bed or leaving the house, feeling tired, a lack of motivation, being overly self-critical, feeling apathetic, and having difficulty concentrating. We were particularly interested in how students’ symptoms of depression affected their experiences in undergraduate research. During the think-aloud interviews that were conducted before the interview study, graduate and undergraduate students consistently described that their depression affected their motivation in research, their creativity in research, and their productivity in research. Therefore, we explicitly asked undergraduate researchers how, if at all, their depression affected these three factors. We also asked students to describe any additional ways in which their depression affected their research experiences. Undergraduate researchers commonly described five additional ways in which their depression affected their research; for a detailed description of each way students’ research was affected and for example quotes, see Table 2 . Students described that their depression negatively affected their productivity in the lab. Commonly, students described that their productivity was directly affected by a lack of motivation or because they felt less creative, which hindered the research process. Additionally, students highlighted that they were sometimes less productive because their depression sometimes caused them to struggle to engage intellectually with their research or caused them to have difficulty remembering or concentrating; students described that they could do mundane or routine tasks when they felt depressed, but that they had difficulty with more complex and intellectually demanding tasks. However, students sometimes described that even mundane tasks could be difficult when they were required to remember specific steps; for example, some students struggled recalling a protocol from memory when their depression was particularly severe. Additionally, students noted that their depression made them more self-conscious, which sometimes held them back from sharing research ideas with their mentors or from taking risks such as applying to competitive programs. In addition to being self-conscious, students highlighted that their depression caused them to be overly self-critical, and some described experiencing imposter phenomenon ( Clance and Imes, 1978 ) or feeling like they were not talented enough to be in research and were accepted into a lab by a fluke or through luck. Finally, students described that depression often made them feel less social, and they struggled to socially engage with other members of the lab when they were feeling down.

Ways in which students report that depression affected their undergraduate research experience with example student quotes
	Description	Example quote 1	Example quote 2
Motivation and productivity
Lack of motivation in research	Students describe that their depression can cause them to feel unmotivated to do research.	Crystal: “[Depression] can make it hard to motivate myself to keep doing [research] because when I get into [depression] it doesn’t matter. [All my organisms] are going to die and everything’s going to go horribly sideways and why do I even bother? And then that can descend into a state of just sadness or apathy or a combination of the two.”	Naomi: “I don’t feel as motivated to do the research because I just don’t feel like doing anything. [Depression] definitely does not help with the motivation.”
Less productive	Students describe that depression can cause them to be less productive, less efficient, or to move slower than usual.	Marta: “I think at times when [my depression is] really, really bad, I’ll just find myself just sitting at my desk looking busy but not actually doing anything. (…) And I think that obviously affects productivity because I’m not really doing anything.”	Julie: “I think I literally moved and thought slower. (…) I think that if I could redo all of that time while not depressed, I would have gotten so much more done. I feel like so much of this stalling I had on various projects was because of [my depression].”
Creativity and risk-taking
Lack of creativity in research	Students describe that depression can cause them to be less creative in their research.	Michelle: “In that depressive episode, I probably won’t be even using my brain in that, sort of, [creative] sense. My mind will probably be just so limited and blank and I won’t even want to think creatively.”	Amy: “I think [depression] definitely has super negatively impacted my research creativity. I just feel like I’m not as creative with my problem solving skills when I am depressed as when I am not depressed.”
Held back from taking risks or contributing thoughts and ideas	Students describe that their depression can hold them back from sharing an idea with their lab mates or from taking risks like applying for competitive positions or trying something in research that might not work.	Marta: “[Depression affects my research] because I’m so scared to take a risk. That has really put a very short cap on what I’ve been able to do. And maybe I would’ve been able to get internships at institutions like my peers. But instead, because I was so limited by my depression, it kept me from doing that.”	Christian: “That’s where I think [depression] definitely negatively affects what I have accomplished just because I feel personally that I could have achieved more if I wasn’t held down, I guess, by depression. So, I feel like I would’ve been able to put myself out there more and take more risks, reaching out to others to take opportunities when I was in lab.”
Engagement and concentration
Struggle to intellectually engage	Students describe that they struggle to do research activities that require intellectual engagement when they are feeling depressed.	Freddy: “I find mechanical things like actually running an experiment in the lab, I can pretty much do regardless of how I’m feeling. But things that require a ton of mental energy, like analyzing data, doing statistics, or actually writing, was [ ] a lot more difficult if I was feeling depressed.”	Rose: “When you’re working on a research project you’re like ‘I wonder what this does? Or why is that the way it is?,’ and then you’ll read more articles and talk to a few people. And when I’m depressed, I don’t care. I’m like this is just another thing I have to do.”
Difficulty concentrating or remembering	Students describe that, because of their depression, they can have difficulty concentrating or remembering when they are conducting research.	Julie: “My memory absolutely goes to hell, especially my short-term memory. My attention span nosedives. Later, I will look back on work and have no idea how any of that made sense to me.”	Adrianna: “Yeah. [Sometimes when I’m depressed] it’s like, ‘Oh, I forgot a step,’ or ‘Oh, I mislabeled the tube.’ It’s like, okay, I got to slow down even more and pay more attention. But it’s really hard to get myself to focus.”
Self-perception and socializing
Overly self-critical	Students describe that depression causes them to have low self-esteem or to be overly self-critical.	Heather: “I guess [my depression can cause me to] beat myself up about different things. Especially when the experiment didn’t really work. I guess blaming myself to the point where it was unhealthy about different things. If I had an experiment and it didn’t work, even if I was working with someone else, then I’d put all the blame on myself. I guess [your depression] worsens it because you just feel worse about yourself mentally.”	Taylor: “I feel like I’m sort of not good enough, right? And I’ve sort of fooled [my research advisor] for letting me into their lab, and that I should just stop. I guess that’s really how [my depression] would relate directly to research.”
Less social	Students describe that their depression can cause them to not want to interact with others in the lab or to be less social in general.	Adrianna: “There are days I’m emotionally flat and obviously those I just don’t engage in conversation as much and [my lab mates] are probably like, ‘Oh, she’s just under the weather.’ I don’t know. It just affects my ability to want to sit down and talk to somebody.”	Michelle: “When I’m depressed I won’t talk as much, so [my lab mates and I] won’t have a conversation.”

The Effect of Undergraduate Research Experiences on Student Depression

We also wanted to explore how research impacted students’ feelings of depression. Undergraduates described how research both positively and negatively affected their depression. In the following sections, we present aspects of undergraduate research and examine how each positively and/or negatively affected students’ depression using embedded student quotes to highlight the relationships between related ideas.

Lab Environment: Relationships with Others in the Lab.

Some aspects of the lab environment, which we define as students’ physical, social, or psychological research space, could be particularly beneficial for students with depression.

Specifically, undergraduate researchers perceived that comfortable and positive social interactions with others in the lab helped their depression. Students acknowledged how beneficial their relationships with graduate students and postdocs could be.

Marta: “I think always checking in on undergrads is important. It’s really easy [for us] to go a whole day without talking to anybody in the lab. But our grad students are like ‘Hey, what’s up? How’s school? What’s going on?’ (…) What helps me the most is having that strong support system. Sometimes just talking makes you feel better, but also having people that believe in you can really help you get out of that negative spiral. I think that can really help with depression.”

Kelley: “I know that anytime I need to talk to [my postdoc mentors] about something they’re always there for me. Over time we’ve developed a relationship where I know that outside of work and outside of the lab if I did want to talk to them about something I could talk to them. Even just talking to someone about hobbies and having that relationship alone is really helpful [for depression].”

In addition to highlighting the importance of developing relationships with graduate students or postdocs in the lab, students described that forming relationships with other undergraduates in the lab also helped their depression. Particularly, students described that other undergraduate researchers often validated their feelings about research, which in turn helped them realize that what they are thinking or feeling is normal, which tended to alleviate their negative thoughts. Interestingly, other undergraduates experiencing the same issues could sometimes help buffer them from perceiving that a mentor did not like them or that they were uniquely bad at research. In this article, we use the term “mentor” to refer to anyone who students referred to in the interviews as being their mentors or managing their research experiences; this includes graduate students, postdoctoral scholars, lab managers, and primary investigators (PIs).

Abby: “One of my best friends is in the lab with me. A lot of that friendship just comes from complaining about our stress with the lab and our annoyance with people in the lab. Like when we both agree like, ‘Yeah, the grad students were really off today, it wasn’t us,’ that helps. ‘It wasn’t me, it wasn’t my fault that we were having a rough day in lab; it was the grad students.’ Just being able to realize, ‘Hey, this isn’t all caused by us,’ you know? (…) We understand the stresses in the lab. We understand the details of what each other are doing in the lab, so when something doesn’t work out, we understand that it took them like eight hours to do that and it didn’t work. We provide empathy on a different level.”

Meleana: “It’s great to have solidarity in being confused about something, and it’s just that is a form of validation for me too. When we leave a lab meeting and I look at [another undergrad] I’m like, ‘Did you understand anything that they were just saying?’ And they’re like, ‘Oh, no.’ (…) It’s just really validating to hear from the other undergrads that we all seem to be struggling with the same things.”

Developing positive relationships with faculty mentors or PIs also helped alleviate some students’ depressive feelings, particularly when PIs shared their own struggles with students. This also seemed to normalize students’ concerns about their own experiences.

Alexandra: “[Talking with my PI] is helpful because he would talk about his struggles, and what he faced. A lot of it was very similar to my struggles. For example, he would say, ‘Oh, yeah, I failed this exam that I studied so hard for. I failed the GRE and I paid so much money to prepare for it.’ It just makes [my depression] better, like okay, this is normal for students to go through this. It’s not an out of this world thing where if you fail, you’re a failure and you can’t move on from it.”

Students’ relationships with others in the lab did not always positively impact their depression. Students described instances when the negative moods of the graduate students and PIs would often set the tone of the lab, which in turn worsened the mood of the undergraduate researchers.

Abby: “Sometimes [the grad students] are not in a good mood. The entire vibe of the lab is just off, and if you make a joke and it hits somebody wrong, they get all mad. It really depends on the grad students and the leadership and the mood that they’re in.”

Interviewer: “How does it affect your depression when the grad students are in a bad mood?”

Abby: “It definitely makes me feel worse. It feels like, again, that I really shouldn’t go ask them for help because they’re just not in the mood to help out. It makes me have more pressure on myself, and I have deadlines I need to meet, but I have a question for them, but they’re in a bad mood so I can’t ask. That’s another day wasted for me and it just puts more stress, which just adds to the depression.”

Additionally, some students described even more concerning behavior from research mentors, which negatively affected their depression.

Julie: “I had a primary investigator who is notorious in the department for screaming at people, being emotionally abusive, unreasonable, et cetera. (…) [He was] kind of harassing people, demeaning them, lying to them, et cetera, et cetera. (…) Being yelled at and constantly demeaned and harassed at all hours of the day and night, that was probably pretty bad for me.”

While the relationships between undergraduates and graduate, postdoc, and faculty mentors seemed to either alleviate or worsen students’ depressive symptoms, depending on the quality of the relationship, students in this study exclusively described their relationships with other undergraduates as positive for their depression. However, students did note that undergraduate research puts some of the best and brightest undergraduates in the same environment, which can result in students comparing themselves with their peers. Students described that this comparison would often lead them to feel badly about themselves, even though they would describe their personal relationship with a person to be good.

Meleana: “In just the research field in general, just feeling like I don’t really measure up to the people around me [can affect my depression]. A lot of the times it’s the beginning of a little spiral, mental spiral. There are some past undergrads that are talked about as they’re on this pedestal of being the ideal undergrads and that they were just so smart and contributed so much to the lab. I can never stop myself from wondering like, ‘Oh, I wonder if I’m having a contribution to the lab that’s similar or if I’m just another one of the undergrads that does the bare minimum and passes through and is just there.’”

Natasha: “But, on the other hand, [having another undergrad in the lab] also reminded me constantly that some people are invested in this and meant to do this and it’s not me. And that some people know a lot more than I do and will go further in this than I will.”

While students primarily expressed that their relationships with others in the lab affected their depression, some students explained that they struggled most with depression when the lab was empty; they described that they did not like being alone in the lab, because a lack of stimulation allowed their minds to be filled with negative thoughts.

Mia: “Those late nights definitely didn’t help [my depression]. I am alone, in the entire building. I’m left alone to think about my thoughts more, so not distracted by talking to people or interacting with people. I think more about how I’m feeling and the lack of progress I’m making, and the hopelessness I’m feeling. That kind of dragged things on, and I guess deepened my depression.”

Freddy: “Often times when I go to my office in the evening, that is when I would [ sic ] be prone to be more depressed. It’s being alone. I think about myself or mistakes or trying to correct mistakes or whatever’s going on in my life at the time. I become very introspective. I think I’m way too self-evaluating, way too self-deprecating and it’s when I’m alone when those things are really, really triggered. When I’m talking with somebody else, I forget about those things.”

In sum, students with depression highlighted that a lab environment full of positive and encouraging individuals was helpful for their depression, whereas isolating or competitive environments and negative interactions with others often resulted in more depressive feelings.

Doing Science: Experiencing Failure in Research, Getting Help, Receiving Feedback, Time Demands, and Important Contributions.

In addition to the lab environment, students also described that the process of doing science could affect their depression. Specifically, students explained that a large contributor to their depression was experiencing failure in research.

Interviewer: “Considering your experience in undergraduate research, what tends to trigger your feelings of depression?”

Heather: “Probably just not getting things right. Having to do an experiment over and over again. You don’t get the results you want. (…) The work is pretty meticulous and it’s frustrating when I do all this work, I do a whole experiment, and then I don’t get any results that I can use. That can be really frustrating. It adds to the stress. (…) It’s hard because you did all this other stuff before so you can plan for the research, and then something happens and all the stuff you did was worthless basically.”

Julie: “I felt very negatively about myself [when a project failed] and pretty panicked whenever something didn’t work because I felt like it was a direct reflection on my effort and/or intelligence, and then it was a big glaring personal failure.”

Students explained that their depression related to failing in research was exacerbated if they felt as though they could not seek help from their research mentors. Perceived insufficient mentor guidance has been shown to be a factor influencing student intention to leave undergraduate research ( Cooper et al. , 2019c ). Sometimes students talked about their research mentors being unavailable or unapproachable.

Michelle: “It just feels like [the graduate students] are not approachable. I feel like I can’t approach them to ask for their understanding in a certain situation. It makes [my depression] worse because I feel like I’m stuck, and that I’m being limited, and like there’s nothing I can do. So then I kind of feel like it’s my fault that I can’t do anything.”

Other times, students described that they did not seek help in fear that they would be negatively evaluated in research, which is a fear of being judged by others ( Watson and Friend, 1969 ; Weeks et al. , 2005 ; Cooper et al. , 2018 ). That is, students fear that their mentor would think negatively about them or judge them if they were to ask questions that their mentor thought they should know the answer to.

Meleana: “I would say [my depression] tends to come out more in being more reserved in asking questions because I think that comes more like a fear-based thing where I’m like, ‘Oh, I don’t feel like I’m good enough and so I don’t want to ask these questions because then my mentors will, I don’t know, think that I’m dumb or something.’”

Conversely, students described that mentors who were willing to help them alleviated their depressive feelings.

Crystal: “Yeah [my grad student] is always like, ‘Hey, I can check in on things in the lab because you’re allowed to ask me for that, you’re not totally alone in this,’ because he knows that I tend to take on all this responsibility and I don’t always know how to ask for help. He’s like, ‘You know, this is my lab too and I am here to help you as well,’ and just reminds me that I’m not shouldering this burden by myself.”

Ashlyn: “The graduate student who I work with is very kind and has a lot of patience and he really understands a lot of things and provides simple explanations. He does remind me about things and he will keep on me about certain tasks that I need to do in an understanding way, and it’s just because he’s patient and he listens.”

In addition to experiencing failure in science, students described that making mistakes when doing science also negatively affected their depression.

Abby: “I guess not making mistakes on experiments [is important in avoiding my depression]. Not necessarily that your experiment didn’t turn out to produce the data that you wanted, but just adding the wrong enzyme or messing something up like that. It’s like, ‘Oh, man,’ you know? You can get really down on yourself about that because it can be embarrassing.”

Commonly, students described that the potential for making mistakes increased their stress and anxiety regarding research; however, they explained that how other people responded to a potential mistake was what ultimately affected their depression.

Briana: “Sometimes if I made a mistake in correctly identifying an eye color [of a fly], [my PI] would just ridicule me in front of the other students. He corrected me but his method of correcting was very discouraging because it was a ridicule. It made the others laugh and I didn’t like that.”

Julie: “[My PI] explicitly [asked] if I had the dedication for science. A lot of times he said I had terrible judgment. A lot of times he said I couldn’t be trusted. Once I went to a conference with him, and, unfortunately, in front of another professor, he called me a klutz several times and there was another comment about how I never learn from my mistakes.”

When students did do things correctly, they described how important it could be for them to receive praise from their mentors. They explained that hearing praise and validation can be particularly helpful for students with depression, because their thoughts are often very negative and/or because they have low self-esteem.

Crystal: “[Something that helps my depression is] I have text messages from [my graduate student mentor] thanking me [and another undergraduate researcher] for all of the work that we’ve put in, that he would not be able to be as on track to finish as he is if he didn’t have our help.”

Interviewer: “Why is hearing praise from your mentor helpful?”

Crystal: “Because a lot of my depression focuses on everybody secretly hates you, nobody likes you, you’re going to die alone. So having that validation [from my graduate mentor] is important, because it flies in the face of what my depression tells me.”

Brian: “It reminds you that you exist outside of this negative world that you’ve created for yourself, and people don’t see you how you see yourself sometimes.”

Students also highlighted how research could be overwhelming, which negatively affected their depression. Particularly, students described that research demanded a lot of their time and that their mentors did not always seem to be aware that they were juggling school and other commitments in addition to their research. This stress exacerbated their depression.

Rose: “I feel like sometimes [my grad mentors] are not very understanding because grad students don’t take as many classes as [undergrads] do. I think sometimes they don’t understand when I say I can’t come in at all this week because I have finals and they’re like, ‘Why though?’”

Abby: “I just think being more understanding of student life would be great. We have classes as well as the lab, and classes are the priority. They forget what it’s like to be a student. You feel like they don’t understand and they could never understand when you say like, ‘I have three exams this week,’ and they’re like, ‘I don’t care. You need to finish this.’”

Conversely, some students reported that their research labs were very understanding of students’ schedules. Interestingly, these students talked most about how helpful it was to be able to take a mental health day and not do research on days when they felt down or depressed.

Marta: “My lab tech is very open, so she’ll tell us, ‘I can’t come in today. I have to take a mental health day.’ So she’s a really big advocate for that. And I think I won’t personally tell her that I’m taking a mental health day, but I’ll say, ‘I can’t come in today, but I’ll come in Friday and do those extra hours.’ And she’s like, ‘OK great, I’ll see you then.’ And it makes me feel good, because it helps me take care of myself first and then I can take care of everything else I need to do, which is amazing.”

Meleana: “Knowing that [my mentors] would be flexible if I told them that I’m crazy busy and can’t come into work nearly as much this week [helps my depression]. There is flexibility in allowing me to then care for myself.”

Interviewer: “Why is the flexibility helpful given the depression?”

Meleana: “Because sometimes for me things just take a little bit longer when I’m feeling down. I’m just less efficient to be honest, and so it’s helpful if I feel like I can only go into work for 10 hours in a week. It declutters my brain a little bit to not have to worry about all the things I have to do in work in addition the things that I need to do for school or clubs, or family or whatever.”

Despite the demanding nature of research, a subset of students highlighted that their research and research lab provided a sense of stability or familiarity that distracted them from their depression.

Freddy: “I’ll [do research] to run away from those [depressive] feelings or whatever. (…) I find sadly, I hate to admit it, but I do kind of run to [my lab]. I throw myself into work to distract myself from the feelings of depression and sadness.”

Rose: “When you’re sad or when you’re stressed you want to go to things you’re familiar with. So because lab has always been in my life, it’s this thing where it’s going to be there for me I guess. It’s like a good book that you always go back to and it’s familiar and it makes you feel good. So that’s how lab is. It’s not like the greatest thing in the world but it’s something that I’m used to, which is what I feel like a lot of people need when they’re sad and life is not going well.”

Many students also explained that research positively affects their depression because they perceive their research contribution to be important.

Ashlyn: “I feel like I’m dedicating myself to something that’s worthy and something that I believe in. It’s really important because it contextualizes those times when I am feeling depressed. It’s like, no, I do have these better things that I’m working on. Even when I don’t like myself and I don’t like who I am, which is again, depression brain, I can at least say, ‘Well, I have all these other people relying on me in research and in this area and that’s super important.’”

Jessica: “I mean, it just felt like the work that I was doing had meaning and when I feel like what I’m doing is actually going to contribute to the world, that usually really helps with [depression] because it’s like not every day you can feel like you’re doing something impactful.”

In sum, students highlighted that experiencing failure in research and making mistakes negatively contributed to depression, especially when help was unavailable or research mentors had a negative reaction. Additionally, students acknowledged that the research could be time-consuming, but that research mentors who were flexible helped assuage depressive feelings that were associated with feeling overwhelmed. Finally, research helped some students’ depression, because it felt familiar, provided a distraction from depression, and reminded students that they were contributing to a greater cause.

We believe that creating more inclusive research environments for students with depression is an important step toward broadening participation in science, not only to ensure that we are not discouraging students with depression from persisting in science, but also because depression has been shown to disproportionately affect underserved and underrepresented groups in science ( Turner and Noh, 1988 ; Eisenberg et al. , 2007 ; Jenkins et al. , 2013 ; American College Health Association, 2018 ). We initially hypothesized that three features of undergraduate research—research mentors, the lab environment, and failure—may have the potential to exacerbate student depression. We found this to be true; students highlighted that their relationships with their mentors as well as the overall lab environment could negatively affect their depression, but could also positively affect their research experiences. Students also noted that they struggled with failure, which is likely true of most students, but is known to be particularly difficult for students with depression ( Elliott et al. , 1997 ). We expand upon our findings by integrating literature on depression with the information that students provided in the interviews about how research mentors can best support students. We provide a set of evidence-based recommendations focused on mentoring, the lab environment, and failure for research mentors wanting to create more inclusive research environments for students with depression. Notably, only the first recommendation is specific to students with depression; the others reflect recommendations that have previously been described as “best practices” for research mentors ( NASEM, 2017 , 2019 ; Sorkness et al. , 2017 ) and likely would benefit most students. However, we examine how these recommendations may be particularly important for students with depression. As we hypothesized, these recommendations directly address three aspects of research: mentors, lab environment, and failure. A caveat of these recommendations is that more research needs to be done to explore the experiences of students with depression and how these practices actually impact students with depression, but our national sample of undergraduate researchers with depression can provide an initial starting point for a discussion about how to improve research experiences for these students.

Recommendations to Make Undergraduate Research Experiences More Inclusive for Students with Depression

Recognize student depression as a valid illness..

Allow students with depression to take time off of research by simply saying that they are sick and provide appropriate time for students to recover from depressive episodes. Also, make an effort to destigmatize mental health issues.

Undergraduate researchers described both psychological and physical symptoms that manifested as a result of their depression and highlighted how such symptoms prevented them from performing to their full potential in undergraduate research. For example, students described how their depression would cause them to feel unmotivated, which would often negatively affect their research productivity. In cases in which students were motivated enough to come in and do their research, they described having difficulty concentrating or engaging in the work. Further, when doing research, students felt less creative and less willing to take risks, which may alter the quality of their work. Students also sometimes struggled to socialize in the lab. They described feeling less social and feeling overly self-critical. In sum, students described that, when they experienced a depressive episode, they were not able to perform to the best of their ability, and it sometimes took a toll on them to try to act like nothing was wrong, when they were internally struggling with depression. We recommend that research mentors treat depression like any other physical illness; allowing students the chance to recover when they are experiencing a depressive episode can be extremely important to students and can allow them to maximize their productivity upon returning to research ( Judd et al. , 2000 ). Students explained that if they are not able to take the time to focus on recovering during a depressive episode, then they typically continue to struggle with depression, which negatively affects their research. This sentiment is echoed by researchers in psychiatry who have found that patients who do not fully recover from a depressive episode are more likely to relapse and to experience chronic depression ( Judd et al. , 2000 ). Students described not doing tasks or not showing up to research because of their depression but struggling with how to share that information with their research mentors. Often, students would not say anything, which caused them anxiety because they were worried about what others in the lab would say to them when they returned. Admittedly, many students understood why this behavior would cause their research mentors to be angry or frustrated, but they weighed the consequences of their research mentors’ displeasure against the consequences of revealing their depression and decided it was not worth admitting to being depressed. This aligns with literature that suggests that when individuals have concealable stigmatized identities, or identities that can be hidden and that carry negative stereotypes, such as depression, they will often keep them concealed to avoid negative judgment or criticism ( Link and Phelan, 2001 ; Quinn and Earnshaw, 2011 ; Jones and King, 2014 ; Cooper and Brownell, 2016 ; Cooper et al. , 2019b ; Cooper et al ., unpublished data ). Therefore, it is important for research mentors to be explicit with students that 1) they recognize mental illness as a valid sickness and 2) that students with mental illness can simply explain that they are sick if they need to take time off. This may be useful to overtly state on a research website or in a research syllabus, contract, or agreement if mentors use such documents when mentoring undergraduates in their lab. Further, research mentors can purposefully work to destigmatize mental health issues by explicitly stating that struggling with mental health issues, such as depression and anxiety, is common. While we do not recommend that mentors ask students directly about depression, because this can force students to share when they are not comfortable sharing, we do recommend providing opportunities for students to reveal their depression ( Chaudoir and Fisher, 2010 ). Mentors can regularly check in with students about how they’re doing, and talk openly about the importance of mental health, which may increase the chance that students may feel comfortable revealing their depression ( Chaudoir and Quinn, 2010 ; Cooper et al ., unpublished data ).

Foster a Positive Lab Environment.

Encourage positivity in the research lab, promote working in shared spaces to enhance social support among lab members, and alleviate competition among undergraduates.

Students in this study highlighted that the “leadership” of the lab, meaning graduate students, postdocs, lab managers, and PIs, were often responsible for establishing the tone of the lab; that is, if they were in a bad mood it would trickle down and negatively affect the moods of the undergraduates. Explicitly reminding lab leadership that their moods can both positively and negatively affect undergraduates may be important in establishing a positive lab environment. Further, students highlighted how they were most likely to experience negative thoughts when they were alone in the lab. Therefore, it may be helpful to encourage all lab members to work in a shared space to enhance social interactions among students and to maximize the likelihood that undergraduates have access to help when needed. A review of 51 studies in psychiatry supported our undergraduate researchers’ perceptions that social relationships positively impacted their depression; the study found that perceived emotional support (e.g., someone available to listen or give advice), perceived instrumental support (e.g., someone available to help with tasks), and large diverse social networks (e.g., being socially connected to a large number of people) were significantly protective against depression ( Santini et al. , 2015 ). Additionally, despite forming positive relationships with other undergraduates in the lab, many undergraduate researchers admitted to constantly comparing themselves with other undergraduates, which led them to feel inferior, negatively affecting their depression. Some students talked about mentors favoring current undergraduates or talking positively about past undergraduates, which further exacerbated their feelings of inferiority. A recent study of students in undergraduate research experiences highlighted that inequitable distribution of praise to undergraduates can create negative perceptions of lab environments for students (Cooper et al. , 2019). Further, the psychology literature has demonstrated that when people feel insecure in their social environments, it can cause them to focus on a hierarchical view of themselves and others, which can foster feelings of inferiority and increase their vulnerability to depression ( Gilbert et al. , 2009 ). Thus, we recommend that mentors be conscious of their behaviors so that they do not unintentionally promote competition among undergraduates or express favoritism toward current or past undergraduates. Praise is likely best used without comparison with others and not done in a public way, although more research on the impact of praise on undergraduate researchers needs to be done. While significant research has been done on mentoring and mentoring relationships in the context of undergraduate research ( Byars-Winston et al. , 2015 ; Aikens et al. , 2017 ; Estrada et al. , 2018 ; Limeri et al. , 2019 ; NASEM, 2019 ), much less has been done on the influence of the lab environment broadly and how people in nonmentoring roles can influence one another. Yet, this study indicates the potential influence of many different members of the lab, not only their mentors, on students with depression.

Develop More Personal Relationships with Undergraduate Researchers and Provide Sufficient Guidance.

Make an effort to establish more personal relationships with undergraduates and ensure that they perceive that they have access to sufficient help and guidance with regard to their research.

When we asked students explicitly how research mentors could help create more inclusive environments for undergraduate researchers with depression, students overwhelmingly said that building mentor–student relationships would be extremely helpful. Students suggested that mentors could get to know students on a more personal level by asking about their career interests or interests outside of academia. Students also remarked that establishing a more personal relationship could help build the trust needed in order for undergraduates to confide in their research mentors about their depression, which they perceived would strengthen their relationships further because they could be honest about when they were not feeling well or their mentors might even “check in” with them in times where they were acting differently than normal. This aligns with studies showing that undergraduates are most likely to reveal a stigmatized identity, such as depression, when they form a close relationship with someone ( Chaudoir and Quinn, 2010 ). Many were intimidated to ask for research-related help from their mentors and expressed that they wished they had established a better relationship so that they would feel more comfortable. Therefore, we recommend that research mentors try to establish relationships with their undergraduates and explicitly invite them to ask questions or seek help when needed. These recommendations are supported by national recommendations for mentoring ( NASEM, 2019 ) and by literature that demonstrates that both social support (listening and talking with students) and instrumental support (providing students with help) have been shown to be protective against depression ( Santini et al. , 2015 ).

Treat Undergraduates with Respect and Remember to Praise Them.

Avoid providing harsh criticism and remember to praise undergraduates. Students with depression often have low self-esteem and are especially self-critical. Therefore, praise can help calibrate their overly negative self-perceptions.

Students in this study described that receiving criticism from others, especially harsh criticism, was particularly difficult for them given their depression. Multiple studies have demonstrated that people with depression can have an abnormal or maladaptive response to negative feedback; scientists hypothesize that perceived failure on a particular task can trigger failure-related thoughts that interfere with subsequent performance ( Eshel and Roiser, 2010 ). Thus, it is important for research mentors to remember to make sure to avoid unnecessarily harsh criticisms that make students feel like they have failed (more about failure is described in the next recommendation). Further, students with depression often have low self-esteem or low “personal judgment of the worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes the individual holds towards oneself” ( Heatherton et al. , 2003 , p. 220; Sowislo and Orth, 2013 ). Specifically, a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies found that low self-esteem is predictive of depression ( Sowislo and Orth, 2013 ), and depression has also been shown to be highly related to self-criticism ( Luyten et al. , 2007 ). Indeed, nearly all of the students in our study described thinking that they are “not good enough,” “worthless,” or “inadequate,” which is consistent with literature showing that people with depression are self-critical ( Blatt et al. , 1982 ; Gilbert et al. , 2006 ) and can be less optimistic of their performance on future tasks and rate their overall performance on tasks less favorably than their peers without depression ( Cane and Gotlib, 1985 ). When we asked students what aspects of undergraduate research helped their depression, students described that praise from their mentors was especially impactful, because they thought so poorly of themselves and they needed to hear something positive from someone else in order to believe it could be true. Praise has been highlighted as an important aspect of mentoring in research for many years ( Ashford, 1996 ; Gelso and Lent, 2000 ; Brown et al. , 2009 ) and may be particularly important for students with depression. In fact, praise has been shown to enhance individuals’ motivation and subsequent productivity ( Hancock, 2002 ; Henderlong and Lepper, 2002 ), factors highlighted by students as negatively affecting their depression. However, something to keep in mind is that a student with depression and a student without depression may process praise differently. For a student with depression, a small comment that praises the student’s work may not be sufficient for the student to process that comment as praise. People with depression are hyposensitive to reward or have reward-processing deficits ( Eshel and Roiser, 2010 ); therefore, praise may affect students without depression more positively than it would affect students with depression. Research mentors should be mindful that students with depression often have a negative view of themselves, and while students report that praise is extremely important, they may have trouble processing such positive feedback.

Normalize Failure and Be Explicit about the Importance of Research Contributions.

Explicitly remind students that experiencing failure is expected in research. Also explain to students how their individual work relates to the overall project so that they can understand how their contributions are important. It can also be helpful to explain to students why the research project as a whole is important in the context of the greater scientific community.

Experiencing failure has been thought to be a potentially important aspect of undergraduate research, because it may provide students with the potential to develop integral scientific skills such as the ability to navigate challenges and persevere ( Laursen et al. , 2010 ; Gin et al. , 2018 ; Henry et al. , 2019 ). However, in the interviews, students described that when their science experiments failed, it was particularly tough for their depression. Students’ negative reaction to experiencing failure in research is unsurprising, given recent literature that has predicted that students may be inadequately prepared to approach failure in science ( Henry et al. , 2019 ). However, the literature suggests that students with depression may find experiencing failure in research to be especially difficult ( Elliott et al. , 1997 ; Mongrain and Blackburn, 2005 ; Jones et al. , 2009 ). One potential hypothesis is that students with depression may be more likely to have fixed mindsets or more likely to believe that their intelligence and capacity for specific abilities are unchangeable traits ( Schleider and Weisz, 2018 ); students with a fixed mindset have been hypothesized to have particularly negative responses to experiencing failure in research, because they are prone to quitting easily in the face of challenges and becoming defensive when criticized ( Forsythe and Johnson, 2017 ; Dweck, 2008 ). A study of life sciences undergraduates enrolled in CUREs identified three strategies of students who adopted adaptive coping mechanisms, or mechanisms that help an individual maintain well-being and/or move beyond the stressor when faced with failure in undergraduate research: 1) problem solving or engaging in strategic planning and decision making, 2) support seeking or finding comfort and help with research, and 3) cognitive restructuring or reframing a problem from negative to positive and engaging in self encouragement ( Gin et al. , 2018 ). We recommend that, when undergraduates experience failure in science, their mentors be proactive in helping them problem solve, providing help and support, and encouraging them. Students also explained that mentors sharing their own struggles as undergraduate and graduate students was helpful, because it normalized failure. Sharing personal failures in research has been recommended as an important way to provide students with psychosocial support during research ( NASEM, 2019 ). We also suggest that research mentors take time to explain to students why their tasks in the lab, no matter how small, contribute to the greater research project ( Cooper et al. , 2019a ). Additionally, it is important to make sure that students can explain how the research project as a whole is contributing to the scientific community ( Gin et al. , 2018 ). Students highlighted that contributing to something important was really helpful for their depression, which is unsurprising, given that studies have shown that meaning in life or people’s comprehension of their life experiences along with a sense of overarching purpose one is working toward has been shown to be inversely related to depression ( Steger, 2013 ).

Limitations and Future Directions

This work was a qualitative interview study intended to document a previously unstudied phenomenon: depression in the context of undergraduate research experiences. We chose to conduct semistructured interviews rather than a survey because of the need for initial exploration of this area, given the paucity of prior research. A strength of this study is the sampling approach. We recruited a national sample of 35 undergraduates engaged in undergraduate research at 12 different public R1 institutions. Despite our representative sample from R1 institutions, these findings may not be generalizable to students at other types of institutions; lab environments, mentoring structures, and interactions between faculty and undergraduate researchers may be different at other institution types (e.g., private R1 institutions, R2 institutions, master’s-granting institutions, primarily undergraduate institutions, and community colleges), so we caution against making generalizations about this work to all undergraduate research experiences. Future work could assess whether students with depression at other types of institutions have similar experiences to students at research-intensive institutions. Additionally, we intentionally did not explore the experiences of students with specific identities owing to our sample size and the small number of students in any particular group (e.g., students of a particular race, students with a graduate mentor as the primary mentor). We intend to conduct future quantitative studies to further explore how students’ identities and aspects of their research affect their experiences with depression in undergraduate research.

The students who participated in the study volunteered to be interviewed about their depression; therefore, it is possible that depression is a more salient part of these students’ identities and/or that they are more comfortable talking about their depression than the average population of students with depression. It is also important to acknowledge the personal nature of the topic and that some students may not have fully shared their experiences ( Krumpal, 2013 ), particularly those experiences that may be emotional or traumatizing ( Kahn and Garrison, 2009 ). Additionally, our sample was skewed toward females (77%). While females do make up approximately 60% of students in biology programs on average ( Eddy et al. , 2014 ), they are also more likely to report experiencing depression ( American College Health Association, 2018 ; Evans et al. , 2018 ). However, this could be because women have higher rates of depression or because males are less likely to report having depression; clinical bias, or practitioners’ subconscious tendencies to overlook male distress, may underestimate depression rates in men ( Smith et al. , 2018 ). Further, females are also more likely to volunteer to participate in studies ( Porter and Whitcomb, 2005 ); therefore, many interview studies have disproportionately more females in the data set (e.g., Cooper et al. , 2017 ). If we had been able to interview more male students, we might have identified different findings. Additionally, we limited our sample to life sciences students engaged in undergraduate research at public R1 institutions. It is possible that students in other majors may have different challenges and opportunities for students with depression, as well as different disciplinary stigmas associated with mental health.

In this exploratory interview study, we identified a variety of ways in which depression in undergraduates negatively affected their undergraduate research experiences. Specifically, we found that depression interfered with students’ motivation and productivity, creativity and risk-taking, engagement and concentration, and self-perception and socializing. We also identified that research can negatively affect depression in undergraduates. Experiencing failure in research can exacerbate student depression, especially when students do not have access to adequate guidance. Additionally, being alone or having negative interactions with others in the lab worsened students’ depression. However, we also found that undergraduate research can positively affect students’ depression. Research can provide a familiar space where students can feel as though they are contributing to something meaningful. Additionally, students reported that having access to adequate guidance and a social support network within the research lab also positively affected their depression. We hope that this work can spark conversations about how to make undergraduate research experiences more inclusive of students with depression and that it can stimulate additional research that more broadly explores the experiences of undergraduate researchers with depression.

Important note

If you or a student experience symptoms of depression and want help, there are resources available to you. Many campuses provide counseling centers equipped to provide students, staff, and faculty with treatment for depression, as well as university-dedicated crisis hotlines. Additionally, there are free 24/7 services such as Crisis Text Line, which allows you to text a trained live crisis counselor (Text “CONNECT” to 741741; Text Depression Hotline , 2019 ), and phone hotlines such as the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-8255 (TALK). You can also learn more about depression and where to find help near you through the Anxiety and Depression Association of American website: https://adaa.org ( Anxiety and Depression Association of America, 2019 ) and the Depression and Biopolar Support Alliance: http://dbsalliance.org ( Depression and Biopolar Support Alliance, 2019 ).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are extremely grateful to the undergraduate researchers who shared their thoughts and experiences about depression with us. We acknowledge the ASU LEAP Scholars for helping us create the original survey and Rachel Scott for her helpful feedback on earlier drafts of this article. L.E.G. was supported by a National Science Foundation (NSF) Graduate Fellowship (DGE-1311230) and K.M.C. was partially supported by a Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) Inclusive Excellence grant (no. 11046) and an NSF grant (no. 1644236). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF or HHMI.

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Submitted: 4 November 2019 Revised: 24 February 2020 Accepted: 6 March 2020

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Anxiety, Depression and Quality of Life—A Systematic Review of Evidence from Longitudinal Observational Studies

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This review aimed to systematically review observational studies investigating the longitudinal association between anxiety, depression and quality of life (QoL). A systematic search of five electronic databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, PSYNDEX, NHS EED and EconLit) as well as forward/backward reference searches were conducted to identify observational studies on the longitudinal association between anxiety, depression and QoL. Studies were synthesized narratively. Additionally, a random-effects meta-analysis was performed using studies applying the mental and physical summary scores (MCS, PCS) of the Short Form Health Survey. The review was prospectively registered with PROSPERO and a study protocol was published. n = 47 studies on heterogeneous research questions were included, with sample sizes ranging from n = 28 to 43,093. Narrative synthesis indicated that QoL was reduced before disorder onset, dropped further during the disorder and improved with remission. Before onset and after remission, QoL was lower in comparison to healthy comparisons. n = 8 studies were included in random-effects meta-analyses. The pooled estimates of QoL at follow-up (FU) were of small to large effect sizes and showed that QoL at FU differed by disorder status at baseline as well as by disorder course over time. Disorder course groups differed in their MCS scores at baseline. Effect sizes were generally larger for MCS relative to PCS. The results highlight the relevance of preventive measures and treatment. Future research should consider individual QoL domains, individual anxiety/depressive disorders as well as the course of both over time to allow more differentiated statements in a meta-analysis.

1. Introduction

The World Health Organization [ 1 ] estimates that 264 million people worldwide were suffering from an anxiety disorder and 322 million from a depressive disorder in 2015, corresponding to prevalence rates of 3.6% and 4.4%. While their prevalence varies slightly by age and gender [ 1 ], they are among the most common mental disorders in the general population [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, multiple challenges have arisen for many, such as loneliness [ 7 ] or financial hardship. A meta-analysis showed a prevalence of anxiety of about 32% (95% CI: 28–37) and a prevalence of depression ( n = 14 studies) of about 34% (95% CI: 28–41) in general populations during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 8 ].

Anxiety and depression have been associated with adverse societal and individual correlates, including higher health care costs [ 9 , 10 , 11 ] and an increased risk for physical comorbidities, such as cardiovascular illnesses [ 12 , 13 ]. Moreover, they have been linked to a reduced quality of life (QoL) in numerous cross-sectional as well as longitudinal studies in which they significantly predicted QoL outcomes [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Other studies have reported a reverse association, whereby QoL was predictive of mental health outcomes [ 19 ] or a bi-directional association [ 20 , 21 ]. Some very recent studies also examined these associations among quite different samples (e.g., [ 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]).

Looking at longitudinal rather than cross-sectional data from observational studies has several advantages. It allows for the identification of trajectories over time within the same individuals rather than focusing on group differences at one point in time only [ 26 ]. Moreover, when appropriate methods are applied to longitudinal data, intraindividual heterogeneity can be taken into account, resulting in more consistent estimates [ 27 ]. This has previously been demonstrated in QoL research [ 28 ]. A need to analyze longitudinal changes in QoL domains in QoL research in people with mental disorders has also been previously identified [ 29 ]. Beyond individual longitudinal studies suggesting a link between anxiety or depression and QoL, several systematic reviews have synthesized longitudinal evidence on these associations and mostly reported negative associations between the variables. These reviews have tended to focus on specific age groups, such as older adults [ 30 ], samples with specific diseases [ 31 , 32 ], or have investigated the effect of specific treatments on QoL in patients with anxiety [ 33 ]. Investigating these associations in samples without these limitations could reduce the effect of specific conditions and treatments on the association and strengthen the conclusions that can be drawn.

In light of the previous findings, this study aims to add to the present literature by systematically synthesizing evidence from observational studies on the longitudinal association between anxiety, depression and QoL across all age groups in samples who do not have other specific illnesses and do not receive specific treatments.

2. Materials and Methods

This review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42018108008) and a study protocol was published [ 34 ].

2.1. Search Strategy

Five electronic databases from several fields of research (PubMed, PsycINFO, PSYNDEX, NHS EED and EconLit) were examined until December 2020. Where possible, search terms were entered as Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) or as keywords in the title/abstract. The PubMed search strategy was: (anxi*[Title/Abstract] or depress*[Title/Abstract] or anxiety disorder[MeSH] or depressive disorder[MeSH]) and quality of life[MeSH] and longitudinal study[MeSH]. Please note that “*” is a truncation symbol. Time or location were not restricted. In addition, we applied backward and forward reference searches of included studies to identify additional references. The forward reference search was conducted until January 2021 using Web of Science to identify cited papers.

2.2. Study Selection Process

The study selection process is displayed in Figure 1 . Most identified studies were screened in a two-step process (title/abstract; full-text screening) independently by two reviewers (J.K.H., E.Q.) against defined criteria (see Table 1 ). The last updated literature screening before submission was conducted by one reviewer (J.K.H.) and encompassed 9% of the studies included for title/abstract screening. Before the final criteria were applied, they were pretested and refined. Disagreements during the selection process were resolved through discussion or by the inclusion of a third party (A.H.) if a consensus could not be reached.

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Object name is ijerph-18-12022-g001.jpg

Study flow (PRISMA flow chart).

Study selection criteria.

	Studies were eligible for inclusion if they: (i) Were observational studies analyzing the longitudinal association between anxiety or depression (disorders as well as symptom severity) and QoL, (ii) Analyzed samples without a specific disease or disorder other than anxiety and depression, (iii) Applied appropriate, validated measures for the main variables (e.g., for anxiety/depression: psychiatric diagnosis according to criteria of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), or using a valid self-report screening tool), and (iv) Were published in English or German in a peer-reviewed journal.
	Studies were excluded if they: (i) Analyzed samples where participants were suffering or recovering from conditions other than anxiety/depression, (ii) Analyzed samples receiving or recovering from a specific intervention or treatment, (iii) Had no observational study design, (iv) Used a measure for the main variables other than those defined, or (v) Had publication characteristics that were different than those defined (e.g., were published in a language other than German or English, as well as not published in a scientific, peer-reviewed journal).
	After pre-testing, the following refinements were made to the screening criteria (ii) and (iii): (ii) Regarding the samples of interest, we decided to exclude studies analyzing dyads such as caregivers or partners to ill family members, due to possible spillover-effects on the individual’s QoL, which has been demonstrated in previous studies [ , ]. Additionally, samples consisting exclusively of people with anxiety or depressive disorders may receive some unspecific type of care for their mental health problems. We eliminated studies evaluating the effects of treatments using pre–post-treatment comparisons. Only studies where some naturalistic treatment that is usual for mental health problems that began prior to study baseline (BL) were included. Studies indicating that treatment was initiated at or after study BL (e.g., before or at admission to a psychiatric clinic) were excluded. (iii) Lastly, we specified the QoL assessments. In health and medicine research, numerous QoL instruments are used [ ]. Guided by previous literature reviews [ , , ]), we compiled a list of ten validated QoL assessments that have been used in children, adolescents or adults from the general population and/or samples with mental health problems, and that are frequently used in QoL research. Versions of the following instruments were included: Short Form Health Survey (e.g., SF-36, SF-12), EuroQol (e.g., EQ-5D, EQ-5D-Y), WHOQOL (e.g., WHOQOL-100, WHOQOL-BREF), Quality of Well-Being Scale, Quality of Life Scale, Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory, KIDSCREEN, KINDL, Quality of Life in Depression Scale, and the Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire.

Abbreviations: QoL = quality of life; ICD = International Classification of Diseases; DSM = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; BL = study baseline; KIDSCREEN = Health Related Quality of Life Questionnaire for Children and Young People and their Parents; KINDL = German generic quality of life instrument for children

2.3. Data Extraction and Synthesis

We extracted information regarding the study design, operationalization of the variables, sample characteristics, statistical methods and results regarding the research question of interest. If several analyses were presented for the same research question, we extracted the final covariate-adjusted model for narrative synthesis. Data were extracted by one reviewer (J.K.H.) and cross-checked by a second reviewer (E.Q.). If needed, extracted data were standardized (e.g., by calculating the weighted average means when combining groups) to present comparable information. If clarification was needed, the corresponding authors were contacted.

For the narrative synthesis, all studies were first grouped by research question, e.g., whether disorders or the degree of symptoms were analyzed, which comparison groups were used, which QoL domains were considered, and at which waves the variables of interest were considered in the analyses. Because research questions and analyses were heterogeneous, a concise narrative synthesis of the main results of all studies was not feasible. Therefore, we provide an overview of all identified studies in the tables and a detailed narrative synthesis of those studies, analyzing trajectories of disorders or changes in symptoms in association with changes in QoL over time.

Additionally, we examined whether data were appropriate for meta-analysis. The specific research questions, the operationalization of main variables and statistical methods were heterogeneous across studies and not all the statistical estimates needed could be obtained from covariate-adjusted analyses. Therefore, to enhance the comparability of the underlying data and the interpretation of the pooled estimates, we used descriptive information. Because most papers applied variations of the Short Form Health Survey and analyzed mental and physical component scores (MCS, PCS), we considered these studies as eligible for meta-analysis. The necessary information could be obtained for 8 publications. Random-effects meta-analysis was used for pooling. Heterogeneity was assessed by means of I 2 , with higher values representing a larger degree of heterogeneity in terms of variability in effect size estimates between studies [ 41 ]. Pooled estimates are reported as Hedge’s g standardized mean difference (SMD), representing the difference in mean outcomes between groups relative to outcome measure variability [ 42 ]. According to Cohen (as cited in [ 43 ]), SMDs can be grouped into small ≤0.20, medium = 0.50 and large effects ≥0.80. Stata 16 was used for meta-analyses.

2.4. Quality/Risk of Bias Assessment

Two reviewers (J.K.H., E.Q.) independently assessed the quality and risk of bias of the included studies using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, which was developed by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute [ 44 ].

3.1. Selection Process

The literature search yielded 4027 unique references. After title/abstract screening, 215 studies were included for full-text screening. Finally, 47 publications were included in the final synthesis. During full-text screening, most studies were excluded because they exclusively analyzed data on a cross-sectional level (56.5%). For further details, see the PRISMA flow chart ( Figure 1 ).

3.2. Overview of Included Studies

Descriptive characteristics and quality/risk of bias assessment of the included studies are provided in Table S1 (Supplementary Material) . In short, sample size ranged from 28 to 43,093. Most studies focused on adults; only four analyzed children/adolescents. Regarding the settings, 17 of the analyzed samples were exclusively recruited in a health care setting, 12 of the studies analyzed general population samples, 14 recruited in another or in several settings, and all studies on children/adolescents recruited in schools ( n = 4). Twenty studies (42.6%) applied data from the same seven underlying datasets. Most studies reported on depression ( n = 36), less reported on anxiety ( n = 20) and some reported on the comorbidity between depression and anxiety ( n = 7). To assess mental disorders, half (48.9%) used structured interviews. Regarding QoL, most studies applied variations of the Short Form Health Survey (SF, n = 27) or the WHOQOL ( n = 12). A total of 38.3% of the studies were rated as “good”, 55.3% as “fair” and 6.4% as “poor” in the quality assessment.

3.3. Overview of Studies on the Association between Anxiety/Depression as Independent Variables and QoL Outcomes

Detailed results on all studies investigating the association between anxiety/depression as independent variables and QoL outcomes are reported in Table 2 . As described in the methods section, the following paragraphs give an overview of those studies focusing on disorder trajectories/changes in symptoms over time and changes in QoL outcomes over time, because they allow for more differentiated interpretations.

Studies on depression/anxiety as independent variables and QoL outcomes.

First Author (Year)	Disorder or Symptoms Analyzed; QoL Domains Analyzed	Research Question Regarding QoL	Methods	Results
Årdal (2013) [ ]	Controls and patients in the acute phase of recurrent MD and FU (DSM-IV, HDRS); SF-36 (physical functioning, role physical, vitality, bodily pain, mental health, role emotional, social functioning, general health, as well as summary scores PCS, MCS and total score)	(a) Whether QoL scores differ between MD patients and healthy comparisons across domains over time. (b) Whether QoL in patients with recurrent MDD differed between acute phase and recovery.	(a) ANOVA (b) Paired-sample -tests	(a) There was a significant interaction effect between time, QoL domain and group, indicating that QoL scores differed between MD patients and controls over time. Compared to the healthy control group, the MDD group had reduced QoL in all domains at BL and reduced QoL in several domains at FU (significant for general health, social, emotional role, mental health, PCS, MCS and total score). (b) In the MD group, QoL scores significantly improved during recovery from recurrent MDD in most domains (significant for physical functioning, physical role, vitality, social functioning, role emotional, mental health, PCS, MCS and total score).
Buist-Bouwman (2004) [ ]	Onset, acute phase and subsequent remission from MDE (CIDI); comorbid anxiety disorder (CIDI); SF-36 (physical functioning, physical role, vitality, pain, psychological health, psychological role, social functioning and general health)	(a) Whether incident MDE and recovery from MDE are associated with changes in QoL and whether pre- and post-morbid QoL scores in the MD group differ from the comparison group without MD. (b) In the subgroup with worse QoL after MDE: whether the severity of depression and number of depressive episodes were associated with worse QoL. (c) Whether comorbid anxiety during MDE is associated with reduced QoL (i.e., lower QoL after MDE compared to before MDE).	(a)–(c) Multivariate logistic regression	(a) Incident MDE was associated with a drop in QoL (significant for vitality, psychological, psychological role and social functioning). Subsequent recovery from MDE was associated with an improvement in QoL (significant for physical role, vitality, psychological health, psychological role, social functioning and general health). Comparing pre- and post-morbid levels, QoL did not differ or was higher after MDE in some domains (significantly higher for psychological health and psychological role). Moreover, before MD onset, QoL was significantly lower compared to healthy controls in all domains. After remission from MDE, QoL scores in nearly all domains (not significant for psychological role) were significantly lower compared to healthy controls. (b) About 40% of the MDE group had worse QoL after recovery from MDE compared to pre-morbid levels. The severity of depression was associated with worse QoL only for the psychological health domain, but no other domains. The number of depressive episodes was not significantly associated with worsening QoL in any domain. (c) In the MDE cohort, comorbid anxiety was associated with a significant reduction in QoL (significant for physical role and psychological health).
Cabello (2014) [ ]	Chronic MD (AUDADIS interview; summary score of the number of symptoms to identify severity); SF-12, “disability” (i.e., domain-specific reduced QoL, defined as score ≤ 25th percentile in the subscale; physical functioning, physical role, bodily pain, general health, vitality, social functioning, emotional role and mental health)	(a) Whether chronic MD is associated with the incidence/persistence of “disability” (i.e., reduced QoL) in a general population sample. (b) Whether the severity of depressive symptoms is associated with the incidence/persistence of “disability” (i.e., reduced QoL) in the MD subgroup of the sample.	Both (a) and (b) Generalized Estimating Equations and logistic regressions	(a) In the general population, chronic MD was a significant risk factor for the persistence of disability (i.e., reduced QoL) in all domains and of the incidence of disability (i.e., reduced QoL) in all domains except for the physical role. (b) In the chronic MD subgroup, the severity of depressive symptoms was associated with the persistence of disability (i.e., reduced QoL) (significant for general health, social functioning, emotional role and mental health) and not significantly associated with the incidence of reduced QoL in any domain.
Cerne (2013) [ ]	Number of depressive episodes over time according to CIDI; number of episodes of panic and other anxiety syndromes over time (PHQ); SF-12 (PCS, MCS)	Whether the pooled number of (a) depressive episodes over time, (b) panic and anxiety episodes over time are are associated with the pooled QoL over time.	(a) and (b) Multivariate linear regression	(a) A higher number of depressive episodes over time was associated with lower pooled PCS and MCS. (b) a higher number of pooled panic episodes over time was associated with a lower mean MCS but not PCS. A higher number of pooled other anxiety syndrome episodes over time was not associated with the mean MCS or PCS.
Chin (2015) [ ]	Depression according to PHQ-9 (>9), clinician’s diagnosis; SF-12v2 (PCS, MCS)	(a) Whether depressive symptoms and a clinician’s detection of depression at BL are associated with QoL at FU. (b) Whether a clinician’s detection of depression at BL is associated with a change in QoL.	(a) Multivariable non-linear mixed-effects regression (b) Independent -tests	(a) Depressive symptoms and a clinician’s detection of depression at BL were not predictive of QoL at FU. (b) A clinician’s detection of depression at BL was related to change (improvement) in MCS, but not PCS over time in a primary care sample screened as positive for depression.
Chung (2012) [ ]	Depression diagnosis and symptoms (DSM-IV, HRSD depression scale, HADS depression scale); anxiety symptoms (HRSD anxiety scale, HADS anxiety scale; SF-36 (physical functioning, role physical, bodily pain, general health, vitality, social functioning, role emotional, mental health, PCS and MCS)	(a) Whether BL depressive symptoms are associated with QoL at FU. (b) Whether BL depressive symptoms or changes in depressive symptoms are associated with changes in QoL over time. (c) Whether BL anxiety symptoms are associated with QoL at FU. (d) Whether BL anxiety symptoms or changes in anxiety symptoms are associated with changes in QoL over time.	(a)–(d) Hierarchical regression	(a) BL depressive symptoms were not associated with any QoL domain at FU. (b) BL depressive symptoms were not associated with changes in any QoL domain over time. Changes in depressive symptoms were significantly associated with changes in some QoL domains over time (significant for: general health, vitality, mental health and MCS). (c) BL anxiety symptoms were not associated with any QoL domain at FU. (d) BL anxiety symptoms were not associated with changes in any QoL domain over time. Changes in anxiety symptoms were significantly associated with changes in some QoL domains over time (significant for: bodily pain, general health and mental health).
Diehr (2006) [ ]	Depression according to CIDI, CES-D (>16); QLDS, WHOQOL-Bref (environmental, physical, psychological and social), SF-12 (PCS, MCS)	(a) Whether the quartile of change in depressive symptoms is associated with changes in QoL. (b) Whether the remission of depression at FU is associated with changes in QoL.	Regression	(a) No/little change in CES-D associated with changes in QoL over time (significant for SF-12 MCS). Every other quartile of change in depressive symptoms was significantly associated with changes in QoL in most scales/domains (significant for: QLDS, all domains of WHOQOL-Bref and SF-12 MCS), meaning a higher reduction in depressive symptoms was associated with a higher increase in QoL, and more severe depressive symptoms were associated with a reduction in QoL. (b) Remission of depression at FU was associated with improvement in all QoL measures and domains (SF-12, QLDS and WHOQOL-Bref). There was no significant change in QoL in those with persistent clinical depression at FU.
Hajek (2015) [ ]	Depressive symptoms (GDS); EQ-VAS	Whether an initial change in depressive symptoms is associated with a subsequent change in QoL in the whole sample and by sex.	Vector autoregressive models	No significant association between an initial change in depression score and a subsequent change in QoL was found for the whole sample or stratified by sex.
Hasche (2010) [ ]	Depression status at BL (according to DIS diagnosis and CES-D ≥ 9); SF-8 (PCS, MCS)	(a) Whether depression status groups at BL differed according to QoL at FU. (b) Whether depression status groups at BL differed according to QoL changes in score over time.	(a) -tests (b) Linear mixed effects regression models	(a) At 6- and 12-month FU, those with and without depression at BL differed significantly in QoL scores, with the depression group reporting lower QoL at FUs (significant for MCS and PCS). (b) While depression at BL was significantly related to improvements in MCS (but not PCS) scores over time, those with depression still reported lower QoL compared to those without.
Heo (2008) [ ]	Depression (BDI ≥ 10); SF-36 (decrease in total score over time)	Whether FU depression is associated with a reduction in QoL over time.	Binary logistic regression	Depression at FU was associated with a significant reduction in QoL total score over time.
Ho (2014) [ ]	Depression (according to GDS ≥ 5); SF-12 (PCS, MCS)	Whether depression at BL is associated with QoL at FU.	Linear regression	BL depression was associated with lower QoL at FU (significant for MCS and PCS).
Hussain (2016) [ ]	Depressive disorders (SCID, MINI); current PTSD, specific phobias, other anxiety disorders (SCID, MINI); WHOQOL-Bref (general QoL and hrqol)	(a) Whether current depressive disorders at BL predict QoL at FU. (b) Whether current PTSD, specific phobias and other anxiety disorders at BL predict QoL at FU.	(a) and (b) Multiple linear regression	(a) Depressive disorders at BL predicted reduced QoL at FU (significant for general QoL and hrqol). (b) PTSD, but not specific phobias or other anxiety disorders, predicted reduced general QoL at FU. None of the anxiety disorders predicted hrqol at FU.
Joffe (2012) [ ]	Lifetime history of depression (according to SCID); anxiety disorder (according to SCID); SF-36 (impaired QoL according to 25th percentile of SF-36; social functioning, role emotional, role physical, pain and vitality)	(a) Whether a lifetime history of depression is associated with impaired QoL during FU. (b) Whether a prior lifetime history of anxiety disorder (compared to no depression or anxiety) is associated with reduced QoL during FU. (c) Whether a lifetime history of comorbid depression and anxiety is associated with impaired QoL during FU.	(a)–(c) Repeated measure multilevel regression	(a) A history of depression only was associated with reduced QoL during FU (significant for social functioning and pain). (b) Prior lifetime history of anxiety disorder was associated with reduced QoL (significant for physical role). (c) A history of comorbid anxiety and depression was associated with reduced QoL during FU (significant for social functioning, emotional role, physical role and pain).
Johansen (2007) [ ]	Level of PTSD symptoms according to IES-15; WHOQOL-Bref (physical health, psychological health, social relationships and environment)	Whether PTSD symptoms predict QoL at FU.	Structural equation model	More severe PTSD symptoms predicted QoL at FU (significant positive association between FU1 and FU2).
Kramer (2003) [ ]	Current or lifetime depression/PTSD (according to Q-DIS); SF-36 (energy/fatigue, emotional role, general health, mental health, pain, physical functioning, physical role and social)	Whether QoL outcomes over time differed among the disorder groups.	Random/fixed effects model	There was no significant interaction between time and diagnostic group (no depression/PTSD, PTSD, depression and comorbid depression/PTSD) on QoL. Comparing the adjusted means for all three times among the disorder groups showed significant differences between the groups in most domains. In comparison, those with depression at BL reported reduced QoL over time in several domains compared to the PTSD group and the group without PTSD/depression. In comparison, those with PTSD only showed higher QoL compared to those with depression or comorbid depression/PTSD in several domains.
Kuehner (2009) [ ]	Depressive symptoms (MADRS); WHOQOL (overall, physical, psychological, social and environmental)	Whether the lag in levels of depressive symptoms predicts future levels of QoL and whether the association differs by group (formerly depressed inpatients vs. community controls).	Time-lagged linear models	Higher depressive symptoms predict future lower QoL (significant for social). The association was not moderated by group status.
Kuehner (2012) [ ]	Depression score (according to MADRS, FDD-DSM-IV); WHOQOL-Bref (physical, psychological, social and environment)	Whether the lag in depressive symptoms predicted QoL at FU.	Hierarchical, time-lagged linear models	Higher depressive symptoms significantly predicted lower QoL at FU (significant for physical and psychological).
Lenert (2000) [ ]	Remission or persistent depression (according to DSM-III criteria, DIS); SF-12 (PCS, MCS)	Whether the remission of depression (compared to no remission) is associated with changes in QoL over time.	OLS regression	Remission of depression was associated with improved QoL (significant for MCS) at FU1 and FU2.
Mars (2015) [ ]	Asymptomatic, mild and high symptoms of depression (according to SCAN); EQ-5D (without anxiety/depression item)	Whether depression symptom trajectories over time (asymptomatic, mild symptoms and chronic–high symptoms) are associated with QoL at FU.	Latent class growth analysis with distal outcome models	QoL at FU differed significantly among different depression symptom trajectories, with persons from the the chronic–high depressive symptom class showing lower QoL scores relative to the asymptomatic class.
Moutinho (2019) [ ]	Depression at BL (according to DASS cut-off: 9); anxiety at BL (according to DASS anxiety scale cutoff: 7); WHOQOL-Bref at FU (physical, psychological, social and environment)	(a) Whether BL depression predicted QoL at FU. (b) Whether BL anxiety predicted QoL at FU.	(a) and (b) Stepwise linear regression	(a) Depression at BL was significantly associated with reduced QoL at FU (significant for psychological functioning, social functioning and environmental). (b) Anxiety at BL was associated with reduced QoL at FU (significant for physical).
Ormel (1999) [ ]	Depression at BL (according to CIDI); “disability” (i.e., reduced QoL according MOS SF 6-item physical functioning scale ≥ 2)	Whether depression at BL is associated with the onset of disability (i.e., reduced QoL) during FU.	Logistic regression models	Compared to the non-depressed group, people with depression at BL showed higher odds for the onset of disability (i.e., reduced QoL) during FU (significant for 12-month FU, but not 3-month FU).
Pan (2012) [ ]	Depressive symptoms (CES-D); WHOQOL-Bref-TW (overall score, physical, psychological, social and environmental)	Whether depressive symptoms were associated with QoL over time.	Linear mixed-effects models	Higher depressive symptoms were associated with lower QoL in MDD patients (significant for overall score, physical, psychological, social and environmental).
Panagioti (2018) [ ]	Depressive symptoms (MHI-5); WHOQOL-Bref (physical, psychological, environmental and social)	Whether depressive symptoms at BL are associated with changes in QoL over time.	Multivariate regression models	Higher depressive symptoms at BL were associated with a decline in QoL over time (significant for physical and psychological).
Pakpour (2018) [ ]	Dental anxiety at BL (MDAS); PedsQL 4.0 general hrqol and oral hrqol scale at FU	Whether dental anxiety at BL predicted oral- and general-health-related QoL at FU.	Structural equation modeling	Dental anxiety at BL was no significant direct predictor of generic QoL at FU and was significantly associated with worse oral-health-related QoL at FU.
Pyne (1997) [ ]	MD-diagnosis (SCID/SADS) and depressive symptoms (HAM-D); QWB	Whether group status over time (community controls, continuously non-depressed patients, incident depression patients and continuously depressed patients) is associated with changes in QoL.	Repeated measure analysis (ANOVA)	There was no significant interaction term between group status and time, indicating that changes in QoL did not differ between the groups. At both points in time, QoL differed significantly among all groups, except between the incident depression and continuous depression group.
Remmerswaal (2020) [ ]	OCD course (SCID), Y-BOCS, BDI, BAI over time; EQ-5D over time	(a) Whether OCD symptom severity and QoL over time were associated. (b) Whether QoL over time differs between OCD course groups (chronic, intermittent and remitting) and general population norms. (c) Whether OCD symptom severity, anxiety and depressive symptoms over time are associated with changes in QoL over time in patients with OCD.	(a) Pearson’s correlation (b)–(c) Linear mixed models	(a) QoL over time and OCD symptom severity were significantly correlated. (b) The QoL of OCD patients was significantly lower compared to general population norms, except the QoL of the intermittent OCD group at FU1, where there was no significant difference compared to the general population. When comparing the OCD course groups, the chronic OCD group had a significantly lower QoL over time compared to the other groups. The remitting group had moderately improved until FU1 and a small QoL improvement between FU1 and FU2 relative to the chronic group. (c) In those with a remitting OCD, only more severe symptoms of comorbid anxiety and depressive symptoms, but not OCD symptom severity over time, were significantly associated with a lower QoL over time.
Rhebergen (2010) [ ]	MD-/dysthymia-/DD diagnosis at BL and subsequent recovery at FU (according to CIDI); comorbid anxiety at BL (CIDI); SF-36 (physical health summary score)	Whether QoL trajectories over time differ between: (a) different depression status groups who achieved remission (MDD, dysthymia and double depression) and a comparison group without mental health disorders. (b) The different depression status groups. (c) Whether comorbid anxiety at BL in a sample recovering from depression is associated with changes in QoL.	(a)–(c) Linear mixed models	(a) There was a significant interaction between group status and time. More specifically, compared to changes in QoL over time in people without a mental health diagnosis, QoL improved over time in those with MDD and DD, but not dysthymia. All depression diagnosis groups showed a significantly lower QoL compared to the no diagnosis group at all waves. (b) Considering the depression groups, only the interaction term between dysthymia and time until FU1 was significant. Those with dysthymia had a significantly lower QoL compared to those with MDD at FU1. This difference was not significant at FU2. (c) Comorbid anxiety disorder at BL in people who recovered from depression over time was not associated with a significant change in QoL over time.
Rubio (2014) [ ]	First episode of incident MDD (AUDADIS-IV) at FU; incident GAD, social anxiety disorder, PD, specific phobia (AUDADIS-IV); SF-12 (MCS)	Whether incident MDD is associated with changes in QoL over time compared to: (a) people without history of MDD, (b) without history of any mental health disorder, (c) and whether the association differed by gender. Whether incident anxiety disorders are associated with changes in QoL over time: (d) compared to no history of the specific anxiety disorder, (e) compared to no history of any psychiatric disorder, (f) and whether the association differed by gender.	Linear regression model	(a) Incidence of MDD (compared to no MDD) was associated with a significant decrease in QoL until FU. (b) Incidence of MDD (compared to no mental health disorder) was associated with a significant decrease in QoL until FU. (c) The association did not vary by gender. (d) Incidence of all anxiety disorders (with comorbid disorders; ref: no history of anxiety disorder) was associated with a significant decrease in QoL over time. (e) Incident anxiety disorders were not significantly associated with QoL when only considering “pure” anxiety without any comorbidities (ref: no history of any psychiatric disorder). (f) The association did not vary by gender.
Rubio (2013) [ ]	Remission from MDD, dysthymia (AUDADIS-IV); Remission from GAD, PD, SAD, specific phobia (AUDADIS-IV); SF-12 (MCS)	Whether remission from depression (MDD, dysthymia) is associated with: (a) changes in QoL over time (compared to non-remitted cases), (b) QoL at FU (compared to people with no history of a specific depressive disorder), (c) QoL at FU, when only considering depressive disorders without any psychiatric comorbidity (compared to people without any lifetime psychiatric diagnosis). Whether remission from anxiety disorders are associated with: (d) changes in QoL over time (compared to non-remitted cases), (e) QoL at FU (compared to people with no history of a specific anxiety disorder), (f) QoL at FU, when only considering anxiety disorders without any psychiatric comorbidity (compared to people without any lifetime psychiatric diagnosis).	(a)–(f) Linear regression models	(a) Remission from MD and dysthymia was associated with a significant positive change in QoL compared to non-remitted cases. (b) Remission of MD and dysthymia was associated with significantly lower QoL at FU compared to people without history of a specific diagnosis. (c) Remission of MD and dysthymia was associated with significantly lower QoL at FU compared to people without any lifetime psychiatric diagnosis. (d) Remission from SAD and GAD was associated with significant positive changes in QoL compared to non-remitted cases. (e) Remission of PD, SAD, specific phobia and GAD was associated with significantly lower QoL at FU compared to people without history of a specific diagnosis. (f) Remission of “pure” PD, SAD, specific phobias and GAD was associated with significantly lower QoL at FU compared to people without any lifetime psychiatric diagnosis.
Rozario (2006) [ ]	Depressive symptoms (GDS); SF-12 (MCS and PCS)	Whether depressive symptom severity was associated with QoL change profiles over time (no change, declined and improved groups).	Multinomial logistic regression	There was no significant association between depressive symptom severity and QoL change score profiles at FU.
Sareen (2013) [ ]	Depression trajectory groups over time (according to AUDADIS-IV); anxiety disorder trajectory groups over time (according to AUDADIS-IV); SF-12 (MCS and PCS)	(a) Whether depression trajectory groups (no past year disorder/no suicide attempt at FU, remission without treatment, persistent disorder/comorbidity/suicide attempt/treatment) differed according to QoL at FU. (b) Whether anxiety disorder trajectory groups (no past year disorder/no suicide attempt at FU, remission without treatment, persistent disorder/comorbidity/suicide attempt/treatment) differed according to QoL at FU.	(a) and (b) Multiple linear regression models	(a) QoL at FU differed among the different depression trajectory groups (MCS was significant for all groups: no disorder > remitted disorder > persistent disorder; PCS: no disorder > remitted disorder; remitted disorder < persistent disorder). (b) QoL at FU differed among the different anxiety trajectory groups (MCS was significant for all groups: no disorder > remitted disorder > persistent disorder; PCS: no disorder > persistent disorder, remitted disorder > persistent disorder).
Shigemoto (2020) [ ]	PTSD symptoms (PCL-C); Q-LES-Q (psychosocial and physical)	Whether previous PTSD symptoms are associated with QoL at FU.	Longitudinal structural equation model	Previous PTSD symptoms were associated with physical QoL at FU1, but not FU2 or psychosocial QoL at both FUs.
Siqveland (2015) [ ]	Depressive symptoms (according to the depression scale from the GHQ-28); PTSD symptoms (PCL-S); WHOQOL-Bref (global and hrqol)	(a) Whether depressive symptoms at BL are associated with QoL at FU. (b) Whether PTSD symptoms at BL are associated with QoL at FU.	(a) and (b) Multiple mixed effects regression analyses	(a) Higher depressive symptoms at BL were associated with reduced QoL at FU. (b) PTSD levels at BL were not significantly associated with reduced QoL at FU.
Spijker (2004) [ ]	Depression status (CIDI); Comorbid anxiety (CIDI); SF-36 (social, role emotional)	(a) Whether depression status over time (non-depressed, recovered or depressed (including persistent, relapsing course)) is associated with QoL at FU. Whether comorbid anxiety is associated with QoL at FU (b) in a group with persistent depression and (c) in a group recovered from depression.	ANOVA	(a) QoL at FU was significantly reduced in depressed samples compared to the non-depressed group, and lower in the persistently depressed compared to the recovered group (significant for: role emotional and social). Among the depressed subgroups, there was no significant difference between a persistent or a relapsing course regarding QoL at FU. (b) In the persistently depressed group, comorbid anxiety was significantly associated with reduced QoL at FU (significant for role emotional and social). (c) In those who recovered from depression, comorbid anxiety was significantly associated with reduced QoL (significant for role emotional).
Stegenga (2012) [ ]	MDD status according to CIDI (remitted, intermittent and chronic); SF-12 (PCS and MCS)	Whether MDD course (remitted, intermittent and chronic) is associated with QoL over time.	Random coefficient analysis	While change in QoL over time did not differ between course groups, QoL at BL (MCS) was lower in those with a chronic course compared to those who remitted from BL.
Stegenga (2012) [ ]	MDD (CIDI); anxiety syndromes (panic disorder and others, PHQ); SF-12 (PCS)	(a) Whether MDD at BL predicts change in QoL over time. (b) Whether anxiety syndrome at BL (compared to no psychiatric diagnosis) predict changes in QoL over time. (c) Whether comorbid anxiety and MDD at BL (compared to no psychiatric diagnosis) predict changes in QoL over time.	(a)–(c) Random coefficient model	(a) While changes in QoL over time did not differ significantly between those with MDD at BL and those without any psychiatric diagnosis, QoL at BL was lower in those with depression. (b) While changes in QoL over time did not differ significantly between those with anxiety syndrome at BL and those without any psychiatric diagnosis, QoL at BL was lower in those with anxiety compared to those without any psychiatric diagnosis. (c) While changes in QoL over time did not differ significantly between those with comorbid anxiety and MDD at BL and those without any psychiatric diagnosis, QoL at BL was lower in those with comorbid anxiety and MDD compared to those without any psychiatric diagnosis.
Stevens (2020) [ ]	Posttraumatic stress symptoms (VETR-PTSD); SF-36 (MCS, PCS, physical functioning, bodily pain, general health, role physical, role emotional, mental health, vitality and social functioning)	Whether PTSS at BL is associated with QoL at FU.	Generalized estimating equations	Higher BL PTSS was significantly associated with lower QoL (PCS and MCS) at FU. Using a Bonferroni-corrected alpha value, only the domains of mental health, vitality and social functioning at FU were significantly associated with BL PTSS symptoms. The interaction between time and PTSS at BL was not significant, indicating that PTSS had the same effect on QoL outcomes at both FUs.
Tsai (2007) [ ]	Increased post-traumatic stress symptoms (DRPST); MOS SF-36 (physical functioning, role physical, pain, general health, vitality, social functioning, role emotional, mental health, PCS and MCS)	(a) Whether different PTSS trajectory groups over time (persistent PTSS, recovered, delayed and persistently healthy) differed in QoL at FU. (b) Whether increased post-traumatic stress symptoms at BL predicted QoL at FU.	(a) ANOVA (b) Multiple regression models	(a) At FU, those who were persistently healthy had the highest QoL scores (significantly higher compared to the persistent group in all domains; significantly higher than the recovered group for: pain, general health, vitality, mental health and MCS; significantly higher compared to delayed PTSS in all domains). In addition, those with delayed PTSS (significantly lower than the recovered group in all domains except physical functioning) and those with persistent PTSS (significantly lower than recovered group in all domains) had the lowest QoL overall. (b) Increased PTSS at BL was not significantly associated with QoL at FU.
Vulser (2018) [ ]	Depressive symptom levels (CES-D score), depression status (CES-D ≥ 19); SF-12v2 (role emotional and social)	Whether depressive symptoms or depression status at BL are associated with QoL at FU.	Generalized linear models	Both the level of depressive symptoms at BL as well as depression status at BL were associated with QoL at FU (significant for: role emotional and social).
Wang (2000) [ ]	Depressive symptoms (SCL-90 subscale); anxiety symptoms (SCL-90 subscale); WHOQOL-Bref (total)	(a) Whether depressive symptoms at BL were associated with QoL at FU. (b) Whether anxiety symptoms at BL were associated with QoL at FU.	(a) and (b) Stepwise regression	(a) Higher depressive symptoms at BL were associated with reduced QoL at FU. (b) Anxiety symptoms BL were not included in the final stepwise regression model.
Wang (2017) [ ]	Depressive disorder course groups (CIDI); anxiety disorder course (CIDI); SF-36 (MCS, PCS)	(a) Whether QoL at FU differs between three different course groups of depressive disorders (1. no disorder at BL and no suicide attempt until FU; 2. remitted without treatment; 3. persistent disorder/treatment/developed psychiatric co-morbidity/suicide attempt until FU). (b) Whether QoL at FU differs between three different course groups of anxiety disorders (1. no disorder at BL and no suicide attempt until FU; 2. remitted without treatment; 3. persistent disorder/treatment/developed psychiatric co-morbidity/suicide attempt until FU).	(a) and (b) Multiple linear regression	(a) Those with depression at BL that remitted without treatment had lower QoL at FU (significant for MCS and PCS) than those without the disorder and higher QoL at FU (significant for MCS) than those with a persistent disorder. (b) Those with anxiety at BL that remitted without treatment over time had lower QoL at FU than those without the disorder and higher QoL (MCS, but not PCS) than those with a persistent disorder.
Wu (2015) [ ]	Depressive symptoms according to CDI; social anxiety symptoms (SASC); QOLS	(a) Whether depressive symptoms at BL are associated with QoL at FU. (b) Whether social anxiety symptoms at BL are associated with QoL at FU.	(a) and (b) Multivariate stepwise forward regression	(a) Higher depressive symptoms at BL were significantly associated with reduced QoL at FU. (b) Higher social anxiety symptoms at BL were not significantly associated with QoL at FU.

Abbreviations: QoL = quality of life; MD = major depression; FU = follow-up; DSM = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; HDRS = Hamilton Depression Rating Scale; PCS = Physical Component Score; MDS = Mental Component Score; MDD = major depressive disorder; ANOVA = analysis of variance; BL = baseline; MDE = major depressive episode; CIDI = Composite International Diagnostic Interview; SF-36 = Short Form 36; AUDADIS = Alcohol Use Disorders and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule; SF-12 = Short Form 12; PHQ = Patient Health Questionnaire; SF-12v2: Short Form 12, Version 2; HRSD = Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression; HADS = Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; QLDS = Quality of Life in Depression Scale; EQ-VAS = EQ Visual Analogue Scale; DIS = Diagnostic Interview Schedule; BDI = Beck Depression Inventory; SCID = Short Children’s Depression Inventory; MINI = Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview; PTSD = post-traumatic stress disorder; hrqol = health-related quality of life, IES-15 = Impact of Event Scale 15; Q-DIS = Quick Version of the Mental Health’s Diagnostic Interview Schedule; MADRS = Montgomery–Åsberg Depression Rating Scale; FDD-DSM-IV = Fragebogen zur Depressionsdiagnostik nach Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV; SCAN = Schedule for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry; DASS = Depression Anxiety Stress Scales; MOS SF = Medical Outcomes Study Short Form; CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; WHOQOL-Bref-TW = WHOQOL-Bref Taiwan Version; MHI-5 = Mental Health Inventory 5; OCD = obsessive compulsive disorder; Y-BOCS = Yale–Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale; BAI = Beck Angst Inventar; DD = depressive disorder; PD = psychiatric disorder; SAD = social anxiety disorder; Q-LES-Q = Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire; GHQ-28 = General Health Questionnaire 28; PCL-S = Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist Scale; VETR-PTSD = Vietnam Era Twin Registry Posttraumatic Stress Disorder; DRPST = Disaster-Related Psychological Screening Test; SCL-90 = Symptomcheckliste bei psychischen Störungen 90; SASC = SpLD Assessment Standards Committee; QOLS = Quality of Life Scale; CDI = Children’s Depression Inventory.

Depression as independent variable and QoL as outcome. One study investigated QoL at several time points during the entire course of an episode of MD .

Buist-Bouwman, Ormel, de Graaf and Vollebergh [ 46 ] analyzed an MD group from a general population setting (NEMESIS) with data on SF-36 domains in the onset, acute and recovery phase of the depressive episode. The onset of MD was associated with a significant drop in several QoL domains and recovery with a significant increase. Pre- and post-morbid QoL levels were not significantly different for most domains, and post-morbid QoL was even higher for the psychological role functioning and psychological health domains. In comparison to a group without MD, pre- and post-morbid QoL levels in the MD group were significantly lower, except for the psychological role functioning domain, where no significant differences were found. Additionally, it should be noted that 40% of the sample had lower post-morbid QoL compared to pre-morbid levels.

Two studies investigated changes in QoL for people experiencing an onset of depression relative to different comparison groups over two points in time.

One study investigated incident MD in a general population sample (NESARC; Rubio, Olfson, Perez-Fuentes, Garcia-Toro, Wang and Blanco [ 14 ]). Here, incident MD (compared to those without a history of MD as well as to a group without any mental disorder) was associated with a significant drop in QoL (SF-12 MCS). Additionally, analyzing two waves, Pyne, Patterson, Kaplan, Ho, Gillin, Golshan and Grant [ 67 ] compared the QoL (Quality of Well-Being scale) between MD patients and community controls. The patient group was further divided into those continuously not receiving an MD diagnosis, those who continuously received the diagnosis and those who only received the diagnosis at FU (onset). The authors found that changes in QoL did not differ between the groups. At both points in time, QoL scores differed significantly between the groups, except for the incident and the continuous depression group [ 67 ].

Six studies investigated different courses of depression over time in people with depression at BL with or without a healthy comparison group as reference.

Two primary care studies analyzed groups with clinical depression at BL with different FU depression statuses (remission, no remission). One study [ 51 ] analyzed changes in generic QoL measures (SF-12, WHOQOL-Bref) and the disease-specific Quality of Life in Depression Scale. In this study, remission was associated with an improvement in all QoL domains, whereas QoL did not change significantly over time for the non-remitted group. Another study [ 60 ] investigated SF-12 MCS and PCS scores and reported a significant increase in MCS over time in the remitting group. MCS scores in the continuously depressed group and PCS scores in both groups improved, albeit not significantly.

Another study [ 47 ] investigated whether chronic MD in a general population sample (NESARC) was associated with domain-specific reduced QoL (SF-12). They found that chronic MD was a significant risk factor for persistently reduced QoL in all domains and for the onset of reduced QoL at FU in all domains except for physical role.

Two population-based studies further differentiated between the depressive disorders. Analyzing MCS scores (NESARC), Rubio, Olfson, Villegas, Perez-Fuentes, Wang and Blanco [ 15 ] reported a significant increase in QoL for those who remitted from MD and from dysthymia relative to those who had a persistent disorder. Rhebergen, Beekman, de Graaf, Nolen, Spijker, Hoogendijk and Penninx [ 69 ] differentiated between people with MD, double depression or dysthymia at BL who remitted until FU relative to a group without a mental health diagnosis (NEMESIS). Physical health (SF-36) was lowest at BL for double depression, dysthymia and then the MD group. Over time, the MD and double depression groups improved significantly in their physical health, while the dysthymia group did not improve significantly. QoL was significantly lower relative to healthy comparisons for all depression groups at all waves. There were no significant differences regarding physical health trajectories over time among the depressive disorder groups.

Stegenga, Kamphuis, King, Nazareth and Geerlings [ 75 ] investigated more than two MD course groups over time (remitted, intermittent and chronic MD) in association with SF-12 MCS and PCS over time in a primary care-recruited sample with BL MD (Predict study). MCS increased over time in all groups, while changes in PCS were small. Compared to those who remitted, MCS at BL was significantly lower for the chronic course group. While the intermittent group also displayed a lower mean MCS at BL, the coefficient was not significant.

Three studies investigated changes in depressive symptom levels as the independent variable and changes in QoL as outcomes in adults.

One study found no significant association between an initial change in depressive symptoms and subsequent change in QoL (EQ-VAS) in older adults recruited in primary care [ 21 ]. The two other studies analyzed changes in depressive symptoms in samples with MD at BL [ 50 , 51 ]. Chung, Tso, Yeung and Li [ 50 ] found that changes in depressive symptom levels was associated with changes in several QoL domains (SF-36: general health, vitality, social functioning, mental health and MCS). Diehr, Derleth, McKenna, Martin, Bushnell, Simon and Patrick [ 51 ] investigated whether quartiles of change in depressive symptoms were associated with changes in QoL (SF-12, QLDS and WHOQOL-Bref). Those without any change in depressive symptoms generally showed no change in QoL. For all QoL domains and scores except for SF-12 PCS, improvement in depressive symptoms over time was associated with a significant increase in QoL, while a reduction in depressive symptoms was associated with a significant reduction in QoL. Those who had the largest reduction in depressive symptoms also had the largest improvement in QoL measures.

Anxiety as an independent variable and QoL as an outcome. Two publications used a general population sample (NESARC) to investigate incident anxiety disorders [ 14 ] and the remission of anxiety disorders [ 15 ] in association with SF-12 MCS. Both studies separated generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder (SAD), panic disorder (PD) and social phobia (SP). All incident disorders were associated with a significant reduction in QoL compared to people without a history of the specific disorders. When the analysis was restricted to incident cases without comorbidities, QoL levels were not significantly different compared to people without a history of any psychiatric disorder [ 14 ]. Those who remitted from SAD showed a significant increase in QoL compared to persistent cases. While QoL improved for all remitting anxiety disorders, change scores for PD and SP were not significant [ 15 ].

Another study investigated different courses (intermittent, chronic or remitting) of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and course in QoL (EQ-5D) as well as a comparison group from the general population [ 68 ]. They found that the OCD groups mostly reported a lower QoL compared to the general population. Moreover, the course groups differed regarding their QoL over time, with remitters reporting small to moderate improvements compared to the chronic group.

One study investigated changes in anxiety symptoms in association with changes in all SF-36 domains and both summary scores over time in a sample with MD at BL [ 50 ]. Changes in anxiety symptoms were significantly associated with changes in bodily pain, general health and the mental health domain.

3.4. Overview of Studies on the Association between QoL as Independent Variable and Anxiety/Depression as Outcomes

Additionally, we identified publications operationalizing QoL as the independent variable and anxiety/depression as outcomes with details on all studies reported in Table 3 . Only one study reported on change in QoL over time and change/trajectories in mental health outcomes over time. This study operationalized change in QoL as a predictor of future change in depressive symptoms over time and reported that an initial improvement in EQ-VAS was associated with a future reduction in depressive symptoms in older adults [ 21 ].

Studies on QoL as the independent variable and depression/anxiety as outcome.

First Author (Year)	Disorder or Symptoms Analyzed; QoL Domains Analyzed	Research Question	Methods	Results
Chou (2011) [ ]	Depressive sympt oms (CES-D-20 score); WHOQOL-Bref (total)	Whether QoL at BL is associated with depressive symptoms at FU.	Multiple regression	Lower QoL at BL was associated with higher depressive symptoms at FU.
De Almeida Fleck (2005) [ ]	Depression status (remission vs. no complete remission, CIDI and CES-D-20 cutoff >16); QLDS, WHOQOL-Bref (physical, psychological, social and environment), SF-12 (PCS, MCS)	Whether QoL at BL is associated with course of depression (complete remission vs. non-complete remission) in a depressed sample.	Stepwise multiple logistic regression	Disease-specific QoL measure at BL significantly predicted the remission of depression at FU (significant for QLDS).
Hajek (2015) [ ]	Depressive symptoms (GDS); EQ-VAS	Whether an initial change in QoL is associated with subsequent changes in depressive symptoms.	Vector autoregressive model	Initial changes in QoL were associated with a subsequent reduction in depression score (significant for total sample and women).
Hoertel (2017) [ ]	MD (according to AUDADIS-IV): SF-12v2 (PCS and MCS)	Whether QoL at BL predicted recurrence (vs. remission) or persistence (vs. remission) of MD over time.	Structural equation model	Lower QoL at BL was a predictor of risk of persistence (PCS and MCS) and recurrence of MDE over time.
Johansen (2007) [ ]	PTSD symptoms according to IES-15; WHOQOL-Bref (total)	Whether QoL predicted PTSD symptoms at FU.	Structural equation model	QoL did not significantly predict PTSD symptoms at FU.
Kuehner (2009) [ ]	Depressive symptoms (MADRS); WHOQOL (overall, physical, psychological, social and environmental)	Whether the lag of levels of QoL predicts future levels of depressive symptoms and whether the association differs by group (formerly depressed inpatients vs. community controls)	Time-lagged linear models	Lower levels of QoL were associated with higher future depressive symptoms (significant for physical, psychological, environmental and overall). The association was not moderated by group status.
Stegenga (2012) [ ]	MDD (CIDI); anxiety syndromes (panic disorder and others, PHQ); SF-12 (PCS)	(a) Whether “dysfunction” (i.e., reduced QoL) at BL (mildly reduced, moderately reduced or severely reduced; compared to no reduced QoL) predicts MDD onset over time. (b) Whether “dysfunction” (i.e., reduced QoL) at BL (mildly reduced, moderately reduced or severely reduced; compared to no reduced QoL) predicts anxiety syndrome onset over time. (c) Whether “dysfunction” (i.e., reduced QoL) at BL (mildly reduced, moderately reduced or severely reduced; compared to no reduced QoL) predicts onset of comorbid anxiety and MDD over time.	(a)–(c) Multinomial logistic regressions	(a) Dysfunction (i.e., reduced QoL) at BL was associated with higher odds of onset of MDD over time in the sample of people without a diagnosis at BL (significant for severely reduced QoL). (b) Dysfunction (i.e., reduced QoL) at BL was associated with higher odds of onset of anxiety syndrome over time in the sample of people without a diagnosis at BL (significant for moderately and severely reduced QoL). (c) Dysfunction (i.e., reduced QoL) at BL was associated with higher odds of onset of comorbid anxiety and depression over time in the sample of people without a diagnosis at BL (significant for mild, moderately and severely reduced QoL).
Wu (2016) [ ]	Elevated social anxiety symptoms (SASC cutoff 9); QOLS	Whether QoL is associated with changes in elevated social anxiety symptoms over time.	Generalized Estimating Equation	Higher QoL was associated with a decreased risk for developing elevated social anxiety symptoms over time.
Wu (2017) [ ]	Elevated depressive symptoms (according to CDI ≥19); QOLS	Whether QoL at BL is associated with elevated depressive symptoms at FU.	Multiple stepwise logistic regression	QoL at BL was not significantly related to depressive symptoms at FU.

Abbreviations: CES-D-20 = Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale 20; BL = baseline; FU = follow-up; QoL = quality of life; CIDI = Composite International Diagnostic Interview; QLDS = Quality of Life in Depression Scale; SF-12 = Short Form 12; PCS = Physical Component Score; MCS = Mental Component Score; GDS = Geriatric Depression Scale; EQ-VAS = EQ Visual Analogue Scale; MD = mental disorder; AUDADIS-IV = Alcohol Use Disorders and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule; SF-12v2 = Short Form 12 Version 2; PTSD = post-traumatic stress disorder; IES-15 = Impact of Event Scale 15; MADRS = Montgomery–Åsberg Depression Rating Scale; MDD = major depressive disorder; PHQ = Patient Health Questionnaire; SASC = SpLD Assessment Standards Committee; QOLS = Quality of Life Scale; CDI = Children’s Depression Inventory.

3.5. Meta-Analyses on Anxiety, Depression and SF Summary Scores

In total, eight studies on adults were included in a supplementary meta-analyses of several research questions on SF PCS and MCS in association with anxiety and depressive disorders. Forest plots for the analyses are provided in the supplementary materials (Figures S1–S10) .

Differences in SF summary scores at FU among adults with and without depressive disorders at BL. Based on a pooling of four studies [ 45 , 49 , 52 , 54 ], those with depression at BL showed lower MCS scores at FU compared to a group without depression at BL with a large effect size (SMD = −0.96, 95% CI: −1.04 to −0.88, p < 0.001, I 2 = 0.0%). PCS scores at FU were lower for the depression group compared to the non-depression group with a medium effect size (SMD = −0.68, 95% CI: −1.06 to −0.30, p < 0.001, I 2 = 94.6%). Excluding the study rated “poor” in the quality/risk of bias assessment from the pooling did not substantially affect the results (MCS: SMD = −0.96, 95% CI: −1.03 to −0.88, p < 0.001, I 2 = 0.01%; PCS: SMD = −0.63, 95% CI: −1.08 to −0.19, p < 0.01, I 2 = 96.8%).

BL differences in SF summary scores among adults with MD at BL with and without remitting courses over time. Based on a pooling of two studies [ 19 , 84 ] of samples with MD at BL, those with persistent MD at FU had significantly lower MCS at BL (SMD = −0.25, 95% CI: −0.41 to −0.10, p = 0.001, I 2 = 74.95) and PCS scores at BL (SMD = −0.24, 95% CI: −0.39 to −0.09, p = 0.002, I 2 = 73.14) compared to those who achieved remission until FU. Effect sizes were small for both summary scores.

FU differences in SF summary scores among adults with depressive and anxiety disorders at BL with and without remitting courses . Based on the pooling of two studies [ 71 , 81 ] of samples with MD and/or dysthymia, the group where the disorder had persisted/a co-morbid condition was present/had a suicide attempt until FU had significantly lower MCS scores at FU compared to the group where the disorder had remitted without treatment until FU, with a medium effect size for depressive disorders (SMD = −0.59, 95% CI: −0.75 to −0.42, p < 0.001, I 2 = 37.72) and a small effect size for anxiety disorders (SMD = −0.44, 95% CI: −0.58 to −0.30, p < 0.001, I 2 = 58.87). The SMD for PCS scores at FU was negligible in terms of effect size for both disorder groups (depressive disorders: SMD = 0.02, 95% CI: −0.24 to 0.27, p = 0.90, I 2 = 73.65; anxiety disorders: SMD = −0.09, 95% CI: −0.17 to −0.01, p = 0.03, I 2 = 0.01).

4. Discussion

4.1. main results.

This review adds to the present literature by providing an overview of longitudinal observational studies investigating the association between depression, anxiety and QoL in samples without other specific illnesses or specific treatments. Additional meta-analyses investigated group differences according to SF MCS and PCS.

While a concise synthesis of all the identified studies is challenging due to heterogeneity, the following picture emerges from studies investigating change–change associations: before the onset of disorders, QoL is already lower in disorder groups in comparison to healthy comparisons. The onset of the disorders further reduces the QoL. Remission is associated with an increase in QoL, mostly to pre-morbid levels. Additionally, some studies show that remission patterns are relevant for QoL outcomes as well. Moreover, a bi-directional effect was reported, whereby QoL is also predictive of mental health outcomes.

Evidence for a bi-directional association as well as studies showing lower QoL across the entire course of the disorders (before onset, during disorder, after disorder) relative to a healthy comparison group seem to suggest that impairments in QoL may result from a certain pre-disorder vulnerability in these groups. Longitudinal studies using general population data have investigated different hypotheses on (QoL) impairments after remission of anxiety disorders and MD [ 87 , 88 ]. One hypothesis suggests that impairments after the illness episode reflect a pre-disorder vulnerability (vulnerability or trait hypothesis), while the another states that impairments develop during the mental health episode and remain as a residual after recovery (scar hypothesis). Generally, both studies favored the vulnerability hypothesis [ 87 , 88 ]. For subgroups with recurrent anxiety disorders, scarring effects were also found for mental functioning [ 88 ]. Yet, it has to be noted that it was not the aim of our review to gather evidence for these hypotheses using QoL as an indicator, which represents an opportunity for future research.

To be able to investigate possible domain-specific differences across studies, we aimed to conduct a meta-analysis on all studies on the same research question which reported on QoL subdomains (e.g., using WHOQOL and SF). However, as described in the Methods section above, only eight studies reported comparable information on different research questions and could be included in meta-analyses. Due to the limited number of studies included in each meta-analysis, the focus on SF MCS and PCS scores, and most studies reporting on depression, the results of the meta-analyses should be viewed with caution. Keeping this in mind, our results indicate that both mental and physical QoL are significantly impacted by anxiety and depressive disorders and that the course of the disorder is also relevant for QoL outcomes. Not surprisingly, effect sizes for MCS were larger compared to PCS for most research questions. A pooling of two studies on different courses of anxiety and depressive disorders found that effect sizes for MCS at FU were of moderate size for depressive (SMD = −0.59) and of small size for anxiety disorders (SMD = −0.44), while SMDs for PCS at FU were negligible in size.

Overall, effect sizes from meta-analyses ranged from negligible to large, and heterogeneity varied considerably (I 2 between 0% and 95%). Because of the small number of studies, possible influential study-level factors (e.g., setting, operationalization of the variables, length of FU) could not be investigated in further detail by means of a meta-regression, which remains a question for future research.

4.2. Implications for Future Research

Based on the results described and study heterogeneity discussed above, we provide recommendations for future research.

First recommendation: future research should differentiate between individual disorders and focus on anxiety disorders. The majority of the studies investigated depressive disorders or symptoms. On the level of individual disorders, most focused on MD, while two studies additionally reported on dysthymia [ 15 , 69 ]. One of these investigated double depression [ 69 ]. On the level of anxiety disorders, three publications differentiated between individual anxiety disorders within the same study [ 14 , 15 , 63 ]. While it was not possible to conduct a meta-analysis comparing different anxiety disorders in our case, individual studies suggest possible disorder-specific differences when analyzing changes in QoL over time: Rubio, Olfson, Villegas, Perez-Fuentes, Wang and Blanco [ 15 ] suggest that QoL significantly improved for those remitting from GAD and SAD (compared to non-remission). QoL improved for PD and SP as well, but differences in change scores were smaller and did not reach statistical significance. The incidences of all of these disorders were associated with a significant drop in QoL [ 14 ]. In summary, future longitudinal studies should focus on anxiety disorders and generally differentiate between individual disorders to investigate possible disorder-specific differences.

Second recommendation: future research should consider trajectories of disorders/change in symptoms and changes in QoL over time. We would have liked to include a meta-analysis of disorder trajectories and change scores in QoL over time. Because of the small, diverse number of studies on this association in general and the number of assumptions that would have had to have been made for a meta-analysis, we refrained from pooling effects for this research question. In total, 17 studies investigated changes in independent variables associated with changes in outcomes. This approach has several advantages. On the one hand, different disorder or symptom trajectories can be identified. Several studies reported that QoL outcomes differ according to disorder course and the degree of change in symptoms. The focus on the change in characteristics over time in future research could additionally reduce the problem of unobserved time-constant heterogeneity in observational studies when appropriate methods are applied [ 26 ].

Third recommendation: future research should investigate individual QoL domains. Several systematic reviews on cross-sectional studies found that effect sizes differed by QoL domains [ 32 , 89 ]. For example, Olatunji, Cisler and Tolin [ 89 ] reported that health and social functioning were most impaired for anxiety disorders (compared to non-clinical controls). Comparing individuals with diabetes and depressive symptoms to those with diabetes only, Schram, Baan and Pouwer [ 32 ] reported that while SF pain scores were mild to moderately impaired, role and social functioning displayed moderate to severe impairments in those with comorbid depressive symptoms. The other scores were moderately impaired. As described above in detail, a meta-analysis using all subdomains was not feasible in this review. Further research differentiating between QoL domains would thus allow future meta-analyses to investigate whether the observed domain-specific differences reported in previous reviews of cross-sectional data can be observed in longitudinal studies as well.

Fourth recommendation: future research should consider bi-directional effects. While investigating QoL as the outcome measure and anxiety/depression as independent variables seems relatively straightforward, ten studies investigated QoL as the independent variable and anxiety/depression as outcomes. In light of possible bi-directional effects and pre-existing vulnerability suggested by individual studies, future research considering QoL as an independent variable could inform a deeper understanding of this complex association.

4.3. Strengths and Limitations

A strength of this work is the transparent methodological process: the review was prospectively registered with PROSPERO and a study protocol was published [ 34 ]. Two reviewers were included in screening, data extraction and quality assessment processes. There were no limitations regarding the time or location of the publications. Moreover, all versions of the ICD/DSM and validated questionnaires were considered eligible to identify anxiety or depression. Another strength is the thorough literature search that enabled us to identify all relevant studies. Additionally, we did not limit the age range and were therefore able to shed light on studies investigating children/adolescents. Moreover, some studies could be pooled using random-effects meta-analyses, which allows for stronger conclusions regarding effect sizes compared to individual studies. Besides the content analysis, this review emphasizes difficulties in meta-analysis from observational, longitudinal studies. We hope that our work can facilitate discussion on this topic.

The study has some limitations. We did not limit our search to specific research questions, which led to the inclusion of heterogeneous studies. Heterogeneity particularly stemmed from the operationalization of the variables of interest. Due to this, a concise narrative synthesis of all results was not feasible. The positive aspect of this broad focus is that it allowed us to provide an overview of studies and research questions analyzed and to formulate more nuanced recommendations for future research. We have to acknowledge that there is an abundance of QoL assessments used in medicine and health sciences [ 37 ]. The list applied in this work was derived with respect to previous relevant reviews on QoL research. It was not designed to be fully comprehensive or exhaustive. Rather, it provided us with a working definition for this review and helped to enhance the transparency of our selection processes. Additionally, because we included validated QoL measures frequently used in research, we assume that exclusion would particularly have been the case for novel or study-specific measures. Finally, the focus on peer-reviewed literature means that studies in other languages and gray literature were not considered. Nonetheless, this focus on literature published in peer-reviewed journals should ensure a certain scientific quality.

5. Conclusions and Relevance for Clinical Practice

Overall, the results indicate that QoL is lower before the onset of anxiety and depressive disorders, further reduces upon onset of the disorders and generally improves with remission to pre-morbid levels. Moreover, disorder course (e.g., remitted, intermittent, chronic) seems to play an important role; however, only a few studies analyzed this. Changes in anxiety and depressive symptoms were also associated with changes in QoL over time. Meta-analyses found that effect sizes were larger for MCS relative to PCS, highlighting the relevance of differentiation between QoL domains. While our review identified some gaps in the current literature and made recommendations for future research, the following should be noted for clinical practice. On the one hand, an improvement in mental health is associated with better QoL, which emphasizes the relevance of support during the disorders. This is also shown by meta-analyses, which show that cognitive behavioral therapy additionally improves QoL [ 90 , 91 ]. Moreover, the results indicate reduced QoL even before disorder onset, highlighting the relevance of early preventive measures in vulnerable groups. In line with this, studies on school-based prevention programs show a significant reduction in anxiety and depressive symptoms [ 92 , 93 ], and psychosocial prevention programs may additionally improve QoL [ 94 ].

During the COVID-19 pandemic, it is of high relevance to tackle the arising challenges associated with this pandemic. For example, it is important to face the high prevalence rates of both depression and anxiety with appropriate measures.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Elzbieta Kuzma for her consultation (Albertinen-Haus Centre for Geriatrics and Gerontology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany; University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK).

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijerph182212022/s1 , Table S1: detailed descriptive information for included studies ( n = 47); Figure S1: forest plot for differences in SF MCS at FU among adults with and without depressive disorders at BL; Figure S2: forest plot for differences in SF PCS at FU among adults with and without depressive disorders at BL; Figure S3: forest plot for differences in SF MCS at FU among adults with and without depressive disorders at BL (sensitivity analysis); Figure S4: forest plot for differences in SF PCS at FU among adults with and without depressive disorders at BL (sensitivity analysis); Figure S5: forest plot for BL differences in SF MCS among adults with MD at BL with and without remitting courses over time; Figure S6: forest plot for BL differences in SF PCS among adults with MD at BL with and without remitting courses over time; Figure S7: forest plot for FU differences in SF MCS among adults with depressive disorders at BL with and without remitting courses; Figure S8: forest plot for FU differences in SF PCS among adults with depressive disorders at BL with and without remitting courses; Figure S9: forest plot for FU differences in SF MCS among adults with anxiety disorders at BL with and without remitting courses; Figure S10: forest plot for FU differences in SF PCS among adults with anxiety disorders at BL with and without remitting courses.

Author Contributions

J.K.H.: conceptualization of research question; development of search strategy; study screening and selection; risk of bias/quality assessment; study synthesis; writing—original draft, review and editing; H.-H.K.: conceptualization of research question; writing—review and editing; E.Q.: study screening and selection; risk of bias/quality assessment; writing—review and editing; A.H.: conceptualization of research question; development of search strategy; study screening and selection (third party); study synthesis; writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Evolution and emerging trends in depression research from 2004 to 2019: a literature visualization analysis.

$\nHui Wang$

1 School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
2 School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China

Depression has become a major threat to human health, and researchers around the world are actively engaged in research on depression. In order to promote closer research, the study of the global depression knowledge map is significant. This study aims to map the knowledge map of depression research and show the current research distribution, hotspots, frontiers, and trends in the field of depression research, providing researchers with worthwhile information and ideas. Based on the Web of Science core collection of depression research from 2004 to 2019, this study systematically analyzed the country, journal, category, author, institution, cited article, and keyword aspects using bibliometric and data visualization methods. A relationship network of depression research was established, highlighting the highly influential countries, journals, categories, authors, institutions, cited articles, and keywords in this research field. The study identifies great research potential in the field of depression, provides scientific guidance for researchers to find potential collaborations through collaboration networks and coexistence networks, and systematically and accurately presents the hotspots, frontiers, and shortcomings of depression research through the knowledge map of global research on depression with the help of information analysis and fusion methods, which provides valuable information for researchers and institutions to determine meaningful research directions.

Introduction

Health issues are becoming more and more important to people due to the continuous development of health care. The social pressures on people are becoming more and more pronounced in a social environment that is developing at an increasing rate. Prolonged exposure to stress can have a negative impact on brain development ( 1 ), and depression is one of the more typical disorders that accompany it. Stress will increase the incidence of depression ( 2 ), depression has become a common disease ( 3 ), endangering people's physical health. Depression is a debilitating mental illness with mood disorders, also known as major depression, clinical depression, or melancholia. In human studies of the disease, it has been found that depression accounts for a large proportion of the affected population. According to the latest data from the World Health Organization (WHO) statistics in 2019, there are more than 350 million people with depression worldwide, with an increase of about 18% in the last decade and an estimated lifetime prevalence of 15% ( 4 ), it is a major cause of global disability and disease burden ( 5 ), and depression has quietly become a disease that threatens hundreds of millions of people worldwide.

Along with the rise of science communication research, the quantification of science is also flourishing. As a combination of “data science” and modern science, bibliometrics takes advantage of the explosive growth of research output in the era of big data, and uses topics, authors, publications, keywords, references, citations, etc. as research targets to reveal the current status and impact of the discipline more accurately and scientifically. Whereas, there is not a wealth of bibliometric studies related to depression. Fusar-Poli et al. ( 6 ) used bibliometrics to systematically evaluate cross-diagnostic psychiatry. Hammarström et al. ( 7 ) used bibliometrics to analyze the scientific quality of gender-related explanatory models of depression in the medical database PubMed. Tran et al. ( 8 ) used the bibliometric analysis of research progress and effective interventions for depression in AIDS patients. Wang et al. ( 9 ) used bibliometric methods to analyze scientific studies on the comorbidity of pain and depression. Shi et al. ( 10 ) performed a bibliometric analysis of the top 100 cited articles on biomarkers in the field of depression. Dongping et al. ( 11 ) used bibliometric analysis of studies on the association between depression and gut flora. An Chunping et al. ( 12 ) analyzed the literature on acupuncture for depression included in PubMed based on bibliometrics. Yi and Xiaoli ( 13 ) used a bibliometric method to analyze the characteristics of the literature on the treatment of depression by Chinese medicine in the last 10 years. Zhou and Yan ( 14 ) used bibliometric method to analyze the distribution of scientific and technological achievements on depression in Peoples R China. Guaijuan ( 15 ) performed a bibliometric analysis of the interrelationship between psoriasis and depression. Econometric analysis of the relationship between vitamin D deficiency and depression was performed by Yunzhi et al. ( 16 ) and Shauni et al. ( 17 ) performed a bibliometric analysis of domestic and international research papers on depression-related genes from 2003 to 2007. A previous review of depression-related bibliometric studies revealed that there is no bibliometric analysis of global studies in the field of depression, including country network analysis, journal network analysis, category network analysis, author network analysis, institutional network analysis, literature co-citation analysis, keyword co-presentation analysis, and cluster analysis.

The aim of this study was to conduct a comprehensive and systematic literature-based data mining and metrics analysis of depression-related research. More specifically, this analysis focuses on cooperative network and co-presentation analysis, based on the 36,477 papers included in the Web of Science Core Collection database from 2004 to 2019, and provides an in-depth analysis of cooperative network, co-presentation network, and co-citation through modern metrics and data visualization methods. Through the mining of key data, the data correlation is further explored, and the results obtained can be used to scientifically and reasonably predict the depression-related information. This study aims to show the spatial and temporal distribution of research countries, journals, authors, and institutions in the field of depression in a more concise manner through a relational network. A deeper understanding of the internal structure of the research community will help researchers and institutions to establish more accurate and effective global collaborations, in line with the trend of human destiny and globalization. In addition, the study will allow for the timely identification of gaps in current research. A more targeted research direction will be established, a more complete picture of the new developments in the field of depression today will be obtained, and the research protocol will be informed for further adjustments. The results of these analyses will help researchers understand the evolution of this field of study. Overall, this paper uses literature data analysis to find research hotspots in the field of depression, analyze the knowledge structure within different studies, and provide a basis for predicting research frontiers. This study analyzed the literature in the field of depression using CiteSpace 5.8.R2 (64-bit) to analyze collaborative networks, including country network analysis, journal network analysis, category network analysis, researcher network analysis, and institutional network analysis using CiteSpace 5.8.R2 (64-bit). In addition, literature co-citation, keyword co-presentation, and cluster analysis of depression research hotspots were also performed. Thus, exploring the knowledge dimensions of the field, quantifying the research patterns in the field, and uncovering emerging trends in the field will help to obtain more accurate and complete information. The large amount of current research results related to depression will be presented more intuitively and accurately with the medium of information technology, and the scientific evaluation of research themes and trend prediction will be provided from a new perspective.

Data Sources

The data in this paper comes from the Web of Science (WoS) core collection. The time years were selected as 2004–2019. First, the literature was retrieved after entering “depression” using the title search method. A total of 73,829 articles, excluding “depression” as “suppression,” “decline,” “sunken,” “pothole,” “slump,” “low pressure,” “frustration.” The total number of articles with other meanings such as “depression” was 5,606, and the total number of valid articles related to depression was 68,223. Next, the title search method was used to search for studies related to “major depressive disorder” not “depression,” and a total of 8,070 articles were retrieved. For the two search strategies, a total of 76,293 records were collected. The relevant literature retrieved under the two methods were combined and exported in “plain text” file format. The exported records included: “full records and references cited.” CiteSpace processed the data to obtain 41,408 valid records, covering all depression-related research articles for the period 2004–2019, and used this as the basis for analysis.

Processing Tools

CiteSpace ( 18 ), developed by Chao-Mei Chen, a professor in the School of Information Science and Technology at Drexel University, is a Java-based program with powerful data visualization capabilities and is one of the most widely used knowledge mapping tools. The software version used in this study is CiteSpace 5.8.R2 (64-bit).

Methods of Analysis

This study uses bibliometrics and data visualization as analytical methods. First, the application of bibliometrics to the field of depression helped to identify established and emerging research clusters, demonstrating the value of research in this area. Second, data visualization provides multiple perspectives on the data, presenting correlations in a clearer “knowledge graph” that can reveal underestimated and overlooked trends, patterns, and differences ( 19 ). CiteSpace is mainly based on the “co-occurrence clustering idea,” which extracts the information units (keywords, authors, institutions, countries, journals, etc.) in the data by classification, and then further reconstructs the data in the information units to form networks based on different types and strengths of connections (e.g., keyword co-occurrence, author collaboration, etc.). The resulting networks include nodes and links, where the nodes represent the information units of the literature and the links represent the existence of connections (co-occurrence) between the nodes. Finally, the network is measured, statistically analyzed, and presented in a visual way. The analysis needs to focus on: the overall structure of the network, key nodes and paths. The key evaluation indicators in this study are: betweenness centrality, year, keyword frequency, and burst strength. Betweenness centrality (BC) is the number of times a node acts as the shortest bridge between two other nodes. The higher the number of times a node acts as an “intermediary,” the greater its betweenness centrality. Betweenness centrality is a measure of the importance of articles found and measured by nodes in the network by labeling the category (or authors, journals, institutions, etc.) with purple circles. There may be many shortest paths between two nodes in the network, and by counting all the shortest paths of any two nodes in the network, if many of the shortest paths pass through a node, then the node is considered to have high betweenness centrality. In CiteSpace, nodes with betweenness centrality over 0.1 are called critical nodes. Year, which represents the publication time of the article. Frequency, which represents the number of occurrences. Burst strength, an indicator used to measure articles with sudden rise or sudden decline in citations. Nodes with high burst strength usually represent a shift in a certain research area and need to be focused on, and the burst article points are indicated in red. The nodes and their sizes and colors are first analyzed initially, and further analyzed by betweenness centrality indicators for evaluation. Each node represents an article, and the larger the node, the greater the frequency of the keyword word and the greater the relevance to the topic. Similarly, the color of the node represents time: the warmer the color, the more recent the time; the colder the color, the older the era; the node with a purple outer ring is a node with high betweenness centrality; the color of each annual ring can determine the time distribution: the color of the annual ring represents the corresponding time, and the thickness of one annual ring is proportional to the number of articles within the corresponding time division; the dominant color can reflect the relative concentration of the emergence time; the node The appearance of red annual rings in the annual rings means hot spots, and the frequency of citations has been or is still increasing rapidly.

Large-Scale Assessment

Country analysis.

During the period 2004–2019, a total of 157 countries/territories have conducted research on depression, which is about 67.38% of 233 countries/territories worldwide. This shows that depression is receiving attention from many countries/regions around the world. Figure 1 shows the geographical distribution of published articles for 157 countries. The top 15 countries are ranked according to the number of articles published. Table 1 lists the top 15 countries with the highest number of publications in the field of depression worldwide from 2004 to 2019. These 15 countries include 4 Asian countries (Peoples R China, Japan, South Korea, Turkey), 2 North American countries (USA, Canada), 1 South American country (Brazil), 7 European countries (UK, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, France, Spain, Sweden), and 1 Oceania country (Australia).

Figure 1 . Geographical distributions of publications, 2004–2019.

Table 1 . The top 15 productive countries.

Overall, the main distribution of these articles is in USA and some European countries, such as UK, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, France, Spain, and Sweden. This means that these countries are more interested and focused on research on depression compared to others. The total number of publications across all research areas in the Web of Science core collection is similar to the distribution of depression research areas, with the trend toward USA, UK, and Peoples R China as leading countries being unmistakable, and USA has been a leader in the field of depression, with far more articles published than any other country. It can also be seen that USA is the country with the highest betweenness centrality in the network of national collaborations analyzed in this paper. USA research in the field of depression is closely linked to global research, and is an important part of the global collaborative network for depression research. As of 2019, the total number of articles published in depression performance research in USA represents 27.13% of the total number of articles published in depression worldwide, which is ~4 times more than the second-place country, UK, which is far ahead of other countries. Peoples R China, as the third most published country, has a dominant number of articles, but its betweenness centrality is 0.01, reflecting the fact that Peoples R China has less collaborative research with other countries, so Peoples R China should strengthen its foreign collaborative research and actively establish global scientific research partnerships to seek development and generate breakthroughs in cooperation. The average percentage of scientific research on depression in each country is about 0.19%, also highlighting the urgent need to address depression as one of the global human health problems. The four Asian countries included in the top 15 countries are Peoples R China, Japan, South Korea, and Turkey, with Peoples R China ranking third with 6.72% of the total number of all articles counted. The distribution may be explained by the fact that Peoples R China is the largest developing country with a rapid development rate as the largest. Along with the steady rise in the country's economic power, people are creating economic benefits and their health is becoming a consumable commodity. The lifetime prevalence and duration of depression varies by country and region ( 2 ), but the high prevalence and persistence of depression worldwide confirms the increasing severity of the disease worldwide. The WHO estimates that more than 300 million people, or 4.4% of the world's population, suffer from depression ( 20 ), with the number of people suffering from depression increasing at a patient rate of 18.4% between 2005 and 2015. Depression, one of the most prevalent mental illnesses of our time, has caused both physical and psychological harm to many people, and it has become the leading cause of disability worldwide today, and in this context, there is increased interest and focus on research into depression. It is expected that a more comprehensive understanding of depression and finding ways to prevent and cope with the occurrence of this disease can help people get rid of the pain and shadow brought by depression, obtain a healthy and comfortable physical and mental environment and physical health, and make Chinese contributions to the cause of human health. Undoubtedly, the occurrence of depressive illnesses in the context of irreversible human social development has stimulated a vigorous scientific research environment on depression in Peoples R China and other developing countries and contributed to the improvement of research capacity in these countries. Moreover, from a different perspective, the geographical distribution of articles in this field also represents the fundamental position of the country in the overall scientific and academic research field.

Growth Trend Analysis

Figure 2 depicts the distribution of 38,433 articles from the top 10 countries in terms of the number of publications and the trend of growth during 2004–2019.

Figure 2 . The distribution of publications in top 10 productive countries, 2004–2019. Source: author's calculation. National development classification criteria refer to “Human Development Report 2020” ( 21 ).

First, the number of articles published per year for the top 10 countries in terms of productivity was counted and then the white bar chart in Figure 2 was plotted, with the year as the horizontal coordinate and total publications as the vertical coordinate, showing the distribution of the productivity of articles in the field of depression per year. The total number of publications for the period 2004–2019 is 38,433. Based on the white bars and line graphs in Figure 2 , we can divide this time period into three growth periods. The number of publications in each growth period is calculated based on the number of publications per year. As can be seen from the figure, the period 2004–2019 can be divided into three main growth periods, namely 2004–2009, 2010–2012, and 2013–2019, the first growth period being from 2004 to 2009, the number of publications totaled 6,749, accounting for 23.97% of all publications; from 2010 to 2012, the number of publications totaled 8,236, accounting for 17.56% of all publications; and from 2013 to 2019, the number of publications totaled 22,473, accounting for 58.47% of all publications. Of these, 2006 was the first year of sharp growth with an annual growth rate of 19.97%, 2009 was the second year of sharp growth with an annual growth rate of 17.64%, and 2008 was the third year of sharp growth with an annual growth rate of 16.09%. In the last 5 years, 2019 has also shown a sharp growth trend with a growth rate of 14.34%. Notably, in 2010 and 2013, there was negative growth with the growth rate of −3.39 and −1.45%. In the last 10 years, depression research has become one of the most valuable areas of human research. It can also be noted that the number of publications in the field of depression in these 10 countries has been increasing year after year.

Second, the analysis is conducted from the perspective of national development, divided into developed and developing countries, as shown in the orange bar chart in Figure 2 , where the horizontal coordinate is year and the vertical coordinate is total publications, comparing the article productivity variability between developed and developing countries. The top 10 most productive countries in the field of depression globally include nine developed countries and one developing country, respectively. During the period 2004–2019, 34,631 papers were published in developed countries and 3,802 papers were published in developing countries, with developed countries accounting for 90.11% of the 38,433 articles and developing countries accounting for 9.89%, and the total number of publications in developed countries was about 9 times higher than that in developing countries. During the period 2004–2019, the number of publications in developed countries showed negative growth in 2 years (2010 and 2013) with growth rates of −3.39 and −1.45%, respectively. The rest of the years showed positive growth with growth rates of 1.52% (2005), 19.97 (2006), 8.11 (2007), 12.70 (2008), 17.64 (2009), 13.22 (2011), 10.17 (2012), 16.09 (2014), 10.46 (2015), 4.10 (2016), 1.59 (2017), 3.91 (2018), and 14.34 (2019), showing three periods of positive growth: 2004–2009, 2011–2012, and 2014–2019, with the highest growth rate of 19.97% in 2006. Recent years have also shown a higher growth trend, with a growth rate of 14.34% in 2019. It is worth noting that developing countries have been showing positive growth in the number of articles in the period 2004–2019, with annual growth rates of 81.25 (2005), 17.24 (2006), 35.29 (2007), 19.57 (2008), 65.45 (2009), 13.19 (2010), 29.13 (2011), 54.89 (2012), 12.14 (2013), 36.36 (2014), 14.92 (2015), 16.02 (2016), 10.24 (2017), 21.17 (2018), and 31.37 (2019), with the highest growth rate of 81.25% in 2005. In the field of depression research, developed countries are still the main force and occupy an important position.

Further, 10 countries with the highest productivity in the field of depression are compared, total publications in the vertical coordinate, and the colored scatter plot contains 10 colored dots, representing 10 different countries. On the one hand, the variability of the contributions of different countries in the same time frame can be compared horizontally. On the other hand, it is possible to compare vertically the variability of the growth of different countries over time. Among them, USA, with about 40.29% of the world's publications in the field of depression, has always been a leader in the field of depression with its rich research results. Peoples R China, as the only developing country, ranks 3rd in the top 10 countries with high production of research papers in the field of depression, and Peoples R China's research in the field of depression has shown a rapid growth trend, and by 2016, it has jumped to become the 2nd largest country in the world, with the number of published papers increasing year by year, which has a broad prospect and great potential for development.

Distribution of Periodicals

Table 2 lists the top 15 journals in order of number of journal co-citations. In the field of depression, the top 15 cited journals accounted for 19.06% of the total number of co-citations, nearly one in five of the total number of journal co-citations. In particular, the top 3 journals were ARCH GEN PSYCHIAT (ARCHIVES OF GENERAL PSYCHIATRY), J AFFECT DISORDERS (JOURNAL OF AFFECTIVE DISORDERS), and AM J PSYCHIAT (AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY), with co-citation counts of 20,499, 20,302, and 20,143, with co-citation rates of 2.09, 2.07, and 2.06%, respectively. The main research area of ARCH GEN PSYCHIAT is Psychiatry; the main research area of the journal J AFFECT DISORDERS is Neurosciences and Neurology, Psychiatry; AM J PSYCHIAT is the main research area of Psychiatry, and the three journals have “psychiatry” in common, making them the most frequently co-cited journals in the field of depression.

Table 2 . The top 15 co-cited journals.

Figure 3 shows the network relationship graph of the cited journals from 2004 to 2019. The figure takes g-index as the selection criteria, the scale factor k = 25 to include more nodes. Each node of the graph represents each journal, the node size represents the number of citation frequencies, the label size represents the size of the betweenness centrality of the journal in the network, and the links between journals represent the co-citation relationships. The journal co-citation map reflects the structure of the journals, indicating that there are links between journals and that the journals include similar research topics. These journals included research topics related to neuroscience, psychiatry, neurology, and psychology. The journal with betweenness centrality size in the top 1 was ARCH GEN PSYCHIAT, with betweenness centrality size of 0.07, and impact shadows of 14.48. ARCH GEN PSYCHIAT, has research themes of Psychiatry. In all, these journals in Figure 3 occupy an important position in the journal's co-citation network and have strong links with other journals.

Figure 3 . Prominent journals involved in depression. The betweenness centrality of a node in the network measures the importance of the position of the node in the network. Two types of nodes may have high betweenness centrality scores: (1) Nodes that are highly connected to other nodes, (2) Nodes are positioned between different groups of nodes. The lines represent the link between two different nodes.

Distribution of Categories

Table 3 lists the 15 most popular categories in the field of depression research during the period 2004–2019. In general, the main disciplines involved are neuroscience, psychology, pharmacy, medicine, and health care, which are closely related to human life and health issues. Of these, psychiatry accounted for 20.78%, or about one-five, making it the most researched category. The study of depression focuses on neuroscience, reflecting the essential characteristics of depression as a category of mental illness and better reflecting the fact that depression is an important link in the human public health care. In addition, Table 3 shows that the category with the highest betweenness centrality is Neuroscience, followed by Public, Environment & Occupational Health, and then Pharmacology & Pharmacy, with betweenness centrality of 0.16, 0.13, and 0.11, respectively. It is found that the research categories of depression are also centered on disciplines such as neuroscience, public health and pharmacology, indicating that research on depression requires a high degree of integration of multidisciplinary knowledge and integration of information from various disciplines in order to have a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the depression.

Table 3 . The top 15 productive categories, 2004–2019.

Figure 4 shows the nine categories with the betweenness centrality in the category research network, with Neuroscience being the node with the highest betweenness centrality in this network, meaning that Neuroscience is most strongly linked to all research categories in the field of depression research. Depression is a debilitating psychiatric disorder with mood disorders. It is worth noting that the development of depression not only has psychological effects on humans, but also triggers many somatic symptoms that have a bad impact on their daily work and life, giving rise to the second major mediating central point of research with public health as its theme. The somatization symptoms of depression often manifest as abnormalities in the cardiovascular system, and many studies have looked at the pathology of the cardiovascular system in the hope of finding factors that influence the onset of depression, mechanisms that trigger it or new ways to treat it. Thus, depression involves not only the nervous system, but also interacts with the human cardiovascular system, for example, and the complexity of depression dictates that the study of depression is an in-depth study based on complex systems.

Figure 4 . Prominent categories involved in depression, 2004–2019. The betweenness centrality of a node in the network measures the importance of the position of the node in the network. Two types of nodes may have high betweenness centrality scores: (1) Nodes that are highly connected to other nodes, (2) Nodes are positioned between different groups of nodes. The lines represent the link between two different nodes.

Author Statistics

The results of the analysis showed that there were many researchers working in the field of depression over the past 16 years, and 63 of the authors published at least 30 articles related to depression. Table 4 lists the 15 authors with the highest number of articles published. It includes the rank of the number of articles published, author, country, number of articles published in depression-related studies, total number of articles included in Web of Science, total number of citations, average number of citations, and H-index. According to the statistics, seven of the top 15 authors are from USA, three from the Netherlands, one from Canada, one from Australia, one from New Zealand, one from Italy, and one from Germany. From this, it can be seen that these productive authors are from developed countries, thus it can be inferred that developed countries have a better research environment, more advanced research technology and more abundant research funding. The evaluation indicators in the author co-occurrence network are frequency, betweenness centrality and time of first appearance. The higher the frequency, i.e., the higher the number of collaborative publications, the more collaboration, the higher the information dissemination rate, the three authors with the highest frequency in this author co-occurrence network are MAURIZIO FAVA, BRENDA W. J. H. PENNINX, MADHUKAR H. TRIVEDI; the higher the betweenness centrality, i.e., the closer the relationship with other authors, the more collaboration, the higher the information dissemination rate, the three authors with the highest betweenness centrality are the three authors with the highest betweenness centrality are MICHAEL E. THASE, A. JOHN RUSH; the time of first appearance, i.e., the longer the influence generated by the author's research, the higher the information dissemination rate; in addition, the impact factor and citations can also reflect the information dissemination efficiency of the authors.

Table 4 . The top 15 authors in network of co-authorship, 2004–2019.

The timezone view ( Figure 5 ) in the author co-occurrence network clearly shows the updates and interactions of author collaborations, for example. All nodes are positioned in a two-dimensional coordinate with the horizontal axis of time, and according to the time of first posting, the nodes are set in different time zones, and their positions are sequentially upward with the time axis, showing a left-to-right, bottom-up knowledge evolution diagram. The time period 2004–2019 is divided into 16 time zones, one for each year, and each circle in the figure represents an author, and the time zone in which the circle appears is the year when the author first published an article in the data set of this study. The closer the color, the warmer the color, the closer the time, the colder the color, the older the era, the thickness of an annual circle, and the number of articles within the corresponding time division is proportional, the dominant color can reflect the relative concentration of the emergence time, the nodes appear in the annual circle of the red annual circle, that is, on behalf of the hot spot, the frequency of being cited was or is still increasing sharply. Nodes with purple outer circles are nodes with high betweenness centrality. The time zone view demonstrates the growth of author collaboration in the field, and it can be found from the graph that the number of author collaborations increases over time, and the frequency of publications in the author collaboration network is high; observe that the thickness of the warm annual rings in the graph is much greater than the thickness of the cold annual rings, which represents the increase of collaboration in time; there are many authors in all time zones, which indicates that there are many research collaborations and achievements in the field, and the field is in a period of collaborative prosperity. The linkage relationship between the sub-time-periods can be seen by the linkage relationship between the time periods, and it can be found from the figure that there are many linkages in the field in all time periods, which indicates that the author collaboration in the field of depression research is strong.

Figure 5 . Timezone view of the author's co-existing network in depression, 2004–2019. The circle represents the author, the time zone in which the circle appears is the year in which the author first published in this study dataset, the radius of the circle represents the frequency of appearance, the color represents the different posting times, the lines represent the connections between authors, and the time zone diagram shows the evolution of author collaboration.

Institutional Statistics

Table 5 lists the top 15 research institutions in network of co-authors' institutions. These include 10 American research institutions, two Netherlands research institutions, one UK research institution, one Canadian research institution and one Australian research institution, all of which, according to the statistics, are from developed countries. Of these influential research institutions, 66.7% are from USA. Figure 6 shows the collaborative network with these influential research institutions as nodes. Kings Coll London (0.2), Univ Michigan (0.17), Univ Toronto (0.15), Stanford Univ (0.14), Univ Penn (0.14), Univ Pittsburgh (0.14), Univ Melbourne (0.12), Virginia Commonwealth Univ (0.12), Columbia Univ (0.1), Duke Univ (0.1), Massachusetts Gen Hosp (0.1), Vrije Univ Amsterdam (0.1), with betweenness centrality >0.1. Kings Coll London has a central place in this collaborative network and is influential in the field of depression research. Table 6 lists the 15 institutions with the strong burst strength. The top 3 institutions are all from USA. Univ Copenhagen, Univ Illinois, Harvard Med Sch, Boston Univ, Univ Adelaide, Heidelberg Univ, Univ New South Wales, and Icahn Sch Med Mt Sinai have had strong burst strength in recent years. It suggests that these institutions may have made a greater contribution to the field of depression over the course of this year and more attention could be paid to their research.

Table 5 . The top 15 institutions in network of co-authors' institutions, 2004–2019.

Figure 6 . Prominent institutions involved in depression, 2004–2019. The betweenness centrality of a node in the network measures the importance of the position of the node in the network. Two types of nodes may have high betweenness centrality scores: (1) Nodes that are highly connected to other nodes, (2) Nodes are positioned between different groups of nodes. The lines represent the link between two different nodes.

Table 6 . The top 15 institutions with the strongest citation bursts, 2004–2019.

Summing up the above analysis, it can be seen that the research institutions in USA are at the center of the depression research field, are at the top of the world in terms of quantity and quality of research, and are showing continuous growth in vitality. Research institutions in USA, as pioneers among all research institutions, lead and drive the development of depression research and play an important role in cutting-edge research in the field of depression.

Article Citations

Table 7 lists the 16 articles that have been cited more than 1,000 times within the statistical range of this paper from 2004 to 2019. As can be seen from the table, the most cited article was written by Dowlati et al. from Canada and published in BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY 2010, which was cited 2,556 times. In addition, 11 of these 16 highly cited articles were from the USA. Notably, two articles by Kroenke, K as first author appear in this list, ranked 7th and 11th, respectively. In addition, there are three articles from Canada, one article from Switzerland, and one article from the UK. And interestingly, all of these countries are developed countries. It can be reflected that developed countries have ample research experience and high quality of research in the field of depression research. On the other hand, it also reflects that depression is a key concern in developed countries. These highly cited articles provide useful information to many researchers and are of high academic and exploratory value.

Table 7 . The top 15 frequency cited articles, 2004–2019.

Research Hotspots Ang Frontiers

Keyword analysis.

The keyword analysis of depression yielded the 25 most frequent keywords in Table 8 and the keyword co-occurrence network in Figure 7 . Also, the data from this study were detected by burst, the 25 keywords with the strongest burst strength were obtained in Table 9 . These results bring out the popular and cutting-edge research directions in the field clearly.

Table 8 . Top 25 frequent keywords in the period of 2004–2019.

Figure 7 . Keyword co-occurrence network in depression, 2004–2019.

Table 9 . Top 25 keywords with strongest citation bursts in the period of 2004–2019.

The articles on depression during 2004–2019 were analyzed in 1-year time slices, and the top 25 keywords with the highest frequency of occurrence were selected from each slice to obtain the keyword network shown in Table 8 . The top 25 keywords with the highest frequencies were: symptom, disorder, major depression, prevalence, meta-analysis, anxiety, risk, scale, association, quality of life, health, risk factor, stress, validity, validation, mental health, women, double blind, brain, population, disease, impact, primary care, mood, and efficacy. High-frequency nodes respond to popular keywords and are an important basis for the field of depression research.

Figure 7 shows the co-occurrence network mapping of keywords regarding depression research. Each circle in the figure is a node representing a keyword, and the greater the betweenness centrality, the more critical the position of the node in the network. The top 10 keywords in terms of betweenness centrality are: symptom (0.6), major depression (0.28), prevalence (0.27), disorder (0.25), double blind (0.18), risk factor (0.12), stress (0.11), children (0.1), schizophrenia (0.1), and expression (0.1). Nodes with high betweenness centrality reflect that the keyword forms a co-occurrence relationship with multiple other keywords in the domain. A higher betweenness centrality indicates that it is more related to other keywords, and therefore, the node plays an important role in the study. Relatively speaking, these nodes represent the main research directions in the field of depression; they are also the key research directions in this period, and to a certain extent, represent the research hotspots in this period.

Burst detection was performed on the keywords, and the 25 keywords with the strongest strength were extracted, as shown in Table 9 . These keywords contain: fluoxetine, community, follow up, illness, psychiatric disorder, dementia, trial, placebo, disability, serotonin reuptake inhibitor, myocardial infarction, hospital anxiety, antidepressant treatment, late life depression, United States, epidemiology, major depression, model, severity, adolescent, people, prefrontal cortex, management, meta-analysis, and expression. The keywords that burst earlier include fluoxetine (2004), community (2004), follow up (2004), illness (2004), and psychiatric disorder (2004), are keywords that imply that researchers focused on themes early in the field of depression. As researchers continue to explore, the study of depression is changing day by day, and the keywords that have burst in recent years are people (2015), prefrontal cortex (2016), management (2016), meta-analysis (2017), and expression (2017). Reflecting the fact that depression research in recent years has mainly focused on human subjects, the focus has been on the characterization of populations with depression onset. The relationship between depression and the brain has aroused the curiosity of researchers, what exactly are the causes that trigger depression and what are the effects of depression for the manifestation of depression have caused a wide range of discussions in the research community, and the topics related to it have become the most popular studies and have been the focus of research in recent years. All of these research areas showed considerable growth, indicating that research into this area is gaining traction, suggesting that it is becoming a future research priority. The keywords with the strongest burst strength are fluoxetine (111.2), community (110.08), antidepressant treatment (94.28), severity (88.35), meta-analysis (86.42), people (85.33), and follow up (84.46). The rapid growth of research based on these keywords indicates that these topics are the most promising and interesting. The keywords that has been around the longest burst are follow up (2004–2013), model (2013–2019), hospital anxiety (2008–2013), severity (2014–2019), and psychiatric disorder (2004–2008), researchers have invested a lot of research time in these research directions, making many research results, and responding to the exploratory value and significance of research on these topics. At the same time, the longer duration of burst also proves that these research directions have research potential and important value.

Research Hotspots

Hotspots must mainly have the characteristics of high frequency, high betweenness centrality, strong burst, and time of emergence can be used as secondary evaluation indicators. The higher the number of occurrences, the higher the degree of popularity and attention. The higher betweenness centrality means the greater the influence and the higher the importance. Nodes with strong burst usually represent key shift nodes and need to be focused on. The time can be dynamically adjusted according to the target time horizon of the analysis. Thus, based on the results of statistical analysis, it is clear that the research hotspots in the field of depression can be divided into four main areas: etiology (external factors, internal factors), impact (quality of life, disease symptoms, co-morbid symptoms), treatment (interventions, drug development, care modalities), and assessment (population, size, symptoms, duration of disease, morbidity, mortality, effectiveness).

Risk factors for depression include a family history of depression, early life abuse and neglect, and female sexuality and recent life stressors. Physical illnesses also increase the risk of depression, particularly increasing the prevalence associated with metabolic (e.g., cardiovascular disease) and autoimmune disorders.

Research on the etiology of depression can be divided into internal and external factors. In recent years, researchers have increasingly focused on the impact of external factors on depression. Depression is influenced by environmental factors related to social issues, such as childhood experiences, social interactions, and lifestyles. Adverse childhood experiences are risk factors for depression and anxiety in adolescence ( 37 ) and are a common pathway to depression in adults ( 38 ). Poor interpersonal relationships with classmates, family, teachers, and friends increase the prevalence of depression in adolescents ( 39 ). Related studies assessed three important, specific indicators of the self-esteem domain: social confidence, academic ability, and appearance ( 40 ). The results suggest that these three dimensions of self-esteem are key risk factors for increased depressive symptoms in Chinese adolescents. The vulnerability model ( 41 ) suggests that low self-esteem is a causal risk factor for depression, and low self-esteem is thought to be one of the main causes of the onset and progression of depression, with individuals who exhibit low self-esteem being more likely to develop social anxiety and social withdrawal, and thus having a sense of isolation ( 42 ), which in turn leads to subsequent depression. Loneliness predicts depression in adolescents. Individuals with high levels of loneliness experience more stress and tension from psychological and physical sources in their daily lives, which, combined with insufficient care from society, can lead to depression ( 43 ). A mechanism of association exists between life events and mood disorders, with negative life events being directly associated with depressive symptoms ( 44 ). In a cross-sectional study conducted in Shanghai, the prevalence of depression was higher among people who worked longer hours, and daily lifestyle greatly influenced the prevalence of depression ( 45 ). A number of studies in recent years have presented a number of interesting ideas, and they suggest that depression is related to different environmental factors, such as temperature, sunlight hours, and air pollution. Environmental factors have been associated with suicidal behavior. Traffic noise is a variable that triggers depression and is associated with personality disorders such as depression ( 46 ). The harmful effects of air pollution on mental health, inhalation of air pollutants can trigger neuroinflammation and oxidative stress and induce dopaminergic neurotoxicity. A study showed that depression was associated with an increase in ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) ( 47 ).

Increased inflammation is a feature of many diseases and even systemic disorders, such as some autoimmune diseases [e.g., type 1 diabetes ( 48 ) or rheumatoid arthritis ( 49 )] and infectious diseases [e.g., hepatitis and sepsis ( 50 )], are associated with an inflammatory response and have been found to increase the risk of depression. A growing body of evidence supports a bidirectional association between depression and inflammatory processes, with stressors and pathogens leading to excessive or prolonged inflammatory responses when combined with predisposing factors (e.g., childhood adversity and modifying factors such as obesity). The resulting illnesses (e.g., pain, sleep disorders), depressive symptoms, and negative health (e.g., poor diet, sedentary lifestyle) may act as mediating pathways leading to inflammation and depression. In terms of mechanistic pathways, cytokines induce depression by affecting different mood-related processes. Elevated inflammatory signals can dysregulate the metabolism of neurotransmitters, damaging neurons, and thus altering neural activity in the brain. In addition cytokines can modulate depression by regulating hormone levels. Inflammation can have different effects on different populations depending on individual physiology, and even lower levels of inflammation may have a depressive effect on vulnerable individuals. This may be due to lower parasympathetic activity, poorer sensitivity to glucocorticoid inhibitory feedback, a greater response to social threat in the anterior oral cortex or amygdala and a smaller hippocampus. Indeed, these are all factors associated with major depression that can affect the sensitivity to the inhibitory consequences of inflammatory stimuli.

Depression triggers many somatization symptoms, which can manifest as insomnia, menopausal syndrome, cardiovascular problems, pain, and other somatic symptoms. There is a link between sleep deprivation and depression, with insomnia being a trigger and maintenance of depression, and more severe insomnia and chronic symptoms predicting more severe depression. Major depression is considered to be an independent risk factor for the development of coronary heart disease and a predictor of cardiovascular events ( 51 ). Patients with depression are extremely sensitive to pain and have increased pain perception ( 52 ) and is associated with an increased risk of suicide ( 53 , 54 ), and generally the symptoms of these pains are not relieved by medication.

Studies have shown that depression triggers an inflammatory response, promoting an increase in cytokines in response to stressors vs. pathogens. For example, mild depressive symptoms have been associated with an amplified and prolonged inflammatory response ( 55 , 56 ) following influenza vaccination in older adults and pregnant women. Among women who have recently given birth, those with a lifetime history of major depression have greater increases in both serum IL-6 and soluble IL-6 receptors after delivery than women without a history of depression ( 57 ). Pro-inflammatory agents, such as interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha), for specific somatization disorders [e.g., hepatitis C or malignant melanoma ( 58 , 59 )], although effective for somatic disorders, pro-inflammatory therapy often leads to psychiatric side effects. Up to 80% of patients treated with IFN-α have been reported to suffer from mild to moderate depressive symptoms.

Clinical trials have shown better antidepressant treatment with anti-inflammatory drugs compared to placebo, either as monotherapy ( 60 , 61 ) or as an add-on treatment ( 62 – 65 ) to antidepressants ( 66 , 67 ). However, findings like whether NSAIDs can be safely used in combination with antidepressants are controversial. Patients with depression often suffer from somatic co-morbidities, which must be included in the benefit/risk assessment. It is important to consider the type of medication, duration of treatment, and dose, and always balance the potential treatment effect with the risk of adverse events in individual patients. Depression, childhood adversity, stressors, and diet all affect the gut microbiota and promote gut permeability, another pathway that enhances the inflammatory response, and effective depression treatment may have profound effects on mood, inflammation, and health. Early in life gut flora colonization is associated with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activation and affects the enteric nervous system, which is associated with the risk of major depression, gut flora dysbiosis leads to the onset of TLR4-mediated inflammatory responses, and pro-inflammatory factors are closely associated with depression. Clinical studies have shown that in the gut flora of depressed patients, pro-inflammatory bacteria such as Enterobacteriaceae and Desulfovibrio are enriched, while short-chain fatty acid producing bacteria are reduced, and some of these bacterial taxa may transmit peripheral inflammation into the brain via the brain-gut axis ( 68 ). In addition, gut flora can affect the immune system by modulating neurotransmitters (5-hydroxytryptamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, norepinephrine, etc.), which in turn can influence the development of depression ( 69 ). Therefore, antidepressant drugs targeting gut flora are a future research direction, and diet can have a significant impact on mood by regulating gut flora.

As the molecular basis of clinical depression remains unclear, and treatments and therapeutic effects are limited and associated with side effects, researchers have worked to discover new treatment modalities for depression. High-amplitude low-frequency musical impulse stimulation as an additional treatment modality seems to produce beneficial effects ( 70 ). Studies have found electroconvulsive therapy to be one of the most effective antidepressant treatment therapies ( 71 ). Physical exercise can promote molecular changes that lead to a shift from a chronic pro-inflammatory to an anti-inflammatory state in the peripheral and central nervous system ( 72 ). Aromatherapy is widely used in the treatment of central nervous system disorders ( 73 ). By activating the parasympathetic nervous system, qigong can be effective in reducing depression ( 74 ). The exploration of these new treatment modalities provides more reference options for the treatment of depression.

Large-scale assessments of depression have found that the probability of developing depression varies across populations. Depression affects some specific populations more significantly, for example: adolescents, mothers, and older adults. Depression is one of the disorders that predispose to adolescence, and depression is associated with an increased risk of suicide among college students ( 75 ). Many women develop depression after childbirth. Depression that develops after childbirth is one of the most common complications for women in the postpartum period ( 76 ). The health of children born to mothers who suffer from postpartum depression can also be adversely affected ( 77 ). Depression can cause many symptoms within the central nervous system, especially in the elderly population ( 78 ).

Furthermore, one of the most consistent findings of the association between inflammation and depression is the elevated levels of peripheral pro-inflammatory markers in depressed individuals, and peripheral pro-inflammatory marker levels can also be used as a basis for the assessment of depressed patients. Studies have shown that the following pro-inflammatory markers have been found to be at increased levels in depressed individuals: CRP ( 79 , 80 ), IL-6 ( 22 , 79 , 81 , 82 ), TNF–α, and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) ( 79 , 82 ), however, this association is not unidirectional and the subsequent development of depression also increases pro-inflammatory markers ( 82 , 83 ). These biomarkers are of great interest, and depressed patients with increased inflammatory markers may represent a relatively drug-resistant population.

Frontier Analysis

The exploration and analysis of frontier areas of depression were based on the results of the analysis of the previous section on keywords. According to the evaluation index and analysis idea of this study, the frontier research topics need to have the following four characteristics: low to medium frequency, strong burst, high betweenness centrality, and the research direction in recent years. Therefore, combining the results of keyword analysis and these characteristics, it can be found that the frontier research on depression also becomes clear.

Research on Depression Characterized by Psychosexual Disorders

Exploration of biological mechanisms based on depression-associated neurological disorders and analysis of depression from a neurological perspective have always been the focus of research. Activation of neuroinflammatory pathways may contribute to the development of depression ( 84 ). A research model based on the microbial-gut-brain axis facilitates the neurobiology of depression ( 85 ). Some probiotics positively affect the central nervous system due to modulation of neuroinflammation and thus may be able to modulate depression ( 86 ). The combination of environmental issues and the neurobiological study of depression opens new research directions ( 46 ).

Research on Relevant Models of Depression

How to develop a model that meets the purpose of the study determines the outcome of the study and has become the direction that researchers have been exploring in recent years. Martínez et al. ( 87 ) developed a predictive model to assess factors that modify the treatment pathway for postpartum depression. Nie et al. ( 88 ) extended the work on predictive modeling of treatment-resistant depression to establish a predictive model for treatment-resistant depression. Rational modeling methods and behavioral testing facilitate a more comprehensive exploration of depression, with richer studies and more scientifically valid findings.

Research and Characterization of the Depressed Patient Population

Current research on special groups and depression has received much attention. In a study of a group of children, 4% were found to suffer from depression ( 89 ). The diagnosis and treatment of mental health disorders is an important component of pediatric care. Second, some studies of populations with distinct characteristics have been based primarily on female populations. Maternal perinatal depression is also a common mental disorder with a prevalence of over 10% ( 90 ). In addition, geriatric depression is a chronic and specific disorder ( 91 ). Studies based on these populations highlight the characteristics of the disorder more directly than large-scale population explorations and are useful for conducting extended explorations from specific to generalized.

Somatic Comorbidities Associated With Depression

Depression often accompanies the onset and development of many other disorders, making the study of physical comorbidities associated with depression a new landing place for depression research. Depression is a complication of many neurological or psychopathological disorders. Depression is a common co-morbidity of glioblastoma multiforme ( 92 ). Depression is an important disorder associated with stroke ( 93 ). Chronic liver disease is associated with depression ( 94 ). The link between depressive and anxiety states and cancer has been well-documented ( 95 ). In conclusion, depression is associated with an increased risk of lung, oral, prostate, and skin cancers, an increased risk of cancer-specific death from lung, bladder, breast, colorectal, hematopoietic system, kidney, and prostate cancers, and an increased risk of all-cause mortality in lung cancer patients. The early detection and effective intervention of depression and its complications has public health and clinical implications.

Research on Mechanisms of Depression

Research based on the mechanisms of depression includes the study of disease pathogenesis, the study of drug action mechanisms, and the study of disease treatment mechanisms. Research on the pathogenesis of depression has focused more on the study of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Social pressure can change the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis ( 96 ). Studies on the mechanism of action of drugs are mostly based on their effects on the central nervous system. The antidepressant effects of Tanshinone IIA are mediated by the ERK-CREB-BDNF pathway in the hippocampus of mice ( 97 ). Research on the mechanisms of depression treatment has also centered on the central nervous system. It has been shown that the vagus nerve can transmit signals to the brain that can lead to a reduction in depressive behavior ( 98 ).

In this study, based on the 2004–2019 time period, this wealth of data is effectively integrated through data analysis and processing to reproduce the research process in a particular field and to co-present global trends in homogenous fields while organizing past research.

Journals that have made outstanding contributions in this field include ARCH GEN PSYCHIAT, J AFFECT DISORDERS and AM J PSYCHIAT. PSYCHIATRY, NEUROSCIENCES & NEUROLOGY and CLINICAL NEUROLOGY are the three most popular categories. The three researchers with the highest number of articles were MAURIZIO FAVA (USA), BRENDA W. J. H. PENNINX (NETHERLANDS) and MADHUKAR H TRIVEDI (USA). Univ Pittsburgh (USA), Kings Coll London (UK) and Harvard Univ (USA) are three of the most productive and influential research institutions. A Meta-Analysis of Cytokines in Major Depression, Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: Implications for clinical practice and Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression are key articles. Through keyword analysis, a distribution network centered on depression was formed. Although there are good trends in the research on depression, there are still many directions to be explored in depth. Some recommendations regarding depression are as follows.

(1) The prevention of depression can be considered by focusing on treating external factors and guiding the individual.

Faced with the rising incidence of depression worldwide and the difficulty of treating depression, researchers can think more about how to prevent the occurrence of depression. Depressed moods are often the result of stress, not only social pressures on the individual, but also environmental pressures in the developmental process, which in turn have an unhealthy relationship with the body and increase the likelihood of depression. The correlation between external factors and depression is less well-studied, but the control of external factors may be more effective in the short term than in the long term, and may be guided by self-adjustment to avoid major depressive disorder.

(2) The measurement and evaluation of the degree of depression should be developed in the direction of precision.

In the course of research, it has been found that the Depression Rating Scale is mostly used for the detection and evaluation of depression. This kind of assessment is more objective, but it still lacks accuracy, and the research on measurement techniques and methods is less, which is still at a low stage. Patients with depression usually have a variety of causes, conditions, and duration of illness that determine the degree of depression. Therefore, whether these scales can truly accurately measure depression in depressed patients needs further consideration. Accurate measurement is an important basis for evidence-based treatment of depression, and thus how to achieve accurate measurement of depression is a research direction that researchers can move toward.

Therefore, there is an urgent need for further research to address these issues.

A systematic analysis of research in the field of depression in this study concludes that the distribution of countries, journals, categories, authors, institutions, and citations may help researchers and research institutions to establish closer collaboration, develop appropriate publication plans, grasp research hotspots, identify valuable research ideas, understand current emerging research, and determine research directions. In addition, there are still some limitations that can be overcome in future work. First, due to the lack of author and address information in older published articles, it may not be possible to accurately calculate their collaboration; second, although the data scope of this paper is limited to the Web of Science, it can adequately meet our objectives.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Author Contributions

HW conceived and designed the analysis, collected the data, performed the analysis, and wrote the paper. XT, XW, and YW conceived and designed the analysis. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 81973495.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: depression, major depressive disorder, bibliometrics, visual analysis, knowledge graphs, CiteSpace

Citation: Wang H, Tian X, Wang X and Wang Y (2021) Evolution and Emerging Trends in Depression Research From 2004 to 2019: A Literature Visualization Analysis. Front. Psychiatry 12:705749. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.705749

Received: 06 May 2021; Accepted: 05 October 2021; Published: 29 October 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Wang, Tian, Wang and Wang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Yun Wang, wangyun@bucm.edu.cn

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

124 Great Depression Topics to Write about & Examples

Welcome to our list of the Great Depression topics! Here, you will find writing ideas about the causes and effects of the Great Depression. You can also pick plenty of related issues to debate.

🔝 Top 10 Great Depression Topics to Write About

🏆 best great depression topic ideas & essay examples, 💡 good great depression essay topics, ⭐ interesting topics to write about great depression, ❓ great depression essay questions, 🔎 great depression research topics.

The Stock Market Crash of 1929
What Triggered the Great Depression?
Lessons Learned from the Great Depression
The Dust Bowl Disaster and Its Role in the Depression
How Banks Caused the Collapse of the Economy
Government’s Response to the Great Depression
The Great Depression and International Relations
Unemployment and Poverty During the Depression
Hardship and Resilience in Literature of the Great Depression
The Impact of the Great Depression on Population Movements
Cause and Effects of The Great Depression The economic devastation of the 1920s led to the Great Depression and brought a tragedy for the whole society. Crash of stock market The crash of the stock market in 1929 ushered in the Great […]
The Reality of the Great Depression in Steinbeck’s “The Grapes of Wrath” The journey of the Joad family and other significant characters in the story who played the roles in building the whole context take the path of meeting miserable economic situations.
The Impact of the Great Depression on Canada Some of the measures that Bennett put in place included camps to support the old and sick as well as the distribution of aid to the unemployed and disadvantaged in the country.
The History of Great Depression The Great Depression was the most severe recession of the past centuries. It affected the whole world and lasted for approximately 12 years.
John Steinbeck’s “The Grapes of Wrath” and the Great Depression The Grapes of Wrath begins by describing an occurrence of soil erosion in Dust Bowl Oklahoma that led to the destruction of crops, a decline in farming and farm produce and the migration of farmers […]
Great Depression: Annotated Bibliography This is a secondary source, written in 2020, and its main idea is that shocks of uncertainty had the main effect on the changes during the Great Depression, which contributed to the fall in production.
President Hoover’s Role During the Great Depression Although a significant percentage of the causative constituents emanated from the previous government’s economic strategies, President Hoover elevated the conditional outlier.
Impact of the Great Depression and the New Deal on Minorities However, despite the intention to promote democracy and equality in the United States, the impact of the Great Depression was devastating, and the New Deal did not solve most problems among minorities.
Social Work During the Great Depression and COVID-19 Pandemic Social workers during the COVID-19 pandemic were faced with a series of novice challenges similar to their counterparts in the Great Depression.
The Great Depression: Prerequisites, Essence, and Consequences As a result of the crisis and the rise of protectionism, according to the League of Nations, world trade fell threefold from 1929 to 1933.
How New Deal Represented Minorities and Ended the Great Depression The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Works Progress Administration were some of the many programs representing minorities in the New Deal.
Public Enemies During the Great Depression In the 1930’s most people in America were feeling the impact of the Great Depression due to the crashed economy. During the great depression, most people were facing the challenges of starving and losing their […]
The Concepts of Freedom and the Great Depression Furthermore, blacks were elected to construct the constitution, and black delegates fought for the rights of freedpeople and all Americans. African-Americans gained the freedom to vote, work, and be elected to government offices during Black […]
Economic History of the US: The Great Depression The government’s immediate and unprecedented action brought the state out of the crisis and preserved the system of capitalism. In order to restore the security of Americans in the new deal, Congress and the President […]
The Contribution of Former U.S. Presidents in Overcoming the Great Depression The Great Depression presents an event in which the U.S.developed progressive leadership policies to improve living standards. Modern politics in the U.S.has caused social divisions similar to the period of Unravelling.
Great Depression and Cold War: Making of Modern America This paper will explore the causes of the Great Depression, the measures implemented within the New Deal, Cold War tensions, and the changes to the American society by the civil rights movement.
American History: Great Depression and Other Issues One of the causes of the Great Depression was the international economic woes of the United States of America. One of the actions taken by the Hoover administration to combat the depression was urging the […]
The Great Depression, Volatility and Employee Morale A?” The purpose of the present investigation study is to understand the morale of employees in corporate America on how it affects the way the economy functions in the United States.
Stories From the Great Depression: President Roosevelt At the same time, the era of the Great Depression was the time when many Americans resorted to their wit and creativity.
Gender, Family, and Unemployment in Ontario’s Great Depression The introduction and all the background that Campbell gives are firmly in line with the goals of this course. The first part of the study is the business and the economic history.
The Causes of the Great Depression: Black Tuesday and Panic Historians relate the end of the great depression to the start of the second-word war. The government then came up with packages that sought to lessen the effects of the depression.
The Great Depression in Canada Before the onset of the Great Depression from the years 1919-1929, Canada had the fastest growing economy amongst the developing nations and the only blip to this record was the slight recession they suffered during […]
The Great Depression of 1929 This was the program that opened the eyes of the people to the fact that the depression era did not affect just the low bracket of society and that if they were to overcome it, […]
The Great Depression Period Analysis The main causes for the Great Depression were a combination of unequally distributed wealth, the stock market crash, and eventually the bank failures.
Great Depression and the American People’s Relationship With Their Government In this essay, I will try to trace the effects of the depression not just on the people who lived it but also among the present Americans.
How the Great Depression Changed Americans During the depression, the population experienced intense pain and extensive misery and the event has been blamed for leading to calamities such as World War II and the rising to power of Adolf Hitler.
America in 1920s: Great Depression Regarding the issue of credit exploration in the 1920s, and the contribution of the credit’s expansion into the process of onset of the Great Depression, it is necessary to refer to the facts from American […]
History of the Great Depression and the New Deal According to the prominent American economist John Keyne, the main cause of the Great Depression was the shortage of money supply, which was dependant on the gold reserve, in the meantime, the industry output significantly […]
Great Depression of Canada and Conscription During World War I in Canada Due to the depression in the United States, the people across the border were not able to buy the wheat produced and cultivated in Canada and as a result, the exports declined.
The Great Depression in Steinbeck’s “The Grapes of Wrath” The family adjusted to the codes of conduct in the camp, and Tom even managed to find a job picking fruits at a local farm.
Great Depression in “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty The first few paragraphs of the story are dedicated specifically to painting the image of the old Afro-American woman in the mind of the reader by providing details on her appearance, closing, her manners of […]
Great Depression in the United States The Great Depression of the 1930’s is the most significant economic crises in the history of the modern world and the United States, in particular.
American Great Depression and New Deal Reforms What is definitely certain is that many factors like the shifting of the economy, unstable credit and financial system, poor government decisions, and the fact that the international economy was still recovering from ruinous effects […]
Child Labor, Great Depression and World War II in Photographs The impression is of isolation and yearning for daylight, freedom, and a childhood foregone, in the midst of a machine-dominated world.
The Great Depression in the US and Its Causes It was believed at the time that even if a person failed to pay back their loan, the seizure of assets to cover the cost of the loan in the form of stocks would have […]
Women’s Rights in the Great Depression Period The pursuit of the workplace equality and the protection of women from unfair treatment by the employers were quite unsuccessful and slow due to the major division in the opinions.
Great Depression – American History However, though the thicket of sarcasm and irony, one can see despair and disbelief in the power of art, as well as the doubt if art can actually be produced under the name of Hollywood: […]
The Great Depression and the New Deal Phenomenon With time, due to the highly unequal distribution of income, as well as to the depression in farming regions, the buying capacity of Americans decreased significantly; this led to the inability to purchase the goods […]
Gardens Role in Great Depression Although the main causes of the great depression are still vague and contentious to date, the overall outcome was unexpected and resulted in the universal loss of trust in the economic future.
Roosevelt’s Plan to End the Great Depression When he assumed the presidency in 1932, Franklin acknowledged the challenges of the nation, and also the way to get them out of the great depression.
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Plans to End the Great Depression in His Presidency President Franklin Roosevelt rose to power at the time when the U.S.was facing hardships in the economy with the great depression badly affecting the economic activities of the country.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s Plans to Combat the Great Depression He came to power in 1933 when the United States was in the middle of the Great Depression, and left in 1945 when the world, including the USA, was grappling with the effects of the […]
Is the U.S. Headed Towards the Second Great Depression? This is one of the indicators economists observe to foresee the possibility of the economy diving in to a recession, or is already on the way to recession.
Repercussion of Great Depression The US mortgage crisis that was the genesis of the financial crisis is blamed on the laxity of law enforcers or failure of the laws that have governed the financial market in the US.
Why the Great Depression Occurred – a Public Budgeting Stand Point As observed by Romer, “the great depression took place in the late 1920s to the late 1930s and was the longest and most severe depression ever experienced in the industrialized Western world”.
The Great Depression: A Diary The book covers very little on the normal lifestyle of the people in Youngstown before the crisis; all that it documents are the hardships that describe Ohio as a hopeless place to live.
The Great Depression’ Influence on the World His book looks at the factors that have caused and prolonged the issues that have deprived many people of jobs and ability to come out of the atrocious conditions.
In the Eye of the Great Depression It led to the formation of groupings in society due to their similarities in their plight to restore dignity and compassion to their lives.
Causes of the Great Depression This was due to a prediction of the end of rise in the stock market thus; there was a nationwide stampede to unload the stocks.
The Great Depression and the New Deal The Great Depression of 1929-40s refers to the collapse of the world economy. For instance, a democrat entitled as Glass believed in the dominance of the white, budget devoid of deficits, the statutory rights, as […]
Monetary and Fiscal Policy during the Great Depression An expansionary monetary policy is any action by the Fed that results in an increase to the total output or aggregate demand in an economy.
Economic Depression in USA The Depression of 1873-1879 This depression was as a result of the bankruptcy of the railroad investment firm of Jay Cooke and company and particularly the restrictive monetary policy of the federal government; this is […]
The Actual Causes of the Great Depression In the period between the end of First World War and the onset of the great depression, United States enjoyed relatively stable economic conditions under the leadership of a string of republican presidents.
Government Policy Interventions and the Great Depression Monetary policy is the process where the government intervenes by administering and controlling the amount of money in the economy using the Central Bank in many countries and the Federal Reserve in the United States.
Problem of USA Exposed by the Great Depression The recession was triggered by various fiscal features such as the vast margin between the poor and the wealthy, government debts and surplus production of commodities only to mention a few.
The Great Depression Effects on American Economy The main problem behind the stated Great Depression experienced in the United States in 1929 was the mismatch between the consuming capacity of the population of the United States and the production capacity of the […]
Great Depression as a Worldwide Economic Decline Many people ceased to buy products leading to low production of the products. This led to lose of market for American industries and led to trade disagreements among nations.
The Great Depression Crisis Other causes that led to a reduction in aggregate demand followed throughout the depression period and the effects were transmitted from the United States which was in essence the ‘epicenter’ of the depression to the […]
The Great Depression in Latin America Leaders in Latin America acknowledged the need to change economic policies and promoted the discarding of the free-market model in favor of import substitution.
The Causal-Effect Connection of the Great Depression According to majority of the authors and scholars, The Great Depression is the worst economic downturn in the history of the United States of America.
The Three Main Causes of Great Depression This paper sheds light on the causes that led to the great depression in America According to Bordo and White, the great depression begun in 1929 and many people suffered because all the businesses had […]
Did Bank Distress Stifle Innovation During the Great Depression?
How Does “The Cinderella Man” Depict Life During the Great Depression?
Could the FED Have Prevented the Great Depression?
How Did the Great Depression Affect a Generation?
Did American Welfare Capitalists Breach Their Implicit Contracts During the Great Depression?
How Does the Great Depression Affect the World Economy?
Could the Great Depression Be Describes a Time of Desperation?
How Did the Great Depression Pave the Road for Hitler?
Did France Cause the Great Depression?
How Did Demographics Cause the Great Depression?
Did Hayek and Robbins Deepen the Great Depression?
How Did Black People Face the Great Depression Differently?
Did International Economic Forces Cause the Great Depression?
How Did Governments Deal With Problems Caused by the Great Depression?
Did Korekiyo Takahashi Rescue Japan From the Great Depression?
How Did Great Britain, France, and the United States Respond to the Great Depression?
Did Monetary Forces Cause the Great Depression?
How Did the Great Depression Completely Destroy America?
Did Sunspot Forces Cause the Great Depression?
How Did WWII End the Great Depression?
Did Technology Shocks Drive the Great Depression?
How Does the Current Global Economic Recession Compare to the Great Depression?
Did the Canadian Government Do Enough During the Great Depression?
How Franklin Delano Roosevelt Handled the Great Depression in the U.S.?
Did the Commercial Paper Funding Facility Prevent a Great Depression Style Money Market Meltdown?
How Great Was the Great Depression?
Did the Great Depression Affect Educational Attainment in the US?
How Has Homelessness Changed Since the Great Depression?
Did the New Deal Prolong or Worsen the Great Depression?
How Did Income Inequality Lead to the Great Depression?
The Agricultural Crisis During the Great Depression
Government Relief Programs of the Depression Era
How the Great Depression Impacted Minority Communities
The Political Consequences of the Stock Market Crash
Hoover vs. Roosevelt’s Approaches to Economic Recovery
The Psychological Effects of the Great Depression on People and Families
The Role of Government in Economic Recovery during the Great Depression
The Legacy of Labor Unions and Workers’ Rights of the Depression Era
Gender Roles, Employment, and Social Changes During the Depression Era
The Legacy of the Great Depression as Seen in the Modern Economic Policy
Economic Topics
Cold War Topics
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APA Citations (7th edition)

Citing journal articles.

Citing Books and eBooks
Citing Videos
Citing Web Resources

APA: Citing Journal Articles from Lawrence W. Tyree Library on Vimeo . View a transcript here.

In this tutorial, you will learn the basics for citing journal articles with and without a DOI and how to cite open access journal articles.

Every APA reference needs four parts: author, date, title, and source . As you go through these examples, you will learn how to identify these four parts and how to place and format them into a proper APA reference.

Example 1: A Journal Article with a DOI

For the first example, you will learn how to cite a journal article with a DOI. Often, you will find journal articles online using the library's databases or other online resources.

The first step is to identify the author of the article. The author of this article is Brittanie Atteberry-Ash,

To list an author, write the last name , a comma , and the first and middle initials .

Example: Atteberry-Ash.

Next, identify when this article was published. For journal articles, you typically only need the year . In this case, this article was published in 2022. You can usually find the date at the top of the article, the cover of the journal, or, for online articles, the article's record.

List the date after the author(s), in parentheses , followed by a period .

Example: Atteberry-Ash, B. (2022).

Now, identify the title of the article . The title will usually be at the very top of the article, in a larger size font.

List the title of the article after the date. Make sure you only capitalize the first word of the title , the first word of the subtitle , which comes after a colon, and any proper nouns . End with a period. In this title, only the words Social and A are capitalized.

Example: Atteberry-Ash, B. (2022). Social work and social justice: A conceptual review.

For the last component, you need the source . For an article, this is the title of the journal, volume, issue , which is sometimes called number , and page numbers of the article. Usually this information can be found on the cover of the journal, on the table of contents, or at the top of the article. For the page numbers, you should look at the first and last pages of the article. For online articles, this information is usually found in the article's record.

Type the journal title , in italics , capitalizing all major words, a comma, the volume , also in italics , the number or issue in parentheses, a comma, and then the page numbers of the article.

Example: Atteberry-Ash, B. (2022). Social work and social justice: A conceptual review. Social Work, 68 (1), 38-46.

The last element of the source is the DOI , which stands for Digital Object Identifier. A DOI can be found in the article’s record or on the first page of the article.

Type the DOI , using the prefix https://doi.org/ . There is no period after the DOI.

Example: Atteberry-Ash, B. (2022). Social work and social justice: A conceptual review. Social Work, 68 (1), 38-46. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swac042

If you refer to a work in your paper, either by directly quoting, paraphrasing, or by referring to main ideas, you will need to include an in-text parenthetical citation. There are a number of ways to do this. In this example, a signal phrase is used to introduce a direct quote. The author's name is given in the text, and the publication date and page number(s) are enclosed in parentheses at the beginning and end of the sentence.

Example: Atteberry-Ash (2022) notes "social workers are called on to practice socially just values and to address the consequences of oppression, specifically lost opportunity, social disenfranchisement, and isolation" (p. 38).

Example 2: Multiple Authors and No DOI

In this example, most of the components needed for the reference can be found in the article’s record. This article, however, has multiple authors and does not have a DOI listed in its record or in the article itself.

Format all the citation components of this journal article like the first example. For multiple authors, list the authors in the order they are listed in the article. Use a comma to separate each author and an ampersand (&) should be placed before the last author’s name. This applies for articles with up to twenty authors. Since there is no DOI listed for this article, simply omit that element. The reference will conclude after the page numbers.

Example: Penprase, B., Mileto, L., Bittinger, A., Hranchook, A. M., Atchley, J. A., Bergakker, S., Eimers, T., & Franson, H. (2012). The use of high-fidelity simulation in the admissions process: One nurse anesthesia program’s experience. AANA Journal, 80 (1), 43–48.

If you refer to a work in your paper that has three or more authors, the in-text citation will include the first author's name only, followed by et al. which means "and all the rest."

Example: Penprase et al. (2012) states that "Admission into nurse anesthesia programs is known to be a competitive process among a diverse pool of candidates" (p. 43).

Example 3: An Open Access Journal Article

This article was found in PLOS One which is an open access journal. Open access journal articles are articles with the full text freely available online and do not require logging in.

You will need all of the same information from the previous examples to cite an open access article. In this example, most of this information can be found at the top of the article.

In this example, the article's volume, issue, and the article number are found in the citation provided by the journal. Article numbers are used in place of page numbers in some online journals.

The format for open access journals is the same as the other examples. In this example, an article number is used in place of the page numbers. After the issue number, type Article and then the article number. If an open access journal does not provide a DOI, you may provide the URL of the article instead. Only include the URL if it directly brings you to the full text of the article without logging in.

Example: Francis, H. M., Stevenson, R. J., Chambers, J. R., Gupta, D., Newey, B., & Lim, C. K. (2019). A brief diet intervention can reduce symptoms of depression in young adults – A randomised controlled trial. PLOS ONE, 14 (1), Article e0222768. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222768

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Last Updated: Sep 12, 2024 11:41 AM
URL: https://library.bu.edu/apacitations

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End with a period. In this title, only the words Social and A are capitalized. Example: Atteberry-Ash, B. (2022). Social work and social justice: A conceptual review. For the last component, you need the source. For an article, this is the title of the journal, volume, issue, which is sometimes called number, and page numbers of the article ...

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An Exploratory Study of Students with Depression in Undergraduate Research Experiences

INTRODUCTION

Student Interviews

Personal, Research, and Depression Demographics

Interview Analysis

The Effect of Depressive Symptoms on Undergraduate Research