rococo fashion essay

Women's Fashion in the 18th Century

The kyoto costume institute.

Dress (robe à la française) (1770s) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Women of the Rococo era

A smart and refined court culture called Rococo flourished in France after Louis XV came to the throne in 1715. The proponents of Rococo culture, who reveled in their private life, elevated clothing to the level of art. With Rococo, France, the leader in women’s fashion since the eighteenth century, solidified its status as international trendsetter. The essential spirit of Rococo era women’s clothing is expressed in its elegance, refinement, and decoration.

Dress (c. 1720) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Robe volante A robe volante , derived from negligee, which was worn during the latter years of the reign of Louis XIV (1638–1715), enjoyed popularity as formal wear in the early 18th century. The large flounce flowed from the shoulders to the ground and was shaped to spread softly over the skirt, characterized this style of gown.

Dress (Mantua) (1740-50s) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Mantua The mantua was fashionable from the 1670s through to the beginning of the 18th century, but continued to be worn in England at Court from the 1730s to the end of the 18th century. The feature of the dress is the long train extended at the back.

The textile, featuring large botanical patterns that emit a beautiful glow as a result of sterling silver thread, is Spitalfields silk. The contrast between the blue silk taffeta and the silver thread creates a harmonious beauty that is simply stunning.

Dress (robe à la française) (c. 1760 (fabric: c. 1750)) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Robe à la française

This is a typical Rococo period women's dress, "robe à la française". The ensemble shown here consists of a gown, the petticoat much like what we would call a skirt today, and a stomacher made in a triangular panel shape. The gown opens in the front, and has large pleats folded up at the back. All this would be worn after formed with a corset and pannier, which acted as underclothes. Until clothing accepted drastic changes with the 1789 French Revolution, rich outfits, such as is shown here, were worn.

Stomacher (1760s) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Stomacher The stomacher, a V-shaped triangular panel, wore on the front of a woman's open gown in the 18th century. To keep the bosom from standing out, the stomacher was extravagantly adorned with embroidery, laces, rows of ribbon bows called échelle (ladder) and sometimes with jewels.

Stomacher (1730-40ｓ) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Since a stomacher needed to be pinned to the dress each time it was worn, this style was time-consuming.

Dress (robe à la française) (1775 (fabric: 1760s)) The Kyoto Costume Institute

A gown made from a stunning textile featuring multi-colored bouquets and fur patterns elaborately interwoven into the ground textile cannelé . This textile with its complex weave pattern also features a variety of different threads including chenille, silk floss and twisted yarn for motifs. It shows of the outstanding skills made in Lyons, famed in the height of quality and design.

Dress (robe à la française) (c. 1760) The Kyoto Costume Institute

The woman's dress of the 18th century is characterized by the light pastel color and the decorations such as lace, ribbons, and artificial flowers.

Lace, created with the most delicate handwork techniques, was significant in enriching wardrobes luxury decoration. The quilles that trimmed at the front opening of the robe from the neck to the hem, the lappets on the headdress, and the engageantes on the cuffs, all of which are lace, give the gown an even more luxurious look.

Dress (robe à la française) (c. 1780) The Kyoto Costume Institute

The skirt, which widely expanded on each side, just barely achieves balance when combined with the enormous hairstyle. This pinnacle of artificial beauty emptily expressed the authority of the royalty and nobility before French revolution.

Corset, Pannier, Chemise (1760-1770 [Corset] c. 1775 [Pannier] c. 1780 [Chemise]) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Corset and Pannier

Throughout the eighteenth century, the silhouette of a woman's dress was formed with a corset or a pannier. In order to push up the bust for a feminine outline, the corset was framed with pieces of whalebone. First appearing in the early 18th century, the pannier became a mandatory item for court dress up until the time of the French Revolution.

Corset [Left] Child's Corset [Center] Corset [Right] (c. 1760 [Left] Mid-18th century [Center] Early 18th century [Right]) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Of kind of corsets worn underneath clothing for the body, there are simple ones for undergarments, and ornamented ones worn inside the home for relaxation. The latter type of corset also occasionally had sleeves attached.

Dress (robe à l'anglaise) (c. 1785 (fabric: 1760s)) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Robe à l’anglaise Accompanied by the simplification of clothing worn outside of the royal court, during the 1770s, women's clothing progressed in the direction of functionality. As one can see, the dress' pleats are sewn into the waist and stop there; this style is known as robe à l'anglaise .

Dress (robe à la polonaise) (c. 1780) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Robe à la polonaise The robe à la polonaise came to popularity in the 1770s. The skirt was held up by cords and divided into three panels of full drapes over the underskirt. In the 1780s, just before the French Revolution, clothes with vertical stripes were widely prevalent among both men and women.

Dress (robe retroussée dans les poches) (c. 1780) The Kyoto Costume Institute

In accordance with the English custom of walks in the countryside and relaxing in the open air, it became popular to dress up in clothes derived from the work clothes and townwear of ordinary people, who, by their nature, put great importance on freedom of movement. One of these so inspired style is the retroussée dans les poches , as seen here. The gown's hem is pulled out from slits in either side, and draped on the back.

Dress (round gown) (c. 1795) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Round gown Around the 1789 French Revolution, the Rococo period's extravagant dresses of brilliant hues changed, becoming simple, white dresses. The round gown has a high waistline reaching just below the bust, with the bodice and the skirt connected to form a one-piece dress.

From elegant silk dress to simple cotton dress, the French Revolution in 1789 brought a clear shift in clothing styles. The popularity of white cotton muslin dresses became a craze at the beginning of the 19th century.

Dress (robe à l'anglaise) [Left] Dress (robe à l'anglaise)[Right] (c. 1785 (fabric: mid-18th century) [Left] c. 1785[Right]) The Kyoto Costume Institute

Marchands de mode

Throughout 18th century, the composition of women's dress did not change basically, the most important point was the trimming. Especially after the 1770s, the trimming increased in importance, and marchands de mode were an active force. In the latter half of the 18th century, these merchants were responsible for producing and selling trimmings from head to toe, including headdresses. They gave full rein to their imaginations when decorating dresses, created headpieces, and in the end became powerful trend setters of the time.

Fashion in Colors: Black

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Elegant mirror in Rococo frame reflecting a modern person amidst 18th-century ballroom

A Whimsical Journey Through Time: The Enchantment of Rococo Fashion

Ah, imagine stepping into an opulent chamber adorned with intricate gold filigree, where playful cherubs dance on murals above and crystal chandeliers sparkle like the night sky. Now, envisage yourself enveloped in layers of delicate silk and lace, painted in pastels as if kissed by the dawn itself. This is no mere daydream, my dear friends. We are venturing into the ethereal realm of Rococo fashion .

In the tapestry of history, each thread—each woven pattern—tells us a story of a specific time and place. Post-Baroque Europe was a canvas yearning for lightness, a touch of whimsy, and a dash of romanticism. As the heaviness of the Baroque era began to dissipate, a new fashion era unfurled its wings—Rococo. The term itself rolls off your tongue like a secret waiting to be revealed, much like the very fabrics and designs it represented. Originating in France and quickly spreading its influence across Europe, Rococo fashion was more than just clothing; it was an outward expression of the era’s innermost yearnings for beauty, extravagance, and delicate artistry.

🌸 A time where pastels reigned supreme, luscious fabrics were sculpted into cascading ruffles, and elegance was epitomized not just in grand salons but in every stitch and seam. This was a period where fashion became a form of escapism—a fantastical deviation from rigid societal norms. Yet, it was also a mirror, reflecting the nuances and shifts in society’s attitudes, its frivolity offering poignant contrasts to the somber shades of its predecessor, the Baroque era.

To truly understand the allure of Rococo fashion is to embrace its complexity—its defiance against the backdrop of political turmoil, its bold declaration of feminine aesthetics, and its immortal charm that beckons us to explore it centuries later. And so, as we traverse this captivating landscape together, keep an open mind and an eager heart. After all, fashion is not just fabric and thread; it’s a story waiting to be told.

Image Description : Envision a stunning oil painting that captures the essence of a Rococo salon. Men and women are elegantly dressed in period-appropriate attire, embodying the extravagance of the time. Their garments feature delicate laces, floral embroideries, and a sea of ruffles, all washed in a palette of soft pastels. Crystal chandeliers hang from the ceiling, scattering light across the room and enhancing the dreamlike atmosphere.

The Origins of Rococo Fashion: A Gentle Unfurling of Style

Behold, as we journey back in time to the France of the early 18th century. Here, the sun sets on the grandiosity of the Baroque era, making way for a new dawn—a dawn painted in hues of pastel and infused with a fresh breath of creativity. Rococo fashion was born out of this exquisite transition, and oh, how elegantly it found its footing.

🌿 The Sunset of the Baroque Era

The Baroque period was a theatrical spectacle, heavy both in its ornate aesthetics and the fabrics that dressed the nobility. Structured gowns with tight corsets were the order of the day, as were sumptuous silks and velvets, often in darker colors. Yet, as is the nature of art and life, change was inevitable. There was a palpable yearning for something lighter, more carefree. And as the Baroque sun dipped below the horizon, the Rococo era began to take form, sprouting like a delicate bud after a long, hard winter.

🌸 The Birth of a New Aesthetic

Let your mind drift to an 18th-century French salon where pastel shades of pink, blue, and lavender fill the room. Women began to discard cumbersome gowns for dresses with lighter fabrics like taffeta and fine linen. Intricate floral motifs, scalloped edges, and delicate lace were the new vogue. It was a celebration of life, an unspoken declaration that the weight of the past could be, if not forgotten, at least made more beautiful.

🎭 The Influence of Court Life

Versailles was not just a royal residence; it was the beating heart of fashion and culture. It was here that the Rococo style found its most passionate advocates. The court of Louis XV, and especially his chief mistress Madame de Pompadour, played pivotal roles in popularizing this new fashion ethos. Imagine intricate gowns and suits, adorned with detailed embroidery and lace, as though fairies themselves had a hand in their creation. It was fashion conceived not for utility but for the sheer joy of existence, a reflection of the era’s optimistic spirit.

🎨 The Role of Art and Artists

Art and fashion have always been close companions, and in the Rococo era, this relationship was exceptionally symbiotic. Artists like François Boucher and Jean-Honoré Fragonard captured the whimsy and lightness of Rococo in their paintings, often illustrating contemporary fashions. These artworks were a vivid tableau of the era’s aesthetics, as artists and tailors often inspired one another.

Image Description : Picture an 18th-century French salon filled with elegantly dressed men and women, their attire encapsulating the very essence of Rococo fashion. Soft hues of pastel color the room, and natural light seeping through large windows seems to dance on the delicate fabrics. The walls are adorned with paintings that perfectly encapsulate the fashion and sensibilities of the time.

The Quintessential Elements of Rococo Garments: A Tapestry Woven with Threads of Whimsy 🎀

In the lush panorama of fashion history, the Rococo era paints an intimate portrait. It’s as if the canvas of fabric was touched by the brushstrokes of artists, lovers, and dreamers alike. You may wonder, what were the elements that conjured this spell? How did garments articulate the unspoken feelings of an era craving beauty and lightness? Allow me to guide you through the intricate web of this sartorial masterpiece.

🎨 The Pastel Palette

In the Rococo age, color spoke in soft whispers. Gone were the bold, regal shades of the Baroque era, replaced instead by pastels that mimicked the earliest light of dawn—rose pinks, sky blues, and delicate lilacs. These colors were like sonnets written in fabric, gentle and romantic, creating an atmosphere of youthful innocence.

🍃 Fabrics that Breathed

One could say that the fabrics of the Rococo era were like a gentle breeze on a warm day—refreshing, light, and utterly inviting. Materials such as muslin, linen, and fine silks took center stage, allowing the wearers a newfound freedom of movement. Gone were the heavy velvets and stiff brocades; the Rococo spirit lived in the flutter of a skirt and the fluid grace of a well-tailored coat.

🌹 Cascading Ruffles and Lace

In this era, ornamentation found its muse in nature. Picture layers of soft ruffles mimicking the petals of a blooming rose, or lace as intricate as a spider’s web glistening in the morning dew. These details were not mere additions but the essence of Rococo fashion, each stitch a verse in a love poem to beauty.

🦋 The Emblem of the Bow

If one motif could encapsulate the Rococo ethos, it would be the bow. Ever-present, the bow was the cherry on top, the finishing touch. Whether accenting a lady’s waist or a gentleman’s cravat, it was a playful nod to the era’s obsession with ornamentation, a small but eloquent declaration of one’s adherence to the Rococo ideal.

Image Description : Imagine a Rococo-era woman, clad in a gown of the softest rose-pink, standing before an antique mirror. The dress features cascading ruffles, delicate lace, and is cinched at the waist with a bow. The image captures the very quintessence of Rococo fashion elements, set against a backdrop that mirrors the era’s aesthetic.

The Role of Women in Rococo Fashion: Champions of Aesthetic Freedom 🌷

Sometimes we find a chapter in history where the ink of influence is bold and beautifully feminine. The Rococo era was such a time, an age where women were not merely the canvas but also the artists shaping the fashion tapestry. Let’s unpack this untold but critical aspect of Rococo fashion .

👒 The Tastemakers

Long before the dawn of social media influencers, women in the Rococo era were the arbiters of style. Through salons and courtly gatherings, they dictated the trends that would permeate society. The exquisite taste of these women didn’t just influence their inner circle; their style choices reverberated throughout Europe, impacting even the textile industry.

💌 The Freedom to Choose

Choice—a simple yet potent word. Women of this period enjoyed a sense of agency over their clothing that was unprecedented. They could opt for lighter fabrics, experiment with varied hues, and even influence the designs themselves. This level of sartorial freedom became a mode of self-expression and was vital in solidifying the core aspects of Rococo fashion.

💎 The Era’s Icons

No story is complete without its protagonists. Women like Madame de Pompadour and Marie Antoinette became synonymous with the extravagance and idealism of the era. They were the living embodiments of Rococo philosophy, pushing the boundaries of fashion to incredible heights of creativity.

🎭 Fashion as Social Commentary

Clothes were more than threads and needles; they were a medium of nuanced societal discussions. Issues such as gender roles, freedom, and beauty standards were dialogues woven into the fabric of Rococo attire. By choosing to dress a certain way, women could subtly express their perspectives on these matters, contributing to a fascinating tapestry of ideas and beliefs.

Image Description : Envision a Rococo salon filled with elegantly dressed women. In the center stands a figure—perhaps Madame de Pompadour herself—donning a captivating gown adorned with ribbons and lace. Her style is the focal point of admiration and discussion, perfectly capturing the pivotal role women played in shaping the fashion narrative of the era.

The Gentleman’s Guide to Rococo Attire: Defining Chivalry Through Threads 🎩

While the women of the era were veritable muses of Rococo style, let’s not forget the men who walked beside them—equally resplendent in their lavish attire. For gentlemen, clothing wasn’t just about aesthetics; it was a representation of their character, a sartorial code of conduct.

👔 The Quintessential Elements

It’s crucial to understand the components that made up a gentleman’s wardrobe. From the intricately designed justaucorps to the embroidered waistcoats, every article had its place and purpose. The tricorn hat was the cherry on top, adding a flair of sophistication. Footwear, too, was a matter of artistry—silk stockings and bejeweled buckled shoes were the norm, not the exception.

🎨 The Palette of Prestige

Color played an instrumental role in conveying not just style but status. While the women flirted with an array of shades, the men predominantly adorned darker hues—navy, bottle green, and rich burgundy. These shades oozed power and commanded respect, all the while allowing their personalities to shimmer through the fabric.

⚔️ Subtle Militaristic Influences

Intriguingly, military aesthetics infiltrated the garments of Rococo gentlemen. Epualettes, gold braid, and regimental buttons all found their way onto civilian coats. These details were not merely decorative; they were a nod to the martial spirit of the age, subtly blending the worlds of fashion and function.

🌹 Etiquette Expressed in Ensemble

Clothing was a language, and a well-dressed man spoke volumes without uttering a word. Whether attending an opulent ball or a more subdued gathering, the attire was thoughtfully chosen to suit the occasion. This attention to detail elevated the social grace of Rococo men, rendering them not just well-dressed but well-mannered.

Image Description : Picture a Rococo gentleman, perhaps in the company of Madame de Pompadour. He is dressed in a lavish, dark-hued justaucorps, adorned with subtle gold embellishments. His tricorn hat rests elegantly on a nearby table, drawing attention to his embroidered waistcoat. The image captures the epitome of masculine elegance in the Rococo era.

The Artistry Behind Rococo Fabrics and Textures: A Symphony of Silk and Satin 🎨🧵

In the journey of unravelling Rococo attire, we’ve crossed the landscape of styles and palettes. Now, let us dwell into the very soul of the fashion—the fabric. The choice of materials is akin to selecting the ink for a pen that will write history. After all, when it comes to Rococo fashion, the devil truly is in the details.

💎 Silk: The Pinnacle of Luxury

The ruling monarch among fabrics in this era was undoubtedly silk. Whether it was brocaded, damask, or a simpler taffeta, silk was the canvas upon which Rococo artisans painted their dreams. Light and malleable, yet exuding sheer opulence, silk was an immediate status symbol. Even today, a Rococo-inspired silk garment speaks the language of luxury without the need for translation.

🌸 Embroidery: Crafting the Narrative

Embroidery was not merely a decoration; it was a storytelling technique. With each stitch, symbols and motifs were carefully woven into the fabric, each with its own distinct meaning. The level of complexity in Rococo embroidery is awe-inspiring, featuring not just floral designs, but often mythological scenes or intricate geometries.

🎭 The Drama of Lace and Ruffles

While silk and embroidery were central, let’s not ignore the drama added by lace and ruffles. These embellishments created a sense of movement, almost as if the garments were imbued with a life of their own. Lace collars, ruffled sleeves, and layered hems weren’t just ornamental; they were the equivalent of a theatrical crescendo in a Mozart symphony.

🌿 Natural Dyes: The Unsung Heroes

The brilliance of Rococo colors owed much to natural dyes. Ingredients like indigo, madder root, and even certain insects were used to create hues that still bewitch us today. This was not merely a matter of aesthetics; it was an embrace of the natural world, fusing it with human artistry.

Image Description : Envision a still life featuring luxurious Rococo fabrics—rolls of opulent silk, reels of gold thread for embroidery, and swatches of intricate lace, all neatly arranged on an antique wooden table, bathed in the soft glow of a candlelight. The image encapsulates the richness and tactile experience of Rococo textile artistry.

Rococo Accessories: Adorning the Adorned 🎭💎

As we traverse this luxurious world of Rococo, we arrive at the gallery of accessories. Because, my dear friends, even beauty can be beautified. Accessories are not mere complements; they are individual statements, a language of their own.

🎩 Hats and Headgear: A Crown for Every Head

The Rococo era was a festival for milliners. The tricorne hats for men were often embellished with feathers, gemstones, and even miniature landscapes. For women, the “pouf” was nothing short of an architectural marvel. Sometimes rising over a foot high, it was a scaffold of ribbons, lace, and ornaments. When you donned a hat in the Rococo period, you weren’t just covering your head—you were exhibiting art.

📿 Jewelry: The Galaxy on Your Skin

Ah, the realm of jewelry—a visual symphony of gold, silver, and precious stones. Necklaces cascaded down necklines like waterfalls of diamonds. Brooches were not mere pins; they were miniature portraits or intricate botanical scenes captured in a frame of gemstones. Jewelry in this era was not just decorative, it was deeply symbolic, often serving as tokens of love, allegiance, or mourning.

🎀 Ribbons and Sashes: The Soul’s Melody

Ribbons and sashes were not merely fabrics but the very melodies of the soul translated into silk and satin. These winding bands of textile were often embroidered with messages or monograms, a practice akin to sending a handwritten note today. Draped around waists, tied into bows, or fashioned into rosettes, they brought personality to the already grand ensembles.

👛 Pouches and Reticules: Small Universes of Beauty

These were not just mere containers. They were the keepers of secrets, carriers of fragrances, and miniature treasure chests. Often made from the finest of fabrics and decorated with embroidery or small painted scenes, these pouches and reticules were the predecessor to today’s designer handbags.

Image Description : Imagine a vintage vanity table adorned with Rococo accessories. A towering feathered hat, intricately crafted brooch, lavish ribbons, and a delicate silk reticule rest on the table, each bathed in the warm, ethereal light of a golden candelabra. The tableau evokes an intimate, romantic atmosphere, capturing the personal relationship between Rococo fashion and its wearers.

Rococo Footwear: From Heel to Toe 👠🌹

Oh, yes. You see, beauty in the Rococo era was not a concept limited to above the ankles. The pièce de résistance sometimes rested in the intricate designs of footwear, adding not just steps but statements to the grand floors of Versailles and beyond.

👞 Men’s Footwear: The Sultans of Swag

Men’s shoes in the Rococo era were not just foot coverings but foot thrones. Ornate buckles often adorned these leather treasures, made from the finest materials that money could procure. Embroidery was not uncommon, often featuring floral patterns or even family crests. A buckle was not just a fastening device; it was a symbol of wealth and standing. With every step, the men of the Rococo era left an imprint of their status.

👠 Women’s Footwear: A Garden for Your Feet

Ladies, prepare to be swept off your feet—literally. Women’s shoes during this time were like miniature gardens. The use of silk, satin, and lace was pervasive. Delicate ribbons would be tied in perfect bows, often harmonizing with the colors of the gown worn. Heels were chunky and curved, often adorned with ornate carvings resembling the twirls of a Baroque painting. When a lady stepped into a room, it was as if a floral bouquet had come to life.

🤔 The Importance of Footwear in Social Settings

Shoes spoke volumes in social settings. A nobleman or woman’s shoes could either elevate them to new heights or send them stumbling down the social ladder. Footwear was a clear signifier of one’s status, education, and even personal taste. In a world obsessed with exterior beauty, shoes were, quite literally, the foundational element of one’s attire.

🚀 Revolutionary Designs

Some Rococo shoes were so avant-garde that they would be considered revolutionary even by today’s standards. Detachable heels? They thought of it first. Built-in pockets inside boots to store valuables? Ah, the innovation!

Image Description : Picture a lavish Rococo ballroom filled with elegantly dressed people. Zoom into the feet of a man and a woman, where the spotlight rests. His shoe bears a gleaming buckle that seems to be crafted from gold and diamonds. Her shoe is a vibrant medley of silk and satin, resembling a blooming garden. Their feet are works of art, signifying the importance of footwear in Rococo fashion.

Textiles and Fabrics: The Threads of Elegance 🎨🧵

Let us proceed, then, to the very material that gave form to the masterpieces we so admire. In the realm of Rococo, the choice of fabric was no trivial matter; it was a declaration of taste, wealth, and sometimes even political stance.

🌸 Silk: The Queen of Fabrics

Ah, silk. This lustrous, luxurious fabric reigned supreme. Originating from the silkworm, this textile was the epitome of opulence. Often reserved for the wealthiest members of society, silk garments were meticulously crafted. The sheen of a silk gown under the chandeliers was a spectacle in itself. The fabric could be dyed in vivid hues, making it the perfect canvas for the Rococo’s extravagant patterns and embellishments.

🍂 Linen and Cotton: The Everyday Elegance

While silk was for special occasions, linen and cotton found their place in everyday attire. More breathable and easier to maintain, these fabrics had a quieter, more subdued elegance. Cotton, in particular, was a newer introduction during this period, arriving from colonial lands. Its durability made it popular for undergarments and even some day-wear. Linen, on the other hand, was the workhorse of the Rococo textile industry—reliable, sturdy, yet always in style.

🎭 Velvet and Brocade: The Drama Kings

Velvet and brocade were the dramatic divas of the textile world. Velvet, with its plush, deep texture, was often reserved for evening wear or ceremonial garments. Brocade was similar but had patterns woven into the fabric itself, often in gold or silver thread. Imagine the marriage of intricate design with lavish material—a true match made in Rococo heaven.

🎨 Dyes and Patterns: A Symphony of Color

The Rococo era was a riot of color and patterns. Whether it was natural dyes derived from plants and animals or newer, synthetic ones, there was no shortage of options. Patterns were elaborate, frequently featuring florals, landscapes, and even entire scenes from mythology. The world was a canvas, and these fabrics were the brushstrokes that made it come alive.

Image Description : Envision a table laden with various Rococo fabrics—each one more opulent than the last. There’s silk with a sheen that catches the light, linen that looks soft and breathable, velvet that begs to be touched, and brocade that shimmers with intricate gold designs. Each fabric is laid out in such a way that it catches the eye and beckons the fingers to feel its unique texture.

Accessories: The Finishing Touches 🌟💍

Let us, my friends, turn our gaze to the pieces that complete the ensemble. Accessories in the Rococo era were not merely afterthoughts. Oh no. They were the cherries atop a magnificent, opulent sundae.

📿 Jewelry: A Gem of an Addition

Jewelry was akin to punctuation in a sentence; it may appear small, but it plays a significant role. Necklaces often featured precious stones like diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, set in intricate patterns that mimicked the ornate designs of the garments themselves. Earrings, meanwhile, were usually chandelier-styled, long and delicate, designed to frame the face like a masterpiece. Brooches and cameos, often depicting scenes from mythology or portraiture, were pinned to gowns and coats, adding layers of meaning to one’s attire.

👒 Hats and Headgear: The Crowning Glory

Headgear in Rococo fashion ranged from towering wigs for men to intricate bonnets for women. Women’s bonnets were often made of silk or satin and adorned with lace, ribbons, and sometimes fresh flowers. Men’s wigs were powdered and might even include a small tricorn hat perched atop. Indeed, a person’s head was a canvas, and the headgear was the art.

🎭 Masks and Fans: The Instruments of Mystery and Grace

Masks were an essential part of the masquerade balls that were all the rage. Usually crafted from velvet or silk and bedecked with gems and feathers, they were as much about artistry as anonymity. Fans were not just functional but ornamental. Often made from fine lace or silk, they were sometimes painted with scenes or motifs that reflected the owner’s interests or the themes of an event.

👛 Purses and Snuff Boxes: Little Wonders

Though small, items like purses and snuff boxes held great importance. Purses were tiny, often just large enough to hold a few coins and a handkerchief, but they were crafted with the same care and attention to detail as any gown or coat. Snuff boxes, usually for men, were often made of gold or silver and were yet another canvas for artistry, featuring miniature paintings or intricate engravings.

Image Description : Visualize a still-life tableau featuring an array of Rococo accessories. There’s an intricate bonnet made of silk, a golden necklace encrusted with emeralds, a velvet mask adorned with peacock feathers, a finely painted fan, and a delicate snuff box with an engraved lid. Each item radiates its own aura of elegance, yet together they form a symphony of style.

The Grand Tapestry: Weaving Together the Threads of Rococo Fashion 🎭🌹✨

And so, we arrive at the moment where we reflect upon the elaborate labyrinth that is Rococo fashion . It’s a moment of quiet, much like the final note in a concerto, a note that doesn’t just mark an end but also encapsulates the entire journey. Shall we delve into this retrospective?

A Renaissance of Artistry 🎨

This era wasn’t just about clothing; it was about creating art that one could wear. From the intricate lacework on the gowns to the minuscule engravings on snuff boxes, Rococo was an era that embraced craftsmanship with a passion that bordered on reverence.

A Tale of Two Genders 👫

Men and women were equal players on this sartorial stage. Both sexes wore intricate, layered ensembles that were the epitome of opulence. Though different in silhouette and components, the clothes for men and women were unified by the common theme of extravagant elegance.

The Language of Fashion 🗨️👗

Rococo fashion was not just fabric and thread; it was a language. Every choice, from the hue of a garment to the jewels adorning a necklace, was a word in a sophisticated vocabulary of style. It communicated rank, interests, and even political affiliations, allowing individuals to express their identity in a world teeming with societal norms and regulations.

Beyond the Surface 🌠

Yes, it’s easy to look at the Rococo era as a period of superficial beauty. But, dig a little deeper, and you’ll discover a world that mirrored the social and cultural nuances of the time. The opulence was a response to a society that yearned for escapism, the complexity a reflection of an age that was grappling with rapid changes in politics, art, and philosophy.

Image Description : Imagine a painting that brings all these elements together—two figures, a man and a woman, attired in the finest Rococo fashion, standing amidst a backdrop of a luxurious drawing room. Their outfits are not just clothes but narrators, each element telling a part of their story. The viewer can almost hear the murmur of a harpsichord and the chatter of a society soiree filling the air. It’s not just a picture; it’s an entire world caught in a single frame.

The Last Stitch: A Reverie on the Elegance and Intricacy of Rococo Fashion 🌌✂️🌹

Well, my friends, we’ve reached the end of this lavish, opulent journey through the Rococo era. You could argue that it’s all superficial, a spectacle of vanity and excess. But it’s in the tiny details, the underlying motifs, that we really come to appreciate the depth of this era. So, let’s pull back and soak in the grand mosaic we’ve pieced together.

The Craftsmanship That Speaks Volumes 🎨

We began with a deep dive into the artistry that graced every article of clothing, every accessory. In a time when artisans were akin to rock stars, their virtuosity found a stage in every ballroom, every salon. It’s a little like tasting a dish where every ingredient has been meticulously chosen; nothing is accidental.

Gender Fluidity in a Rigid Society 👫

We examined the sartorial choices of both men and women, an embodiment of personal freedom in a society bounded by norms. Kind of like a gourmet burger in a fine-dining restaurant—unexpected yet perfectly in tune with the surroundings.

Words and Stitches 🗨️👗

We touched upon the semiotics of fashion in this era. Beyond just fabric, we’re talking about a complex dialogue. The same way that a carefully crafted menu tells you about a chef’s training, his palate, his journeys, and even his bouts with heartbreak, each garment was an autobiography.

Culture Wrapped in Silk and Lace 🌠

Then, we delved beyond the surface, unearthing the era’s connections with the zeitgeist of its day. It was the sushi of the 18th century—simple on the outside, complex within, and reflecting a world in flux.

Image Placeholder : Let’s encapsulate this finale with an artwork. Picture an ornate Rococo frame, the kind that would make even the stuffiest of aristocrats blush. Within it, a mirror reflects the viewer, dressed in contemporary clothes, contrasting yet somehow blending into a grand Rococo ballroom behind them. It asks the question: How different are we, really?

So there you have it. It’s easy to get lost in the corsets and cravats, but remember, every stitch has a story, every color a meaning, every layer an echo of the times and the people who lived them. It’s a vivid tableau, a microcosm of humanity during one of its most paradoxically constrained and yet extravagant epochs.

A Journey into the World of Opulence and Elegance

Utility to Beauty: The Transition of 1940s Women’s Fashion

🌟 Unlocking the Elegance: Marie Antoinette – The Ultimate Rococo Style Icon 🌟

The Toilette

In preparation for a day of social activities, the ritual of the morning toilette was customary practice among upper-class women as a signifier of their elite status. While receiving relatives, friends, servants, and other visitors, women performed ablutions such as cleaning their face and hands, had their hair dressed, and applied powder, rouge, and other cosmetics. Pilloried by social commentators and moralists who deplored women’s use of these products to artificially enhance their beauty—or, even more reprehensibly—to disguise their physical imperfections, the toilette appeared frequently in portraiture, genre scenes, and caricatures.

William Hogarth satirized this French “import” in La Toilette , one of six paintings comprising his series, Marriage à la Mode (1743-45) that narrates the ill-fated union of a young couple (Fig. 32). While her coiffeur attends to her locks, the newly minted countess arranges an assignation at a masquerade ball with her lawyer lover, Silvertongue. Behind her, various guests—including an effete-looking man with his own hair in curling papers—sing, play the flute, and drink coffee or chocolate, poured by a Black servant. In “Taste À-La-Mode : Consuming Foreignness, Picturing Gender,” art historian Freya Gowrley examines three Hogarthian motifs—the monkey, the black pageboy, and the coffee or tea service—that communicated the deleterious effects of “the consumption of luxuries imported from abroad” (Gowrley 35). As she notes, the Black pageboy exemplified a “‘cultural object,’ a categorization that refers to the objectification of animate beings… who were both treated and depicted as a sort of living accessory” and signaled “the explicitly gendered understanding of consumerism in eighteenth-century Britain” (Gowrley 35).

In a more positive representation of the toilette, François-Hubert Drouais’s Family Portrait , dated April 1, 1756, depicts an intimate scene of gift-giving, that traditionally took place on that day (Fig. 33). Sitting at her toilette table, the mother wears a white powdering cape while placing a spray of blue flowers on her daughter’s head; the young girl, in turn, offers flowers to her mother; and the girl’s father, leaning on the back of his wife’s chair, reads her a letter or sonnet.

Art historian Melissa Hyde’s examination of François Boucher’s bust-length portrait of Madame de Pompadour (Fig. 34) dating to 1758 investigates the direct and often unfavorable comparisons made in the mid-eighteenth century between the coloristic artifice that characterized Boucher’s individual style as well as rococo painting, in general, and the bourgeoise-turned-marquise’s reliance on “paint” to literally and figuratively make herself up (Hyde 107-44). Equipped with pots and brushes and showing off a bracelet with a cameo portrait of Louis XV, Madame de Pompadour wears a pristine white linen or cotton powdering cape, or peignoir , trimmed with needle lace. Her 1764 inventory lists three peignoirs trimmed with point d’Alençon , four trimmed with point d’Angleterre , and three of embroidered muslin (Cordey 79, 81). These ostensibly informal garments that protected the wearer’s upper body from powder as her coiffure proceeded nonetheless conveyed her wealth in the fineness of their fabric and the richness of their trimmings.

Fig. 32 - William Hogarth (French, (1697 - 1764)). Marriage à la Mode IV: The Toilette , ca. 1743. Oil on canvas; 70.5 x 90.8 cm. London: The National Gallery, NG116. Source: The National Gallery

Fig. 33 - François-Hubert Drouais (French, 1727-1775). Family Portrait , 1756. Oil on canvas; 244 x 195 cm. Washington, DC: The National Gallery of Art, 1946.7.4. Source: NGA

Fig. 34 - François Boucher (French, 1703-1770). Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de Pompadour , 1758. Oil on canvas; 81.2 × 64.9 cm (31 15/16 × 25 9/16 in). Cambridge: Fogg Art Museum, 1966.47. Source: HAM

Fashion Icon: JEANNE ANTOINETTE POISSON, MARQUISE DE POPADOUR (1721-1764)

T hroughout her twenty-year tenure as maîtresse en titre to King Louis XV (1715-1774), Madame de Pompadour was a leading tastemaker and fashion trendsetter. Born Jeanne Antoinette Poisson in Paris in 1721 and married in 1740 at age 19 to Charles Guillaume Le Normant d’Etiolles, this beautiful, gifted, and ambitious young woman became mistress to the king in 1745, receiving the title, Marquise de Pompadour. A generous patron of the arts and a strong supporter of Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert’s Encyclopédie, Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (1751-1772), Pompadour was both admired and detested during her lifetime by members of the French court and the wider public. A vast scholarly and popular literature attests to the fascination with and recognition of Madame de Pompadour as a woman who wielded enormous political power in mid-eighteenth-century France, whose artistic influence extended well beyond the confines of Versailles and whose legacy persisted long after her death in 1764.

Portraits of the king’s favorite, many by her preferred painter, François Boucher (1703-1770) as well as other leading artists, reveal the graceful elegance that she maintained throughout her life (Fig. 28 in womenswear; Figs. 1-2).

Fig. 1 - Maurice-Quentin de La Tour (French, 1704-1788). Madame de Pompadour , 1751-1755. Pastel; 175 x 128 cm. Paris: Louvre Museum, Inv. 27614. Source: Louvre

Fig. 2 - Francois Boucher (French, 1703-1770). Madame de Pompadour , 1756. Oil on canvas; 212 x 164 cm. Munich: Alte Pinakothek, Inv. Nr. HUW 18. Source: Wikimedia

Fig. 3 - Maker unknown (British). Doll With dress and Accessories , 1755-1760. Wood, silk; 60 x 42 x 43 cm. London: Victoria and Albert Museum, T.90 to V-1980. Source: V&A

Fig. 4 - Maker unknown (French). Doll’s Court Gown , ca. 1769–75. Silk brocade, metal thread, metal lace, spangles, silk ribbon flowers, whalebone; 76.3 × 76.3 × 1.5 cm. Bath: Fashion Museum, BATMC 93.436 to B. Acquired with generous assistance from The Art Fund, and The V&A / Purchase Grant Fund. Source: The Met

One of the most well-known of these—and the only one publicly exhibited during her lifetime—is Boucher’s large canvas dating to 1756, the year of Madame de Pompadour’s controversial appointment as dame du palais of Louis XV’s consort, Queen Marie Leczinska (Fig. 2). Prominently displayed at the Salon of 1757, the painting shows the king’s mistress at the height of her power in a confection-like ensemble that epitomizes the rococo aesthetic in women’s fashion. Reclining on a daybed in a sumptuous interior, Pompadour wears a resplendent green silk robe à la française and matching petticoat extensively trimmed with pink silk roses in a serpentine meander, an échelle of silver-striped pink silk bows and large, matching bows inside each elbow, triple lace engageantes , a pink silk ribbon necklace, multi-strand pearl bracelets, high-heeled pink silk mules with silver lace, and fresh flowers at her left shoulder and in the pompon in her hair. Although the book in her hand, those in the elaborate case behind her, the large red volume on the floor, and other objects including a rolled-up map and portfolios of engravings and drawings point to her intellectual and artistic pursuits, it is her frothy dress that dominates the composition—its pink roses enhance the delicacy of her flawless—cosmetically enhanced—pink-and-white complexion.

Pompadour’s individual style was copied not only by other French women, it also traversed the Channel. In 1748, just a few years after Pompadour’s elevation to maîtresse en titre , Lady Anson, commissioned a fully made-up “Green and White and Gold Sack” from France and, in a letter to a friend, she expressed her regret that “the Poupée [fashion doll] which is coming over dressed exactly like Madame de Pompadour did not arrive time enough for me to be able to adjust my coiffure quite in the Taste it ought to have been in, which indeed was the only thing defective in my appearance” (quoted in Buck 34). Following the doll’s arrival, Lady Anson described the various ensembles that illustrated Pompadour’s fashions in another letter:

“She has three compleat Dresses, one the habit de Sage-Femme, which is de Grande Ceremonie; a Robe (or Sack) pour les Spectacles, les Promenades, etc, etc, and one Robe de negligé for her morning wear; with all sorts of Coiffures, Agréments suited to them all, and written explanations and directions to every part of her Attire.” (quoted in Buck 34)

Before the emergence of a regular fashion press in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, dolls dressed in the latest Parisian styles (Figs. 3-4) served as important transmitters of fashion. Like Lady Anson, women in other European cities eagerly awaited viewings of the newest “poupée” “in the windows of fashionable shops” (Ribeiro 61-62). The 1764 inventory of Madame de Pompadour’s extensive wardrobe includes many “robbe de chambre” and “grand habit,” that likely correspond to the doll’s “negligé” and “habit de Sage-Femme,” respectively. Additional mentions of “robbe” “robe de cour,” and “habit de cour,” all with matching petticoats, suggest the variations and degrees of formality among these dresses that would have been evident through their fabrics and the type and amount of ornamentation (Parmal 27-28). A year before her death, the marquise’s style was still influential. The Enciclopédie Carcassière, ou tableaux des coiffures à la mode gravées sur les desseins des petites-maîtresses de Paris , published in 1763, contains illustrations of forty-four coiffures with such names as “à la Cabriolet,” “à la Jamais vu,” “à l’Accouchée,” and “à la Pompadour.” (Corson 331).

A large-scale portrait of the marquise by François-Hubert Drouais (Fig. 5), completed shortly after her death, records her longstanding consummate style. Working at her embroidery frame in another well-appointed interior with her attentive little canine companion, Madame de Pompadour’s robe à la française with its lavish French needle lace trimmings and engageantes commands the viewer’s attention. The textile with its meandering colorful exotic florals and foliage on a white ground has been identified as either a painted-and-dyed Indian cotton (Watt 92) or a painted Chinese silk (Ribeiro 144). Both Indian cottons and Chinese silks were appreciated by fashionable European women, including Pompadour, who owned a “robbe de chambre de mousseline des Indes rayée à carreaux, avec un petit liseré d’or” (a robe de chambre of Indian muslin patterned with checks, with a small gold border) and a “robbe et son jupon de satin des Indes, fond blanc à bouquets peints” (a gown and petticoat of satin from the Indies, white ground with painted bouquets). Although both textiles are identified as coming from India, the descriptor “ des Indes” often referred to fabrics from the East more generally . It is likely that her painted satin dress was of Chinese origin; plain and painted silks were imported to Europe in large quantities in the eighteenth century, while cottons—plain, painted-and-dyed, or block printed—were the most sought-after textiles from India.

Fig. 5 - François-Hubert Drouais (French, 1727-1775). Madame de Pompadour at her Tambour Frame , 1763-4. Oil on canvas; 217 x 156.8 cm. London: The National Gallery, NG6440. Source: The National Gallery

M en’s three-piece suits comprising a collarless coat, thigh-length waistcoat, and breeches constituted the essential component of a fashionable wardrobe. In the 1750s, the full-skirted coat decreased in volume and the fronts began to curve away from the lower center front; as a result, the coat was primarily fastened over the chest rather than down to the waist, revealing more of the waistcoat with its inverted V-shaped skirts (Ribeiro 121) (Fig. 11 in womenswear; Figs. 1, 2, 4). The latter garment no longer had sleeves or stiffening at the side and “increasingly, the back part… was cut much shorter than the front” (Ribeiro 122). Although all-matching suits (Fig. 2) were still considered to be the most elegant and would have been expected for court and formal wear, from “the end of the 1740s, the suit… could be made of three different colours and stuffs,” or the coat and breeches might be of the same color and material, worn with a contrasting waistcoat (Ribeiro 124) (Figs. 8, 11 in womenswear; Fig. 4).

Throughout the period, England was known for the quality of its woolen fabrics and Englishmen favored the practicality and durability of these textiles for daywear, especially in the countryside. In the 1740s and 1750s, both Arthur Devis and Thomas Gainsborough were frequently commissioned by members of the landed gentry to record them in the landscapes of their extensive properties, where understated dress reinforced the male sitters’ preference for comfort and informality (Figs. 8, 11 in womenswear). In the latter’s portrait of Mr. and Mrs. Andrews dating to 1750, Mr. Andrews appears in his hunting attire with a pale buff-colored coat with wide revers and a green turned-down collar, an off-white waistcoat, and black breeches—all of wool (Fig. 8 in womenswear). The same artist’s depiction of John Plampin of about 1752 (Fig. 1) nicely illustrates what was considered casual attire for men in mid-eighteenth-century Britain. Seated at the base of a tree with his left arm resting on a conveniently low-hanging branch and his left leg extended on a grassy mound, Plampin wears a frock coat, characterized by its turned-down collar, with narrow gold edging, a white silk waistcoat with gold froggings, and black wool breeches. The National Gallery’s description notes that “the portrait was probably painted around five years before he inherited Chadacre Hall and the manor of Shimpling, Suffolk, in 1757 [and that] Gainsborough shows Plampin on Plampin land…reinforc[ing his] authority and privilege as a member of the British landed gentry, which is presented as part of the ‘natural’ order.” Both men wear the three-cornered hat that was ubiquitous during the period, white linen shirts with plain cuffs, white silk stockings, and low-heeled black leather shoes with buckles.

A mutual disdain and rivalry characterized the Anglo-French relationship throughout the century. The British elite, with their constitutional monarchy and long-established custom of spending much of the year on their country estates with its attendant informal lifestyle and dress, criticized the tyranny of absolute monarchy and ridiculed what they perceived as an overemphasis on elaborate fashions and the constant desire for novelty on the part of the French. In The Gray’s Inn Journal by Arthur Murphy (1753-1754), the author bemoans having to adopt French dress upon his arrival in that foreign land and makes a direct comparison between the comfortable fit of his English frock coat and his liberty and his nation’s form of government:

“Our next Care was to equip ourselves in the Fashion of the Country. Accordingly we sent for a Taylor… to make us two Suits; which he brought us the next Morning at Ten o’Clock, and made complete Frenchmen of us. But for my part… I was so damned uneasy in a full-dressed Coat, with hellish long Skirts, which I had never been used to, that I thought myself as much deprived of my Liberty, as if I had been in the Bastile; and I sighed for my little loose Frock, which I look upon as an Emblem of our happy Constitution; for it lays a Man under no uneasy Restraint, but leaves it in his Power to do as he pleases.” (quoted in Ribeiro 126)

In contrast, for French aristocrats, used to a more formal court-centered lifestyle strictly regulated by complicated etiquette, the English preference for simpler attire seemed to disregard the propriety governing social customs and interactions. In her account of a visit to England in 1750, French traveler Madame de Bocage, remarked on men’s inclination to avoid formal attire, noting that they:

“go out early in the morning, dressed in frocks, either to take a walk or a ride; at their return they generally dine at a tavern; they most of them go incognito to the Play or to Vauxhall; it is not thought necessary to dress except to appear at the Opera or at the places where they are invited to dine.” (quoted in Waugh/ Men 104)

Nevertheless, for many young aristocratic and wealthy British men, the Grand Tour of the Continent was part of their formal education. Extended sojourns in France and Italy, visiting and becoming knowledgeable about their art and monuments, especially of classical antiquity, offered these tourists encounters with the refined manners and elegant sociability that distinguished a “Person of Quality.” Unlike Arthur Murphy’s dour assessment of being made into a “Frenchman,” Lord Chesterfield’s letters to his son, who began the Grand Tour in 1750, underscore the importance of acquiring a French polish. Writing on November 12, 1750, he advised his son that,

“When you come to Paris you must take care to be extremely well dressed, that is, as the fashionable people are; this by no means consist in the finery, but in the taste, fitness, and manner of wearing your clothes… Get the best French tailor to make your clothes, whatever they are, in the fashion, and to fit you: then wear them, button them, or unbutton them, as the genteelest people do. Let your man learn of the best friseur to do your hair well, for that is a very material part of your dress. Take care to have your stockings well gartered up, and your shoes well buckled; for nothing gives a more slovenly air to a man than ill-dressed legs.” (quoted in McNeil 19)

Fig. 1 - Thomas Gainsborough (British, 1727-1788). John Plampin , ca. 1752. Oil on canvas; 50.2 x 60.3 cm. London: The National Gallery, NG5984. Source: The National Gallery

Fig. 2 - Sir Joshua Reynolds (British, 1723–1792). Portrait of Francis Beckford , 1755-6. Oil on canvas; 130 x 352.8 cm. London: Tate, N05798. Source: Tate

Fig. 3 - Maurice-Quentin de La Tour (French, 1704-1788). Henry Dawkins , ca. 1751. Pastel on paper mounted on canvas; 66.7 x 53.3 cm. London: The National Gallery, NG5118. Source: The National Gallery

Fig. 4 - Maker unknown (Italian). Suit , 1740–60. Silk, metal, cotton, linen. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009.300.2480a–d. Source: The Met

Fig. 5 - Jean-Étienne Liotard (Swiss, 1702-1789). Portrait of John, Lord Mountstuart, later 4th Earl and 1st Marquess of Bute , 1763. Pastel on vellum; 114.9 × 90.2 cm. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 2000.58. Source: Getty

Fig. 6 - Designer unknown (Indian). At-home Robe (Banyan) , ca. 1750. Cotton plain weave; (center back length: 63 1/2 in). Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.2005.42. Costume Council Fund. Source: LACMA

Fig. 7 - Maker unknown (Chinese). Man's At-Home Robe (Banyan) , 1750–1760. Silk satin and silk plain weave. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.2007.211.797. Source: LACMA

Maurice Quentin de la Tour’s 1750 portrait of Henry Dawkins (Fig. 3) captured this young man during his stay in Paris en route to Rome. His elegantly curled powdered bagwig (which has left a faint white covering over his shoulders), perfectly tied black silk solitaire around his neck, salmon-colored velvet coat, and silk-and-metal-thread floral brocaded waistcoat convey the distinct signs of a French “makeover.” John, Lord Mountstuart, future first Marquess of Bute, recorded in all his Continental finery by Jean-Etienne Liotard in 1763 (Fig. 5), warms himself in front of a fireplace wearing a matching blue silk suit with elaborate froggings on the high-styled frock coat and waistcoat, trimmed and fully lined with fur (probably squirrel), delicate needle lace jabot and cuffs, white silk stockings that outline his shapely calves—an asset for a man of fashion—and buckled black leather shoes. While Dawkins and Lord Mountstuart may have felt out of ease in Paris or Rome without a powdered bagwig, their compatriots on the other side of the Channel often favored their own, un-powdered hair, especially while on their estates (Figs. 8, 11 in womenswear: Fig. 1). And unlike the plainer versions worn by Robert Andrews and John Plampin with their informal dress, Mountstuart’s feather-fringed three-cornered hat with gold braid loop and button is in keeping with the rest of his luxurious tout ensemble . Barely noticeable at his left side is the hilt of his sword, identified as “the grand distinguishing mark of a fine Gentleman” by The Connoisseur in 1754 (quoted in Cunnington 100).

The mid-eighteenth-century vogue for exotic, imported goods and the influence of Eastern dress are evident in men’s silk or cotton “morning gowns” or “banyans” that could be either loose-fitting, T-shaped garments inspired by Japanese kimono or more fitted to the body with double-breasted closures. A generously cut painted-and-dyed Indian cotton morning gown in the LACMA collection (Fig. 6) is made from two continuous pieces of fabric, seamed at the center back, that accommodate the directional elements of the large flowering vases; reversing at the top of the shoulders, the motifs are right side up both front and back. The center front opening, sleeve edges and hem feature specially designed borders, completing the sophisticated composition. Also held by LACMA is a banyan of green silk damask (Fig. 7) with an outsized repeat of stylized flowers and leaves woven in China; the close-fitting tailoring, however, takes its cue from Indian men’s garments. Although worn at home for informal occasions in the presence of other family members, servants, or tradespeople, these gowns provided an opportunity for the display of wealth and taste.

CHILDREN’S WEAR

(by summer lee ).

L eading into the eighteenth century, new philosophies emerging from the Age of Enlightenment were changing attitudes about childhood (Nunn 98). For example, in his 1693 publication, Some Thoughts Concerning Education , John Locke challenged long-held beliefs about best practices for child-rearing. A slightly later child development theorist was Jean Jacques Rousseau. Locke and Rousseau both put forwards general principles about children’s dress. However, their ideas were not clearly reflected in childrenswear until the second half of the century.

Swaddling was a very long-held European tradition where an infants’ limbs are immobilized in tight cloth wrappings (Callahan). The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a finely embroidered swaddling band dated circa 1700-1750 (Fig. 1). Its elaborate floral embroidery indicates that this was a fashionable “outer swaddling band” (Victoria and Albert Museum). However, Locke and Rousseau believed that swaddling infants was bad for health and physical strength (Paoletti). While the tradition was continued throughout the first half of the century, the practice did begin to decline in the second half.

Babies were then dressed in “slips” or “long clothes” until they began to crawl (Callahan). These were ensembles with very long, full skirts that extended beyond the feet (Fig. 2) (Nunn 99). Babies also wore tight-fitting caps on their heads. Locke and Rousseau advocated that young children receive more regular hygiene. They also believed that dressing children in many layers of heavy fabrics was bad for their health. For those reasons, linen and cotton fabrics were preferred for babies and very young children because they were lightweight and easily washable (Paoletti).

Once a child was becoming mobile, they transitioned into “short clothes” (Callahan). These ensembles ended at the ankles, allowing for greater freedom of movement (Callahan). In the 1750s short clothes still featured a boned or stiffened back-opening bodice, though they were less structured by the 1760s (Callahan).

At this phase, toddlers typically had “leading strings” attached to the back of their bodices (Fig. 3) (Magidson). Leading strings were streamers of fabric used to protect young children from falling or wandering off (“Childhood”).

When boys were deemed mature enough, they underwent a rite of passage known as “breeching” (Reinier). Breeching referred to the first time a boy wore bifurcated breeches or trousers, symbolizing his entrance into manhood. In the first decade of the eighteenth century, boys were typically breeched between the ages of four and seven (Callahan). From that point on, boys during this time followed menswear fashions. Girls did not fully transition into adult dress until their early teens. However, elements of fashionable womenswear were incorporated into their dress as they aged.

Fig. 1 - Designer unknown (French). Swaddling band , 1700-1750. Hand embroidered linen; 340.5 cm x 12.5 cm. London: Victoria and Albert Museum, B.13-2001. Source: Victoria and Albert Museum

Fig. 2 - John Hesselius (American, 1728–1778). Anne Byrd Carter (Mrs. Charles Carter, 1725-1757) With Two Children , ca. 1750-1757. Winston-Salem, NC: Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts, MESDA Object Database record S-5126. Source: Colonial Virginia Portraits

Fig. 3 - Designer unknown (English). Dress bodice , 1750-1759. Spitalfields silk. London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 162-1899. Given by Mrs Morgan. Source: Victoria and Albert Museum

Fig. 4 - John Hesselius (American, 1728–1778). The Grymes Children , ca. 1750-1755. Oil on canvas; 142.24 x 167.64 cm (56 x 66 in). Richmond: Virginia Museum of History & Culture, 1893.3. Source: Colonial Virginia Portraits

Fig. 5 - George Knapton (English, 1698–1778). Dr Samuel Walthen with His Wife and Children , 1755. Oil on canvas; 114.7 x 160.8 cm. Birmingham: Birmingham Museums Trust, 1952P8. purchased from Martin Asscher, 1952. Source: Art UK

An American painting circa 1750-1755 depicts four children of Philip Grymes and Mary Randolph Grymes (Fig. 4). From left to right, they are Lucy, John, Phillip, and Charles. Lucy wears a blue gown with a back-opening bodice and white apron. Extremely similar ensembles can be seen in portraiture of young girls throughout this decade, as well as previous decades. John also wears a gown, signifying that he has not yet been deemed mature enough to be breeched. Nonetheless, his ankle-length red gown and blue coat appear influenced by menswear. John also holds a fashionable tricorne hat in his left hand. Phillip is only one year older than John, yet he wears a brown men’s suit with a light blue waistcoat. Charles, the smallest child, may have been as young as two at the time of painting. He wears a short, loose white gown — seemingly in line with the philosophies of Locke and Rousseau.

A 1755 family portrait of Dr Samuel Walthen with his wife and children is another excellent visual resource for 1750s childrenswear. The youngest child wears a white gown with a stiffened bodice and a tight cap on their head. They are fascinated by a doll being held by the second-youngest child, who also wears a white gown and fitted cap. The oldest child, on the left, wears a fitted cap and a pink gown with clearly visible leading strings.

REFERENCES:

Buck, Anne. Dress in Eighteenth-Century England . London: B. T. Batsford, 1979. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1148934170 .
Callahan, Colleen R. “Children’s Clothing.” In The Berg Companion to Fashion , edited by Valerie Steele. Oxford: Bloomsbury Academic, 2010. Accessed August 08, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474264716.0003223 .
“Childhood.” In European Renaissance and Reformation, 1350-1600 , edited by Norman J. Wilson, 319-321. Vol. 1 of World Eras. Detroit, MI: Gale, 2001. Gale eBooks (accessed August 7, 2020). https://libproxy.fitsuny.edu:2653/apps/doc/CX3034600137/GVRL?u=fitsuny&sid=GVRL&xid=480f4328.
Cora Ginsburg Costume Textiles Needlework . 2016. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/495709147 .
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Cora Ginsburg Modern . 2016. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/936212471 .
Cunnington, C. Willett. Handbook of English Costume in the Eighteenth Century . London: Faber, 1972. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/751792955 .
Cordey, Jean. Inventaire des biens de Madame de Pompadour: rédigé après son décès . Paris: F. Lefrançois pour la Société des bibliophiles français, 1939. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/458907713 .
Dyer, Serena. “Barbara Johnson’s Album: Material Literacy and Consumer Practice, 1746-1823.” Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies . 42.3 (September 2019): 263-282. https://doi.org/10.1111/1754-0208.12616 .
Gowrley, Freya. “ Taste à-la-Mode: Consuming foreignness, picturing gender.” In Materializing gender in eighteenth-century Europe, eds. J. G. Germann and H. A. Strobel, 73-80. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016. https://derby.openrepository.com/handle/10545/624373 .
Hyde, Melissa. Making up the Rococo: François Boucher and his Critics . Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006. Chapter Three: “The Makeup of the Marquise,” 107-144. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/474739698 .
Jones, Colin. Madame de Pompadour: Images of a Mistress . London: National Gallery, 2002. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1150271464 .
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Historical Context

Wikipedia: 1750-1759.

France: Louis XV (1715-1774)
England: George II (1727-1760)
Spain: Ferdinand VI (1746-1759)

1750 – Jean-Marc Nattier, Portrait of a Young Woman

1750-1759 , 18th century , artwork analysis

1750 – Stephen Slaughter, Two Women Gathering Fruit

1740-1749 , 1750-1759 , 18th century , artwork analysis , BIPOC

Primary/Period Sources

Resources for fashion history research.

To discover primary/period sources, explore the categories below. Have a primary source to suggest? Or a newly digitized periodical/book to announce? Contact us !

Fashion Plate Collections (Digitized)

Costume Institute Fashion Plate collection
Casey Fashion Plates (LA Public Library) - search for the year that interests you
Costume — 1700s — American
Costume — 1700s — English
Costume — 1700s — French
Costume — 1700s — German
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Etiquette Books (Digitized)

1341706 889HUG83 items 1 chicago-fullnote-bibliography author asc 1 https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/ Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Eugenia Stanhope, and Philip Stanhope. Letters Written by the Late Right Honourable Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of Chesterfield, to His Son, Philip Stanhope Esq; Late Envoy Extraordinary at the Court of Dresden: Together with Several Other Pieces on Various Subjects. Dublin: Printed for E. Lynch [etc.], 1774. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008961515 . Courtin, Antoine de. Nouveau Traité de La Civilité, Qui Se Pratique En France Parmi Les Honnêtes Gens. Paris: Durand, 1750. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001921298 . Della Casa, Giovanni. Galateo: Or, A Treatise on Politeness and Delicacy of Manners . London: Printed for J. Dodsley, 1774. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000704165 . La Manière de Converser Avec Les Honnestes Gens. Cologne: Schouten, 1701. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011159361 .

Secondary Sources

Also see the 18th-century overview page for more research sources… or browse our Zotero library .

Books/Articles

About the author.

Michele Majer

Michele Majer is Assistant Professor of European and American Clothing and Textiles at the Bard Graduate Center for Decorative Arts, Design History and Material Culture and a Research Associate at Cora Ginsburg LLC. She specializes in the 18th through 20th centuries, with a focus on exploring the material object and what it can tell us about society, culture, literature, art, economics and politics. She curated the exhibition and edited the accompanying publication, Staging Fashion, 1880-1920: Jane Hading, Lily Elsie, Billie Burke, which examined the phenomenon of actresses as internationally known fashion leaders at the turn-of-the-20th century and highlighted the printed ephemera (cabinet cards, postcards, theatre magazines, and trade cards) that were instrumental in the creation of a public persona and that contributed to and reflected the rise of celebrity culture.

1791 – Rose Adélaïde Ducreux, Self-Portrait with a Harp

Last updated Aug 24, 2018 | Published on Feb 24, 2017

1794 – Gilbert Stuart, Matilda Stoughton de Jaudenes

Last updated Mar 8, 2018 | Published on Mar 24, 2017

Last updated Aug 13, 2018 | Published on Feb 24, 2017

Last updated Aug 13, 2018 | Published on Mar 24, 2017

Recent Essays

Introduction to Rococo

The beginnings of rococo.

In the early years of the 1700s, at the end of the reign of Louis XIV (who dies in 1715), there was a shift away from the classicism and “Grand Manner” (based on the art of Poussin) that had governed the art of the preceding 50 years, toward a new style that we call Rococo. Versailles was abandoned by the aristocracy, who once again took up residence in Paris. A shift away from the monarchy, toward the aristocracy characterizes this period.

What kind of lifestyle did the aristocracy lead during this period? Remember that the aristocracy had enormous political power as well as enormous wealth. Many chose leisure as a pursuit and became involved themselves in romantic intrigues. Indeed, they created a culture of luxury and excess that formed a stark contrast to the lives of most people in France. The aristocracy, only a small percentage of the population of France, owned over 90% of its wealth. A small, but growing middle class does not sit still with this for long (remember the French Revolution of 1789).

Digital Object Identifier (DOI)

https://doi.org/https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Art/Art_History_(Boundless)/28%3A_European_and_American_Art_in_the_18th_and_19th_Centuries/28.02%3A_Rococo#Rococo_Architecture

The Rococo style – an introduction

Rococo was perhaps the most rebellious of design styles. Often described as the final expression of the Baroque movement, it was exceptionally ornamental and theatrical – a style without rules. Compared to the order, refinement and seriousness of the Classical style, Rococo was seen as superficial, degenerate and illogical.

The Rococo first emerged in France during the 1720s and 30s as a style developed by craftspeople and designers rather than architects, which explains why it is found primarily in furniture, silver and ceramics.

Rococo takes its name from the French word 'rocaille', which means rock or broken shell – natural motifs that often formed part of the designs, along with fish and other marine decorations. The acanthus leaf ( Acanthus mollis ), or rather a heavily stylised version of it, was also a signature motif. Another key feature of the design is its curved asymmetric ornamentation, where its forms often resemble the letters 'S' and 'C', and where one half of the design does not match the other.

Rococo flourished in English design between 1740 and 1770. It first appeared in England in silver and engravings of ornament in the 1730s, with immigrant artists and craftspeople, including Huguenot refugees from France, such as Paul de Lamerie , playing a key role in its dissemination.

Also important was the St Martin's Lane Academy – known today as the Royal Academy of Arts – which was organised in 1735 by the painter William Hogarth (1697 – 1764) from a circle of artists and designers who gathered at Slaughter's Coffee House at the upper end of St Martin's Lane, London. This artistic set, which included amongst others the book illustrator Hubert-Francois Gravelot (1699 – 1773) and painter Andien de Clerment (died 1783), and the drawing classes they held at the academy, were highly influential in introducing and promoting the Rococo style in England.

Many felt the nation lacked the design and necessary skills to compete with imported French goods, which led to initiatives to improve design standards during the years when the Rococo was current in Britain. From 1742, the furniture designers and cabinet makers Matthias Lock and Henry Copland published a series of prints which introduced a distinctively British form of Rococo scrollwork. This style was widely adopted for woodcarving and other decorative work and subsequently dominated British Rococo design until the mid-1760s. For the first time in Britain most of the prints were of original designs rather than copies of continental production. However, British designers continued to imitate contemporary French work for silver, porcelain and furniture that were being made at the top end of the market.

Many pattern books of Rococo ornament of the type issued by Lock and Copland were published in England in the 1740s and 1750s. Their popularity stemmed from the complex and irregular three-dimensional forms of the Rococo style and its emphasis on variety and invention, which placed great demands on the design and modelling skills of British craftspeople. These designs were largely intended for craftspeople and designers and were hugely influential in disseminating the Rococo style. Rather than copying the entire design, woodcarvers would mine them for inspiration, cutting them up and adding their own ideas.

The most influential single set of pattern prints was put out as a book of furniture designs. The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director by Thomas Chippendale the Elder, was published first in parts and then as a collected edition in 1754. This book broke new ground in both being a source of design ideas and pattern book for potential customers. The patterns had the greatest effect among the smaller furniture makers, mostly outside London.

Explore a selection of pattern prints from The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Directors in our slideshow below:

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Mirror, Thomas Chippendale, 1762 – 65, London. Museum no. 2388-1855. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London

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A design for a nautical-themed frame, plate no.187 in The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker's Director, Thomas Chippendale, 1762 edition, London. Museum no. 2594. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Summary of Rococo

Centuries before the term "bling" was invented to denote ostentatious shows of luxury, Rococo infused the world of art and interior design with an aristocratic idealism that favored elaborate ornamentation and intricate detailing. The paintings that became signature to the era were created in celebration of Rococo's grandiose ideals and lust for the aristocratic lifestyle and pastimes. The movement, which developed in France in the early 1700s, evolved into a new, over-the-top marriage of the decorative and fine arts, which became a visual lexicon that infiltrated 18th century continental Europe.

Key Ideas & Accomplishments

Genre paintings were popular ways to represent the Rococo period's bold and joyous lust for life. This included fete galante , or works denoting outdoor pastimes, erotic paintings alive with a sense of whimsical hedonism, Arcadian landscapes, and the "celebrity" portrait, which positioned ordinary people in the roles of notable historical or allegorical characters.
Rococo art and architecture carried a strong sense of theatricality and drama, influenced by stage design. Theater's influence could be seen in the innovative ways painting and decorative objects were woven into various environments, creating fully immersive atmospheres.
Detail-work flourished in the Rococo period. Stucco reliefs as frames, asymmetrical patterns involving motifs and scrollwork, sculptural arabesque details, gilding, pastels, and tromp l'oeil are the most noted methods that were used to achieve a seamless integration of art and architecture.
The term "rococo" was first used by Jean Mondon in his Premier Livre de forme rocquaille et cartel (First book of Rococo Form and Setting) (1736), with illustrations that depicted the style used in architecture and interior design. The term was derived from the French rocaille , meaning "shell work, pebble-work," used to describe High Renaissance fountains or garden grottos that used seashells and pebbles, embedded in stucco, to create an elaborate decorative effect.

Key Artists

François Boucher Biography, Art & Analysis

Artworks and Artists of Rococo

The Embarkation for Cythera

Artist: Jean-Antoine Watteau

This painting depicts a number of amorous couples in elegant aristocratic dress within an idealized pastoral setting on Cythera, the mythical island where Venus, the goddess of love, birthed forth from the sea. The gestures and body language are evocative, as the man standing below center, his arm around the waist of the woman beside him, seems to earnestly entreat her, while she turns back to gaze wistfully at the other couples. A nude statue of the goddess rises from a pedestal that is garlanded with flowers on the right, as if presiding over the festivities. On the left, she is doubly depicted in a golden statue that places her in the prow of the boat. Nude putti appear throughout the scene, soaring into the sky on the left, or appearing between the couples and pushing them along, and nature is a languid but fecund presence. Overall, the painting celebrates the journey of love. As contemporary critic Jeb Perl wrote, "Watteau's paired lovers, locked in their agonizing, delicious indecision, are emblems of the ever-approaching and ever-receding possibility of love." As art critic Holly Brubach wrote, "Watteau's images are perfectly suspended between the moment just before and the moment after... the people he portrays are busy enacting not one but several possible scenarios." His figures are not so much recognizable individuals, as aristocratic types, with smooth powdered faces, that together create a kind of choreography of color and pleasure. With this work, Watteau's reception piece for the Academy, he pioneered the fête galante , or courtship painting, and launched the Rococo movement. As Jonathan Jones wrote, "In the misty, melting landscapes of paintings ... he unequivocally associates landscape and desire: if Watteau's art looks back to the courtly lovers of the middle ages it begins the modern history of sensuality in French art."

Oil on canvas - Musée du Louvre, Paris

Jean-Antoine Watteau: Pierrot (c. 1718-19)

This painting (formerly known as Gilles) depicts Pierrot, a traditional character in Italian commedia dell'arte . He is elevated on center stage in what appears to be a garden and he faces the viewer with a downcast expression as his white satin costume dominates, its ballooning midsection lit up. He seems almost like a two-dimensional cut-out figure. Other stock characters surround him but Pierrot remains separate as if he has stepped out of their scene. The negative space in the upper left further emphasizes Pierrot's isolation. As Jonathan Jones wrote, "Watteau makes the fiction of the picture manifest," as the character, "in his discomfort and alienation, rebels not only against his stock character role in the comedy, but his role in this painting. His stepping out of the play is also a stepping out of the fiction painted by Watteau." Watteau pioneered the artistic representation of theatrical worlds, a distinctive Rococo genre, and he also recast the character of Pierrot from a kind of bumbling, lovelorn fool into a figure of alienated longing. As Jones wrote, "representation of theatrical, socially marginal worlds, following Watteau, is central to French modern art, from the impressionists' cafe singers to Toulouse-Lautrec's dancers and prostitutes and Picasso's Harlequins." As the figure of Pierrot became a figure of the artist's alter ego, this painting influenced a number of later art movements and artists, including the Decadents, the Symbolists, and artists like André Derain, as seen in his Harlequin and Pierrot (c. 1924). The influence also extended to pop culture as shown in David Bowie's early performance in Lindsay Kemp's Pierrot in Turquoise (1967) where Bowie said, "I'm Pierrot. I'm Everyman. What I'm doing is theatre, and only theatre. What you see on stage isn't sinister. It's pure clown. I'm using myself as a canvas and trying to paint the truth of our time."

The Entrance to the Grand Canal

Artist: Canaletto

This noted landscape depicts the entrance to the Grand Canal in Venice, with a number of gondoliers and their passengers maneuvering horizontally across the canvas. Their asymmetrical placement creates movement as three gondolas extend upward in the center and draw the viewer's eye into the distance, further emphasized by the perspective of the buildings on the right and the church on the left. The subtle use of local colors give the piece a golden feel and a sense of the idyllic life of the times, which was informed by the Venetian school's love of Arcadian landscapes that heavily informed the Rococo aesthetic. Canaletto was a pioneer in painting from nature and conveying the atmospheric effects of a particular moment, which has led some scholars to see his work as anticipating Impressionism. As Jonathan Jones wrote, "the delicate feel for light playing on architecture...makes Canaletto so beguiling." At the same, his innovative use of topography, rendering a locale with scientific accuracy, influenced subsequent artists, as art historian John Russell noted, "he took hold of his native city as if no detail of its teeming life was too small or too trivial to deserve his attention." Venice was a noted stop for British aristocrats on the Grand Tour, and most of Canaletto's work was sold to this audience. The British art dealer Owen Swiny encouraged him to paint small, even postcard-sized, topographical views to sell to tourists, and the banker and art collector, Joseph Smith, became a noted patron, selling a large number of his works to King George III. In 1746 Canaletto moved to London where he painted scenes of London, such as his Westminster Bridge (1746). Ever since his work has retained its popularity and influence: it was featured in the David Bickerstaff film Canaletto and the Art of Venice (2017), and this painting was used in the video game Merchant Prince II (2001).

Oil on canvas - Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas

Soap Bubbles

Artist: Jean-Baptiste Simeon Chardin

This painting depicts two children at play. An older boy, leaning forward, blows through a reed, expanding a luminous soap bubble. A younger child in shadow, wearing a cap with a plume, peers over the ledge, his gaze also focused on the shimmering bubble. The color palette, muted with various shades of rich brown and black, emphasizes the contrasting light and ruddy glow of the boy's hands and face, so that the viewer too becomes aware of the hushed absorption in childhood play. The paint applied with a thick impasto conveys the tactile textures of stone, fabric, and skin. The work creates a feeling of childhood innocence focused on an ephemeral joy, while also being allusive, as the artist's contemporaries would have registered the soap bubble as a symbol of life's transience. Influenced by Dutch Golden Age genre painters, Chardin's realistic genre scenes were his unique contribution to the Rococo period. Unlike most artists who focused on the aristocracy and its entertainments, he depicted domestic scenes, children at play, and still lifes, all reflecting the Rococo's homage to leisurely pastimes. As Jones also wrote, Chardin painted "the world of middle-class pleasures" and the "French aesthetic of the everyday ...appears for the first time in Chardin's paintings and made him a cult figure for modern French artists and writers." His work influenced Gustave Courbet, Paul Cézanne, Édouard Manet, and Vincent Van Gogh, among others.

Oil on canvas - The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

La Toilette de Vénus (The Toilet of Venus)

Artist: François Boucher

This portrait depicts a nude Madame de Pompadour in the guise of Venus, the classical goddess of love, attended by three cherubs and two white doves. She sits on a chaise lounge, its back framed with gold rocaille topped with a statue of a reclining cherub. Blue drapes, luminescent with light and shadow, open to a partial view of a beautiful garden, frame the scene with an atmosphere of leisure. The figurative treatment is idealized, almost air-brushed, while the setting is ornately detailed and decorative, creating an overall effect that embodies the concept of luxury itself. Boucher transformed the Rococo period with his sensual depictions of the era's notable citizens, social celebrities, and past times, creating his own distinct, pictorial brand. A veritable "who's who of the time", Madame de Pompadour commissioned Boucher to paint this work for her private dressing room in the Chateau de Bellevue. The painting was a tribute to her, as she had played the title role of Venus in La Toilette de Venus (1750) at Versailles. As art historian Melissa Lee Hyde wrote, Boucher's portraits often pointed "to an interesting conflation of theatrical/performed identities and lived identities," showing "a passion for what we might call the art of appearance and an understanding of that art as a vehicle for fashioning and representing identity." Within a few decades, Neoclassicism repudiated Boucher's work for the same qualities that made it so popular among the aristocratic class. His work has only recently begun to be re-evaluated by art historians such as Melissa Lee Hyde and Jed Perl, and contemporary artists John Currin and Lisa Yuskavage have cited Boucher as a direct influence.

Portrait of Madame de Pompadour

This full-length portrait of Madame de Pompadour emphasizes stylish elegance, as she reclines in an exuberant green silk dress with a pattern of pink roses across her bodice and neckline. The room's interior, framed by gold brocade draperies with an elaborate gold cartel clock displayed over the fireplace, is equally resplendent. The details are also symbolic, as the bookcase full of books, the books scattered on the floor, and the clock shaped as a lyre and decorated with laurel, symbolize the love of literature, music, and poetry. She conveys both an air of confidence and pleasurable relaxation, her pink high heels peeking from below her skirt, two beautiful roses lying at her feet. Yet the work also depicts her intellectual influence, an open book in her left hand, a writing quill and an envelope on the table to the right. Turning her gaze to the left was, at the time, a pose that represented being engaged in philosophical thought. As a result, the work is a kind of social iconography, each element, carefully chosen and stylistically unified to create an exemplary image. Described by art critic Suzy Menkes, as "one of the earliest and most successful self-image makers," Madame de Pompadour commissioned this portrait, along with others by Boucher, and requested to see them, while they were in progress, so she could direct how she wished to appear. As Menkes noted, Boucher's "flattering and decorative paintings" were an early artistic example of "the celebrity tabloid treatment." In 1756 Pompadour was appointed lady-in-waiting at the court, and art historian Elise Goodman suggests that the moment depicted here, noted by the 8:20 on the clock, was meant to commemorate, "her elevation, when, at the height of aristocratic self-confidence...she withdrew to her library-boudoir to luxuriate in her new position and enjoy the activities she loved." Boucher's images of Madame Pompadour so characterized the Rococo movement that the writers Jules and Edmond de Goncourt were to write, "In a letter on the taste of the French, which is part of a collection of manuscript ephemera dating from 1751...I found carriages a la Pompadour, cloth in the couleur Pompadour, ragouts a la Pompadour... there is not a single scrap pertaining to the toilette of a woman that is not a la Pompadour."

Oil on canvas - Alte Pinakothek, Munich, Germany

Jean-Honoré Fragonard: The Swing (1767-68)

Artist: Jean-Honoré Fragonard

This iconic work depicts a fanciful woman flying on a swing in a verdant garden, her dress blooming like an extravagant pink flower, as a young dandy falls back into the bushes on the left, his face blushing with excitement to look up her skirt. In the shadows at the right an older man is pulling on the swing's ropes to propel the young woman forward. Beneath her are two embracing cherubs and at the left, another cupid stands on a pedestal holding his hand up to his lips in admonition. The image was scandalous for its time because of its densely layered sexual allusions. Fragonard's expressive brushstrokes create a swirling flow between figure and foliage, so that nature itself seems to be caught up in the excitement of the moment. At the same time, the artist used light and shadow to direct the viewer's eye toward discovering the work in stages. The viewer notices first the woman on the swing, then the young man, and, finally, the older man in shadow at the right. The effect is one of a kind of stage lighting, creating drama and narrative. Fragonard's work was rediscovered by the writers Edmund and Jules de Goncourt in L'Art du XVIIIe siècle (Eighteenth-Century Art) (1865), and his work subsequently influenced the Impressionists, particularly Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Berthe Morisot, who was also his granddaughter. The Swing has become an artistic and cultural icon. It was revisited by contemporary artists Yinka Shonibare and Kent Monkman in their own work. Balloon artist Larry Moss referred to it in his 3D installation of The Swing for his Masterworks series at the Phelps Art Center in 2013.

Oil on canvas - Wallace Collection, London

Allegory of the Planets and Continents

Artist: Tiepolo

This gorgeously festive depiction of the sun's course across the sky is presented in an operatic splendor of swirling arabesques, color, and light. At left of center, the Greek sun god Apollo stands with the radiant orb behind him, calling up the sun horses on his right. On the cornice, groups of allegorical figures with representative animals denote Europe, Asia, America, and Africa, while the gods, symbolizing the planets, swirl around the sun god. Mars, the god of war, is reclining with a nude Venus, on a dark cloud beneath Apollo, while Mercury with his caduceus in hand flies down from the upper left. This painting was made for a dazzling staircase ceiling he created at the Würzburg Residenz in Germany for the prince-bishop Carl Phillip von Grieffenklau. Painted on an enormous vault, Tiepolo's trompe l'oeil treatment created a dramatic impression in contrast to the white marble Neoclassical staircase designed by Balthasar Neumann. Tiepolo's painting of the Europe section includes a portrait of the architect, as well as of von Grieffenklau. Additionally, the artist portrayed his son Giandomenico and the artist Antonio Bossi, both of whom worked with him on the project, and a self-portrait. This fresco remains the largest in the world, composed so that the painting's individual sections could be viewed from a particular stopping place, as if the perspective adjusted to the position of the viewer. Tiepolo's innovation was his arrangement of pastels in a complementary scheme, so that the tension in the color would emphasize the narrative movement and the dramatic poses of the figures to create a lively effect. The result was called sprezzatura , or a "studied carelessness." As art historian Keith Christiansen wrote, Tiepolo "celebrates the imagination by transposing the world of ancient history and myth, the scriptures, and sacred legends into a grandiose, even theatrical language." It was this quality of Tiepolo's imagination that influenced Francisco Goya throughout his career, both in his early tapestry designs and later in his etchings as he drew upon Tiepolo's mysterious and sometimes bizarre prints in the Capricci (c. 1740-1742) and the Scherzi di fantasia (c. 1743-1757).

Oil on canvas

The Blue Boy

Artist: Thomas Gainsborough

This full-length portrait depicts a boy, wearing blue satin knee breeches and a lace-collared doublet as he gazes, unsmiling, at the viewer. Holding a plumed hat in his right hand, his other hand cocked on his hip, he conveys both self-confidence and a touch of swagger. Composed in layers of slashed and fine brushstrokes with delicate tints of slate, turquoise, cobalt, indigo, and lapis lazuli, the blue becomes resplendent, almost electric against the stormy and rocky landscape. Originally, the painting was thought to portray Jonathan Buttall, the son of a wealthy merchant, but contemporary scholarship has identified the model to most likely be the artist's assistant and nephew Gainsborough Dupont. As art critic Kimberly Chrisman-Campbell wrote, the work "is a kind of English Civil War cosplay popular for masquerade balls in the 18th century," depicting the boy in the outfit of a cavalier, worn by aristocratic Royalists of the 1630s. His posture and facial expression play the part as well, for cavaliers were defined not only by their stylish clothing but their nonchalant and swashbuckling attitude. Thus, the work, Gainsborough's most popular, is a tour de force , combining masterful portraiture with a costume study and his artistic reply to the works of Anthony van Dyck, famous for his portraiture of King Charles I's court and the cavaliers who supported him. Yet, by primarily using blue, traditionally thought to be more suited for background elements, Gainsborough also challenged traditional aesthetic assumptions. The work carries Rococo's traditional visual appeal and play with costumed figures, but Gainsborough also added innovative elements of realism, as seen in the buttons tightly lacing the doublet together, and prefigured Romanticism by portraying a solitary figure outlined against a turbulent sky. Gainsborough came to exemplify British Rococo with society portraits of his wealthy clients. The painting was immediately successful at its 1770 debut at the Royal Academy of Art in London and became so identified with British cultural identity that, when in 1921 the Duke of Westminster sold it to the American tycoon Henry Huntington, it caused a scandal. Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau's silent film Knabe in Blau ( The Boy in Blue ) (1919) was inspired by the painting, as was Cole Porter's song Blue Boy Blues (1922). Pop artist Robert Rauschenberg and contemporary artist Kehinde Wiley were inspired by the work, and artist Alex Israel referenced it in his Self Portrait (Dodgers) (2014‒2015). Shown at the Huntington Museum, paired with Thomas Lawrence's portrait of a girl in pink, Pinkie (1794), the work has taken on further cultural relevance, as both paintings have been used in the TV pilot for Eerie, Indiana (1991) and as set decorations on episodes of Leave It to Beaver (1957-1963).

Oil on canvas - Huntington Library, San Marino, California

Self-Portrait with Straw Hat

Artist: Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun

This self-portrait emphasizes both aristocratic but casual elegance and artistic prowess. Dressed in shimmering silk, her white cuffs drawing attention to her extended right hand, her white collar emphasizing the daring cut of her neckline, she holds a palette and brushes in her left hand. The wide brimmed straw hat, encircled with vibrant flowers and sporting, becomes a focal point of the work's emphasis on the play of light, as the upper part of her face is softly shadowed, bringing forth her confident direct gaze, while sunlight illuminates the right side of her face and her upper torso. Two long crystal earrings play counterpoint, echoing light and shadow. The background is only sky, its robin's egg blue framing her face, and the overall effect is as art historian Simon Schama wrote, "a fetching but carefully calculated nonchalance." This work was influenced by Peter Paul Rubens' Le Chapeau de Paille ( The Straw Hat ) (1622-1625). After seeing it in Antwerp, Le Brun wrote, "it delighted and inspired me to such a degree that I made a portrait of myself at Brussels, striving to obtain the same effects." Women artists were confined to portraiture for the most part. A number of renowned female Rococo artists included Rosalba Carriera, Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, and Angelica Kauffman. The most well known was Vigée Le Brun, who, at the age of twenty-three, became the official painter for Queen Marie Antoinette. Le Brun's innovations were in portraiture, as Schama wrote, "[n]o one, it became quickly apparent...could compete with this young woman as an artist of artlessness, " and her "great breakthrough is to remake women, immemorially the prisoner of male ogling, into the unmistakable mistress of their own presence."

Oil on canvas - The National Gallery, London

Beginnings of Rococo

In painting Rococo was primarily influenced by the Venetian School's use of color, erotic subjects, and Arcadian landscapes, while the School of Fontainebleau was foundational to Rococo interior design.

The Venetian School

The noted painters Giorgione and Titian , among others, influenced the Rococo period's emphasis on swirling color and erotic subject matter. Pastoral Concert (c. 1509), first attributed to Giorgione, though now credited by most scholars as one of Titian's early works, was classified as a Fête champêtre , or outdoor party, by the Louvre when it first became part of the museum's collection. The Renaissance work depicting two nude women and two aristocratic men playing music in an idealized pastoral landscape would heavily influence the development of Rococo's Fête galante , or courtship paintings. The term referred to historical paintings of pleasurable past times and became popularized in the works of Jean-Antoine Watteau.

School of Fontainebleau 1528-1630

In 1530 King Francis I, a noted art patron, invited the Italian artist Rosso Florentino to the French court, where, pioneering the courtly style of French Mannerism , Rosso founded the School of Fontainebleau. The school became known for its unique interior design style in which all the elements created a highly choreographed unity. Rosso pioneered the use of large stucco reliefs as frames, adorned with decorative and gilded motifs that would heavily influence Rococo's emphasis on elaborated settings.

Gilding was a key contribution of Fontainebleau, providing exquisite splendor to objects as seen in Benevento Cellini's famous Salt Cellar (1543), which Francis I commissioned in gold. Even simple elements of Rococo interiors became highly accentuated as seen in the popularity of cartel clocks, embedding regular clocks into intricate settings that resembled pieces of sculpture, and which seamlessly complemented the overall look and feel of their surrounding interiors.

The Era of Rococo Design

Pierre Le Pautre's interior design for the Bull's Eye Antechamber (1701) was exemplar, while the two round windows at either end gave the chamber its name.

Rococo debuted in interior design when engraver Pierre Le Pautre worked with architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart on the Château de Marly (1679-1684), and later at Versailles in 1701 when he redesigned Louis XIV's private apartments. Le Pautre pioneered the use of arabesques, employing an s-shaped or c-shaped line, placed on white walls and ceilings. He also used inset panels with gilded woodwork, creating a whimsical, lighter style. Le Pautre was primarily known as an ornemaniste , or designer of ornament, which reflects the popular role at the time of artisans and craftsmen in developing the highly decorative style.

During the reign of Louis XIV, France had become the dominant European power, and the combination of great wealth and peaceful stability led the French to turn their attention toward personal affairs and the enjoyment of worldly pleasures. When the King died in 1715, his heir Louis XV was only five years old, so the Regency, led by the Duc d' Orléans, ruled France until the Dauphin came of age. The Duke was known for his hedonistic lifestyle, and Rococo's aesthetics seemed the perfect expression of the era's sensibility. Taking the throne in 1723, Louis XV also became a noted proponent and patron of Rococo architecture and design. Since France was the artistic center of Europe, the artistic courts of other European countries soon followed suit in their enthusiasm for similar embellishments.

Jean-Antoine Watteau

Jean-Antoine Watteau spearheaded the Rococo period in painting. Born in Valenciennes, a small provincial village in Belgium that had recently been acceded to the French, his precocity in art and drawing led to his early apprenticeship with a local painter. Subsequently he went to Paris where he made a living producing copies of works by Titian and Paolo Veronese . He joined the studio of Claude Audran, who was a renowned decorator, where he met and became an artistic colleague of Claude Gillot, known for his decoration of commedia dell'arte , or comic theater productions. As a result, Watteau's work often expressed a theatrical approach, showing figures in costume amongst backdrop scenery, lit up with artificial light.

In 1712 Watteau entered the Prix de Rome competition of the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, and the Academy admitted him as a full member. His "reception piece" for the Academy, Embarkation for Cythera (1717), effectively launched the Rococo movement. The Academy coined the term Fête galante , or courtship party, to refer to the work, thus establishing the category that was to be a dominant element of Rococo painting. Fête galante paintings depicted the fête champêtre , or garden party, popular among the aristocratic class, where, dressed as if for a ball or wearing costumes, they would wine, dine, and engage in amorous pursuits within Arcadian gardens and parks. The artistic subject not only appealed to private patrons, but its mythologized landscapes and settings met the standards of the Academy which ranked historical painting, including mythological subjects, as the highest category.

Claude Audren was the official Keeper of the Luxembourg Palace and, while working with him, Watteau copied Peter Paul Ruben's series of twenty-four paintings of the Life of Marie de' Medici (1622-25), which was displayed at the palace. Ruben's series, combining allegorical figures and mythological subjects with depictions of the Queen and the aristocratic court, continued to inform Watteau's work. Rubens had pioneered the technique of trois crayons , meaning three chalks, a technique using red, black, and white, to create coloristic effects. Watteau mastered the technique to such a degree that his name became associated with it, and it was widely adopted by later Rococo artists, including François Boucher .

François Boucher

Influenced by Rubens and Watteau, François Boucher became the most renowned artist of the mature Rococo period, beginning in 1730 and lasting until the 1760s. Noted for his painting that combined aristocratic elegance with erotic treatments of the nude, as seen in his The Toilet of Venus (1751), he was equally influential in decorative arts, theatrical settings, and tapestry design. He was appointed First Painter to the King in 1765, but is most known for his long time association with Madame de Pompadour, the official first mistress of King Louis XV and a noted patron of the arts. As a result of his mastery of Rococo art and design and his royal patronage, Boucher became "one of those men who represent the taste of a century, who express, personify and embody it," as the noted authors Edmond and Jules de Goncourt wrote.

Madame de Pompadour

Madame de Pompadour, born Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson, has been called the "godmother of the Rococo," due to her centrality in promoting the style and establishing Paris as the artistic capital of Europe. She influenced further applications of Rococo due to her patronage of artists such as Jean-Marc Nattier, the sculptor Jean Baptiste Pigalle, the wallpaper designer Jean-Baptiste Réveillon, and the gemstone engraver Jacques Guay. The King's official first mistress from 1745-1751, she remained his confidant and trusted advisor until her death at the age of 42 due to tuberculosis. Her role and status became the de facto definition of royal patronage.

Rococo: Concepts, Styles, and Trends

French rococo.

This photograph shows the ornate gilded ceiling of Charles-Joseph Natoire and Germain Boffrand's La Salon de la Princesse (1735-1740).

France was the center of the development of Rococo. In design, the salon, a room for entertaining but also impressing guests, was a major innovation. The most famous example was Charles-Joseph Natoire and Germain Boffrand's La Salon de la Princesse (1735-1740) in the residence of the Prince and Princess de Soubise. The cylindrical interior's white walls, gilded wood, and many mirrors created a light and airy effect. Arabesque decorations, often alluding to Roman motifs, cupids, and garlands, were presented in gold stucco and plate relief. Asymmetrical curves, sometimes derived from organic forms, such as seashells or acanthus fronds, were elaborate and exaggerated. The minimal emphasis on architecture and maximum emphasis on décor would become cornerstone to the Rococo movement.

Painting was an essential part of the Rococo movement in France, and the noted painters who led the style, Antoine Watteau followed by François Boucher, influenced all elements of design from interiors to tapestries to fashion. Other noted artists included Jean-Baptiste van Loo, Jean-Marc Nattier, and François Lemoyne. Lemoyne was noted for his historical allegorical paintings as seen in his Apotheosis of Hercules (1733-1736) painted on the Salon of Hercules' ceiling at Versailles. A noted feature of French Rococo painting was the manner in which a number of noted artist families, such as the van Loos and the Coypels, maintained a consistent style and subject matter in their workshops.

Italian Rococo

Painting took the lead in Italian Rococo, exemplified by the works of the Venetian artist Tiepolo . Combining the Venetian School's emphasis on color with quadratura , or ceiling paintings, Tiepolo's masterworks were frescos and large altarpieces. Famed throughout Europe, he received many royal commissions, such as his series of ceiling paintings in the Wurzburg Residenz in Germany, and his Apotheosis of the Spanish Monarchy (1762-1766) in the Royal Palace in Madrid.

Italian Rococo was also noted for its great landscape artists known as "view-painters," particularly Giovanni Antonio Canal, known simply as Canaletto . He pioneered the use of two-point linear perspective while creating popular scenes of the canals and pageantry of Venice. His works, such as his Venice: Santa Maria della Salute (c. 1740), were in great demand with English aristocrats. In the 1700s it became customary for young English aristocrats to go on a "Grand Tour," visiting the noted sites of Europe in order to learn the classical roots of Western culture. The trips launched a kind of aristocratic tourism, and Venice was a noted stop, famed for its hedonistic carnival atmosphere and picturesque views. These young aristocrats were also often art collectors and patrons, and most of Canaletto's works were sold to an English audience, and in 1746 he moved to England to be closer to his art market and lived there for almost a decade.

Rosalba Carriera's pastel portraits, both miniature and full-size, as well as her allegorical works were in demand throughout Europe, as she was invited to the royal courts of France, Austrian, and Poland. She pioneered the use of pastels, previously only employed for preparatory drawings, as a medium for painting, and, by binding the chalk into sticks, developed a wider range of strokes and prepared colors. Her Portrait of Louis XV as Dauphin (1720-1721) established the new style of Rococo portraiture, emphasizing visual appeal and decorative effect.

The reception room in Filippo Juvarra's Rococo design of Stupinigi Palace (1729-1931).

In architecture, Italy continued to emphasize the Baroque with its strong connection to the Catholic church until the 1720s when the architect Filippo Juvarra built several Northern Italian Palaces in the Rococo style. His masterwork was the Stupinigi Palace (1729-1731), built as the hunting lodge for the King of Sardinia in Turin. At the same time, Rococo interiors became popular in Genoa, Sardinia, Sicily, and Venice where the style took on regional variations particularly in furniture design. Italian Rococo interiors were particularly known for their Venetian glass chandeliers and mirrors and their rich use of silk and velvet upholstery.

German Rococo

Germany's enthusiasm for Rococo expressed itself exuberantly and primarily in architectural masterpieces and interior design, as well as the applied arts. A noted element of German Rococo was the use of vibrant pastel colors like lilac, lemon, pink, and blue as seen in François de Cuvilliés' design of the Amalienburg (1734-1739), a hunting lodge for the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII in Munich. His Hall of Mirrors in the Amalienburg has been described by art historian Hugh Honour as exemplifying "easy elegance and gossamer delicacy."

Jacob Prandtauer's Melk Abbey (1702-1736) exemplified the German Rococo use of color and innovations in spatial construction as seen in the rippling front wall, and site location, as the building overlooks the Danube River.

German design motifs while employing asymmetry and s- and c- curved shapes, often drew upon floral or organic motifs, and employed more detail. German architects also innovatively explored various possibilities for room designs, cutting away walls or making curved walls, and made the siting of new buildings an important element of the effect, as seen in Jacob Prandtauer's Melk Abbey (1702-1736)

English Rococo

England's employment of Rococo, which was called "French style," was more restrained, as the excesses of the style were met with a somber Protestantism. As a result, rocaille introduced by the émigré engraver Hubert-François Gravelot and the silversmith Paul de Lamerie, was only employed as details and occasional motifs. Around 1740 the Rococo style began to be employed in British furniture, most notably in the designs of Thomas Chippendale. His catalogue Gentleman's and Cabinet-makers' directory (1754), illustrating Rococo designs, became a popular industry standard.

Rococo had more of an impact upon British artists such as William Hogarth , Thomas Gainsborough , and the Swiss Angelica Kauffman . In his The Analysis of Beauty (1753) Hogarth advocated for the use of a serpentine line, seeing it as both more organic and aesthetically ideal. Gainsborough first studied with Gravelot, a former student of Boucher, whose feathery brushwork and color palette influenced Gainsborough's portraiture toward fluidity of light and color. Though Swiss-born, Angelica Kauffman spent most of her life in Rome and London. From 1766 to 1781 she lived in London where influential Sir Joshua Reynolds particularly admired her portraiture. One of only two women elected to the Royal Academy of Arts in London, she played a significant role in both advancing the Rococo style and, subsequently, Neoclassicism .

Later Developments - After Rococo

In 1750 Madame de Pompadour sent her nephew Abel-François Poisson de Vandières to study developments in Italian art and archeology. Returning with an enthusiasm for classical art, Vandières was appointed director of the King's Buildings where he began to advocate for a Neoclassical approach. He also became a noted art critic, condemning Boucher's petit style , or "little style." Noted thinkers of the day, including the philosopher Voltaire, the art critic Diderot also critiqued Rococo as superficial and decadent. These trends, along with a rising revolutionary fervor in France caused Rococo to fall out of favor by 1780.

The new movement Neoclassicism, led by the artist Jacques-Louis David , emphasized heroism and moral virtue. David's art students even sang the derisive chant, "Vanloo, Pompadour, Rococo," singling out the style, one of its leading artists, and it most noted patron. As a result, by 1836 it was used to mean "old-fashioned," and by 1841 was used to denote works seen as "tastelessly florid or ornate." The negative connotations continued into the 20 th century, as seen in the 1902 Century Dictionary description "Hence rococo is used... to note anything feebly pretentious and tasteless in art or literature."

Rococo design and painting would veer toward divergent paths, as Rococo design, despite the new trends in the capital, continued to be popular throughout the French provinces. In the 1820s under the restored monarchy of King Louis Philippe, a revival called the "Second Rococo" style became popular and spread to Britain and Bavaria. In Britain the revival became known as Victorian Rococo and lasted until around 1870, while also influencing the American Rococo Revival in the United States, led by John Henry Belter. The style, widely employed for upscale hotels, was dubbed "Le gout Ritz" into the 20 th century. However, in painting Rococo fell out of favor, with the exception of the genre paintings of Chardin , highly praised by Diderot, which continued to be influential and would later make a noted impact on Paul Cézanne , Édouard Manet , and Vincent van Gogh .

Edmund and Jules de Goncourt rediscovered the major Rococo painter Jean-Honoré Fragonard in L'Art du XVIIIe siècle ( Eighteenth-Century Art ) (1865). He subsequently influenced the Impressionists , especially Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Berthe Morisot , and has gone on to influence contemporary artists like Yinka Shonibare, Kent Monkman, and Lisa Yuskavage .

Also rediscovered by the de Goncourt brothers, Watteau's commedia dell'arte subjects influenced Pablo Picasso , Cézanne , and Henri Matisse , as well as many poets such as Paul Verlaine and Guillaume Apollinaire , the composer Arnold Schoenberg, and the choreographer George Balanchine.

The term Rococo and the artists associated with it only began to be critically re-evaluated in the late 20 th century, when the movements of Pop Art and the works of artists like Damien Hirst , Kehinde Wiley , and Jeff Koons created a new context for art expressing the same ornate, stylistic, and whimsical treatments. Rococo has had a contemporary influence as seen in Ai Weiwei's Logos 2017 where, as art critic Roger Catlin wrote, "What looks like a fancy rococo wallpaper design in black and white and in gold is actually an arrangement of handcuffs, chains, surveillance cameras, Twitter birds and stylized alpacas - an animal which in China has become a meme against censorship." The movement also lives on in popular culture, as shown in Arcade Fire's hit song "Rococo" (2010).

Useful Resources on Rococo

Landmarks of Western Art: From Rococo to Revolution

Rococo: Art of the Century By Victoria Charles and Klaus H. Carl
Rococo to Revolution: Major Trends in Eighteenth-Century Painting Our Pick By Michael Levey
Rococo: The Continuing Curve By Sarah D. Coffin
Rococo By Eve Gesine Baur
Würzburg Residence Our Pick Staircase
Watteau at the Royal Academy: the theatre of life Our Pick By Jonathan Jones / The Guardian / March 14, 2011
The Clown Prince Our Pick By Holly Brubach / New York Times / October 19, 2008
Canaletto's Venice: a city for pleasure seekers By Nick Trend / The Telegraph / October 13, 2010
How Canaletto and the Venetian artists light up the National Gallery By Jonathan Jones / The Guardian / October 15, 2010
More Than Rococo Pinups Among Boucher's Drawings By Ken Johnson / New York Times / October 24, 2003
Saving One of Western Art's Most Iconic Paintings By Kimberly Chrisman-Campbell / The Atlantic / September 22, 2017
The Praise and Prejudices Vigée Le Brun Faced in Her Exceptional 18th-Century Career By Tiernan Morgan / Hyperallergic / May 12, 2016
Madame de Pompadour Was Far More Than a 'Mistress' By Kat Eschner / smithsonian.com / December 29, 2017
The Faces of Madame de Pompadour By Suzy Menkes / New York Times / December 3, 2002

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Edited and revised, with Summary and Accomplishments added by Kimberly Nichols

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How Fashion Reflected the Transition from Rococo to Neoclassicism in the 18th Century.

National University of Ireland- Maynooth,, 2014

The 18th Century was a period marked by significant changes in all aspects, since the way people related to their Rulers until the way furniture was made and the paints were painted. A period of luxury, wealth, palaces and opulence, but also revolution, poverty and masses’ dissatisfaction. A century marked by the raising of huge designers, a new way of trading and consumption, the beginning of industrialization and brand new ideas related to social welfare. This study is about how women fashion was a reflection of all these huge changes and how as a differentiation and complex meaningful factor fashion can be used as a way to understand the behaviours and beliefs of that period.

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This article describes aspects of women’s clothes in relation to Barcelona at a time when one of the most important sections of the textile industry was emerging: haute couture. We analyze the production method and the factors that enabled creators to be recognized though labels, which provides evidence of a significant change in culture and everyday life in Barcelona. Although textiles and clothing are of undeniable value as historical documents that help us to understand the economic and cultural status of a society, we consider that it is important to stress the gender aspect of clothing, in other words, the information that this topic provides about women. In this paper, we study social aspects of textile and fashion, particularly the relationship between dressmakers and the development of haute couture in Barcelona. We do not only focus on the consumption of clothes, but also on production, so that we can recreate many voices and experiences linked to the development of the city, which are frequently overlooked in the dominant narratives. Clearly, an interdisciplinary study within the new social ciences should be carried out to consider and reconsider the history of textile and fashion from a gender perspective. Some authors have studied the ways in which fashion changes, flows, fluctuates, comes up with new forms and reinvents old ones. However, we still need an in-depth study of the beginnings of haute couture as part of the textile history and its social impact on the nineteenth-century woman, particularly in Catalonia.

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This paper traces the salient phenomena that have marked the history of fashion and define it as it is nowadays. Foremost, an attempt is made to value the term "fashion" under different lights. From the 18th century onward, there was a succession of historical, political, social, and cultural changes that accelerated the phenomenon consolidation of fashion as a cultural phenomenon of great importance and dynamism, both in terms of its incursions into the languages of art and in terms of the international economy. A few focuses follow: on Lombard clothing, on how some items played different roles besides clothing, on the costume in the Goldoni's theater, on the twentieth-century Decadentism of Oscar Wilde, and others. Other aspects that characterize the industry today follow: the intersection of fashion with all the other arts, the role of magazines in the process of women's emancipation, the meaning of "fashion showcase", luxury brands and the phenomenon of their counterfeiting, the role of the "prosumer", and sustainable fashion laws, looking toward a future zero-carbon society.

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Eighteenth-century French fashion calls to mind images of the voluminous silk sack dresses sported by aristocratic women in Jean-Antoine Watteau's fête galante, Madame de Pompadour's robe à la française fl owing over impossibly wide hoops to fi ll François Boucher's canvases, and the sky-high confections of Marie Antoinette's marchande de modes, Rose Bertin, who teased and tightly wound hair over a scaff olding of wool and gauze, laced it with ribbons and jewels, and fi nished the coiff ure with a powdering of the fi nest white fl our. Eighteenth-century French fashions permitted elite French women literally to embody the style of Louis XV and cloak themselves in the aesthetic of rococo. Yet, until the 1980s and 1990s, eighteenth-century French fashion was a topic that few historians felt compelled to engage seriously as an academic subject. When French fashion entered the narrative of French history, it was as a story of aristocratic refi nement descending into frivolity and decadence heading inevitably toward the guillotine. Fashion was a story that historians happily neglected, leaving the world of hoopskirts and hairstyles to art historians, fashion and textile historians, museum directors, collectors, and connoisseurs. All that began to change, however, in the 1980s, when social historians, women's historians, and historians inspired by the new "cultural turn" 1 in history discovered that shopgirls and seamstresses made fi tting subjects for historical inquiry; that mantuas, corsets, and wigs had stories to tell; and that Pompadour's silks and Marie Antoinette's poufs were linked to major transformations in consumption. Historians became interested in the history of eighteenth-century fashion when they realized not only that clothing was deeply gendered but that fashion culture itself was deeply tied to important historical questions about gender, consumer culture, power, and the modern self.

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Yearbook of the »Gheorghe Şincai« Institute for Social Sciences and the Humanities of the Romanian Academy

Sonia D Andraș

This paper delineates the conceptual variations between the notions 'fashion', 'dress' and 'costume' in English-language texts on women's garment histories using relevant examples from interwar Romanian periodicals. The aim is to offer a more precise formulation, as these three terms have largely been used interchangeably. This paper is built on an interdisciplinary model stemming from fashion studies towards semiotics, sociology and cultural and art history. I define 'fashion' as a permanently changing progeny of modernity linked to capitalism and consumerism, but also to modernism and technological progress. 'Dress' is a generalised term for clothing worn in a variety of contexts connected more to identity or activity. 'Costume' narrows the scope of 'dress' to a particular style or outfit suggesting specific markers of social position, occupation or ethnicity and can often be deemed as necessary for admission, recognition or acceptability in certain contexts. 'Fashion' would then chiefly apply to cultural studies or history, 'dress' to anthropology or sociology and 'costume' to ethnology or media and art history. Using interwar Romanian examples, this paper offers a viable terminological clarification regarding genre, subject, scope and usability for historical sartorial themes.

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Yearbook of the "Gheorghe Şincai" Institute for Social Sciences and the Humanities of the Romanian Academy

Rococo Fashion | History & Designs

Kristen has eight years teaching experience and holds a license in the state of Wisconsin. She earned her Bachelor of Arts in History from the University of Florida. Her area of expertise is American History and World War II.

Chris has a master's degree in history and teaches at the University of Northern Colorado.

Rococo period, rococo fashion, rococo fashion history, elements of rococo in modern fashion, lesson summary, what is rococo known for.

Rococo is known for its flirtatious nature and the pursuit of pleasure. It was whimsical and fun, making it an abrupt departure from the seriousness of Baroque.

What are the characteristics of the Rococo period?

The Rococo period was the last major aristocratic movement of France. During this period, the wealthy indulged in partying, pretty things, and pleasure.

What is the difference between Baroque and Rococo fashion?

Baroque had a seriousness and formality that Rococo lacked. In particular, the negligee, which was originally a private nightgown, became inspiration for public attire.

What fabrics were used in Rococo fashion?

Fabrics for Rococo fashions included linen, silk, cotton, and wool. There were also varieties of silk, such as taffeta and etles. Damask and brocade were made with a variety of fabrics and had unique designs and textures.

Following the dark, contemplative Baroque movement and the ascent of Louis XV of France, a lighter aesthetic emerged in the 1730s. Rococo , as it was known, wielded embellishments, delicate tones, and a playful spontaneity not seen in past movements. Rococo celebrated the pursuit of pleasure from an aristocratic point of view. It romanticized the upper-class's leisurely lifestyle, which prioritized courting, celebrations, and vacations. The disparity between the wealthy's obsession with their riches and the plight of poor peasants further stoked the flames of revolution. With the eruption of the French Revolution in 1789, the rejection of Rococo was also the end of aristocrat-led fashion.

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0:04 Rococo Fashion
1:00 Rococo Designs
2:00 Women's Fashions
3:26 Men's Fashion
4:27 Impact on Society
4:58 Lesson Summary

King Louis XV and his court were major influences on Rococo. Upon reaching the tender age of five, his great-grandfather King Louis XIV died. From 1715 until 1723, known as the Regence era, Philippe d'Orléans governed while Louis XV was a minor and extended the preceding king's style. From his accession to the throne at the age of thirteen to his twentieth birthday, the French style evolved and then turned a corner in the year 1730 with the emergence of an original, opulent look.

Art, architecture, and theater all played a role in the Rococo movement. To understand Rococo era fashions, one must first understand the movement's aesthetics as a whole. Rococo embraced wealth and the frivolity it enabled, as shown by extravagant decorating and the use of the finest materials. The principal goals of this lifestyle were relaxation, entertainment, and beauty. As far as the rich were concerned, they were not shackled with peasantry work and thus they played. They surrounded themselves with luxury, adorning their homes with organic designs and dressing in soft pastel color schemes. Aristocracy spent much of their time on private estates, hosting parties and shirking other courtly duties. From this irreverence and self-indulgence, fashion evolved to complement their extravagant lifestyle.

Rococo Men's Fashion

While men's fashion did change, Rococo retained many Baroque elements. Throughout the 18th century, men wore shirts, underpants, stockings held up by garters, trousers, jabot collar, long waistcoat, coat, tricorn hat, and leather shoes. The French suit, or habit à la française , was the most significant male fashion development. It featured a matching waistcoat and coat with shoulder bows. Trousers grew to be knee-length and extended over stockings.

As the emphasis shifted from private to public clothing, overcoats, also known as riding coats, became more common. Coats became longer and began to flare out at the bottom. Curvy shapes, pastel hues, lace, and luxuriant embroidery defined this new style. Rococo was the final period where everyday men's fashion was so decorative and seemingly feminine. Aristocratic men also powdered their faces and wore wigs. Rococo refined the over-the-top wigs of the Baroque period, which often featured tamed curls and a simple ponytail tied at the neck.

Portrait of Louis XV (1742)

Rococo Women's Fashion

The clothing of aristocratic women changed dramatically throughout the 18th century. Rococo clothing became looser and less official than those worn during the Baroque period. The robe volante, in particular, had a very informal look. The front and back had large pleats that ran from the shoulders to the hem. The négligée inspired this style, and women began to publicly wear clothing that had previously only been worn in private. This style evolved into the robe à la française, which cinched the front waist while allowing the back to flow freely.

While there were changes in dress structure, women continued to wear corsets, bodices, and hoop skirts. By 1750, the panniers, or basket, dress emerged. The frame of the skirt consisted of light wood covered in linen. It was constructed to move with the wearer and would fold when they sat down. With its unnatural look, this extravagant dress is thought to portray man's triumph over nature, a popular topic of the period.

Rococo embraced the artificial and lavish lifestyles of the aristocracy. One of the most prominent figures of this movement was Madame de Pompadour , King Louis XV's favorite mistress. Madame adorned herself in taffeta silks, sugary pastels, flowers, and decadent furs. While she often styled her hair back and powdered gray, as time went on, styles became more extravagant.

The Panniers Dress

Rococo reflected the changes in the French aristocracy. The movement's beginning coincides with King Louis XV turning twenty and coming into his own. He moved on from the Baroque favored by his great-grandfather Louis XIV. Colors lightened, shapes became more curvaceous and spontaneity was embraced. His aesthetics, which became known as the Louis XV style, flourished under the influence of Madame de Pompadour. His mistress fully embodied the frilly, flirtatious nature of the period. Designers felt free to experiment, creating dramatic new shapes and celebrating opulence. Aristocrats boldly wore their fancy clothes in public, highlighting the social divisions in France. Tensions rose as the wealthy partied and the poor suffered. When the revolution overthrew the monarchy, it also brought an end to Aristocratic-led fashion.

Styles of the Rococo period remain influential today. The hairstyle known as the Pompadour is a nod to the voluminous updos popular during this era. While Madame de Pompadour inspired the name, she did not wear voluminous updos. The look more closely resembles Marie Antoinette, whose reign refined Rococo aesthetics and saw its end with the French Revolution. This style emerged in the 1950s, worn by Elvis Presley, and again in the 2010s by boy bands such as One Direction. The Japanese subculture Lolita mixes styles from Rococo with Victorian-era fashion for a playful twist.

Rococo was an aesthetic movement that rejected the solemnity of the Baroque while maintaining its love for extravagance. The defining characteristics of Rococo art were incorporated into fashion. It was delicate, light, and elegant, rejecting the gravity of previous movements. Rococo fashions were influential throughout Europe, but this was primarily a French movement, particularly with its ties to Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour .

Notably, women's dress began to combine public and private elements. Due to the fact that Rococo aristocrats spent less time in court and more time hosting parties at home, garments inspired by the négligée were included in Rococo women's attire. Many women stopped wearing wigs, but men continued to do so with simpler styles. The habit à la française , or French suit, was the most significant fashion development in menswear.

Video Transcript

For generations, the royal courts of Europe set the standards of fashion. When did this stop, and why? In the Americas, independence movements elevated the common people over the aristocrats, and working class fashions used to celebrate that. In Europe, the slow rise of constitutions that challenged the absolute power of the monarchs resulted in the same trend. In no other place, however, was this shift as dramatic as in France.

The French Revolution at the end of the 18th century resulted in the violent rejection of the monarchy, and peasant fashions became national fashions. Before this, however, there was the Rococo . The Rococo was the era from roughly 1720 to 1789, when the French aristocracy began to obsess over their wealth and finery. France was divided between the lavishly dressed ruling class and the impoverished peasantry. The Rococo was, therefore, the last truly aristocratic style of France. When it was rejected, the entire aristocracy was rejected with it.

Rococo Designs

The Rococo was an entire artistic movement, encompassing art, architecture, and theater. To understand the role of fashion in this world, we need to first understand the trends of the entire Rococo. This era followed the serious and grand Baroque era, characterized by extreme ornamentation to display solemn power. The Rococo completely abandoned the solemnity of the Baroque, but kept its focus on wealth and decoration.

Rococo designs tended to be lavishly ornate, with complex patterns and the finest of materials. Color palettes were light and pastel, designs were whimsical and asymmetrical, and organic motifs covered everything. Courtly life was about relaxation, fun, and the enjoyment of privileged wealth, often while ignoring the more solemn responsibilities that came along with it. As aristocrats were less often required in court, they spent most of their time in private estates, often hosting lavish parties. Fashion came to reflect this irreverence and self-interest, as well as this taste for all things fancy.

Women's Fashion

Aristocratic women's fashions of the 18th century were greatly influenced by the Rococo mentality. While Baroque clothing had been stiff and formal, Rococo women began adapting looser dresses and skirts. Since so much of aristocratic life now centered on private estates rather than the formal court, women began publicly wearing the sort of clothes that had previously only been worn in private. In particular, the negligee , which at the time was a type of morning robe, began appearing outside the house. Over time, this turned into loose robes worn over dresses or skirts and hanging off the shoulders. Dresses did still utilize corsets, bodices, and hoop skirts to emphasize a certain voluptuous and sensuous quality to the wearer. In the early Rococo, this style was loose and informal, but it became more ornate as finer materials and more decorative designs were employed into the later 18th century.

Of course, what would the Rococo be without extreme ornamentation? Women's fashion became defined by the sorts of finery attached to it. Materials were refined but airy, leaning towards taffeta silks in pastel colors. Fur trimmings lined robes and dresses, and flowered, organic details were sewn into everything. Hair was occasionally covered in a wig, but this Baroque style was more often replaced by pinned-up natural hairdos, which were powdered to look grey or white. Add to this some exquisite jewelry of playful gold or pearl designs, and you're ready for aristocratic Rococo society.

Men's Fashion

Men's fashion changed less drastically than women's did. However, while it still reflected many Baroque traits, it was also refined to be less solemn while still maintaining a sense of dignity. The most notable fashion trend was the habit à la francaise , the French suit, defined by matching coat and waistcoat, ribbons and bows on the shoulders, and short trousers with stockings.

This was the first style of Rococo men's fashion, and it changed across the century. The trousers became knee-length and extended over the stocking, coats became longer, and the emphasis on private fashions led to overcoats (or riding coats) becoming a staple of public fashion as well. This was also an influence of England's aristocracy on France, and other wool garments were adopted in what the French called their ''English fashion.'' Men's heels were shortened, and powder was often worn on the face. Unlike women, aristocratic men almost always wore wigs in public. However, as opposed to the massive, curly wigs of the Baroque, Rococo wigs tended to be simpler, with the hair tied into a single ponytail.

Impact on Society

The aristocrats of the Rococo were wealthy and privileged, but refined and dignified. They proudly sported their finery in public, which created a stark visualization of the division in French society. The peasantry dressed in simpler materials and simple versions of the aristocratic fashions. As the rich continued to elevate themselves over the poor, tensions grew and grew. When the peasantry finally toppled the monarchy, aristocratic fashion would fall as well. The Rococo would be the last time France looked to the aristocracy to define its fashions.

The Rococo was an era of the 18th century in France, lasting from roughly 1720-1789 when it was interrupted by the French Revolution. It was a movement of elegance and refinement, characterized by pastel colors, organic motifs, and light but plentiful ornamentation. Women's fashion was influenced by the blending of private and courtly life, and the negligee was a robe that set the tone for looser public fashions throughout the century. Men's styles began with the habit à la francaise and retained more Baroque qualities, but also became longer and more refined. The finery of aristocratic styles contrasted against the simplicity of the neglected peasantry, which visibly illustrated the sharp divisions in French society. When the peasantry finally toppled the monarchy, aristocratic fashion would fall as well. The Rococo ended, and the era of commoner-influenced clothing began.

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Visiting Sleeping Beauties: Reawakening Fashion?

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

American rococo.

High chest of drawers

Attributed to Benjamin Randolph

The British architect; or, the builder's treasury of staircases...

Written and designed by Abraham Swan

Daniel Christian Fueter

Rattle, Whistle, and Bells

Nicholas Roosevelt

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Thomas Affleck

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John Elliott Sr.

Morrison H. Heckscher The American Wing, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2003

Rococo is the name for one of the great international ornamental styles of the eighteenth century. In its departure from classical order and symmetry , the Rococo scorned the rule and the compass in favor of embellishment that required skillful freehand rendering and an imagination that transcended the bounds of academic convention. The emphasis was on naturalistic ornament, either carved or engraved. The style originated in Italy, flourished in France beginning in the 1730s, in England in the 1740s, and in America in the 1750s.

The American adoption of the Rococo focused almost exclusively on the style’s ornamental motifs—shells and rocailles, scrollwork, acanthus leaves, and other flora and fauna, often in symmetrical compositions. These were enthusiastically applied, by many leading urban craftsmen, to architectural interiors, engravings, silver, furniture, and other domestic equipage.

The Rococo crossed the Atlantic via three principal means: engraved designs in print series and books , imported objects, and immigrant artisans. The influence of prints and books was limited, that of imported objects is hard to document. Specialized immigrant artisans, whose skills were required to execute the intricacies of the style, did most to disseminate the Rococo in America. In the 1750s and 1760s, a veritable wave of highly skilled and ambitious young craftsmen, most of them London trained, emigrated to America, drawn by the demand for their abilities and by opportunities for personal and social advancement.

Only in and around the major cities were the necessary ingredients in place to cultivate the development of an American Rococo style: designs, patrons, artisans, and materials. The most fertile areas of American Rococo design were Boston, New York, Charleston, and Philadelphia, all seaports and all linked as closely to London as to each other. By the Rococo era, Boston was entering the twilight of her colonial dominance, and the city’s expression of the taste was the most conservative of the four. Examples from New York are quite rare, doubtless because a large percentage of them were removed by departing Loyalists or destroyed in the disastrous fires that accompanied the occupation of the city. In thriving Charleston, the greatest city in the South, the Rococo flourished, but there was a considerable reliance on imported goods. Philadelphia, approaching the apogee of her ascendancy and wealth, was the largest city in the colonies. Her prosperity and culture attracted immigrant craftsmen uniquely qualified to provide Rococo ornament to her richest citizens. Predictably, the city became the Athens of America and the arbiter of the new style.

Heckscher, Morrison H. “American Rococo.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roco/hd_roco.htm (October 2003)

Additional Essays by Morrison H. Heckscher

Heckscher, Morrison H.. “ English Ornament Prints and Furniture Books in Eighteenth-Century America .” (October 2003)
Heckscher, Morrison H.. “ John Townsend (1733–1809) .” (October 2003)

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Rococo style in 1700s fashion

Rococo style in 1700s fashion - Essay Example

Subject: History
Type: Essay
Level: Masters
Pages: 2 (500 words)
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Extract of sample "Rococo style in 1700s fashion"

History of Rococo Style Introduction Rococo is an artistic style of the 18th century that developed in Paris as a reactionagainst the symmetric and strict regulations of the past. The artists of this style used more florid and graceful approach with light colors, asymmetrical designs with playful and witty themes. The introduction of this style had a greater impact on the society and affected not only the royalty and aristocrats but also the middle and lower classes. Rococo style in 1700s fashionDuring this era of fashion revolution, fashion designers gained more influence as more people scrambled to be clothed in this new style.

Magazines that emerged catered to the curiosity of the lower class as their attention was captured by the colorful illustrations and the latest news. This is the period that saw the development of panniers, a new silhouette for women worn under the skirts and extended sideways (Heinrich, 2014). The waists were constricted by corsets which were a big contract to the wide skirts that usually opened at the front showing an underskirt. The Watteau gown is one of the dresses worn during this period, with a loose back that became part of a full skirt with a tighter bodice.

The gowns were worn with short wide lapelled jackets. The introduction of a loose wide gown with a colorful silk sash around the waist was considered a shock for women as the natural figure was apparent and no corset was worn. However, this was seen by the women as a symbol of their increased liberation and they embraced the style (Heinrich, 2014). Heels worn by women became smaller by design with slimmer heels and pretty decorations as hair was worn higher contrary to the beginning where it was worn tight to the head, topped with lace handkerchiefs to contrast the wide panniers.

The towering tresses of hair were often curled and decorated with feathers, flowers, sculptures or figures. As the style progressed, hair was powdered with meal and flour causing a burst of outrage in the lower classes because of the subsequent rice in price of bread. Designs worn by men only had variations in the coat, waistcoat and the breeches, with the waistcoat being the most decorative piece. They were lavishly embroidered or having huge displays of patterned fabrics. The breeches were topped around the knees and white stockings worn underneath with large square buckled heeled shoes.

The coats on the other hand were often worn close to the body and lacked the earlier skirt-like design, worn with a more open air to showcase the elaborate waistcoat (Heinrich, 2014). Men also adapted to wearing white wigs and tricorne hats edged braids and ostrich feather decorations. The most popular hairstyle was of horizontal rolls of hair top of the ears. The colors that accessorized this style were mainly blue, green and pink with plenty of decorative details and accessories. Walls were covered with silk fabrics, mirrors, paintings and golden moldings.

Furniture was lightened and became a status symbol with comfort and versatility (Veszprémi, 2014). ConclusionThe Rococo era was defined by contrasting facts of extravagance and a simplicity quest with light colors and heavy materials being used. This revolutionary fashion trend however brought the rise of a diverse fashion era like none experienced before.ReferencesHeinrich, A. (2014). Cherubs or Putti? Gravemarkers Demonstrating Conspicuous Consumption and the Rococo Fashion in the Eighteenth Century.

International Journal Of Historical Archaeology, 18(1), 37-64Veszprémi, N. (2014). The Emptiness behind the Mask: The Second Rococo in Painting in Austria and Hungary. Art Bulletin, 96(4), 441-462

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Documenting Fashion

A dress history blog, the new rococo: sofia coppola and fashions in contemporary femininity.

Marie Antoinette, dir. Sofia Coppola, 2003

Today we have a special post for our blog readers – a PDF of Rebecca Arnold’s essay ‘The New Rococo: Sofia Coppola and Fashions in Contemporary Femininity’ for you to download.

The New Rococo – In the last twenty years, a visual style has evolved within cinema, in particular within Sophia Coppola’s films, and fashion imagery, including Corinne Day’s photographs and Stella McCartney’s designs, which express a light, feminine ideal reminiscent of eighteenth century rococo style. Coppola and her peers in fashion design and photography explored the potential of fashion, and gender, as masquerade. In so doing, they created a visual aesthetic that might be called ‘New Rococo.’ This combined contradictory impulses, which looked to both nature and artifice, and formed a pastiche of eighteenth century and contemporary reference points. This essay explores the reasons why rococo style re-emerged during this period, and how it enabled these image-makers to validate contemporary feminine and fashionable ideals, but also to foreground these as constructed surfaces.

We will also be posting images connected to the essay on our Instagram feed @documentingfashion_courtauld today – so take a look!

Rebecca Arnold – ‘The New Rococo: Sofia Coppola And Fashions In Contemporary Femininity’

(click above to download PDF)

The essay was published as part of a compilation, edited by Katie Scott and Melissa Hyde, Rococo echo: art, history and historiography from Cochin to Coppola, Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2014

The book explores the influence of rococo style in a wide range of media since the 18th century, and is an exciting view of the subject. Read more here .

With thanks to Katie & Melissa, and all the book’s contributors. This PDF is made available by permission of the Voltaire Foundation, University of Oxford ( www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk )

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Fashion Revolution: Unveiling The Glamour And Elegance Of 18th-Century Fashion

INTRODUCTION:

The 18th century witnessed a revolutionary transformation in the world of fashion, with elaborate designs, luxurious fabrics, and distinctive silhouettes defining the era. From the opulence of the Rococo period to the classic refinement of Neoclassicism, this article delves into the key fashion trends, silhouettes, and influential designers that shaped the sartorial landscape of the 18th century.

Rococo Fashion: Ornate Opulence (1715-1774)

The Rococo era marked a departure from the strict formalities of the previous century, embracing an aesthetic characterized by intricate details, pastel colors, and an emphasis on naturalistic motifs. Fashion became a vehicle for self-expression, and fabrics such as silk, brocade, and lace were highly sought after. It was characterized by its ornate and decorative style. It emerged as a reaction against the formal and rigid fashion of the preceding Baroque period. It was closely tied to the overall Rococo art movement, which emphasized lightness, elegance, and the pursuit of pleasure.

Silhouette:

Women: The Rococo silhouette for women was characterized by a rounded bosom, narrow waist, and wide pannier skirts that extended the hips.

Men: Men’s fashion featured a fitted coat, waistcoat, and breeches, often accompanied by ornate lace, embroidery, and powdered wigs.

Key Fashion Trends:

Robe à la française: A loose-fitting gown with pleats in the back that allowed the wide pannier skirts to cascade elegantly.

Watteau pleats: Flowing pleats at the back of gowns, named after the French artist Antoine Watteau.

Powdered wigs: Elaborate wigs adorned with feathers, ribbons, and jewels, symbolizing wealth and status.

Pastel Colors: Soft pastel shades were favored in Rococo fashion, reflecting the light and delicate aesthetic of the era. Pale pinks, blues, lavenders, and greens were commonly seen in women’s gowns and accessories. These light hues complemented the feminine and ethereal look of Rococo fashion.

Ruffled Details: Ruffles were another hallmark of Rococo fashion. They adorned various parts of the gown, such as the neckline, sleeves, and skirt. Ruffles were often created with delicate lace or sheer fabrics, enhancing the overall softness and femininity of the attire

Fabrics: Rococo fashion favored luxurious and lightweight fabrics, such as silk, satin, and delicate lace. These fabrics were often pastel-colored or adorned with intricate floral patterns, contributing to the overall delicate and feminine aesthetic.

Exquisite embroidery: Delicate floral and botanical motifs adorned garments, adding a touch of opulence and femininity.

Robes à l’anglaise: This style emerged towards the end of the 18th century as a simpler alternative to the elaborate French gowns. The dresses had a fitted bodice, a high waistline, and a skirt that fell smoothly without the use of panniers. It showcased a more natural silhouette.

Influential Designers:

Madame de Pompadour: As the official mistress of King Louis XV, Madame de Pompadour set fashion trends with her elegantly embellished gowns.

Rose Bertin: Known as the “Minister of Fashion,” Bertin was the personal dressmaker of Queen Marie Antoinette and influenced fashion across Europe.

Thomas Gainsborough: While primarily known as a portrait painter, Thomas Gainsborough also had an impact on Rococo fashion through his artwork. His portraits captured the elegance and grace of the upper-class society, showcasing their fashionable attire and hairstyles.

François Boucher: François Boucher was a renowned French painter who often depicted mythological and pastoral scenes. His works embodied the essence of the Rococo style, featuring soft colors, flowing draperies, and intricate details, which had a profound influence on the fashion trends of the time.

Neoclassical Fashion: Elegance Redefined (1774-1799)

Neoclassical fashion, also known as the Georgian fashion refers to the clothing styles that were prevalent during the 18th century. It was influenced by the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman art and culture, which had a significant impact on the arts, architecture, and fashion of the time. With the advent of the French Revolution, fashion underwent a significant shift, moving away from the excesses of the Rococo period. Neoclassical fashion emerged, inspired by the ideals of ancient Greece and Rome, characterized by simplicity, symmetry, and clean lines. The fashion trends were characterized by elaborate and extravagant styles associated with the Baroque period. However, as the century progressed, a shift towards a more restrained and classical aesthetic occurred, inspired by the neoclassical revival.

Women: The Neoclassical silhouette for women featured high waistlines, flowing drapery, and columnar shapes, drawing inspiration from ancient Greek garments.

Men: Men’s fashion adopted a more tailored and simplified approach, with knee-length coats, waistcoats, and tailored trousers.

Chemise dress: A loose-fitting gown made of lightweight fabrics, reflecting the influence of ancient Greek tunics.

Directoire style: As the French Revolution progressed, fashion became more austere, with women adopting high-waisted, empire-style dresses with simpler details.

Redingote: A riding coat-inspired garment that became popular for both men and women, featuring a fitted bodice and flared skirts.

Sheer Fabrics: Neoclassical gowns often incorporated diaphanous and lightweight fabrics such as muslin, silk gauze, and chiffon. These sheer materials added a sense of ethereal beauty and allowed for the display of the underlying chemise or slip.

Neoclassical Motifs: Fashion designers drew inspiration from classical art and architecture, incorporating motifs such as Greek key patterns, laurel wreaths, and mythological symbols into their designs. These motifs were often featured as decorative elements on hems, bodices, or accessories.

Neoclassical Colors: The color palette of neoclassical fashion was typically light and delicate. Soft pastel shades such as pale pink, sky blue, lilac, and mint green were popular choices. These colors reflected a desire for simplicity and purity, mirroring the ideals of classical beauty.

Marie-Antoine Carême: A prominent French chef and designer, Carême revolutionized men’s fashion by introducing the tailcoat, a staple of formal attire to this day.

Thérésa Tallien: A trendsetter during the French Revolution, Tallien popularized high-waisted gowns and became a symbol of the new, liberated woman.

Joshua Reynolds: Another renowned portrait painter of the period, Joshua Reynolds, also contributed to neoclassical fashion through his representations of women in classical-inspired garments. His influential works helped shape the aesthetic ideals of the era.

Thomas Pitts (1737-1793): Thomas Pitts was an English tailor and designer who introduced neoclassical elements into men’s fashion. He created tailored suits with simplified lines, inspired by classical Greek and Roman drapery, which became fashionable among the English elite.

Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788): Although primarily known as a portrait painter, Thomas Gainsborough’s artistic style and depictions of elegant clothing had a significant influence on neoclassical fashion. His paintings often showcased women wearing flowing classical-inspired gowns, which inspired fashionable trends of the time.

REFERENCES:

https://artsandculture.google.com/story/yQVxozIBUz__KQ?hl=en
https://history201spring2019.omeka.net/exhibits/show/spring2020exhibit/neoclassicalclothingmovemen
https://www.voucherix.co.uk/fashion-and-beauty/18th-century-rococo-fashion/
“How fashion reflected the transition from Rococo to Neoclassicism in the 18th Century.” PDF by Dr. Alison FitzGerald from National University of Ireland Maynooth

CONCLUSION:

The 18th century was a remarkable period of sartorial evolution, from the extravagant opulence of Rococo fashion to the refined elegance of Neoclassicism. The fashion trends, silhouettes, and influential designers of this era left an indelible mark on the history of fashion. Today, we can still witness echoes of their influence in modern design and aesthetic sensibilities. As we celebrate the revolutionary fashion of the 18th century, we pay tribute to the designers and trends that shaped an era defined by glamour, elegance, and a quest for self-expression.

Author: Saloni Gaikwad

Fashion Law Journal

Fashion Law Journal covers the legal landscape of the fashion industry and its stakeholders, providing the latest updates, how-to guides, and exclusive content for fashion law fratenity. An initiative and publication of Dept of Fashion Laws, Legal Desire (www.legaldesire.com)

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At Versailles, Rock ’n’ Rococo

By Suzy Menkes

July 11, 2011

VERSAILLES, France — Who would have thought that modern designers could feel right at home amid the curlicues, gilding, Watteau paintings and water fountains of Versailles?

That applied not just to the fashion crowd, celebrating last week the closing of Paris couture, but also to the dresses and frock coats, flower patterns and curvy bustiers on show, all inspired by the 18th-century world.

Vivienne Westwood, the one-time queen of punk, was handsomely represented in the interlocking rooms of the Grand Trianon. The British designer’s dresses — like those of so many cutting-edge creators — blended in so well with the fancy furnishings and 200-year-old garments also on show that guessing which outfits were from which century became a couture game.

“Le XVIII au Goût du Jour,” or “A Taste of the 18th Century,” showing through Oct. 9, is the latest work from Olivier Saillard, the scholarly but light-handed curator and director of the Musée Galliera, Paris’s fashion museum, who has the skill to make yesterday’s clothes seem relevant for today.

More intriguing still is the curator’s idea of a face-off between past and present, where full-blown ball gowns from Dior or even from the 1980s star Thierry Mugler fit right in with the Versailles concept that nothing succeeds like excess. In fact, Dior’s 1950s vision of a floral gown, alongside one by Balmain, seems just as appropriate as a wilder John Galliano creation.

The secret behind this perfect harmony is the eyes of Mr. Saillard, whose piquant choices, especially of color, can make a contemporary look fit with the soft Mozartian shades in the Salon des Glaces. Chanel's chalky blue elegance has a harmonious connection with the pastoral paintings on the walls.

The Vivienne Westwood “Vive la Cocotte” runway show in 1995 marked a switch in the designer’s thinking from wild punk to calm classics — although still with a witty edge and a touch of sexy subversion. The collection, inspired by the paintings of François Boucher, melds into the background of the Boudoir de l’Impératrice, which has all the light frilliness that the designer captured in her homage to 18th-century art. A bustier imprinted with a portion of a Rococo painting and a ball gown with a pattern taken from a work by Fragonard are other Westwood pieces spread between different rooms.

“It seemed an interesting idea to have a 'face-to-face,' " said Mr. Saillard, who is bringing his skills to various locations while the Musée Galliera is undergoing a refurbishment.

It is hard to imagine how the curator could have alighted on cutting-edge brands like Yohji Yamamoto or Comme des Garçons, or even contemporary Balenciaga, for his homage to the earlier era. Yet the cut of a piece by Mr. Yamamoto, or the disheveled lacy elegance of Nicolas Ghesquière’s early vision at the house of Balenciaga, do not look out of place. In fact they reminded the professional audience on the opening night that there are unexpected facets to familiar designers.

A Fashion Taste of the 18th Century

View Slide Show ›

The general audience at Versailles is touristy, and some visitors might have difficulty in identifying each piece from the written descriptions. But even the least style-savvy viewer will get the message that fashion is an eternal carousel of ideas inspired by the human body.

Mr. Saillard does not show only female outfits. The fact that androgyny seeped into society in the 21st century means that an 18th-century male frock coat can now be inspirational for women. For example, a splendid green evening outfit, evidently inspired by brocade frock coats of the past, is a couture piece from Alexander McQueen during his time at Givenchy. That is an interesting contrast to the “Savage Beauty” display of Mr. McQueen’s work at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, which focuses on the most inventive but least wearable of the designer’s work.

Is there a lesson to be learned about appropriating pieces of the past — especially when that applies to a grandiose place like Versailles? After all, the powdered 18th-century-style wig died with the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. The most effective pieces are not literal, although a room showing Christian Lacroix creations emphasizes just how much his dynamic frivolity is missed in the current couture lineup. But as in music, so in fashion: modernity is in the mix. And a little of the courtly grandeur of Versailles goes a long way.

Historical Dress: Books - Baroque and Rococo

Background Reference
Books - Baroque and Rococo
Images - Baroque and Rococo
Books - 19th Century
Images - 19th Century

Books about Baroque and Rococo Fashion

Books about Baroque and Rococo Art

Books about 17th & 18th Century Theatre

The Baroque Theatre: A Cultural History of the 17th and 18th Centuries by Margarete Baur-Heinhold Call Number: Upper Lvl PN2174 .B313 1967

Baroque Theatre and Stage Design by Mark S. Weil; Gerald D. Bolas (Foreword by) Call Number: Upper Lvl PN2091.S8 W37 1983 ISBN: 9780936316048 Publication Date: 1983-02-01

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Next: Images - Baroque and Rococo >>
Last Updated: Jun 5, 2024 1:11 PM
URL: https://libraryguides.bennington.edu/historicaldress

Home — Essay Samples — Life — Fashion — The Evolution of Fashion Trends

The Evolution of Fashion Trends

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Published: Feb 7, 2024

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The ancient origins of fashion, the influence of royalty and aristocracy, revolutions and societal change, the industrial revolution and mass production, the twentieth century and beyond, the role of technology and media, conclusion and the ongoing cycle.

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Baroque and Rococo: Different Styles and Their Purposes Essay

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Introduction

St. gerome by caravaggio, the swing by joan-honore fragonard.

Bibliography

Finding a purpose for art is just as hard as giving it a precise definition. There are many reasons and purposes for art. Some art styles focus on perfection of the physical form, while others are intent on sending a message to the viewer. The choice of a purpose does not make one style inherently superior or inferior to another. As history shows, purposes and messages behind art can become points of contention and criticism within the art community.

An example of such a confrontation could be found between the adepts of two different art styles that were prevalent in the 18th century – Baroque and Rococo. While Baroque was based on tragedy, darkness, raw emotion, and meaningful messages, Rococo was a light-hearted style centered around beauty, fun, love, and playful behavior.

In order to see the difference between the two styles, it is necessary to compare the works of their iconic representatives – Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio and Joan-Honore Fragonard. One of Caravaggio’s famous works is St. Gerome , which depicts a saint at a table filled with manuscripts and books. 1 One of the books has a human skull on top of it. The picture is dark and full of contrast, as the deep shadows come in conflict with the bright robes worn by the saint.

The artist demonstrates an excellent use of chiaroscuro – a technique used to balance the light and the dark colors in a painting. 2 St. Gerome is a classic example of Baroque style – the painting has a deep meaning and a great philosophical value. It illustrates a Biblical scene. Many Baroque artists, including Caravaggio, were deeply religious. The underlying contexts behind Caravaggio’s art could not be contained within a single picture frame, which creates a feeling of a question left unanswered. Like many Baroque paintings, his work is best observed from afar. 3

Rococo art is a complete opposite to Baroque. It evolved from a style used for decoration. Its distinctive features are minimalism and attention to the detail. Rococo art presents a palette of bright and gentle colors with limited use of the color black. Joan-Honore Fragonard’s painting, The Swing , is one of the greatest examples of Rococo art. 4 It depicts a maiden having fun on a swing in the park and a young man who is surprised by the maiden swinging through the brush.

It has all the traits of a classic Rococo-style painting – the main characters are members of aristocracy, the surroundings are cheerful and beautiful, and there is a degree of mischief to the setting, as it is implied that the flustered young man caught sight of the maiden’s legs as she swung herself up on the swing. Rococo art, in contrast to dark and serious Baroque paintings, does not have any deep philosophical motives behind it, instead aiming to celebrate the beauty of life. 5

As it is possible to see, Baroque and Rococo were two different styles created for different reasons. Baroque was meant to make the viewers ponder the greater mysteries of life and illustrate powerful feelings of anger, adoration, despair, and love. Rococo was a light-hearted, decorative style without a greater purpose other than instilling a sense of joy in the viewer. Nevertheless, Rococo was criticized during its time for lack of meaning and greater depth, despite being created for a completely different purpose.

Elkins, James. Stories of Art. New York: Routledge, 2013.

Neuman, Robert. Baroque and Rococo Art and Architecture. New York: Pearson, 2013.

James Elkins, Stories of Art (New York: Routledge, 2013), 35.
Elkins, Stories of Art, 40.
James Elkins, Stories of Art (New York: Routledge, 2013), 44.
Robert Neuman, Baroque and Rococo Art and Architecture (New York: Pearson 2013), 102.
Neuman, Baroque and Rococo, 105.
Historical Art Periods: A Critical Evaluation of Baroque and Rococo Artistic Styles
The Rococo Chocolate Company: Company Analysis
The Painter Van Loo’s Rococo Revolution
Apparel’s Role in History: Fashion Exhibition and Impact of Historical Events on Design
Recognition of Art in Saudi Arabia
High Renaissance Art
Art, Its Definition, Perception and Functions
Illustrations After the American Civil War
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2020, October 6). Baroque and Rococo: Different Styles and Their Purposes. https://ivypanda.com/essays/baroque-and-rococo-different-styles-and-their-purposes/

"Baroque and Rococo: Different Styles and Their Purposes." IvyPanda , 6 Oct. 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/baroque-and-rococo-different-styles-and-their-purposes/.

IvyPanda . (2020) 'Baroque and Rococo: Different Styles and Their Purposes'. 6 October.

IvyPanda . 2020. "Baroque and Rococo: Different Styles and Their Purposes." October 6, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/baroque-and-rococo-different-styles-and-their-purposes/.

1. IvyPanda . "Baroque and Rococo: Different Styles and Their Purposes." October 6, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/baroque-and-rococo-different-styles-and-their-purposes/.

IvyPanda . "Baroque and Rococo: Different Styles and Their Purposes." October 6, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/baroque-and-rococo-different-styles-and-their-purposes/.

Byzantinische Mode der Spätantike
Mittelalter
Renaissance
Mode des Rokoko
Frühes 19. Jahrhundert
Herrenmode des frühen 19. Jahrhunderts
Viktorianische Mode
Byzantine Empire
Middle Ages
Tudor/Elizabethan Era
Empire/Regency
- Regency Men's Dress
Victorian Era
Theodora of Byzantium
Nicola de la Haye
Anne Boleyn
Seraphia von Löwenfinck
Sarah Biffin
Mademoiselle Montansier
Marie Antoinette and her tailor Rose Bertin
Lady Emma Hamilton
Christina Carteaux Bannister
Helen Williams
Mittelalter & Renaissance
Empire / Regency
Byzantinisch
Museums & Manors (DE)

Baroque (c. 1600 - 1720)

Marchesa Brigida Spinola Doria, Peter Paul Rubens, 1606, via Wikimedia Commons.

“Barocco“ (Portugese, English: uneven, odd) describes a pearl of irregular shape and was introduced retrospectively to describe the style of the 1600s in a negative light . In the Baroque era, the clear forms and unity of the preceding Renaissance was not wholly abandoned but changed into a more flourishing style. The dominant power that Spain had had in the preceding epochs, especially in the 16th century faded slowly. The Baroque era was a rather troubled one for Europe with The Thirty Year's War, the counter-reformation and rising absolutism. A very small nation, however, began to rise: The Netherlands remained in mostly untouched by the Thirty Years' War and became an economical and commercial power to reckon with Legal changes allowed unmarried women to have financial powers and engage in trade and business.

Clothing underwent radical changes, beginning in the geometric, sculptural style of the Renaissance and gradually shifting to much softer styles and silhouettes with flowing skirts and draped bodices and sleeves. Rubens' portrait of the Marchesa Brigida Spinola Doria in 1606 shows her in a steely silver dress with long, curved stomacher, a full skirt, giant ruff and utterly wrinkle-free padded sleeves that imitate body armour.

Peter Paul Rubens, self-portrait with wife Isabella, c. 1609, via Wikimedia Commons.

In the low countries, trading connections grew the wealth of an expanding middle class. This was reflected in fashion. Rubens painted himself with his wife Isabella in 1609. She is wearing a distinctive style of dress with a fitted bodice with a very long stomacher, much like that of Marchesa Brigida Sinola Doria. She is wearing a blue skirt under a red silk skirt trimmed with gold braid.

Her huge millstone ruff is carefully starched and edged with expensive lace. On the top of her head sits a high and broad-brimmed hat, in a rather masculine style as was the fashion at the time. Isabella's sleeves are long, tight and end in fine linen cuffs. Around each wrist she wears a golden bracelet set with gemstones. There is still a lot of Elizabethan era dress in this with the very long stomacher. In the decades to come, fashion would become softer and more flowing. A considerable change was, however, the elimination of the Elizabethan farthingale in favour of hip padding. Consequently, the skirts fell softer and the whole silhouette appeared less geometric and more flowing. Ladies wore a mass of underskirts, made of as fine fabrics as could be afforded.

Henrietta Maria, Queen of Britain and consort of Charles I, around 1535, Anthony van Dyke, via Wikimedia Commons.

The cut of the sleeves widened, so that they could be styled in various ways: A popular method was to tie it with a ribbon at the height of the elbow or at more places. Furthermore, lace or linen cuffs were added to every kind of sleeve. In the 30s and 40s of the 17th century, the female fashion was relatively flowing and natural. The skirt was moderately wide and the bodice was short, close-fitting and low-cut.

The neckline was square-cut or baring the shoulders like a Carmen neckline. The ruff collar remained, huge as ever, until it changed to a cape-like collar of fine(st) lace in the 1630s, called Vandyke collars . The décolletage was not longer covered with kerchiefs, just adorned around the neckline with lace, trimming or ornamental gem-studded clasps.

As the decades went on, fashion did not stand still. The waistline drops again and the long pointy stomacher returns. Hieronymus Janssen's "Charles II Dancing at a Ball at Court" shows this excellently. This style increasingly forms shape of two triangles that meet at one tip. The upper triangle symbolizes the straight Carmen neckline from shoulder to shoulder and the tip where it meets the lower one is the small waist. The other two tips of the lower triangle are the left and right edge of the skirt's hem. The low neckline is quite baring as it reveals (when uncovered by a kerchief) a part of the bust raised and pushed by the tightly laced and stiffened stays Usually the bodice is adorned with (golden) braid running from the midst of the neckline and from under the sleeve holes to the pointed hem of the bodice. The sleeves are made of the same fabric as bodice and skirt and are quite loose-fitting, ending in at the wrist or below the elbow in lace cuffs or linen ruffles. Yet they are no longer so spherical as in the 1530s.

The low neckline is quite baring as it reveals (when uncovered by a kerchief) a part of the bust raised and pushed by the tightly laced and stiffened stays Usually the bodice is adorned with (golden) braid running from the midst of the neckline and from under the sleeve holes to the pointed hem of the bodice. Normally, the skirt is trimmed, too. The sleeves are made of the same fabric as bodice and skirt and are quite loose-fitting, ending in at the wrist or below the elbow in lace cuffs or linen ruffles. Fashionable was furthermore to wear sleeves cut in the virago style: loose-fitting sleeves held in place by colourful ribbons. The ribbons are tied arm-tight around the broad sleeves and thus give the impression of sleeves consisting of several “fabric balls”. Soft colours and pastel shades were used. Brooches and bodice ornaments were the decoration.

Jan Vermeer, Lady with Her Maidservant Holding a Letter, ca. 1667 Baroque fashion, Barock Mode, matinee jacket

A Dutch invention was the Matinee, a very loose-fitting jacket for home wear. Reaching down to the thighs, these jackets were usually made of colourful fabric and trimmed with fur along the seams. Vermeer painted several pictures showing women with a yellow Matinee.

Towards the late 1600s, at the court of Louis XIV, fashion has moved on to form the Mantua style from which later the Robe à la Francaise would descent. It seems incredible that Elizabeth I and Louis XIV were alive in the same century, so far apart does Tudor England feel from Versailles.

The gown had opened in the front under the waist to a split skirt. This revealed the beautiful skirts beneath (and required even more fabric). The two garments were called Manteau and Jube (Skirt). The sleeves could not escape a change either; they tightened significantly, reached to the elbow and ended in ruffles of fine lace, called Engageantes .

Accessories:

Accessories depended on the season: In summer a veil was worn to protect the complexion and a fan was used to cool oneself while in winter a woman would go out with e.g. a fur muff, a hood and a mask. This mask covers the face from the nose to the forehead (probably tied around the head with strings) with holes for the eyes and gives the wearer for our taste today a hint of mystery. There was also a mask that had a button on the inside which the wearer had to hold between their front teeth to keep the mask in place and was thus unable to speak with the mask on.

Detail from: Interior with Painter, Woman Reading and Maid Sweeping, Pieter Janssens Elinga, c. 1665 - 70, Städel, Frankfurt. The Woman wears red slippers and the maid similar footwear. Photo: Epochs of Fashion

The heel lost nothing of its popularity – but it wandered slowly towards the middle of the foot. Consequently, the angle that the foot describes with the floor increased – no existing footbed and nearly no anatomic forming lead to an inclination of the whole foot and not just of the heel as today. The toe-caps used to be horribly pointed and walking in them was sure as fate very painful for the wearer. Cut-outs were a popular element and typical for this time.

The shoes were closed with a buckle or tied with a band or were just to slip in. Those who could afford it had the shoes made of fine materials like high-quality leather, velvet or damask. Decorative elements increased the luxurious look even more. Pattens with high plateau heels used to protect the fine footwear from mud and dirt on the streets.

Portrait of Donna Maria Moreno y Buenaventura, Mexican, c. 1760. Phoenix Art Museum, AZ, United States. Photo: Epochs of Fashion

Contrary to common belief, people bathed regularly provided they could afford it, or washed at least. Yet, the overall state of houses and towns without a proper sewage system, as well as the sketchy knowledge in all things medical allowed epidemics to spread. The pox epidemics were particularly merciless, killing numerous people and leaving the survivors with scars. To cover them, make-up and decorative little plasters called "mouches" were used. High quality face make-up was unfortunately made from lead (Ceruse) and its toxicity was well known although it did not stop the fashionable set from applying it.

Nonetheless, it is an enduring cliché that powdered wigs and faces white with make-up are Baroque. This was by no means the case, powdered wigs would not come up until the Rococo era. Make-up was used but generally sparingly and visual and written sources tell us that most people presented with a fresh, natural look.

Henrietta Maria, Anthony van Dyck, around 1632/5 (flickr, picture by Lisby) Baroque dress, hairstyle

After the first quarter of the 17th century trendy married women did not longer want to hide their elaborate hairstyles under caps and began wearing their hair uncovered or with a big (black) hat. The hair was usually parted in the middle and fell down in curls on both sides of the head (shoulder-long). Some women had the upper layer of their hair drawn straight to the back of the head into a flat-topped style, there bound with decorative bows, while the rest of the hair fell down to the shoulders in neat small curls. The face was framed by lots of small curls.

Towards the middle of the 1600s in Central and Western Europe, the hair is released from the strict hairdos to fall in ringlets around the face. At the Spanish Court, however, hair remained highly sculptural and geometric. In the style which can be best observed in Velazquez' painting of Infanta Maria Theresa, the hair is arranged through false hair, padding and wire to create a semicircular frame to the face.

Plain fabrics were naturally a great base for elaborate jewellery of gems and precious metals. With the soft pastel shades pearls went very well. At the courts bodice ornaments called " devant le corsage " in French became popular. These large pieces of jewellery were pinned to the stomacher. The ornaments were made of precious metal, gemmed and studded with pearls, and usually had a symbolic meaning or were gifts from family members. Some pieces were made in a particularly artful way, having flowers or gems sitting on hairsprings fixed to the ornament which then moved and glittered at every motion of the wearer. The techniques of gem-cutting had advanced so that the luster and light refraction was better and the stones glittered more beautiful. Wearing miniature portraits was still very popular, as well, e.g. in lockets.

Nehelenia Patterns np800 1660s Gown Pattern

- Please note that this list does claim no completeness and does not operate as advertisement. It was merely composed for informative purposes. Furthermore, no valuation of the patterns is implied or intended -

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THE WIDER IMAGE

In albania, two women take on a nation with a rooftop wedding.

Edlira Mara (left), Alba Ahmetaj (centre), 44, and their twin daughters get ready for their wedding ceremony in central Tirana, Albania, May 19, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

By Florion Goga

Filed May 31, 2024, 11:09 a.m. GMT

Photography by Florion Goga

Writing by Fatos Bytyci and Florion Goga

Filed June 03, 2024, 08:00 a.m. GMT

In many ways Alba Ahmetaj and Edlira Mara lead an ordinary life. They brush their twin daughters’ hair before school and play fight with them in their flat on weekend mornings. They have matching shoulder tattoos that mark their 14 years together.

But in their fight to be treated like other families, the lesbian couple did something extraordinary.

At dusk on Sunday, May 19, friends cheered as they stood out on the rooftop of the mayor’s office in central Tirana, kissed, exchanged rings and got married.

Their marriage is not acknowledged by the state - Albanian law does not recognise same-sex civil unions. It has prompted outrage from the political right and the powerful religious community.

But for Alba and Edlira, it was a real expression of love, a cry for equality and, as far as they know, the first wedding of its kind in the Muslim-majority Balkan country.

“There are two people in love ... and now they have finalised it with this beautiful ceremony,” Edlira said after the wedding. “Society will never be ready ... What does this mean? That I cannot live?”

While much of western Europe has made strides towards marriage equality, governments in much of the centre and east oppose change.

In Albania, religion was prohibited for half a century under communism. Today, the country is known for its tolerance among Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox Christians. These faiths are united in their opposition to same-sex marriage.

When plans for the couple’s wedding became public, social media was flooded with thousands of threatening comments. Police officers guarded the building during the ceremony.

Two days later, opposition parties held a protest against the mayor over separate corruption allegations. But the speakers turned on Alba and Edlira too, accusing them of destroying family values.

The furore over the wedding was just the latest stage in what the couple say has been a long struggle to get the same rights as heterosexual couples.

When their daughters were born three years ago, the couple said they both wanted to be registered as parents, but that was not allowed under law. The children are registered under Edlira, the biological mother.

“Our society is very patriarchal and homophobic,” Alba said before the wedding. “If you see comments on Facebook or Instagram ... you will see how little tolerance we have as a nation.”

One of her twin daughters hugs Edlira as their dog Rainy looks at her empty plate, during breakfast at home in Tirana, Albania, May 18, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Alba does her daughter’s hair at home in Tirana, Albania, May 18, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Alba, Edlira and their twin daughters have breakfast at home in Tirana, Albania, May 18, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Alba and one of her twin daughters play at home in Tirana, Albania, May 18, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Edlira and one of her twin daughters feed their cat Pufi through the window of their apartment, in Tirana, Albania, May 18, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Alba and Edlira pick up their twin daughters from nursery in Tirana, Albania, May 17, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Alba picks up one of her twin daughters, at a park in Tirana, Albania, May 18, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Alba inflates balloons for her twin daughters as Edlira laughs, a day before their wedding ceremony, at home in Tirana, Albania, May 18, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Alba and Edlira make arrangements for their wedding, a day before the ceremony, at home in Tirana, Albania, May 18, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Alba and Edlira’s twin daughters play at their apartment in Tirana, Albania, May 18, 2024. REUTERS/Florion Goga

Amid the struggle, the wedding became a bright spot. To prepare, the family blew up balloons in their apartment. On the evening of the ceremony, friends helped the couple into their big white wedding dresses.

They walked, holding their daughters’ hands, towards the altar through a crowd of friends who threw white rose petals. Around them were the sights of downtown Tirana and mountains beyond, covered in mist.

They were wed by two British pastors.

“We are fighting against 90 percent of the population,” Edlira said. “Both of us are changing a lot of things.”

The Wider Image

Photography: Florion Goga

Writing: Fatos Bytyci and Florion Goga

Photo editing and design: Marta Montana Gomez and Maye-E Wong

Text editing: Edward McAllister and Andrew Heavens

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CHILDREN’S WEAR

REFERENCES:

Historical Context

1750 – Jean-Marc Nattier, Portrait of a Young Woman

1750 – Stephen Slaughter, Two Women Gathering Fruit

Primary/Period Sources

Fashion Plate Collections (Digitized)

Etiquette Books (Digitized)

Secondary Sources

Books/Articles

Michele Majer