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100 Best Child Development Research Topics for 2023

If you need to write a research paper about child development, you probably already know that finding great child development research topics is a very difficult task. In fact, it can sometimes take you days to find a good topic to write an interesting essay on. Fortunately, we have a list of research topics in child development that will help you immensely. Remember, all our topics are free to use. You can use them as they are or reword them. To help as many students as possible, we are constantly updating the list. You can easily find fresh topics for 2022 right here.

Having Trouble Finding Topics in Child Development?

Of course, you can try to find topics in child development on various websites. The problem is that most of those topics are years old. Furthermore, most of those child development research paper topics have been used by students over and over again. Your professor is probably bored of reading the same essays every semester, don’t you think?

To make sure you get a top grade on your essay, you need to find original, highly interesting topics. You need research topics for child development that are relevant for the scientific community today. Just pick one of our topics and start writing your essay in minutes.

Easy Child Development Topics

If you are looking from some easy topics so that you don’t have to spend much time writing the essay, you might want to take a look at our awesome easy child development topics:

Describe 3 important child development theories
Define childhood development
Talk about the Vygotsky Theory.
What are childcare centers?
Are children more intelligent than adults?
Music and its benefits for child development.

Child Development Essay Topics for College

Of course, college students should pick topics that are more advanced than those picked by high school attendees. Take a look at some interesting child development essay topics for college students:

Child Abuse Prevention programs and how they work.
Discuss Children Services in relation to child development
How does a divorce affect the development of children?
Analyzing the moral development stages
Domestic violence effects on child development
Three best parenting styles and why they work
Special needs of differently-abled children

Controversial Topics Child Development

Child development is, of course, filled with controversial ideas, theories and practices. You may want to talk about some of them, so here are some controversial topics child development ideas:

The best parenting model.
Family conflict hinders proper child development.
Does obesity affect child development?
Does race affect child development?
Are siblings important at all?
Imaginary friends can be a problem.

Best Research Topics on Child Development

Nobody knows what your professor likes or dislikes better than you do. However, we believe the following list of ideas contains some of the best research topics on child development:

Coronavirus lockdown and its effects on children.
Peers’ influence on child development.
Children understand life through play.
A green environment and its effects on children.
Describe the 4 types of parenting.
Diet and its role on child development.
How important is his family for a small child?

ADHD Child Development Topics

ADHD is a disorder that affects a growing number of children worldwide. It goes without saying that picking one of our ADHD child development topics will surely surprise your professor:

What is Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
Discuss the main causes of ADHD.
Incidence rate of ADHD in small children.
The challenges of ADHD for parents.
Special needs of children suffering from ADHD.
In-depth analysis of therapy methods.
Can ADHD be cured in the 21st century?

Interesting Topics Related to Child Development

Are you looking for the most interesting topics related to child development? Here is the list of what our ENL writers consider to be the most intriguing things to talk about in 2022:

Games that stimulate child development
Does poverty affect the development of children?
Tech and its effects of child development.
Do imaginary friends play a role?
Child development and its effects on the person’s entire life
Why are children often more creative than adults?

Child Development Psychology Topics

But what if you want to talk about psychology? The good news is that we have several original child development psychology topics that you can choose from right now for free:

What are the five stages of psychological development?
An in-depth look at the mental development of children.
Improving mental growth: best practices.
Lack of attention and its effects.
Behavioral psychology of autistic children.
Society is changing the psychology of our children.
The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Difficult Child Development Topics for Research

Are you looking for a challenge? Do you want to test your ability to write a complex academic paper on a difficult subject? Just pick one of these difficult child development topics for research and start writing:

The coronavirus pandemic and its effects on child development.
Eliminating dyslexia with novel child development techniques.
Best way to develop your child’s language skills.
Eliminating autism with novel child development techniques.
The minimum time that you should spend with your child.
3 best games for child mental growth.

Current Topics in Child Development

Of course, your professor is most interested in new and exciting research. This is why it is generally a great idea to pick a current topic to write about. Here are some of the best current topics in child development:

COVID-19 anxiety in small children.
Advancements in children cognitive development.
Latest social development techniques.
The link between psychical and physical development
What are developmental milestones?
Solving behavioral issues correctly.
Link between play and social skills.
Best methods to cure autism in 2022. Check out more autism research topics .

Child Mental Health Development Paper Ideas

Interested in writing about the mental health development of children of all ages? We have some very good news for you. We have a list of child mental health development paper ideas you will find most intriguing:

The effects of divorce on small children
The effects of the death of a parent on small children
The effects of family violence on child development
The effects of substance abuse on children
The effects of mono parental families on small children
The effects of financial insecurity on children
The effects of sleep disorders on the development of a child

Child Development Project Topics

Are you looking for an original project idea? Our team managed to create a list of 100% original child development project topics just for you:

Talking and its effects on child development.
Analyze the impact of sports on child development.
Poor dieting and its negative effects.
Technology effects on small children.
Are books important for small children?
Positive social relations and their effect on toddlers.
Is Internet exposure recommended?

Psychology Research Topics on Child Development

Researching the psychology of child development can be a very difficult thing to do. However, if you think you are up to the task, pick one of these great psychology research topics on child development:

Define the term “sociocultural theory”
The 4 stages of psychological development.
Analyzing the main psychological processes of children.
In-depth analysis of child psychology.
Does your children need to see a psychologist?
The science behind understanding child emotions.
Deviant behavior in small children.

Early Child Development Topics

Talking about infants and toddlers can be very interesting, especially if you manage to find a great topic. Choose one of these early child development topics and start writing your paper right away:

Stages of toddler mental development.
How much time should you spend with your small child?
The importance of socialization.
Games to play with your toddler.
Is play important for early child development?
Infant vs. toddler: the similarities.
When does the ego first appear?

Topics About the Stages of Childhood Development

Are you interested in talking about the various stages of childhood development? You are certainly in luck today. We have just added these topics about the stages of childhood development to our list:

What are the 5 stages of child development?
What defines a newborn?
Describe the transition between a newborn to an infant.
Child development stages: the toddler.
Preschool and school age children: key differences

Latest Child Development Paper Topics

It’s difficult to keep up with science, we know. Here are the latest child development paper topics you may want to write about:

Genetics effect on child development.
Social media effects on children.
Pollution effects on the development of children.
Social insecurity effects.
Good sleep and its benefits.
Preschool programs are improving emotional skills.
The science of childhood development.

Need More Child Development Topics for Papers?

But what if you want more than these interesting topics in child development? In case you need a list of original, well thought of topics, we have the perfect solution. Our experienced academic writers can put together a list of new child development topics for papers in no time. And the best part is that only you will get the new list. So, if you need dozens of child development research topics that nobody else thought of yet, you need our help. If you need a custom thesis , we can also help you. Don’t hesitate to get in touch, even during the night.

178 Original Child Development Research Paper Topics

Child development is represented by all the changes that occur in a child from the time of their birth to adulthood. The changes covered by child development include all the emotional, physical, thought and language changes.

During the process of development, a child transitions from being dependent on his parents to being an independent young adult. It is generally accepted that there are 5 main stages of child development: newborn, infant, toddler, preschool, and school-age.

If you are pursuing a bachelor of science or even a Master of Science degree, you will inevitably have to write at least one research paper about child development. The good news is that writing the paper shouldn’t be too difficult because the Internet contains plenty of information about most aspect of child development.

However, finding the right child development research paper topics for your papers can pose a problem. Don’t worry, we’ve got you covered. We have a list of 178 original topics on this page that should work great in 2023.

How Does A Good Research Paper Look Like?

OK, but what does a good research paper look like? Well, to help you out, we’ve put together a simple outline that shows you exactly what your paper should contain:

Introduction Background information on the topic Thesis statement Body #1 (first major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Body #2 (second major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Body #3 (third major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Conclusion Restate the thesis Summarize the key points Call to action Works Cited/Bibliography Appendix

Of course, to be able to write the research paper as fast as possible, you need to find the best possible topic. Stop wasting your time scouring the Internet and choose one of these original topics:

Best Child Development Topics

We will start our list of topics with the best child development topics (or what we consider to work great in 2023). Check out this list of awesome ideas:

Discuss the Piaget theory on child development
Research the mechanisms of child development
Analyze the Toddler stage (1-3 years)
Research motor skills during child development
The socio-emotional development of children
Discuss the 5 stages of development
Talk about cognitive development
Research the Preschool stage (3-4 years)
How does development shape a person’s life?
Research the role of the environment on development
Research hands-on experience learning

Easy Child Research Topics

Next on our list we have some of the easiest topics you can find. Our easy child research topics are meant to help you write the paper faster and save time for other activities:

Discuss the Erik Erikson theory on child development
Effects of parasites on child development
A closer look at the Infant stage (3-12 months)
Effects of race on child development
The intellectual development of children
Discuss maternal drug use effects
Effects of neglect on the development of children
The 5 stages of child development
Talk about the Newborn stage
Analyze the Pre-school stage (4-5 years)

Child Development Project Topics

Are you looking to start a child development project? You certainly need a great idea if you want an A+. Here are some child development project topics you could try:

Research asynchronous development
A project on physical growth
A project on gender role
A project on language and communication
Talk about the effects of malnutrition
Postnatal depression and child development
Weight growth during child development
The speed of height growth
Analyze the mechanisms of change
A project about individual differences
Research the development of children with disabilities

Research Topics On Children

If you are looking for interesting research topics on children, you have arrived at the right place. Take a look at these ideas and choose the one you like the most:

Discuss the Behavioral theory on child development
An in-depth look at secure attachment
How do emotions change over time?
Discuss the transition from dependent to independent
The effect of family on child development
The role of movement
The effect of school on child development
The importance of playing with other children
The importance of the surroundings
The effects of the Covid-19 pandemic
Psychological changes during development
Research the effects of classroom environment

Child Development Research Topics

Of course, we have a lot of child development research topics for students of all ages. Here are some of our best, original ideas that should be excellent for 2023:

Discuss the Vygotsky theory on child development
The role played by genetics
Compare and contrast the toddler and the infant
Compare and contrast the infant and the preschool child
The importance of a psychologist
Discuss the role of caregivers
Compare and contrast the toddler and the newborn
Effects of positive social interactions
Research disorganized families
Compare and contrast the preschool and the school age child
The negative effects of divorce
The role of a good early childhood life

Research Paper Topics Children Love

In case you are looking for some research paper topics children love, we have some of the best ideas right here. Check them out and start working on your paper now:

Latest news in child development
The importance of a good school
The importance of eating breakfast
The role of the mother
The role of the father
Teaching sign language to children
The effects of bullying on children
Discuss the importance of tangible rewards
Nurturing good habits
Sports in the life of a child

Child Development Topics For High School

So what if you’re a high school student? You can write about child development too. We even have some excellent child development topics for high school student right here:

Discuss ADHD and its effects
Negative effects of social media on child development
The role of technology in child development
Research differently-abled children
Study the emotional development of children
An in-depth look at the role of good nutrition
Research the role of sport in child development
Research the occurrence of depression
The struggles of preschool children
Negative effects of smartphones on child development
Effects of mass media on school children

Child Development Psychology Topics

Interested in discuss the psychological part of child development? Have a look at our child development psychology topics; you’ll surely find something of interest:

The different stages of psychological development
What makes children intelligent?
Discuss intellectual growth from 3 to 9 years of age
What makes children put their health at risk?
Research memory in preschool children
The problem-solving capabilities of a toddler
Language learning skills at the age of 3
Do toddlers have a self-preservation instinct?
How do toddlers understand the world around them?
Discuss a school psychology topic
Research how children think

Interesting Child Development Topics For Papers

Our writers have compiled a list of the most interesting child development topics for papers. All you have to do is choose one of our ideas and start working on your research paper:

Why is playing so important?
Talk about the effects of climate change on child development
How to ensure your child develops properly?
Discuss the role of social interaction
Is social media good for child development?
How do children form their ego?
The history of child development
Are some children more intelligent than most adults?
Research the way children understand life
Discuss the role of peers on child development

Great Children Research Topics

Are you in search of some great children research topics? You are in luck because we have a long list of such topics right here:

Research a child’s social development
Discuss speech development
Gross motor skills development
How to monitor child development effectively?
How important is attention?
Birth disorders and their negative effects
Talk about behavioral child development
The importance of music in child development

Child Development Research Paper Questions

Did you know that the best way to get started on your research paper is to look at some child development research paper questions? Here are some for you:

How to identify a child genius?
How does the community affect children?
Can children overcome trauma?
How important are birthday celebrations?
How important is the mother in child development?
How does the loss of hearing affect children?
Does the child need to visit a psychologist?
How does autism influence child development?
Does Facebook negatively affect a child’s development?
What is the role of genetics?
What defines a toddler?
How important is socialization?
How much time should a parent spend with his child?
What is the sociocultural theory?

Current Child Development Topics

Talking about the latest research in child development will surely get you some bonus points. Here are some current child development topics:

Latest advancements in cognitive child development
Autistic children development
Are video games dangerous for child development?
Severe psychological problems
Teaching your child a new language
Research into deviant behavior
Best games for children to play
Effects of a poor diet
The negative effects of a lack of physical exercise
How does technology influence child development?

Advanced Child Psychology Research Topics

If you want to write about complex topics, we also have a list of advanced child psychology research topics. Choose one of them for free right now:

The effects of talking on child development
Discuss the most important development milestones
The effects of the Covid-19 pandemic lockdowns
Discuss how television affects child development
Research the diseases that can hinder child development
Analyze the connection between a toddler and his parents
Research child development in single-parent families

Child Development Topics For College

College students will surely appreciate our long list of child development topics for college. Remember, this list is updated periodically so that everyone can get fresh topics:

The effects of family violence
Innovative child development techniques
How much time should you spend with your child?
Games that stimulate mental growth
Best ways to solve a behavioral issue
Negative effects of substance abuse
Negative effects of divorce

Controversial Child Development Topics

Don’t worry, your teacher will surely appreciate your courage. You shouldn’t be afraid to talk about controversial topics in your research paper. In fact, here are some topics to help you get started:

Books that children should avoid
The need for physical punishment
How important are schools?
Should children be allowed to play video games?
The effects of poverty on child development
Discuss the effects of social insecurity
Child development in the Indian society

Child Mental Health Essay Topics

Are you interested in talking about the mental health of children? No problem, we have a great list of child mental health essay topics for you:

Best ways to develop a positive mentality
An in-depth look at anxiety in toddlers
Discuss the stages of mental development
The occurrence of depression in preschool children
Discuss the cause and effects of ADHD
Can children suffer from PTSD?
Research the oppositional defiant disorder

Early Childhood Essay Topics

If you want to cover early childhood in your research paper, you have definitely arrived at the right place. Here are some awesome early childhood essay topics:

Tourette syndrome in toddlers
Discuss eating disorders in preschool children
The effects of social media on young children
Sports that children should play
Events that can negatively impact a child’s development
Ways to ensure maximum mental growth
Discuss the 5 stages of development and make a comparison between them
Does music affect the mathematical skills of young children?

Topics Related To Child Psychology

Our experts have created a list of interesting topics related to child psychology that you can use for free. Pick one of these ideas and start writing an A+ paper today:

Talk about what makes a child intelligent
Things that negative affect a child’s psychological wellbeing
Stress in young children in the United States
Should you child see a psychologist?
Sports that curb child delinquency
Discuss the effects of watching excessive television
The effects of religious orientation on a child’s mental health

ADHD Child Development Essay Topics

Writing about child development of children suffering from the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is not easy, we know. However, we have some great ADHD Child development essay topics for you:

How do ADHD children cope with boring situations?
Controlling the activity levels of ADHD children
Discuss ways to make ADHD children pay attention
ADHD’s effects on the ability to focus
Why do ADHD children have learning disabilities?

Get Research Help From The Best

Are you looking for a comprehensive, in depth research paper on an important child development topic, or just need some psychology dissertation help ? Perhaps it’s time to get some research help from our knowledgeable experts and fantastic dissertation writers for hire . All our academic writers have a Master’s or PhD degree and are native English speakers (ENL writers). This means they can be trusted to write college and university level research papers for any class – no matter the degree you are pursuing.

We offer affordable academic writing services online to any student in need, anywhere in the world. We can assure you that our custom papers will be written from scratch and will be 100 percent original (plagiarism report provided for free). In addition, we can edit and proofread your paper to make sure it is 100% accurate and free of any typos or spelling/grammar errors.

InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood Development

This brief is part of a series that summarizes essential scientific findings from Center publications.

Content in This Guide

Step 1: why is early childhood important.

: Brain Hero
: The Science of ECD (Video)
You Are Here: The Science of ECD (Text)

Step 2: How Does Early Child Development Happen?

: 3 Core Concepts in Early Development
: 8 Things to Remember about Child Development
: InBrief: The Science of Resilience

Step 3: What Can We Do to Support Child Development?

: From Best Practices to Breakthrough Impacts
: 3 Principles to Improve Outcomes

The science of early brain development can inform investments in early childhood. These basic concepts, established over decades of neuroscience and behavioral research, help illustrate why child development—particularly from birth to five years—is a foundation for a prosperous and sustainable society.

Brains are built over time, from the bottom up.

The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through an ongoing process that begins before birth and continues into adulthood. Early experiences affect the quality of that architecture by establishing either a sturdy or a fragile foundation for all of the learning, health and behavior that follow. In the first few years of life, more than 1 million new neural connections are formed every second . After this period of rapid proliferation, connections are reduced through a process called pruning, so that brain circuits become more efficient. Sensory pathways like those for basic vision and hearing are the first to develop, followed by early language skills and higher cognitive functions. Connections proliferate and prune in a prescribed order, with later, more complex brain circuits built upon earlier, simpler circuits.

In the proliferation and pruning process, simpler neural connections form first, followed by more complex circuits. The timing is genetic, but early experiences determine whether the circuits are strong or weak. Source: C.A. Nelson (2000). Credit: Center on the Developing Child

The interactive influences of genes and experience shape the developing brain.

Scientists now know a major ingredient in this developmental process is the “ serve and return ” relationship between children and their parents and other caregivers in the family or community. Young children naturally reach out for interaction through babbling, facial expressions, and gestures, and adults respond with the same kind of vocalizing and gesturing back at them. In the absence of such responses—or if the responses are unreliable or inappropriate—the brain’s architecture does not form as expected, which can lead to disparities in learning and behavior.

The brain’s capacity for change decreases with age.

The brain is most flexible, or “plastic,” early in life to accommodate a wide range of environments and interactions, but as the maturing brain becomes more specialized to assume more complex functions, it is less capable of reorganizing and adapting to new or unexpected challenges. For example, by the first year, the parts of the brain that differentiate sound are becoming specialized to the language the baby has been exposed to; at the same time, the brain is already starting to lose the ability to recognize different sounds found in other languages. Although the “windows” for language learning and other skills remain open, these brain circuits become increasingly difficult to alter over time. Early plasticity means it’s easier and more effective to influence a baby’s developing brain architecture than to rewire parts of its circuitry in the adult years.

Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities are inextricably intertwined throughout the life course.

The brain is a highly interrelated organ, and its multiple functions operate in a richly coordinated fashion. Emotional well-being and social competence provide a strong foundation for emerging cognitive abilities, and together they are the bricks and mortar that comprise the foundation of human development. The emotional and physical health, social skills, and cognitive-linguistic capacities that emerge in the early years are all important prerequisites for success in school and later in the workplace and community.

Toxic stress damages developing brain architecture, which can lead to lifelong problems in learning, behavior, and physical and mental health.

Scientists now know that chronic, unrelenting stress in early childhood, caused by extreme poverty, repeated abuse, or severe maternal depression, for example, can be toxic to the developing brain. While positive stress (moderate, short-lived physiological responses to uncomfortable experiences) is an important and necessary aspect of healthy development, toxic stress is the strong, unrelieved activation of the body’s stress management system. In the absence of the buffering protection of adult support, toxic stress becomes built into the body by processes that shape the architecture of the developing brain.

Brains subjected to toxic stress have underdeveloped neural connections in areas of the brain most important for successful learning and behavior in school and the workplace. Source: Radley et al (2004); Bock et al (2005). Credit: Center on the Developing Child.

Policy Implications

The basic principles of neuroscience indicate that early preventive intervention will be more efficient and produce more favorable outcomes than remediation later in life.
A balanced approach to emotional, social, cognitive, and language development will best prepare all children for success in school and later in the workplace and community.
Supportive relationships and positive learning experiences begin at home but can also be provided through a range of services with proven effectiveness factors. Babies’ brains require stable, caring, interactive relationships with adults — any way or any place they can be provided will benefit healthy brain development.
Science clearly demonstrates that, in situations where toxic stress is likely, intervening as early as possible is critical to achieving the best outcomes. For children experiencing toxic stress, specialized early interventions are needed to target the cause of the stress and protect the child from its consequences.

Suggested citation: Center on the Developing Child (2007). The Science of Early Childhood Development (InBrief). Retrieved from www.developingchild.harvard.edu .

Developmental Psychology Topics

Topics for research, papers, and other projects

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Childhood Topics
Adolescence Topics
Adulthood Topics
How to Choose
Tips for Students

Are you looking for a developmental psychology topic for a psychology paper , experiment, or science fair project? Topics you might pick can range from prenatal development to health during the final stages of life.

Developmental psychology is a broad topic that involves studying how people grow and change throughout their whole lifetime. Topics don't just include physical growth but also the emotional, cognitive, and social development that people experience at different stages of their lives.

At a Glance

The following are just a few different topics that might help inspire you. Remember, these are just ideas to help you get started. You might opt to explore one of these areas, or you might think of a related question that interests you as well.

Developmental Psychology Topics on Childhood

Could packaging nutritious foods in visually appealing ways encourage children to make healthier food choices?
Do children who listen to music while studying perform better or worse on exams?
Do students who eat breakfast perform better in school than those who do not eat breakfast?
Does birth order have an impact on procrastination ? Are first-borns less likely to procrastinate? Are last-borns more likely to put off tasks until the last minute?
Does teaching infants sign language help or hinder the language acquisition process?
How do parenting styles impact a child's level of physical activity? Are children raised by parents with permissive or uninvolved parents less active than those raised by parents with authoritative or authoritarian styles?
How does bullying impact student achievement? Are bullied students more likely to have worse grades than their non-bullied peers?
Which type of reinforcement works best for getting students to complete their homework: a tangible reward (such as a piece of candy) or social reinforcement (such as offering praise when homework is completed on time)?

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adolescence

What factors tend to influence the onset of depression in teens and young adults?
How do peer relationships influence identity formation during adolescence and young adulthood?
What impact do parent-child relationships have in predicting substance use among teens and young adults?
How does early substance use during adolescence impact impulsivity and risk-taking during early adulthood?
How does technology use during adolescence influence social and emotional development?
How does social media use influence body image among teens?
What factors contribute to success during the transition from the teen years to early adulthood?
How do cultural differences impact different aspects of adolescent development?

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adulthood

Are older adults who rate high in self-efficacy more likely to have a better memory than those with low self-efficacy?
Do the limits of short-term memory change as we age? How do the limits of short-term memory compare at ages, 15, 25, 45, and 65?
Do mental games such as word searches, Sudoku, and word matching help elderly adults keep their cognitive skills sharp?
How do explanations for the behavior of others change as we age? Are younger adults more likely to blame internal factors for events and older adults more likely to blame external variables?

Choosing Developmental Psychology Topics

Developmental psychology is a huge and diverse subject, so picking a topic isn't always easy. Some tips that can help you choose a good developmental psychology topic include:

Focus on a specific topic : Make sure that your topic isn't too broad to avoid getting overwhelmed by the amount of information available
Have a clear question or hypothesis : Your research question should be focused and clearly defined
Do some background research : Spend some time reviewing the existing literature to get a better idea about what you want to cover with your topic
Consider developmental theories : You might consider analyzing your topic through the lens of a particular theory of developmental psychology
Check out recent research : Use research databases to find the most recently published research on your topic

Before you start working on any paper, experiment, or science project, the first thing you need to do is understand the rules your instructor has established for the assignment.

Also, be sure to check the official guidelines given by your teacher. If you are not sure about these guidelines, ask your instructor if there are any specific requirements before you get started on your research .

If you are going to actually conduct an experiment , you need to present your idea to your instructor to gain their permission before going forward. In some cases, you might have to also present your plan to your school's Institutional Review Board.

Tips for Researching Developmental Psychology Topics

After you have gotten to move forward with your chosen topic, the next step is to do some background research. This step is essential! If you are writing a paper, the information you find will make up your literature review.

If you are performing an experiment, it will provide background information for the introduction of your lab report . For a psychology science project, this research will help you in your presentation and can help you decide how to best approach your own experiment.

What This Means For You

Choosing a topic for a developmental psychology experiment, paper, or project can be tough! The ideas above can be a great place to start, but you might also consider questions you've had about your own life. Once you have a general idea for your topic, narrow it down, do some background research and talk to your instructor.

Nielsen M, Haun D. Why developmental psychology is incomplete without comparative and cross-cultural perspectives . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci . 2016;371(1686):20150071. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0071

Leite DFB, Padilha MAS, Cecatti JG. Approaching literature review for academic purposes: The Literature Review Checklist . Clinics (Sao Paulo) . 2019;74:e1403. Published 2019 Nov 25. doi:10.6061/clinics/2019/e1403

Grady C. Institutional review boards: Purpose and challenges . Chest . 2015;148(5):1148-1155. doi:10.1378/chest.15-0706

Kim WO. Institutional review board (IRB) and ethical issues in clinical research . Korean Journal of Anesthesiology . 2012;62(1):3-12. doi:10.4097/kjae.2012.62.1.3

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care

Published: 29 October 2021
Volume 51 , pages 15–30, ( 2023 )

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Olivia N. Saracho ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4108-7790 1

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Developmental theorists use their research to generate philosophies on children’s development. They organize and interpret data based on a scheme to develop their theory. A theory refers to a systematic statement of principles related to observed phenomena and their relationship to each other. A theory of child development looks at the children's growth and behavior and interprets it. It suggests elements in the child's genetic makeup and the environmental conditions that influence development and behavior and how these elements are related. Many developmental theories offer insights about how the performance of individuals is stimulated, sustained, directed, and encouraged. Psychologists have established several developmental theories. Many different competing theories exist, some dealing with only limited domains of development, and are continuously revised. This article describes the developmental theories and their founders who have had the greatest influence on the fields of child development, early childhood education, and care. The following sections discuss some influences on the individuals’ development, such as theories, theorists, theoretical conceptions, and specific principles. It focuses on five theories that have had the most impact: maturationist, constructivist, behavioral, psychoanalytic, and ecological. Each theory offers interpretations on the meaning of children's development and behavior. Although the theories are clustered collectively into schools of thought, they differ within each school.

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The author is grateful to Mary Jalongo for her expert editing and her keen eye for the smallest details.

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Saracho, O.N. Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care. Early Childhood Educ J 51 , 15–30 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01271-5

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2 Research Methods

Learning objectives.

After reading Chapter 2, you should be better equipped to

Describe the scientific method and explain how it is used to study development.
Explain the differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches to research methods.
Explain the differences between descriptive and experimental designs.
Understand when and how to use different research methodologies and the strengths and limitations of each methodology.
Explain the types of research methodologies that are specific to conducting research in developmental psychology.
Describe when and how to use preferential looking designs and the different habituations designs.
Understand the protections used when conducting research with vulnerable populations like infants and children.

Knowing What We Know

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. For example, even today, some individuals believe that newborn infants can only see the colors black and white. However, Bower (1966) [1] demonstrated that while limited, newborn infants do have the ability to see color.

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical : It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior.

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method . Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations, and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on.

The basic steps in the scientific method are:

Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question about it
Make a hypothesis, or potential solution to the question
Test the hypothesis
If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find counter-evidence
If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again
Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is never-ending, and no result is ever considered perfect

In order to ask an important question that may improve our understanding of the world, a researcher must first observe natural phenomena. By making observations, a researcher can define a useful question. After finding a question to answer, the researcher can then make a prediction in the form of a hypothesis about what he or she thinks the answer will be. This prediction is usually a statement about the relationship between two or more variables. After making a hypothesis, the researcher will then design an experiment to test his or her hypothesis and evaluate the data gathered. These data will either support or refute the hypothesis. Based on the conclusions drawn from the data, the researcher will then find more evidence to support the hypothesis, look for counterevidence to further strengthen the hypothesis, revise the hypothesis and create a new experiment, or continue to incorporate the information gathered to answer the research question.

Flowchart Outlining the Steps of the Scientific Method

Flowchart describing the steps taken when using the scientific method.

The Basic Principles of the Scientific Method

Two key concepts in the scientific approach are theory and hypothesis . A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future observations. A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a theory. It is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests.

The Relationship Between Observation, Theory, Hypothesis and Research

Applying the Scientific Method

To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach would churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

Remember that a good scientific hypothesis is falsifiable , or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from Chapter 1 that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors. However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

Why the Scientific Method Is Important for Psychology

The use of the scientific method is one of the main features that separates modern psychology from earlier philosophical inquiries about the mind. Compared to chemistry, physics, and other “natural sciences,” psychology has long been considered one of the “social sciences” because of the subjective nature of the things it seeks to study. Many of the concepts that psychologists are interested in—such as aspects of the human mind, behavior, and emotions—are subjective and cannot be directly measured. Psychologists often rely instead on behavioral observations and self-reported data, which are considered by some to be illegitimate or lacking in methodological rigor. Applying the scientific method to psychology, therefore, helps to standardize the approach to understanding its very different types of information.

The scientific method allows psychological data to be replicated and confirmed in many instances, under different circumstances, and by a variety of researchers. Through replication of experiments, new generations of psychologists can reduce errors and broaden the applicability of theories. It also allows theories to be tested and validated instead of simply being conjectures that could never be verified or falsified. All of this allows psychologists to gain a stronger understanding of how the human mind works.

Scientific articles published in journals and psychology papers written in the style of the American Psychological Association (i.e., in “APA style”) are structured around the scientific method. These papers include an Introduction, which introduces the background information and outlines the hypotheses; a Methods section, which outlines the specifics of how the experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis; a Results section, which includes the statistics that tested the hypothesis and state whether it was supported or not supported, and a Discussion and Conclusion, which state the implications of finding support for, or no support for, the hypothesis. Writing articles and papers that adhere to the scientific method makes it easy for future researchers to repeat the study and attempt to replicate the results. [2]

General Research Methodologies: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods

Qualitative methods of research involve using a more open, evolving approach to finding out about the world. There is less emphasis on quantifying what is known and more emphasis on tapping into the experiences, assumptions, and meanings subjects give to their situations. Qualitative methods can be used to explore an area about which little is known or to get a fresh look at a situation that has been studied before. The use of narratives in which the researcher tries to find out what is going on by using the subjects’ own words is one approach. Qualitative methods are used in anthropology, education, nursing, and other areas where the researcher wishes to be led by the participants into seeing what they deem as important.

The researcher begins with a broad interest and gains entrance into a setting in which to explore. Information is gathered using a variety of techniques such as observation, documenting the physical space and surroundings of that setting, recording interviews, etc. After gathering general information, the researcher may decide to focus more closely on specific research questions. Patterns may become apparent as the researcher revisits their field notes and spends more time in a setting. These prompt the researcher to explore new ideas until they feel they reach a point of saturation, or a feeling that they’ve thoroughly explored the situation. Patterns and answers to research questions are noted in a report of the findings.

Researchers who use qualitative methods might take the following steps when conducting research:

Begin with a broad area of interest
Gain entrance into a group to be researched
Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest
Ask open ended, broad “grand tour” types of questions when interviewing subjects
Modify research questions as study continues
Note patterns or consistencies
Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed
Report findings

In this type of research, theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants. The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer & Strauss, 1967). Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.

Quantitative methods involve beginning with a research question, reviewing the literature to see what others have found in their research of the topic, determining specifically what aspect of the topic to explore in your research and determining the most appropriate method to use for your purposes, conducting the study, which means finding your sample, administering your survey or conducting your experiments, interpreting the results by analyzing your data, drawing conclusions about what you have found, and finally sharing your findings with others in the scientific community by publishing your research.

Researchers using quantitative methods typically take the following steps when conducting research:

Determining a research question
Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)
Determining a method of gathering information
Conducting the study
Interpreting results
Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research
Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)

This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question or hypothesis, and it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied. Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner and a good way to become more familiar with these steps is to look at journal articles which will be written in sections that follow these 7 steps. [3]

Specific Research Methodologies

A research design is the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data. Psychologists use three major types of research designs in their research, and each provides an essential avenue for scientific investigation. Descriptive or qualitative research is research that describes what is occurring at a point in time. Correlational research is research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge. Experimental research is research in which a researcher manipulates one or more variables to see their effects. Each of the three research designs varies according to its strengths and limitations. [3]

Each of these research methods has unique strengths and weaknesses, and each method may only be appropriate for certain types of research questions. For example, studies that rely primarily on observation produce incredible amounts of information, but the ability to apply this information to the larger population is somewhat limited because of small sample sizes. Survey research, on the other hand, allows researchers to easily collect data from relatively large samples. While this allows for results to be generalized to the larger population more easily, the information that can be collected on any given survey is somewhat limited and subject to problems associated with any type of self-reported data. Some researchers conduct archival research by using existing records. While this can be a fairly inexpensive way to collect data that can provide insight into a number of research questions, researchers using this approach have no control on how or what kind of data was collected.

Correlational research can find a relationship between two variables, but the only way a researcher can claim that the relationship between the variables is cause and effect is to perform an experiment. In experimental research, which will be discussed later in the text, there is a tremendous amount of control over variables of interest. While this is a powerful approach, experiments are often conducted in very artificial settings. This calls into question the validity of experimental findings with regard to how they would apply in real-world settings. In addition, many of the questions that psychologists would like to answer cannot be pursued through experimental research because of ethical concerns.

Descriptive or Qualitative Research

Descriptive or qualitative research methods include the case study , naturalistic observation/observational research , surveys , interviews , psychophysiological assessments , and secondary/ content analysis or archival research .

Case Study Methodology

In 2011, the New York Times published a feature story on Krista and Tatiana Hogan, Canadian twin girls. These particular twins are unique because Krista and Tatiana are conjoined twins, connected at the head. There is evidence that the two girls are connected in a part of the brain called the thalamus, which is a major sensory relay center. Most incoming sensory information is sent through the thalamus before reaching higher regions of the cerebral cortex for processing.

The implications of this potential connection mean that it might be possible for one twin to experience the sensations of the other twin. For instance, if Krista is watching a particularly funny television program, Tatiana might smile or laugh even if she is not watching the program. This particular possibility has piqued the interest of many neuroscientists who seek to understand how the brain uses sensory information.

These twins represent an enormous resource in the study of the brain, and since their condition is very rare, it is likely that as long as their family agrees, scientists will follow these girls very closely throughout their lives to gain as much information as possible (Dominus, 2011).

In observational research, scientists are conducting a clinical or case study when they focus on one person or just a few individuals. Indeed, some scientists spend their entire careers studying just 10–20 individuals. Why would they do this? Obviously, when they focus their attention on a very small number of people, they can gain a tremendous amount of insight into those cases. The richness of information that is collected in clinical or case studies is unmatched by any other single research method. This allows the researcher to have a very deep understanding of the individuals and the particular phenomenon being studied.

If clinical or case studies provide so much information, why are they not more frequent among researchers? As it turns out, the major benefit of this particular approach is also a weakness. As mentioned earlier, this approach is often used when studying individuals who are interesting to researchers because they have a rare characteristic. Therefore, the individuals who serve as the focus of case studies are not like most other people. If scientists ultimately want to explain all behavior, focusing attention on such a special group of people can make it difficult to generalize any observations to the larger population as a whole. Generalizing refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society. Again, case studies provide enormous amounts of information, but since the cases are so specific, the potential to apply what’s learned to the average person may be very limited. [5]

How is the Case Study Conducted?

The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation.

The client also reports detail of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the information from both sources above as the case study and interprets the information. The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen.

Amongst the sources of data the psychologist is likely to turn to when carrying out a case study are observations of a person’s daily routine, unstructured interviews with the participant herself (and with people who know her), diaries, personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports).

The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing the case history of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach.

The interview is also an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.

Most of this information is likely to be qualitative (i.e. verbal description rather than measurement) but the psychologist might collect numerical data as well.

Strengths of Case Studies

Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
Provides insight for further research.
Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research which only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension to experience which is so important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is therefore important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e. humanistic psychologists).

Limitations of Case Studies

Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
Researchers’ own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias).
Difficult to replicate.
Time-consuming and expensive.
The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e. descriptive) data a lot depends on the interpretation the psychologist places on the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for observer bias and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit the particular theories about behavior (e.g. Little Hans).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory. [4]

Naturalistic Observations/ Observational Research Methodology

Observational studies involve watching and recording the actions of participants. This may take place in the natural setting, such as observing children at play at a park, or behind a one-way glass while children are at play in a laboratory playroom. The researcher may follow a checklist and record the frequency and duration of events (perhaps how many conflicts occur among 2- year-olds) or may observe and record as much as possible about an event (such as observing children in a classroom and capturing the details about the room design and what the children and teachers are doing and saying). [5]

We want our researcher to be inconspicuous—perhaps, as mentioned above standing behind one-way glass. This type of observational study is called naturalistic observation : observing behavior in its natural setting. To better understand peer exclusion, Suzanne Fanger collaborated with colleagues at the University of Texas to observe the behavior of preschool children on a playground. How did the observers remain inconspicuous over the duration of the study? They equipped a few of the children with wireless microphones (which the children quickly forgot about) and observed while taking notes from a distance. Also, the children in that particular preschool (a “laboratory preschool”) were accustomed to having observers on the playground (Fanger, Frankel, & Hazen, 2012).

It is critical that the observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible: when people know they are being watched, they are less likely to behave naturally. If you have any doubt about this, ask yourself how your driving behavior might differ in two situations: In the first situation, you are driving down a deserted highway during the middle of the day; in the second situation, you are being followed by a police car down the same deserted highway (Figure 1).

It should be pointed out that naturalistic observation is not limited to research involving humans. Indeed, some of the best-known examples of naturalistic observation involve researchers going into the field to observe various kinds of animals in their own environments. As with human studies, the researchers maintain their distance and avoid interfering with the animal subjects so as not to influence their natural behaviors. Scientists have used this technique to study social hierarchies and interactions among animals ranging from ground squirrels to gorillas. The information provided by these studies is invaluable in understanding how those animals organize socially and communicate with one another. The anthropologist Jane Goodall,(image below) for example, spent nearly five decades observing the behavior of chimpanzees in Africa. As an illustration of the types of concerns that a researcher might encounter in naturalistic observation, some scientists criticized Goodall for giving the chimps names instead of referring to them by numbers—using names was thought to undermine the emotional detachment required for the objectivity of the study (McKie, 2010).

The greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting. Having individuals behave as they normally would in a given situation means that we have a higher degree of ecological validity, or realism, than we might achieve with other research approaches. Therefore, our ability to generalize the findings of the research to real-world situations is enhanced. If done correctly, we need not worry about people or animals modifying their behavior simply because they are being observed. Sometimes, people may assume that reality programs give us a glimpse into authentic human behavior. However, the principle of inconspicuous observation is violated as reality stars are followed by camera crews and are interviewed on camera for personal confessionals. Given that environment, we must doubt how natural and realistic their behaviors are.

The major downside of naturalistic observation is that they are often difficult to set up and control. In our restroom study, what if you stood in the restroom all day prepared to record people’s hand washing behavior and no one came in? Or, what if you have been closely observing a troop of gorillas for weeks only to find that they migrated to a new place while you were sleeping in your tent? The benefit of realistic data comes at a cost. As a researcher you have no control of when (or if) you have behavior to observe. In addition, this type of observational research often requires significant investments of time, money, and a good dose of luck.

Sometimes studies involve structured observation . In these cases, people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks. An excellent example of structured observation comes from the Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth (you will read more about this later). The Strange Situation is a procedure used to evaluate attachment styles that exist between an infant and caregiver. In this scenario, caregivers bring their infants into a room filled with toys. The Strange Situation involves a number of phases, including a stranger coming into the room, the caregiver leaving the room, and the caregiver’s return to the room. The infant’s behavior is closely monitored at each phase, but it is the behavior of the infant upon being reunited with the caregiver that is most telling in terms of characterizing the infant’s attachment style with the caregiver.

Another potential problem in observational research is observer bias . Generally, people who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations. To protect against this type of bias, researchers should have clear criteria established for the types of behaviors recorded and how those behaviors should be classified. In addition, researchers often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers, in order to test inter-rater reliability : a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers. [6]

Survey Methodology

Surveys are familiar to most people because they are so widely used. Surveys enhance accessibility to subjects because they can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. A survey involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set such as “strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree”; or “0, 1-5, 6-10, etc.” Surveys are commonly used by sociologists, marketing researchers, political scientists, therapists, and others to gather information on several variables in a relatively short period of time. Surveys typically yield surface information on a wide variety of factors but may not allow for in-depth understanding of human behavior. Of course, surveys can be designed in a number of ways. They may include forced choice questions and semi-structured questions in which the researcher allows the respondent to describe or give details about certain events. One of the most difficult aspects of designing a good survey is wording questions in an unbiased way and asking the right questions so that respondents can give a clear response rather that choosing “undecided” each time. Knowing that 30% of respondents are undecided is of little use! So, a lot of time and effort should be placed on the construction of survey items. One of the benefits of having forced choice items is that each response is coded so that the results can be quickly entered and analyzed using statistical software. Analysis takes much longer when respondents give lengthy responses that must be analyzed in a different way. Surveys are useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. However, they are based on self-report or what people say they do rather than on observation and this can limit accuracy. [7]

The Survey Below Asks Questions Regarding School Reform [8]

Rather than surveying participants, they can be interviewed which means they are directly questioned by a researcher. Interviewing participants on their behaviors or beliefs can solve the problem of misinterpreting the questions posed on surveys. The examiner can explain the questions and further probe responses for greater clarity and understanding. Although this can yield more accurate results, interviews take longer and are more expensive to administer than surveys. Participants can also demonstrate social desirability, which will affect the accuracy of the responses.

Psychophysiological Assessment

Researchers may also record psychophysiological data , such as measures of heart rate, hormone levels, or brain activity to help explain development. These measures may be recorded by themselves or in combination with behavioral data to better understand the bidirectional relations between biology and behavior. Special equipment has been developed to allow researchers to record the brain activity of infants and children. One manner of understanding associations between brain development and behavioral advances is through the recording of event-related potentials (ERPs). ERPs are recorded by fitting a research participant with a stretchy cap that contains many small sensors or electrodes . These electrodes record tiny electrical currents on the scalp of the participant in response to the presentation of stimuli, such as a picture or a sound.

The use of ERPs has provided important insight as to how infants and children understand the world around them. Webb, Dawson, Bernier, and Panagiotides (2006) examined face and object processing in children with autism spectrum disorders, those with developmental delays, and those who were typically developing. The children wore electrode caps and had their brain activity recorded as they watched still photographs of faces of their mother or of a stranger, and objects, including those that were familiar or unfamiliar to them. The researchers examined differences in face and object processing by group by observing a component of the brainwaves. Findings suggest that children with autism are in some way processing faces differently than typically developing children and those with more general developmental delays.

An infant wearing a skull-cap that contains electrodes during an event-related potential (ERP) recording

Secondary/Content Analysis or Archival Research

Secondary/content analysis or archival research involves analyzing information that has already been collected or examining documents or media to uncover attitudes, practices or preferences. There are many data sets available to those who wish to conduct this type of research. For example, the U. S. Census Data is available and widely used to look at trends and changes taking place in the United States. The researcher conducting secondary analysis does not have to recruit subjects but does need to know the quality of the information collected in the original study.

Correlational Research

In contrast to descriptive research, which is designed primarily to provide static pictures, correlational research involves the measurement of two or more variables (a variable is anything that can change in value) and an assessment of the relationship between or among those variables. For instance, the variables of height and weight are systematically related (correlated) because taller people generally weigh more than shorter people.

The Pearson Correlation Coefficient, symbolized by the letter r, is the most common statistical measure of the strength of linear relationships among variables. The value of the correlation coefficient ranges from r= –1.00 to r = 1.00. The strength of the linear relationship is indexed by the distance of the correlation coefficient from zero (its absolute value). For instance, r = –.54 is a stronger relationship than r= .30, and r = .72 is a stronger relationship than r = –.57. The direction of the linear relationship is indicated by the sign of the correlation coefficient . Positive values of r (such as r = .54 or r = .67) indicate that the relationship is positive (i.e., the pattern of the dots on the scatter plot runs from the lower left to the upper right), whereas negative values of r (such as r = –.30 or r = –.72) indicate negative relationships (i.e., the dots run from the upper left to the lower right).

Examples of positive and negative correlational data presented as scatterplots

When the straight line indicates that individuals who have high values for one variable also tend to have high values for the other variable, as in part (a) above, the relationship is said to be a positive correlation . Examples of positive correlations include those between education and income, and between age and mathematical abilities in children. In each case people who score higher on one of the variables also tend to score higher on the other variable. Negative correlations , in contrast, as shown in part (b) above, occur when high values for one variable tend to be associated with low values for the other variable. Examples of negative correlations include those between the age of a child and the number of diapers the child uses, and between practice and errors made on a learning task. In these cases, people who score higher on one of the variables tend to score lower on the other variable. [9]

An example of how a scatterplot might look in the case where a study finds that kindergarten and elementary school children who were better at rhymes and hearing the sounds of individual letters before they started to read later learn to read words more quickly than children who were not as good with making an distinguishing elementary sounds of language can be found below.

Scatterplot Between Speed of Learning to Read and Ability to Make and Hear Language-Related Sounds

The above scatter plots shows that the relationship between “Speed of Learning to Read” and the “Ability to Make and Hear Language-Related Sounds is “positive” and “strong. “ [10]

An important limitation of correlational research designs is that they cannot be used to draw conclusions about the causal relationships among the measured variables. In other words, CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION . Consider, for instance, a researcher who has hypothesized that viewing violent behavior will cause increased aggressive play in children. He has collected, from a sample of fourth-grade children, a measure of how much violent television each child views during the week, as well as a measure of how aggressively each child plays. The researcher discovers a positive correlation between the two measured variables. Although this positive correlation appears to support the hypothesis, it cannot be taken to indicate that viewing violent television causes aggressive behavior or aggressive behavior causes one to view violent television. Another possible explanation for the observed correlation is that it has been produced by the presence of a third variable.

A third or extraneous variable is a variable that is not part of the research hypothesis but produces the observed correlation between them. In our example a potential third variable is the discipline style of the children’s parents. Parents who use a harsh and punitive discipline style may produce children who both like to watch violent television and who behave aggressively in comparison to children whose parents use less harsh discipline.

For this reason, we are left with the basic limitation of correlational research: Correlation does not demonstrate causation! It is important that when you read about correlational research projects, you keep in mind the possibility of third variables.

Strengths and limitations of Correlational Research

Correlational research can be used when experimental research is not possible because the variables either cannot be manipulated, or it would be unethical to use an experiment. Correlational designs also have the advantage of allowing the researcher to study behavior as it occurs in everyday life. We can also use correlational designs to make predictions. For instance, we can predict from the scores on a battery of tests the success of job trainees during a training session. However, we cannot use such correlational information to determine whether one variable caused another variable. For that, researchers rely on an experiment.

Experimental Research

In order to conduct an experiment, a researcher must have a specific hypothesis to be tested. As you’ve learned, hypotheses can be formulated either through direct observation of the real world or after careful review of previous research. For example, if you think that children should not be allowed to watch violent programming on television because doing so would cause them to behave more violently, then you have basically formulated a hypothesis—namely, that watching violent television programs causes children to behave more violently. How might you have arrived at this particular hypothesis? You may have younger relatives who watch cartoons featuring characters using martial arts to save the world from evildoers, with an impressive array of punching, kicking, and defensive postures. You notice that after watching these programs for a while, your young relatives mimic the fighting behavior of the characters portrayed in the cartoon.

These sorts of personal observations are what often lead us to formulate a specific hypothesis, but we cannot use limited personal observations and anecdotal evidence to rigorously test our hypothesis. Instead, to find out if real-world data supports our hypothesis, we have to conduct an experiment. [11]

Three conditions must be met to establish cause and effect. Experimental designs are useful in meeting these conditions.

The independent variable and the dependent variable must be related. In other words, when one is altered, the other changes in response. (The independent variable is something altered or introduced by the researcher. The dependent variable is the outcome that is measured, or the factor affected by the introduction of the independent variable. For example, if we are looking at the impact of different levels of intervention on reading scores, the independent variable would be the level of intervention and the dependent variable would be the reading scores.)
The cause must come before the effect. Experiments involve measuring subjects on the dependent variable before exposing them to the independent variable (establishing a baseline). So, we would measure the subjects’ level of reading before introducing the intervention program and then again after the intervention program to see if there has been a change in reading scores. (Observational and survey research does not always allow us to look at the timing of these events, which makes understanding causality problematic with these designs.)
The cause must be isolated. The researcher must ensure that no outside, perhaps unknown or confounding variables are causing the effect we see. The experimental design helps make this possible. In an experiment, we would make sure that our subjects did not receive any intervention at home or at an after-school program. Otherwise these additional interventions might influence reading scores. [12]

Designing an Experiment

The most basic experimental design involves two groups: the experimental group and the control group . The two groups are designed to be the same except for one difference— experimental manipulation. The experimental group gets the experimental manipulation—that is, the treatment or variable being tested (in this case, violent TV images)—and the control group does not. Since experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, we can be sure that any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance.

In our example of how violent television programming might affect violent behavior in children, we have the experimental group view violent television programming for a specified time and then measure their violent behavior. We measure the violent behavior in our control group after they watch nonviolent television programming for the same amount of time. It is important for the control group to be treated similarly to the experimental group, with the exception that the control group does not receive the experimental manipulation. Therefore, we have the control group watch non-violent television programming for the same amount of time as the experimental group.

We also need to precisely define, or operationalize, what is considered violent and nonviolent. An operational definition is a description of how we will measure our variables, and it is important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment. In operationalizing violent behavior, we might choose to count only physical acts like kicking or punching as instances of this behavior, or we also may choose to include angry verbal exchanges. Whatever we determine, it is important that we operationalize violent behavior in such a way that anyone who hears about our study for the first time knows exactly what we mean by violence. This aids peoples’ ability to interpret our data as well as their capacity to repeat our experiment should they choose to do so.

Test Your Knowledge of a Good Operational Definition: Below you will find 5 suggested operational definitions. For each statement, determine whether or not the statement either provides a good example of an operational definition (True), or does not provide a good example of an operational definition (False).

Once we have operationalized what is considered violent television programming and what is considered violent behavior from our experiment participants, we need to establish how we will run our experiment. In this case, we might have participants watch a 30-minute television program (either violent or nonviolent, depending on their group membership) before sending them out to a playground for an hour where their behavior is observed and the number and type of violent acts is recorded.

Ideally, the people who observe and record the children’s behavior are unaware of who was assigned to the experimental or control group, in order to control for experimenter bias. Experimenter bias refers to the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study. Remember, conducting an experiment requires a lot of planning, and the people involved in the research project have a vested interest in supporting their hypotheses. If the observers knew which child was in which group, it might influence how much attention they paid to each child’s behavior as well as how they interpreted that behavior. By being blind to which child is in which group, we protect against those biases. This situation is a single-blind study , meaning that one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group.

In a double-blind study , both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments. Why would a researcher want to run a study where no one knows who is in which group? Because by doing so, we can control for both experimenter and participant expectations. If you are familiar with the phrase placebo effect, you already have some idea as to why this is an important consideration. The placebo effect occurs when people’s expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation. In other words, simply expecting something to happen can actually make it happen.

The placebo effect is commonly described in terms of testing the effectiveness of a new medication. Imagine that you work in a pharmaceutical company, and you think you have a new drug that is effective in treating depression. To demonstrate that your medication is effective, you run an experiment with two groups: The experimental group receives the medication, and the control group does not. But you don’t want participants to know whether they received the drug or not.

Why is that? Imagine that you are a participant in this study, and you have just taken a pill that you think will improve your mood. Because you expect the pill to have an effect, you might feel better simply because you took the pill and not because of any drug actually contained in the pill—this is the placebo effect.

To make sure that any effects on mood are due to the drug and not due to expectations, the control group receives a placebo (in this case a sugar pill). Now everyone gets a pill, and once again neither the researcher nor the experimental participants know who got the drug and who got the sugar pill. Any differences in mood between the experimental and control groups can now be attributed to the drug itself rather than to experimenter bias or participant expectations. [13]

Independent and Dependent Variables

In a research experiment, we strive to study whether changes in one thing cause changes in another. To achieve this, we must pay attention to two important variables, or things that can be changed, in any experimental study: the independent variable and the dependent variable . An independent variable is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. In a well-designed experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control groups. In our example of how violent television programs affect children’s display of violent behavior, the independent variable is the type of program—violent or nonviolent—viewed by participants in the study (Figure 3). A dependent variable is what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had. In our example, the dependent variable is the number of violent acts displayed by the experimental participants.

The Influence of the Independent Variable on the Dependent Variable

Flow-chart demonstrating the relationship of the independent and dependent variable.

In an experiment, manipulations of the independent variable are expected to result in changes in the dependent variable . (credit “automatic weapon”: modifications of work by Daniel Oines: credit “toy gun”: modifications of work by Emran Kassim)

We expect that the dependent variable will change as a function of the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable. A good way to think about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is with this question: What effect does the independent variable have on the dependent variable? Returning to our example, what effect does watching a half hour of violent television programming or nonviolent television programming have on the number of incidents of physical aggression displayed on the playground?

Selecting and Assigning Experimental Participants

Now that our study is designed, we need to obtain a sample of individuals to include in our experiment. Our study involves human participants so we need to determine who to include. Participants are the subjects of psychological research, and as the name implies, individuals who are involved in psychological research actively participate in the process. Often, psychological research projects rely on college students to serve as participants. In fact, the vast majority of research in psychology subfields has historically involved students as research participants (Sears, 1986; Arnett, 2008). But are college students truly representative of the general population? College students tend to be younger, more educated, more liberal, and less diverse than the general population. Although using students as test subjects is an accepted practice, relying on such a limited pool of research participants can be problematic because it is difficult to generalize findings to the larger population.

Our hypothetical experiment involves children, and we must first generate a sample of child participants. Samples are used because populations are usually too large to reasonably involve every member in our particular experiment. If possible, we should use a random sample (there are other types of samples, but for the purposes of this section, we will focus on random samples). A random sample is a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Random samples are preferred because if the sample is large enough, we can be reasonably sure that the participating individuals are representative of the larger population. This means that the percentages of characteristics in the sample—sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic level, and any other characteristics that might affect the results—are close to those percentages in the larger population.

In our example, let’s say we decide our population of interest is fourth graders. But all fourth graders is a very large population, so we need to be more specific; instead we might say our population of interest is all fourth graders in a particular city. We should include students from various income brackets, family situations, races, ethnicities, religions, and geographic areas of town. With this more manageable population, we can work with the local schools to randomly select around 200 fourth graders who we want to participate in our experiment.

In summary, because we cannot test all of the fourth graders in a city, we want to find a group of about 200 that reflects the composition of that city. With a representative group, we can generalize our findings to the larger population without fear of our sample being biased in some way.

Now that we have a sample, the next step of the experimental process is to split the participants into experimental and control groups through random assignment. With random assignment , all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group. There is statistical software that will randomly assign each of the fourth graders in the sample to either the experimental or the control group.

Random assignment is critical for sound experimental design. With sufficiently large samples, random assignment makes it unlikely that there are systematic differences between the groups. So, for instance, it would be very unlikely that we would get one group composed entirely of males, a given ethnic identity, or a given religious ideology. This is important because if the groups were systematically different before the experiment began, we would not know the origin of any differences we find between the groups: Were the differences preexisting, or were they caused by manipulation of the independent variable? Random assignment allows us to assume that any differences observed between experimental and control groups result from the manipulation of the independent variable. [14]

Despite the advantage of determining causation, experiments do have limitations. One is that they are often conducted in laboratory situations rather than in the everyday lives of people. Therefore, we do not know whether results that we find in a laboratory setting will necessarily hold up in everyday life. Second, and more important, is that some of the most interesting and key social variables cannot be experimentally manipulated because of ethical concerns. If we want to study the influence of abuse on children’s development of depression, these relationships must be assessed using correlational designs because it is simply not ethical to experimentally manipulate these variables. Characteristics of descriptive, correlational, and experimental research designs can be found in the following table. [15] , [16]

Table describing the type of research design with corresponding Goal, Advantages, and Disadvantages.

Developmental Research Designs

While research methods are tools that are used to collect information, research design is the strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information. Research design dictates which research methods are used and how. When we are trying to describe development and change, the research designs become especially important because we are interested in what changes and what stays the same with age. [19] Developmental researchers typically use one of three types of developmental research design, either cross-sectional , longitudinal , or cross-sequential/sequential .

Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal and Cross Sequential/Sequential Research Designs

Cross sectional research designs.

Cross-sectional research compares samples that represent a cross-section of the population who vary in age. Participants might be asked to complete a survey or take a test of some physical or cognitive skill. The attitudes or skill levels based on age are compared. In cross-sectional research, respondents are measured only once, and consequently this method is not expensive or time consuming. In addition, because participants are only tested at one point in time, practice effects are not an issue as children do not have the opportunity to become better at the task over time. There is also no need to keep in contact with, or follow-up with, participants over time. The table [17] below shows that the study included a group of 2-year-olds, a group of 6-year-olds and a group of 8-year-olds.

Cohort Group Participants of a Cross-Sectional Design

Table indicating the age of each cohort group that took part in the study.

However, cross-sectional research does not allow the researcher to look at the impact of having been born in a certain time-period, which is known as the cohort effect . For example, those born during the depression have very different views about and experiences with the internet than those born in the last twenty years. Different attitudes about the Internet, for example, might not be due to a person’s biological age as much as their life experiences as members of a cohort. [18]

Longitudinal Research Designs

Longitudinal research involves studying a group of people who are the same age and measuring them repeatedly over a period-of-time. This type of design allows researchers to study individual differences in development. Longitudinal studies may be conducted over the short term, such as a span of months, or over much longer durations including years or decades. For these reasons, longitudinal research designs are optimal for studying stability and change over time.

Cohort Group Participants of a Longitudinal Design

Flowchart showing how the same child takes part in the same study from the age of 2 to the age of 8.

Problems with longitudinal research include being very time consuming and expensive. Researchers must maintain continued contact with participants over time, and these studies necessitate that scientists have funding to conduct their work over extended durations. An additional risk is attrition. Attrition occurs when participants fail to complete all portions of a study. Participants may move, change their phone numbers, or simply become disinterested in participating over time. Researchers should account for the possibility of attrition by enrolling a larger sample into their study initially, as some participants will likely drop out over time. Even with a large sample size, the experimenter never knows if there was something different about the individuals who dropped out versus those that remained in the study.

Cross-Sequential/Sequential Designs

Cross-sequential research includes elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs. Like longitudinal designs, sequential research features participants who are followed over time; like cross-sectional designs, sequential work includes participants of different ages. This research design is also distinct from those that have been discussed previously in that individuals of different ages are enrolled into a study at various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same individuals as they age, and account for the possibility of cohort effects. [20]

Cohort Group Participants of a Cross-Sequential Design

Table showing how a child takes part in a sequential design study. The table corresponds to the discussion in the text provided below.

For example, in a study with a sequential design, a researcher might enroll three separate groups of children (Groups A, B, and C). Children in Group A would be enrolled when they are 2 years old and would be tested again when they are 4 and 6 years old. This is similar in design to the longitudinal study described previously. Children in Group B would also be enrolled when they are 2 years old, but this would occur two years later when Group A is now 4 years old. Finally, children in Group C would be enrolled when they are 2 years old and Group A is now 6 and Group B is now 4. At this time, the children would represent a cross-sectional design (2, 4, and 6 years of age). Further, along the diagonal children of the same age can be compared to determine if cohort effects are evident. Sequential designs are appealing because they allow researchers to learn a lot about development in a relatively short amount of time.

Because they include elements of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, sequential research has many of the same strengths and limitations as these other approaches. For example, sequential work may require less time and effort than longitudinal research, but more time and effort than cross-sectional research. Although practice effects may be an issue if participants are asked to complete the same tasks or assessments over time, attrition may be less problematic than what is commonly experienced in longitudinal research since participants may not have to remain involved in the study for such a long period-of-time. [21] The table that follows summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of developmental research designs.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Developmental Research Designs [27]

Table describing the advantages and disadvantages of Longitudinal, Cross-Sectional and Sequential Designs.

Preferential Looking and Habituation

Conducting psychological experiments that involve infant participants can be difficult. Infants may fall asleep or cry during procedures, and typically do not follow instructions well. The most difficult aspect of working with infants is their lack of language abilities. In other words, infants can’t tell you what they think, believe, or feel like adults can. However, infant visual capabilities while not as developed as older children or adults can be used to provide researchers with insights into their cognitive abilities.

Preferential Looking

In 1961 Robert L. Fantz introduced the visual preference paradigm . The technique was simple, show infants two different stimuli paired alongside each other and measure how long the infant would look at either stimulus. Fantz concluded that the stimulus the infants looked longer at was the preferred stimulus. As he continued his technique, he began to find similar preference patterns among infants. For example, Fantz showed that from 2 months of age, infants preferred complex images like bulls-eyes over plain white or black circles. One of his more interesting findings is that newborns and infants prefer faces and face-like patterns over non-face-like patterns. This finding led Fantz to hypothesize that this preference was an innate ability that might serve to enhance survival of the newborn and infant.

Fantz’s Looking Chamber

The “Looking Chamber” developed by Fantz (1961) to test newborn and infant preference.

The preferential looking technique can be used to test infant visual acuity. In this case infants are shown several presentations of different stimuli consisting of black and white stripes of varying widths alongside a control stimulus (a uniform grey disc). When the looking time between the two stimuli is approximately 50% for either stimulus the infant’s visual acuity limit has been reached.

Finally, the concept behind the preferential looking technique have been adapted for use in the study of audition. The head-turn preference procedure (HPP) or preferential listening paradigm is used to explore infants’ ability to discriminate between auditory stimuli.

Infant Preferential Looking

Testing an infant’s visual acuity using preferential looking. The width of the stripes corresponds to Snellen Acuity values

Habituation

Fantz was one of the first researchers to make use of the habituation technique (although he did not refer to the technique as “habituation) to study human infant perceptual and cognitive abilities.

In habituation studies, infants are presented with a stimulus such as a photograph of a face over several trials until they become bored with it. Typically, when infants become bored, they will look away from the picture. Once the infant has been habituated, or bored, a new or test stimulus is then paired with the original stimulus. Therefore, if the infant is shown a new picture–such as a photograph of a different face paired with the original picture, their interest will return, and they will look longer at the new picture. This is a phenomenon known as dishabituation . Habituation procedures work because infants generally look longer at novel stimuli relative to items that are familiar to them. This research technique takes advantage of involuntary or obligatory responses because infants are constantly looking around and observing their environments; they do not have to be taught to engage with the world in this way. [23]

Types of Habituation Protocols

Fixed trial habituation protocols and the infant-controlled procedure.

The simplest habituation protocols are fixed trial (FT) procedures , which involve administering a set of discrete, repetitive stimulus presentations to an infant; each trial has a fixed duration, and a fixed inter-trial interval. For example, one might present 8 trials of a checkerboard to an infant, each lasting 10 s with a 10 s inter-trial interval (e.g., Colombo et al., 1997). In simple FT protocols, the presentations are in no way linked to, or contingent upon, the infant’s behavior or visual attention; the infant is free to look or not look at the stimulus, and the procedure continues. There are a number of distinct advantages to running FT procedures: they are easy to automate, easy to conduct, and they yield data that are simple, uniform for each subject, and easy to analyze. The drawback of FT protocols, however, is that individual infants may habituate at different rates. To the degree that habituation rate reflects stimulus encoding (a central tenet of the comparator model), this implies that at the end of the FT protocol, infants may be at very different levels of processing. For instance, in the example described above (8 trials at 10 seconds each), infants might have looked for as much as 80 seconds and as little as 0 seconds. If one is interested in individual differences in infant processing, this may well be desirable (presuming that the infant has, in fact, looked at the stimulus), as it becomes analogous to a speeded cognitive task, where subjects are given a limited amount of time or exposure to an item before being administered a probe. However, if the aim of the protocol is to demonstrate a generic infant ability or skill, individual and developmental differences in visual behavior may obscure group effects that one is seeking to establish. [24]

This problem is addressed by the development of the infant-controlled procedure (ICP; Horowitz et al., 1972). There are two major differences between this procedure and the fixed trial protocol. The first is that the infant is administered repetitive stimulus presentations, but the beginning and end of the trial is contingent upon the infant’s looking. That is, the trial is not considered to start until the infant has looked at the stimulus, and it is terminated when the infant looks away.

Second, the trials continue until the infant has reduced their looking to some criterion. This criterion may be absolute (e.g., the sessions may end when the infant looks for a total of, say, no more than 3 seconds), but more often the criterion is relative to the infant’s initial level of looking. For example, the infant may be required to show a decline to a particular percentage (typically 50%) of their initial or longest levels. For example, an experimenter determines the average of the first three trials of looking and continues until the last three trials of looking average 50% or below the average of the first three trials. In this case, the trials can last anywhere from six trials and longer and will continue until the criteria specified has been reached. It should be noted that the use of a relative criterion makes theoretical sense from the point of view of the comparator model; if the initial size of the OR (i.e., the length of the look) represents the response when there is no internal representation of the stimulus, then using a constant percentage of decline as a criterion for habituation theoretically equates all of the subjects for the extent to which the external stimulus is encoded. We note that this reasoning is based on a set of assumptions with regard to looking and the OR, but it is also reasonable to point out that the ICP works extremely well in practice.

There are several other issues to consider with respect to the ICP, however. The first one is that this procedure is more difficult to design and implement than the FT protocol. Because criteria are computed, set, and typically reset several times within a session (based on the looks that the infant makes to the stimulus), it is difficult to conduct this without the aid of a microcomputer and custom programming.

Second, there are many decisions to be made about the parameters of the habituation protocol, for which there are neither consensual standards nor empirical evidence to guide the investigator. For example, instead of using the average of the first three trials of looking as a comparison, a researcher may decide to use the average of the first two looking trials as the baseline for comparison. These decisions can complicate the programming for the administration of the task. Group habituation curves will mislead many novice investigators into thinking that the first look of a habituation sequence is always the longest one. In fact, however, this occurs only about 60% of the time (Colombo & Mitchell, 1990). Thus, it is common to encounter long looks quite late in the habituation session, and if the habituation criterion is rigidly set by the length of the initial looks, infants will continue on in the session longer than necessary or may fail to attain the habituation criterion at all. In response to this, many investigators choose to allow the habituation criterion to “float,” or to be reset when longer looks occur later (i.e., beyond the first or second look) in the habituation sequence. In addition, the number of looks on which the criterion is based can vary; it may be based on the longest look, or the average of the two longest looks, or so forth. Similar issues must be faced when choosing how many criterion looks must be elicited to consider the infant to have habituated; here, the standard used by most investigators is two consecutive looks at or below criterion, but there is no empirical justification for this. accepted standard.

Third, the ICP dictates that the coding of looks must be done online, because the criterion for habituation is based on the duration of looks that have been observed earlier in the session. This has some implications for the reliability of online coding, but the coding of looks using the corneal reflection technique (or other less restrictive judgment criteria) tends to be quite easy and reliable. However, because the individual “look” now serves as the primary datum within the session, one must decide what constitutes a “look.” It is possible to place no constraints on the definition of a look; that is, to count any look to the stimulus as valid for purposes of setting or reaching the habituation criterion. However, one finds quickly that this may yield sequences of brief looks that result in very brief stimulus presentations that interfere with encoding; in addition, such looks may make it difficult to attain the habituation criterion, and have lower reliability (Colombo & Horowitz, 1985). In response, most investigators constrain the definition of looks in the ICP; looks must be of some minimum length (usually 1 or 2 sec) to be counted as valid, and be terminated by some minimum (again, 1 or 2 sec) look away from the stimulus. One of the few empirical evaluations of these procedural parameters, Colombo and Horowitz (1985) found 1 sec to be optimal for both the minimum look length and for the interval to characterize look termination, although this evidence has engendered little/no adoption of these standards, and no research has been conducted to determine whether different parameters might be appropriate for different aged infants.

Finally, it should be noted that like all criterion-based learning paradigms, the ICP will yield data sets that are not uniform in length for all participants; one infant may attain the habituation criterion in 5 looks, while another may take 25 looks to attain the criterion. As a result, the data structures for such files are not readily amenable to conventional forms of analysis and require considerable forethought in arranging. [25]

Conducting Ethical Research

As a student of psychological science, you may already know that Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review and approve all research projects that are conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. An IRB is typically a panel of experts who read and evaluate proposals for research. IRB members want to ensure that the proposed research will be carried out ethically and that the potential benefits of the research outweigh the risks and harm for participants. What you may not know though, is that the IRB considers some groups of participants to be more vulnerable or at-risk than others. Whereas university students are generally not viewed as vulnerable or at-risk, infants and young children commonly fall into this category. What makes infants and young children more vulnerable during research than young adults? One reason infants and young children are perceived as being at increased risk is due to their limited cognitive capabilities, which makes them unable to state their willingness to participate in research or tell researchers when they would like to drop out of a study. For these reasons, infants and young children require special accommodations as they participate in the research process.

When thinking about special accommodations in developmental research, consider the informed consent process. If you have ever participated in psychological research, you may know through your own experience that adults commonly sign an informed consent statement (a contract stating that they agree to participate in research) after learning about a study. As part of this process, participants are informed of the procedures to be used in the research, along with any expected risks or benefits. Infants and young children cannot verbally indicate their willingness to participate, much less understand the balance of potential risks and benefits. As such, researchers are oftentimes required to obtain written informed consent from the parent or legal guardian of the child participant, an adult who is almost always present as the study is conducted. In fact, children are not asked to indicate whether they would like to be involved in a study at all (a process known as assent ) until they are approximately seven years old. Because infants and young children also cannot easily indicate if they would like to discontinue their participation in a study, researchers must be sensitive to changes in the state of the participant (determining whether a child is too tired or upset to continue) as well as to parent desires (in some cases, parents might want to discontinue their involvement in the research). As in adult studies, researchers must always strive to protect the rights and well-being of the minor participants and their parents when conducting developmental science. [26]

Decisions about whether research is ethical are made using established ethical codes developed by scientific organizations, such as the American Psychological Association, and federal governments. In the United States, the Department of Health and Human Services provides the guidelines for ethical standards in research. The following are the American Psychological Association code of ethics when using humans in research (APA, 2016).

No Harm: The most direct ethical concern of the scientist is to prevent harm to the research participants.
Informed Consent: Researchers must obtain informed consent, which explains as much as possible about the true nature of the study, particularly everything that might be expected to influence willingness to participate. Participants can withdraw their consent to participate at any point.
Confidentiality: Researchers must also protect the privacy of the research participants’ responses by not using names or other information that could identify the participants.
Deception: Deception occurs whenever research participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating in it. Deception may occur when the researcher tells the participants that a study is about one thing when in fact it is about something else, or when participants are not told about the hypothesis.
Debriefing: At the end of a study debriefing, which is a procedure designed to fully explain the purposes and procedures of the research and remove any harmful aftereffects of participation, must occur.

Test Yourself: Review of Research Methodologies

Bower, T. G. R. (1966). The visual world of infants. Scientific American, 215(6), 80-92 ↵
All images and text found under this footnote are from Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 (modified by Maria Pagano).[3] Introduction to Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet is found on YouTube and is licensed under standard YouTube terms. (modified by Maria Pagano) ↵
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective 2nd Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0[5] From Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 ↵
McLeod, S. A. (2019, August 03). Case study method . Simply Psychology is licensed under CC BY NC 3.0. ↵
Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
From Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 ↵
Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
"Skypecast Survey" by Wesley Fryer is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0 ↵
From Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 ↵
From Lumenlearning, Introduction to Psychology Module 2: Psychological research is licensed under CC BY SA 4.0 ↵
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective 2nd Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (modified by Maria Pagano) ↵
Table created by Stangor, C. can be found on Canvas Network and is licensed under CC BY SA 3.0[19] Lifespan Development by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY 4.0 (modified by Maria Pagano) ↵
Image by NOBA is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 ↵
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective 2nd Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 ↵
Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective 2nd Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0[27] Image by NOBA is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 ↵
Fair Use: Image from Perkins School for the Blind eLEARNING ↵
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology by Angela Lukowski and Helen Milojevich is licensed under CC BY NC SA 4.0 (modified by Maria Pagano ↵
Infant Visual Habituation by John Colombo and D. Wayne Mitchell Source: U.S. National Library of Medicine. ↵

originating in or based on observation or experience; capable of being verified or disproved by observation or experiment empirical laws.

the process of objectively establishing facts through testing and experimentation.

a testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

A set of supported hypotheses that have been tested using empirical facts and is used to predict, explain, and understand behaviors.

the possibility that an assertion, hypothesis, or theory can be shown to be false by an observation or experiment.

involves asking broader research questions, collecting more detailed data (e.g., interviews), and using nonstatistical analyses.

involves the statistical and mathematical modeling of psychological processes, the design of research studies and the analysis of psychological data.

the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

a type of research that is used to describe the characteristics of a population. It collects data that are used to answer a wide range of what, when, and how questions pertaining to a particular population or group.

a statistical measure that expresses the extent to which two variables are linearly related (meaning they change together at a constant rate). It's a common tool for describing simple relationships without making a statement about cause and effect.

research conducted using the scientific approach that determines a cause and effect relationship.

A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several variables.

several different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded;a method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment/

a research method used for collecting data from a predefined group of respondents to gain information and insights into various topics of interest

a method of conversation with a specified purpose. Psychologists uses interview method in order to gain information in an efficient and streamlined manner; Interviews can be structured, unstructured or a combination of both structured and unstructured

involves recording and quantifying various physiological responses in controlled conditions using electromechanical equipment (e.g., electromyography, electroencephalography, electrodermal activity, respiratory activity, electrocardiography).

a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text); research that involves searching for and extracting information and evidence from original archives. Archives are historical – non-current – documents, records and other sources relating to the activities and claims of individuals, entities or both.

a file containing relevant information pertaining to an individual client or group.

a method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment.

the extent to which findings (from a study) can be generalized (or extended) to the those in natural settings (i.e., outside the lab)

a systematic method of collecting behavioral data within a controlled environment, often used in research with infants and young children, in which observers measure overt actions and interpersonal processes.

occurs when a researcher's expectations, opinions, or prejudices influence what they perceive or record in a study

the degree to which different raters or judges make consistent estimates of the same phenomenon

a format for question responses that requires respondents to provide an answer (e.g., yes or no), forcing them to make judgments about each response option

a type of interview in which the interviewer asks only a few predefined questions while the rest of the questions are not planned in advance

physiological responses of human body to psychological manipulations

the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event.

an instrument used to record electrical activity in the brain and other tissue

a statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between the relative movements of two variables; the values range between -1.0 and 1.0

a visual representation of the relationships or between two numerical variables, which are represented as points plotted at a horizontal axis (y-axis) and vertical axis (y-axis).

a relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction; as one variable increases the other variable increases, or as one variable decreases the other variable decreases.

a relationship between two variables in which an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other

any variable that you're not investigating that can potentially affect the dependent variable of your research study

the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter

the variable that is measured by the experimenter

a group of participants in a research study who are exposed to a particular manipulation of the independent variable

the participants in a study who do not receive the experimental treatment.

a description of something in terms of the operations (procedures, actions, or processes) by which it could be observed and measured.

any systematic errors in the research process or the interpretation of its results that are attributable to a researcher's behavior, preconceived beliefs, expectancies, or desires about results

occurs when the participants are deliberately kept ignorant of the group to which they have been assigned, but the experimenter is aware of which individual is in a particular group.

a study where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment

when a person's physical or mental health appears to improve after taking a placebo or 'dummy' treatment

the variable that is manipulated/controlled by the experimenter in an experiment.

a person who takes part in a study, or experiment

a subset of individuals randomly selected by researchers to represent the population of interest

how the sample is drawn from the population as a whole

a way of placing participants from your sample into different treatment groups using randomization

looking at data from a population at one specific point in time

the study of a variable or group of variables of the same participants over a period of time, sometimes several years

a mix between cross sectional research and longitudinal research

the effect that having been born at a certain time, or having experienced similar life experiences has on the development of one's perceptions.

a research technique for studying visual discrimination in infants in which the amount of time spent looking at different visual stimuli is measured to determine which stimulus the infants prefer

an experimental method in developmental psychology that works under the assumption that an infant will longer at something that he or she prefers over something that he or she does not prefer

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

the reappearance or enhancement of a habituated response (i.e., one that has been weakened following repeated exposure to the evoking stimulus) due to the presentation of a new stimulus

infants are repeatedly familiarized to a single stimulus for a fixed amount of time and a new stimulus is then presented

looking time is reduced to a criterion level (typically, when the mean looking time over the last three trials is less than 50% of the mean looking time of the first three trials

a group of individuals designated to review and monitor research that involves human subjects

the process where participants in a study are given important information, including possible risks and benefits, about the study

a term used to express willingness to participate in research by persons who are by definition too young to give informed consent but are old enough to understand the proposed research

Infant and Child Development: From Conception Through Late Childhood Copyright © by Marie Parnes and Maria Pagano is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Psychology Research Guide

Child & adolescent development.

“Child development”, or “child and adolescent development” refers to the process of growth and maturation of the human individual from conception to adulthood. The term “adolescence” has particular connotations in particular cultural and social contexts. Child & Adolescent Psychology focuses on understanding the physical, social, psychological, and cognitive needs of young human beings. You can read more about the focus of Child & Adolescent Development on the American Psychological Association's Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology website This link opens in a new window . To find ideas for paper/research topics within child & adolescent development, visit these sites:

APA Psychology Topics This link opens in a new window (Try Bullying; Children; Education; Kids & the Media; Learning & Memory; Parenting; Teens)

Child & Adolescent Development Databases

Research in child & adolescent psychology utilizes core psychology resources, as well as resources in child & family development and sociology. You may find it helpful to search the following databases for your child & adolescent development topics or research questions, in addition to the core resources listed on the home page.

This resource contains full-text articles and reports from journals and magazines.

Child & Adolescent Development Subject Headings

You may find it helpful to take advantage of predefined subjects or subject headings in Shapiro Databases. These subjects are applied to articles and books by expert catalogers to help you find materials on your topic.

Learn more about Subject Searching

Consider using databases to perform subject searches, or incorporating words from applicable subjects into your keyword searches. Here are some social psychology subjects to consider:

adopted children
Attachment Theory
child abuse
child behavior
children of alcoholics
cognitive development
developmental stages
early childhood development
emotional development
family relations
middle school/junior high school/high school students
parent child relations
peer pressure
personality

Child & Adolescent Development Organization Websites

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) This link opens in a new window A national professional medical association dedicated to treating and improving the quality of life for children, adolescents, and families affected by mental, behavioral, or developmental disorders.
Child & Adolescent Development course module (UNHCR) This link opens in a new window This Resource Pack published by the United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees' Action for the Rights of Children (ARC) is a training module for those working with children and teen refugees. It covers major areas of child development acknowledging that " the concept of childhood is understood differently in different cultural and social contexts."
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHD) This link opens in a new window NICHD’s mission is to lead research and training to understand human development, improve reproductive health, enhance the lives of children and adolescents, and optimize abilities for all.
Society of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology (APA Division) This link opens in a new window The Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology is Division 53 of the American Psychological Association. Its purpose is to encourage the development and advancement of clinical child and adolescent psychology through integration of its scientific and professional aspects.
Child Welfare Information Gateway - Understanding Adolescent Development This link opens in a new window United States Health & Human Services Children's Bureau Child Welfare Information Gateway has extensive resources on child & adolescent development. This link leads to their "Understanding Adolescent Development" resources page.
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40 creative child development research paper topics.

Child development research topics are not so common as compared to others types of writing ideas. As such, students seeking such prompts have to dig deeper to find one or two that would match their specifications. However, this task is not easy, and most students would give up way before they start. That is why we have developed a professional list of child development topics for high school and college students.

What Is A Child Development Research Paper?

It is a field that specializes in exploring how children grow and change in the course of childhood. It uses theories that center on child development, such as emotional, social, and cognitive growth. Child development is considered one of the wealthiest areas of study, with quite a low number of research papers done on it.

Studying child development is necessary as it has direct implications on the long-term state of the child in the end. Some of the aspects that child development will handle include school attainment, future opportunities, and the child’s earning potential. Therefore, it would be improper to avoid taking such a subject.

How To Write Child Development Papers

Before we delve into the nitty-gritty of such a paper, it is essential to understand the importance. A child development paper will help set the foundation for the children’s lifelong health, learning, and behavior. In other words, it will help shape our understanding of early childhood stages that will impact the child in the future.

Some of the areas of development in a child will include:

Social, personal and emotional development Physical development Literacy skills Understanding the world around them Communication and language

Therefore, if you want a top-rated child development research paper, start with these simple steps:

Conduct thorough research on various aspects of child development
Brainstorm with your friends, teachers, or experts
Understand the audience you are writing for
Make sure that the writing ideas are meaningful

You can identify world-class topics for a child development paper through:

Reputable online sources,
The UNICEF website
TV shows that involve children
Talks and symposiums on child development

Through these, you will come up with unique and researchable child development topics for papers.

Are you stuck right now on where to start? Below is a list of reputable writing ideas that will offset your paper. Give them a try and see the results!

Interesting Early Childhood Education Research Paper Topics

Stages that children pass through in their early years of development
Diseases that are common to children under five years old
Key cognitive aspects of early childhood development
The impact of the environmental factors in the development of a child
How television, videos, and games shape a child during his developmental years
How children develop ego and self-centeredness in their early years of growth
Why parents should always be by the side of their children during early years
The role of caregivers in child development at early stages

Early Childhood Education Research Paper Topics For College Students

How often should a mother be close to their children in their early years?
Factors that facilitate mental development for children
How noise-induced hearing loss affects children
Essential nutrients for premature children
The impact of social interaction during early years of a child
Discuss the various development aspects during the prenatal stage
The role of early childhood life in shaping their adult life
Why play is essential during the early stages of child development

Accessible Child Psychology Research Paper Topics

The implications of a child growing in a technology environment
How the coronavirus pandemic has shaped child psychology
The role of a psychologist in the early stages of child development
The implication of the COVID-19 lockdowns and quarantine on child psychology
Why attention is necessary for children in their early development stages
Effective monitors for the psychological development of children
The role of music in child psychology development
The effects of birth disorders in child psychological development

Hot Research Topics On Child Development

The impact of bullying on child development
How to analyze behavioral child development aspects
The significant role of proper nutrition in child development
How to identify genius children from birth
How to explain the connection between a mother and a child
The impact of genes in the development of a child
How a particular community will affect a child’s development
The implication of celebrating birthdays on child development

First-Class Research Topics On Children

How to deal with childhood trauma
The effects of single families on child development
At what stage should parents start teaching core skills to their children?
The role of family doctors in child development
Toxic events that may impact a child’s development
Implications of divorce on children
How low income affects children development
Effects of graphic violence through animations on child development

Are you thinking of online writing help with child development research papers? We are here for you. Contact us today for a brilliant article!

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Research Methods in Developmental Psychology

University of Calfornia, Irvine

What do infants know about the world in which they live – and how do they grow and change with age? These are the kinds of questions answered by developmental scientists. This module describes different research techniques that are used to study psychological phenomena in infants and children, research designs that are used to examine age-related changes in development, and unique challenges and special issues associated with conducting research with infants and children. Child development is a fascinating field of study, and many interesting questions remain to be examined by future generations of developmental scientists – maybe you will be among them!

Child development
Developmental psychology
Infant development
Research designs
Research methods
Learning Objectives
Describe different research methods used to study infant and child development
Discuss different research designs, as well as their strengths and limitations
Report on the unique challenges associated with conducting developmental research

Introduction

A group of children were playing hide-and-seek in the yard. Pilar raced to her hiding spot as her six-year-old cousin, Lucas, loudly counted, “… six, seven, eight, nine, ten! Ready or not, here I come!”. Pilar let out a small giggle as Lucas ran over to find her – in the exact location where he had found his sister a short time before. At first glance, this behavior is puzzling: why would Pilar hide in exactly the same location where someone else was just found? Whereas older children and adults realize that it is likely best to hide in locations that have not been searched previously, young children do not have the same cognitive sophistication. But why not… and when do these abilities first develop?

A young girl smiles as she peeks out from a hiding place.

Developmental psychologists investigate questions like these using research methods that are tailored to the particular capabilities of the infants and children being studied. Importantly, research in developmental psychology is more than simply examining how children behave during games of hide-and-seek – the results obtained from developmental research have been used to inform best practices in parenting, education, and policy.

This module describes different research techniques that are used to study psychological phenomena in infants and children, research designs that are used to examine age-related changes in developmental processes and changes over time, and unique challenges and special issues associated with conducting research with infants and children.

Research Methods

Infants and children—especially younger children—cannot be studied using the same research methods used in studies with adults. Researchers, therefore, have developed many creative ways to collect information about infant and child development. In this section, we highlight some of the methods that have been used by researchers who study infants and older children, separating them into three distinct categories: involuntary or obligatory responses , voluntary responses , and psychophysiological responses . We will also discuss other methods such as the use of surveys and questionnaires. At the end of this section, we give an example of how interview techniques can be used to study the beliefs and perceptions of older children and adults – a method that cannot be used with infants or very young children.

Involuntary or obligatory responses

One of the primary challenges in studying very young infants is that they have limited motor control – they cannot hold their heads up for short amounts of time, much less grab an interesting toy, play the piano, or turn a door knob. As a result, infants cannot actively engage with the environment in the same way as older children and adults. For this reason, developmental scientists have designed research methods that assess involuntary or obligatory responses. These are behaviors in which people engage without much conscious thought or effort. For example, think about the last time you heard your name at a party – you likely turned your head to see who was talking without even thinking about it. Infants and young children also demonstrate involuntary responses to stimuli in the environment. When infants hear the voice of their mother, for instance, their heart rate increases – whereas if they hear the voice of a stranger, their heart rate decreases (Kisilevsky et al., 2003). Researchers study involuntary behaviors to better understand what infants know about the world around them.

An infant lies on its back with its eyes fixed on a nearby object.

One research method that capitalizes on involuntary or obligatory responses is a procedure known as habituation . In habituation studies, infants are presented with a stimulus such as a photograph of a face over and over again until they become bored with it. When infants become bored, they look away from the picture. If infants are then shown a new picture--such as a photograph of a different face-- their interest returns and they look at the new picture. This is a phenomenon known as dishabituation . Habituation procedures work because infants generally look longer at novel stimuli relative to items that are familiar to them. This research technique takes advantage of involuntary or obligatory responses because infants are constantly looking around and observing their environments; they do not have to be taught to engage with the world in this way.

One classic habituation study was conducted by Baillargeon and colleagues ( 1985 ). These researchers were interested in the concept of object permanence , or the understanding that objects exist even when they cannot be seen or heard. For example, you know your toothbrush exists even though you are probably not able to see it right this second. To investigate object permanence in 5-month-old infants, the researchers used a violation of expectation paradigm . The researchers first habituated infants to an opaque screen that moved back and forth like a drawbridge (using the same procedure you just learned about in the previous paragraph). Once the infants were bored with the moving screen, they were shown two different scenarios to test their understanding of physical events. In both of these test scenarios, an opaque box was placed behind the moving screen. What differed between these two scenarios, however, was whether they confirmed or violated the solidity principle – the idea that two solid objects cannot occupy the same space at the same time. In the possible scenario, infants watched as the moving drawbridge stopped when it hit the opaque box (as would be expected based on the solidity principle). In the impossible scenario, the drawbridge appeared to move right through the space that was occupied by the opaque box! This impossible scenario violates the solidity principle in the same way as if you got out of your chair and walked through a wall, reappearing on the other side.

The results of this study revealed that infants looked longer at the impossible test event than at the possible test event. The authors suggested that the infants reacted in this way because they were surprised – the demonstration went against their expectation that two solids cannot move through one another. The findings indicated that 5-month-old infants understood that the box continued to exist even when they could not see it. Subsequent studies indicated that 3½- and 4½-month-old infants also demonstrate object permanence under similar test conditions ( Baillargeon, 1987 ). These findings are notable because they suggest that infants understand object permanence much earlier than had been reported previously in research examining voluntary responses (although see more recent research by Cashon & Cohen, 2000 ).

Voluntary responses

A woman inspects tomatoes as she puts them into a shopping bag.

As infants and children age, researchers are increasingly able to study their understanding of the world through their voluntary responses. Voluntary responses are behaviors that a person completes by choice. For example, think about how you act when you go to the grocery store: you select whether to use a shopping cart or a basket, you decide which sections of the store to walk through, and you choose whether to stick to your grocery list or splurge on a treat. Importantly, these behaviors are completely up to you (and are under your control). Although they do not do a lot of grocery shopping, infants and children also have voluntary control over their actions. Children, for instance, choose which toys to play with.

Researchers study the voluntary responses of infants and young children in many ways. For example, developmental scientists study recall memory in infants and young children by looking at voluntary responses. Recall memory is memory of past events or episodes, such as what you did yesterday afternoon or on your last birthday. Whereas older children and adults are simply asked to talk about their past experiences, recall memory has to be studied in a different way in infants and very young children who cannot discuss the past using language. To study memory in these subjects researchers use a behavioral method known as elicited imitation ( Lukowski & Milojevich, in press ).

In the elicited imitation procedure, infants play with toys that are designed in the lab to be unlike the kinds of things infants usually have at home. These toys (or event sequences, as researchers call them) can be put together in a certain way to produce an outcome that infants commonly enjoy. One of these events is called Find the Surprise. As shown in Figure 1, this toy has a door on the front that is held in place by a latch – and a small plastic figure is hidden on the inside. During the first part of the study, infants play with the toy in whichever way they want for a few minutes. The researcher then shows the infant how make the toy work by (1) flipping the latch out of the way and (2) opening the door, revealing the plastic toy inside. The infant is allowed to play with the toy again either immediately after the demonstration or after a longer delay. As the infant plays, the researcher records whether the infant finds the surprise using the same procedure that was demonstrated.

The two-step event sequence Find the Surprise. The picture on the left shows all of the toys needed to complete the event. The picture in the middle shows a hand flipping the latch out of the way so the door can be opened (step 1). The picture on the right shows a hand opening the door, ultimately revealing a plastic figurine hidden inside (step 2).

Use of the elicited imitation procedure has taught developmental scientists a lot about how recall memory develops. For example, we now know that 6-month-old infants remember one step of a 3-step sequence for 24 hours ( Barr, Dowden, & Hayne, 1996 ; Collie & Hayne, 1999 ). Nine-month-olds remember the individual steps that make up a 2-step event sequence for 1 month, but only 50% of infants remember to do the first step of the sequence before the second ( Bauer, Wiebe, Carver, Waters, & Nelson, 2003 ; Bauer, Wiebe, Waters, & Bangston, 2001 ; Carver & Bauer, 1999 ). When children are 20 months old, they remember the individual steps and temporal order of 4-step events for at least 12 months – the longest delay that has been tested to date ( Bauer, Wenner, Dropik, & Wewerka, 2000 ).

Psychophysiology

Behavioral studies have taught us important information about what infants and children know about the world. Research on behavior alone, however, cannot tell scientists how brain development or biological changes impact (or are impacted by) behavior. For this reason, researchers may also record psychophysiological data, such as measures of heart rate, hormone levels, or brain activity. These measures may be recorded by themselves or in combination with behavioral data to better understand the bidirectional relations between biology and behavior.

One manner of understanding associations between brain development and behavioral advances is through the recording of event-related potentials , or ERPs. ERPs are recorded by fitting a research participant with a stretchy cap that contains many small sensors or electrodes. These electrodes record tiny electrical currents on the scalp of the participant in response to the presentation of particular stimuli, such as a picture or a sound (for additional information on recording ERPs from infants and children, see DeBoer, Scott, & Nelson, 2005 ). The recorded responses are then amplified thousands of times using specialized equipment so that they look like squiggly lines with peaks and valleys. Some of these brain responses have been linked to psychological phenomena. For example, researchers have identified a negative peak in the recorded waveform that they have called the N170 ( Bentin, Allison, Puce, Perez, & McCarthy, 2010 ). The peak is named in this way because it is negative (hence the N) and because it occurs about 140ms to 170ms after a stimulus is presented (hence the 170). This peak is particularly sensitive to the presentation of faces, as it is commonly more negative when participants are presented with photographs of faces rather than with photographs of objects. In this way, researchers are able to identify brain activity associated with real world thinking and behavior.

The use of ERPs has provided important insight as to how infants and children understand the world around them. In one study ( Webb, Dawson, Bernier, & Panagiotides, 2006 ), researchers examined face and object processing in children with autism spectrum disorders, those with developmental delays, and those who were typically developing. The children wore electrode caps and had their brain activity recorded as they watched still photographs of faces (of their mother or of a stranger) and objects (including those that were familiar or unfamiliar to them). The researchers examined differences in face and object processing by group by observing a component of the brainwave they called the prN170 (because it was believed to be a precursor to the adult N170). Their results showed that the height of the prN170 peak (commonly called the amplitude ) did not differ when faces or objects were presented to typically developing children. When considering children with autism, however, the peaks were higher when objects were presented relative to when faces were shown. Differences were also found in how long it took the brain to reach the negative peak (commonly called the latency of the response). Whereas the peak was reached more quickly when typically developing children were presented with faces relative to objects, the opposite was true for children with autism. These findings suggest that children with autism are in some way processing faces differently than typically developing children (and, as reported in the manuscript, children with more general developmental delays).

Parent-report questionnaires

A mother and infant lie together on the grass.

Developmental science has come a long way in assessing various aspects of infant and child development through behavior and psychophysiology – and new advances are happening every day. In many ways, however, the very youngest of research participants are still quite limited in the information they can provide about their own development. As such, researchers often ask the people who know infants and children best – commonly, their parents or guardians – to complete surveys or questionnaires about various aspects of their lives. These parent-report data can be analyzed by themselves or in combination with any collected behavioral or psychophysiological data.

One commonly used parent-report questionnaire is the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000 ). Parents complete the preschooler version of this questionnaire by answering questions about child strengths, behavior problems, and disabilities, among other things. The responses provided by parents are used to identify whether the child has any behavioral issues, such as sleep difficulties, aggressive behaviors, depression, or attention deficit/hyperactivity problems.

A recent study used the CBCL-Preschool questionnaire ( Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000 ) to examine preschooler functioning in relation to levels of stress experienced by their mothers while they were pregnant ( Ronald, Pennell, & Whitehouse, 2011 ). Almost 3,000 pregnant women were recruited into the study during their pregnancy and were interviewed about their stressful life experiences. Later, when their children were 2 years old, mothers completed the CBCL-Preschool questionnaire. The results of the study showed that higher levels of maternal stress during pregnancy (such as a divorce or moving to a new house) were associated with increased attention deficit/hyperactivity problems in children over 2 years later. These findings suggest that stressful events experienced during prenatal development may be associated with problematic child behavioral functioning years later – although additional research is needed.

Interview techniques

Whereas infants and very young children are unable to talk about their own thoughts and behaviors, older children and adults are commonly asked to use language to discuss their thoughts and knowledge about the world. In fact, these verbal report paradigms are among the most widely used in psychological research. For instance, a researcher might present a child with a vignette or short story describing a moral dilemma, and the child would be asked to give their own thoughts and beliefs ( Walrath, 2011 ). For example, children might react to the following:

“Mr. Kohut’s wife is sick and only one medication can save her life. The medicine is extremely expensive and Mr. Kohut cannot afford it. The druggist will not lower the price. What should Mr. Kohut do, and why?”

Children can provide written or verbal answers to these types of scenarios. They can also offer their perspectives on issues ranging from attitudes towards drug use to the experience of fear while falling asleep to their memories of getting lost in public places – the possibilities are endless. Verbal reports such as interviews and surveys allow children to describe their own experience of the world.

Research Design

Now you know about some tools used to conduct research with infants and young children. Remember, research methods are the tools that are used to collect information. But it is easy to confuse research methods and research design . Research design is the strategy or blueprint for deciding how to collect and analyze information. Research design dictates which methods are used and how.

Researchers typically focus on two distinct types of comparisons when conducting research with infants and children. The first kind of comparison examines change within individuals . As the name suggests, this type of analysis measures the ways in which a specific person changes (or remains the same) over time. For example, a developmental scientist might be interested in studying the same group of infants at 12 months, 18 months, and 24 months to examine how vocabulary and grammar change over time. This kind of question would be best answered using a longitudinal research design. Another sort of comparison focuses on changes between groups . In this type of analysis, researchers study average changes in behavior between groups of different ages. Returning to the language example, a scientist might study the vocabulary and grammar used by 12-month-olds, 18-month-olds, and 24-month-olds to examine how language abilities change with age. This kind of question would be best answered using a cross-sectional research design.

Longitudinal research designs

Longitudinal research designs are used to examine behavior in the same infants and children over time. For example, when considering our example of hide-and-seek behaviors in preschoolers, a researcher might conduct a longitudinal study to examine whether 2-year-olds develop into better hiders over time. To this end, a researcher might observe a group of 2-year-old children playing hide-and-seek with plans to observe them again when they are 4 years old – and again when they are 6 years old. This study is longitudinal in nature because the researcher plans to study the same children as they age. Based on her data, the researcher might conclude that 2-year-olds develop more mature hiding abilities with age. Remember, researchers examine games such as hide-and-seek not because they are interested in the games themselves, but because they offer clues to how children think, feel and behave at various ages.

Chart of a longitudinal research design. Child "A" is first observed in 2004 at the age of two. Child "A' is next observed in 2006 at age four. The next observation is in 2008 when Child "A" is six. Finally, in 2010 at the age of eight Child "A" is observed again.

Longitudinal studies may be conducted over the short term (over a span of months, as in Wiebe, Lukowski, & Bauer, 2010 ) or over much longer durations (years or decades, as in Lukowski et al., 2010) . For these reasons, longitudinal research designs are optimal for studying stability and change over time. Longitudinal research also has limitations, however. For one, longitudinal studies are expensive: they require that researchers maintain continued contact with participants over time, and they necessitate that scientists have funding to conduct their work over extended durations (from infancy to when participants were 19 years old in Lukowski et al., 2010 ). An additional risk is attrition . Attrition occurs when participants fail to complete all portions of a study. Participants may move, change their phone numbers, or simply become disinterested in participating over time. Researchers should account for the possibility of attrition by enrolling a larger sample into their study initially, as some participants will likely drop out over time.

The results from longitudinal studies may also be impacted by repeated assessments. Consider how well you would do on a math test if you were given the exact same exam every day for a week. Your performance would likely improve over time not necessarily because you developed better math abilities, but because you were continuously practicing the same math problems. This phenomenon is known as a practice effect . Practice effects occur when participants become better at a task over time because they have done it again and again; not due to natural psychological development. A final limitation of longitudinal research is that the results may be impacted by cohort effects . Cohort effects occur when the results of the study are affected by the particular point in historical time during which participants are tested. As an example, think about how peer relationships in childhood have likely changed since February 2004 – the month and year Facebook was founded. Cohort effects can be problematic in longitudinal research because only one group of participants are tested at one point in time – different findings might be expected if participants of the same ages were tested at different points in historical time.

Cross-sectional designs

Cross-sectional research designs are used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time. When considering our example of hide-and-seek behaviors in children, for example, a researcher might want to examine whether older children more often hide in novel locations (those in which another child in the same game has never hidden before) when compared to younger children. In this case, the researcher might observe 2-, 4-, and 6-year-old children as they play the game (the various age groups represent the “cross sections”). This research is cross-sectional in nature because the researcher plans to examine the behavior of children of different ages within the same study at the same time. Based on her data, the researcher might conclude that 2-year-olds more commonly hide in previously-searched locations relative to 6-year-olds.

A chart shows an example of a cross-sectional design. The year is 2004 and three separate cohorts are included in a study. Participants in Cohort

Cross-sectional designs are useful for many reasons. Because participants of different ages are tested at the same point in time, data collection can proceed at a rapid pace. In addition, because participants are only tested at one point in time, practice effects are not an issue – children do not have the opportunity to become better at the task over time. Cross-sectional designs are also more cost-effective than longitudinal research designs because there is no need to maintain contact with and follow-up on participants over time.

One of the primary limitations of cross-sectional research, however, is that the results yield information on age-related change, not development per se . That is, although the study described above can show that 6-year-olds are more advanced in their hiding behavior than 2-year-olds, the data used to come up with this conclusion were collected from different children. It could be, for instance, that this specific sample of 6-year-olds just happened to be particularly clever at hide-and-seek. As such, the researcher cannot conclude that 2-year-olds develop into better hiders with age; she can only state that 6-year-olds, on average, are more sophisticated hiders relative to children 4 years younger.

Sequential research designs

Sequential research designs include elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs. Similar to longitudinal designs, sequential research features participants who are followed over time; similar to cross-sectional designs, sequential work includes participants of different ages. This research design is also distinct from those that have been discussed previously in that children of different ages are enrolled into a study at various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same individuals as they age, and account for the possibility of cohort effects.

Consider, once again, our example of hide-and-seek behaviors. In a study with a sequential design, a researcher might enroll three separate groups of children (Groups A, B, and C). Children in Group A would be enrolled when they are 2 years old and would be tested again when they are 4 and 6 years old (similar in design to the longitudinal study described previously). Children in Group B would be enrolled when they are 4 years old and would be tested again when they are 6 and 8 years old. Finally, children in Group C would be enrolled when they are 6 years old and would be tested again when they are 8 and 10 years old.

A chart of a sequential design: The study begins in 2002 with Cohort

Studies with sequential designs are powerful because they allow for both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons. This research design also allows for the examination of cohort effects. For example, the researcher could examine the hide-and-seek behavior of 6-year-olds in Groups A, B, and C to determine whether performance differed by group when participants were the same age. If performance differences were found, there would be evidence for a cohort effect. In the hide-and-seek example, this might mean that children from different time periods varied in the amount they giggled or how patient they are when waiting to be found. Sequential designs are also appealing because they allow researchers to learn a lot about development in a relatively short amount of time. In the previous example, a four-year research study would provide information about 8 years of developmental time by enrolling children ranging in age from two to ten years old.

When considering the best research design to use in their research, scientists think about their main research question and the best way to come up with an answer. A table of advantages and disadvantages for each of the described research designs is provided here to help you as you consider what sorts of studies would be best conducted using each of these different approaches.

Advantages and disadvantages of different research designs are summarized from the text

Challenges Associated with Conducting Developmental Research

The previous sections describe research tools to assess development in infancy and early childhood, as well as the ways that research designs can be used to track age-related changes and development over time. Before you begin conducting developmental research, however, you must also be aware that testing infants and children comes with its own unique set of challenges. In the final section of this module, we review some of the main issues that are encountered when conducting research with the youngest of human participants. In particular, we focus our discussion on ethical concerns, recruitment issues, and participant attrition.

Ethical concerns

As a student of psychological science, you may already know that Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review and approve of all research projects that are conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. An IRB is typically a panel of experts who read and evaluate proposals for research. IRB members want to ensure that the proposed research will be carried out ethically and that the potential benefits of the research outweigh the risks and harm for participants. What you may not know though, is that the IRB considers some groups of participants to be more vulnerable or at-risk than others. Whereas university students are generally not viewed as vulnerable or at-risk, infants and young children commonly fall into this category. What makes infants and young children more vulnerable during research than young adults? One reason infants and young children are perceived as being at increased risk is due to their limited cognitive capabilities, which makes them unable to state their willingness to participate in research or tell researchers when they would like to drop out of a study. For these reasons, infants and young children require special accommodations as they participate in the research process.

Recruitment

An additional challenge in developmental science is participant recruitment. Recruiting university students to participate in adult studies is typically easy. Many colleges and universities offer extra credit for participation in research and have locations such as bulletin boards and school newspapers where research can be advertised. Unfortunately, young children cannot be recruited by making announcements in Introduction to Psychology courses, by posting ads on campuses, or through online platforms such as Amazon Mechanical Turk . Given these limitations, how do researchers go about finding infants and young children to be in their studies?

The answer to this question varies along multiple dimensions. Researchers must consider the number of participants they need and the financial resources available to them, among other things. Location may also be an important consideration. Researchers who need large numbers of infants and children may attempt to do so by obtaining infant birth records from the state, county, or province in which they reside. Some areas make this information publicly available for free, whereas birth records must be purchased in other areas (and in some locations birth records may be entirely unavailable as a recruitment tool). If birth records are available, researchers can use the obtained information to call families by phone or mail them letters describing possible research opportunities. All is not lost if this recruitment strategy is unavailable, however. Researchers can choose to pay a recruitment agency to contact and recruit families for them. Although these methods tend to be quick and effective, they can also be quite expensive. More economical recruitment options include posting advertisements and fliers in locations frequented by families, such as mommy-and-me classes, local malls, and preschools or day care centers. Researchers can also utilize online social media outlets like Facebook, which allows users to post recruitment advertisements for a small fee. Of course, each of these different recruitment techniques requires IRB approval.

A tired looking mother closes her eyes and rubs her forehead as her baby cries.

Another important consideration when conducting research with infants and young children is attrition . Although attrition is quite common in longitudinal research in particular, it is also problematic in developmental science more generally, as studies with infants and young children tend to have higher attrition rates than studies with adults. For example, high attrition rates in ERP studies oftentimes result from the demands of the task: infants are required to sit still and have a tight, wet cap placed on their heads before watching still photographs on a computer screen in a dark, quiet room. In other cases, attrition may be due to motivation (or a lack thereof). Whereas adults may be motivated to participate in research in order to receive money or extra course credit, infants and young children are not as easily enticed. In addition, infants and young children are more likely to tire easily, become fussy, and lose interest in the study procedures than are adults. For these reasons, research studies should be designed to be as short as possible – it is likely better to break up a large study into multiple short sessions rather than cram all of the tasks into one long visit to the lab. Researchers should also allow time for breaks in their study protocols so that infants can rest or have snacks as needed. Happy, comfortable participants provide the best data.

Conclusions

Child development is a fascinating field of study – but care must be taken to ensure that researchers use appropriate methods to examine infant and child behavior, use the correct experimental design to answer their questions, and be aware of the special challenges that are part-and-parcel of developmental research. After reading this module, you should have a solid understanding of these various issues and be ready to think more critically about research questions that interest you. For example, when considering our initial example of hide-and-seek behaviors in preschoolers, you might ask questions about what other factors might contribute to hiding behaviors in children. Do children with older siblings hide in locations that were previously searched less often than children without siblings? What other abilities are associated with the development of hiding skills? Do children who use more sophisticated hiding strategies as preschoolers do better on other tests of cognitive functioning in high school? Many interesting questions remain to be examined by future generations of developmental scientists – maybe you will make one of the next big discoveries!

Outside Resources

Discussion Questions
Why is it important to conduct research on infants and children?
What are some possible benefits and limitations of the various research methods discussed in this module?
Why is it important to examine cohort effects in developmental research?
Think about additional challenges or unique issues that might be experienced by developmental scientists. How would they handle the challenges and issues you’ve addressed?
Work with your peers to design a study to identify whether children who were good hiders as preschoolers are more cognitively advanced in high school. What research design would you use and why? What are the advantages and limitations of the design you selected?
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Baillargeon, R., Spelke, E., & Wasserman, S. (1985). Object permanence in five-month-old infants. Cognition, 20, 191-208. doi: 10.1016/0010-0277(85)90008-3
Barr, R., Dowden, A., & Hayne, H. (1996). Developmental changes in deferred imitation by 6- to 24-month-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 19 , 159-170. doi: 10.1016/s0163-6383(96)90015-6
Bauer, P. J., Wenner, J. A., Dropik, P. L., & Wewerka, S. S. (2000). Parameters of remembering and forgetting in the transition from infancy to early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 65 , 1-204. doi: 10.1016/j.imlet.2014.04.001
Bauer, P. J., Wiebe, S. A., Carver, L. J., Waters, J. M., & Nelson, C. A. (2003). Developments in long-term explicit memory late in the first year of life: Behavioral and electrophysiological indices. Psychological Science, 14 , 629-635. doi: 10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1476.x
Bauer, P. J., Wiebe, S. A., Waters, J. M., & Bangston, S. K. (2001). Reexposure breeds recall: Effects of experience on 9-month-olds’ ordered recall. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 80 , 174-200. doi: 10.1006/jecp.2000.2628
Bentin, S., Allison, T., Puce, A., Perez, E., & McCarthy, G. (2010). Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 8, 551-565. doi: 10.1162/jocn.1996.8.6.551
Carver, L. J., & Bauer, P. J. (1999). When the event is more than the sum of its parts: 9-month-olds’ long-term ordered recall. Memory, 7 , 147-174. doi: 10.1080/741944070
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Lukowski, A. F., Koss, M., Burden, M. J., Jonides, J., Nelson, C. A., Kaciroti, N., … Lozoff, B. (2010). Iron deficiency in infancy and neurocognitive functioning at 19 years: Evidence of long-term deficits in executive function and recognition memory. Nutritional Neuroscience, 13 , 54-70. doi: 10.1179/147683010x12611460763689
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Developmental Monitoring and Screening

Developmental monitoring.

Developmental monitoring observes how your child grows and changes over time and whether your child meets the typical developmental milestones in playing, learning, speaking, behaving, and moving. Parents, grandparents, early childhood providers, and other caregivers can participate in developmental monitoring. You can use a brief checklist of milestones to see how your child is developing. If you notice that your child is not meeting milestones, talk with your doctor or nurse about your concerns.

When you take your child to a well visit, your doctor or nurse will also do developmental monitoring. The doctor or nurse might ask you questions about your child’s development or will talk and play with your child to see if he or she is developing and meeting milestones. A missed milestone could be a sign of a problem, so the doctor or another specialist will take a closer look by using a more thorough test or exam.

Your childcare provider can also be a valuable source of information on how your child develops. More information on developmental monitoring for early childhood educators .

Developmental Screening

Physical Developmental Delays: What to look for

Developmental screening takes a closer look at how your child is developing. Your child will get a brief test, or you will complete a questionnaire about your child. The tools used for developmental and behavioral screening are formal questionnaires or checklists based on research that ask questions about a child’s development, including language, movement, thinking, behavior, and emotions. Developmental screening can be done by a doctor or nurse, but also by other professionals in healthcare, early childhood education, community, or school settings.

Developmental screening is more formal than developmental monitoring and normally done less often than developmental monitoring. Your child should be screened if you or your doctor have a concern. However, developmental screening is a regular part of some of the well-child visits for all children even if there is not a known concern.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends developmental and behavioral screening for all children during regular well-child visits at these ages: 1

In addition, AAP recommends that all children be screened specifically for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) during regular well-child visits at:

18 months
24 months

If your child is at higher risk for developmental concerns due to preterm birth , low birthweight, environmental risks like lead exposure , or other factors, your healthcare provider may also discuss additional screening. If a child has an existing long-lasting health concern or a diagnosed condition, the child should have developmental monitoring and screening in all areas of development, just like those without special healthcare needs.

If your child’s healthcare provider does not periodically check your child with a developmental screening test, you can ask that it be done.

View and print a fact sheet [657 KB, 2 Pages, Print Only]

Developmental Evaluation

A brief test using a screening tool does not provide a diagnosis, but it indicates if a child is on the right development track or if a specialist should take a closer look. If the screening tool identifies an area of concern, a formal developmental evaluation may be needed. This formal evaluation is a more in-depth look at a child’s development, usually done by a trained specialist, such as a developmental pediatrician, child psychologist, speech-language pathologist, occupational therapist, physical therapist, or other specialist. The specialist may observe the child, give the child a structured test, ask the parents or caregivers questions, or ask them to fill out questionnaires. The results of this formal evaluation determines whether a child needs special treatments or early intervention services or both.

WHO: You — parents, grandparents, other caregivers

WHAT: Look for developmental milestones

WHEN: From birth to 5 years

WHY: To help you

celebrate your child’s development
talk about your child’s progress with doctors and childcare providers
learn what to expect next
identify any concerns early

HOW: With easy, free checklists – get yours at www.cdc.gov/Milestones

WHO: Healthcare provider, early childhood teacher, or other trained provider

Developmental Screening at 9, 18, 30 months of age
Autism Screening at 18 and 24 months of age

WHY: To find out

if your child needs more help with development, because it is not always obvious to doctors, childcare providers, or parents
if more developmental evaluation are recommended

HOW: With a formal, validated screening tool – learn more

WHO: Developmental pediatrician, child psychologist, or other trained provider

WHAT: Identify and diagnose developmental delays and conditions

WHEN: Whenever there is a concern

if your child needs specific treatment
if your child qualifies for early intervention

HOW: With a detailed examination, formal assessment tools, observation, and surveys from parents and other caregivers, often in combination, depending on the area of concern

Why It’s Important

Many children with developmental delays or behavior concerns are not identified as early as possible. As a result, these children must wait to get the help they need to do well in social and educational settings (for example, in school, at home, and in the community).

In the United States, about 1 in 6 children aged 3 to 17 years have one or more developmental or behavioral disabilities, such as autism , a learning disorder , or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 2 . In addition, many children have delays in language or other areas that can affect how well they do in school. However, many children with developmental disabilities are not identified until they are in school, by which time significant delays might have occurred and opportunities for treatment might have been missed.

Services for Children with Developmental Disabilities

Research shows that early intervention treatment services can improve a child’s development.

Early intervention services can help children from birth through 3 years of age (36 months) learn important skills.
For children age 3 and older with an identified developmental delay or disability, special education services may be provided.

Services can include a variety of options, depending on the child’s need, such as therapy to help the child talk, move and walk, learn, and interact with others.

Child Find programs are provided by each state to evaluate and identify children who need special education services. Early intervention programs can provide services from birth to 3 years of age. Local public school systems can provide the needed services and support for children age 3 years and older. Children can access some services even if they do not attend public school.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) says that children with a diagnosed disability should get special education services. IDEA says that children younger than 3 years of age who are at risk of having developmental delays might be eligible for early intervention treatment services even if the child has not received a formal diagnosis. Treatment for particular symptoms, such as speech therapy for language delays, may not require a formal diagnosis.

Although early intervention is extremely important, intervention at any age can be helpful. It is best to get an evaluation early so that any needed interventions can get started. When parents are concerned about a child’s development, it can be very challenging for them to figure out the right steps to take. States have created parent centers. These centers help families learn how and where to have their children evaluated and how to find services. For information about services in your state, you can access your state’s parent center .

Links to Other Websites

“Learn the Signs. Act Early.” This CDC program offers free milestone checklists to help parents and professionals track children’s milestones, support development, share concerns, and take action to support developmental delays.

Birth to 5: Watch Me Thrive! Birth to 5: Watch Me Thrive! is a coordinated federal effort to encourage healthy child development, universal developmental and behavioral screening for children, and support for the families and providers who care for them.

Overview of Early Intervention Learn more about early intervention services from the Center for Parent Information and Resources.

Bright Futures Bright Futures materials for families are available on a wide range of mental, physical, and emotional health issues in children from before birth through 21 years of age.

Lipkin PH, Macias MM, Council on Children with Disabilities, Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (2020). Promoting optimal development: Identifying infants and young children with developmental disorders through developmental surveillance and screening. Pediatrics , 145(1), e20193449.
Zablotsky B, Black LI, Maenner MJ, Schieve LA, Danielson ML, Bitsko RH, Blumberg SJ, Kogan MD, Boyle CA. Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among Children in the US: 2009–2017. Pediatrics. 2019; 144(4):e20190811. [ Read summary ]

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The Power of Dialogic Reading

May 20, 2024

Discover the benefits of dialogic reading for children's language development and literacy skills through evidence-based practices and research studies.

Dialogic reading is more than an average storytelling encounter; it is an engaging and multifaceted approach to reading that enriches young minds. It enhances language acquisition, bolsters vocabulary, and lays the groundwork for academic success , making it an essential tool for parents and educators alike. Delving into the mechanics of dialogic reading, this article unfolds the layers of its impact on a child’s language and literacy development .

Within the flow of a story, dialogic reading strategies ignite conversations, encouraging children to think and respond creatively. This piece ventures through various questioning techniques , revealing how they aid in transforming passive listeners into active participants. By exploring the synergy between picture books and dialogic reading, we will navigate how to adapt these strategies for children with diverse learning needs, including those with language impairments and English language learners.

What is Dialogic Reading?

Dialogic Reading is an interactive technique used during read-aloud sessions where adults and children switch roles as the storyteller. Unlike traditional reading methods where the adult is the primary reader, dialogic reading stimulates interaction by having the child become the teller of the story and the adult a listener, coach, and questioner. This conversational exchange not only bolsters the reading experience but also enhances oral language skills , comprehension, and the child's interest in books.

Dialogic Reading is a collaborative reading approach that transcends simply reading words on a page. It is an enriching strategy designed to involve learners, especially young ones, in thought-provoking discussions about the text. By utilizing open-ended questions, prompting techniques, and scaffolding language , dialogic reading turns a solitary act into a dynamic and educational dialogue . The approach uses varying levels of questions, from simple recall prompts to more complex open-ended prompts, to draw out not just the correct response from a child but to encourage expressive vocabulary and deeper understanding.

In the formative years of early childhood education, dialogic reading proves to be a significant tool for language and literacy development. It offers more than the fundamental acquisition of reading skills—it helps lay the groundwork for academic language and the cognitive abilities necessary for success in reading and lifelong learning.

Engaging young minds through dialogic reading promotes a robust vocabulary and a receptive language that are pivotal for comprehension and expression in both English language learners and children with language impairment. Practicing such reading strategies can aid in effectively combating language development delays by fostering a love and competence for reading in children from all backgrounds.

Benefits of Dialogic Reading

Dialogic Reading elevates the reading process far beyond the simple act of verbalizing text. It actively shapes a child's vocabulary and oral language capabilities by nudging them through more structured channels of communication, which differ from casual, everyday interactions. This boost in formality can be critical for cognitive and language development.

As children vocalize the story themselves, they are not just seeing the words—they’re also practicing them, which enriches their vocabulary acquisition. Such active involvement in storytelling positions children as the narrators of their literary journey, increasing their connection to the material, and thereby intensifying their interest and confidence in reading.

Moreover, this engaging practice allows children to experiment with new lexicon and navigate complex terms with adult guidance, fostering discussions around the narrative that are both substantive and enriching.

Language Development

When it comes to cultivating a child's linguistic abilities, Dialogic Reading is an influential practice. Studies over the years have consistently demonstrated that engaging children in this interactive form of storytelling significantly bolsters their verbal fluency and comprehension.

By participating in dialogic sessions, young learners can absorb more sophisticated language constructs , expanding their vocabulary and expressive language skills. This interaction paves the way for an enhanced understanding of how language operates within questions and conversation.

This is particularly beneficial for children at risk of reading challenges as it can lead to marked improvements in both oral vocabulary skills and overall literacy development, revealing that dialogic reading can significantly enhance their literacy trajectory.

Oral Language Skills

Dialogic Reading is a powerful tool in sharpening a child's oral language skills , priming them for effective and formal communication outside relaxed settings. The method exposes children to an array of terms in different contexts, urging them to assimilate and use new words throughout their conversational engagement with the story.

Notably, oral language prowess is not just academically critical—deficiencies in this area have been linked to behavioral issues in young learners, as pragmatic language deficits can impair the ability to initiate and sustain appropriate social interactions. Therefore, laying a robust foundation in oral vocabulary is key, as it fuels not just proficient reading through word recognition and comprehension, but also influences behavioral regulation.

Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary

The power of Dialogic Reading in broadening both receptive and expressive vocabulary is underscored in research spanning diverse child populations. Interactive sessions that see children encountering new words repetitively within the same narrative have proven to yield stronger vocabulary acquisition than varied word exposure across numerous stories.

While typically-developing students demonstrate significant gains through dialogic methods, the approach shows a modest but noteworthy advantage over more passive forms of reading with children, particularly in the realm of expressive vocabulary.

These linguistic improvements are vital as they solidify a child’s ability to articulate thoughts clearly and comprehend spoken language effectively.

Academic Success in Reading

Dialogic Reading does more than expand a child's vocabulary; it seeds the ground for comprehensive language proficiency, encompassing oral complexity and narrative skills—key pillars supporting future literacy endeavours.

Frequent shared book reading, a hallmark of this approach, nurtures strong oral vocabulary, a prerequisite for reading adeptness. Catering to students challenged by literacy learning difficulties , dialogic reading not only bolsters both expressive and receptive language but also sharpens inferential and reasoning abilities, enabling children to assume a more active, insightful role in storytelling.

Research recommends a graduated approach to dialogic reading, seeking to maximize engagement and understanding by initially minimizing interruptions and progressively introducing varying interaction techniques with each read-through.

Dialogic Reading Strategies

Dialogic Reading Strategies utilize interactive techniques to transform the reading experience into a dynamic dialogue between the adult and the child. One of the most effective strategies within this method is the CROWD acronym, guiding caregivers and educators through various types of prompts—Completion, Recall, Open-ended, Wh- questions, and Distancing. Additionally, the extended version, CROWD-HS, encompasses prompts that link home and school settings to the reading material. This approach is valuable across all age groups, enriching reading comprehension and deepening engagement with the text.

Open-Ended Questions

Open-Ended Questions form a cornerstone of the Dialogic Reading approach. These inquiries go beyond the basic recall of facts, inviting children to share personal thoughts and feelings about the story. Such questions may prompt kids to describe unfolding events in pictures or decipher character emotions, thus heightening their interaction with text and illustrations. This method cultivates critical thinking , opens the door to rich conversation , and offers a playground for linguistic and cognitive development as children articulate their interpretations of and responses to the narrative.

Wh- Questions

"Wh-" Questions in Dialogic Reading serve as a scaffold for in-depth exploration of the text. Beginning with 'what,' 'when,' 'why,' 'where,' or 'how,' these prompts stimulate detailed responses. 'What' questions can enhance a child's expanding vocabulary, inviting them to label objects or actions within the story. 'How' and 'why' questions drive critical thinking and reasoning skills. By incorporating these into a reading session, adults can foster a deeper understanding and active participation, making the story come alive.

Completion Prompts

Completion Prompts are an engaging element of Dialogic Reading, resembling fill-in-the-blank activities that are particularly effective when applied to stories with rhymes or repetitive phrases. When an adult pauses at a key point in a sentence, it encourages the child to jump in and complete the thought. This interaction helps solidify comprehension and boosts the child's involvement, allowing them to demonstrate their grasp of the narrative flow and sentence structures .

Distancing Prompts

Distancing Prompts help children bridge the gap between the narrative and their own personal experiences. By drawing parallels between events or character emotions in the story and real-life situations, children can reflect on their feelings and relate more profoundly with the material. These prompts foster discussions that are not only relevant to the child's world but also enhance emotional intelligence and empathy, creating a deeper connection to the story.

Recall Prompts

Recall Prompts in Dialogic Reading are questions that ask a child to recount portions of the story, effectively bolstering comprehension. Employing recall prompts at different times—before, during, or after a story—advances the child's ability to remember and narrate events, details, and characters. This type of prompt reinforces memory and understanding, ensuring the child's full immersion into the story's universe.

Follow-Up Questions

Follow-Up Questions are pivotal for a deeper dive into the text within the Dialogic Reading frame. These queries are constructed using the PEER sequence (Prompt, Evaluate, Expand, Repeat) to encourage thoughtful dialogue and critical analysis of the story.

Such interactive and child-focused strategies have been associated with higher scores in language development testing, corroborating the widespread efficacy of Dialogic Reading irrespective of geographic and socio-economic boundaries.

Types of Questions in Dialogic Reading

Dialogic reading is an interactive approach to shared book reading that emphasizes the importance of dialogue between the adult and the child. It involves a structured set of questioning techniques designed to engage young learners and enhance their understanding of the text. Guided by the PEER sequence—Prompt, Evaluate, Expand, Repeat—the strategy involves asking different types of questions to aid comprehension and language development.

Simple Questions

At the foundation of dialogic reading are simple questions, which are easily within a young child's reach. These inquiries often focus on naming or identifying items in the picture books, such as asking, "What is this?" or "What will the boy do next?" These types of questions are critical for building vocabulary and setting the stage for more complex thinking skills. For instance:

"Can you point to the dog?"
"What color is the cat?"
"How many apples do you see?"

As children respond to these questions, they begin to establish a base for reading skills development, such as recognizing context cues and building expressive vocabulary. Caregivers can tailor the difficulty of the questions, starting with these simpler forms and gradually increasing complexity to match the child’s growing abilities .

Complex Questions

As children become more adept at responding to simple questions, caregivers can introduce more complex questions. These questions are aimed at advancing comprehension and encouraging children to think about the story at a deeper level. Example prompts may include:

"Why do you think the character felt sad after losing the toy?"
"How would you feel if you were in the same situation?"
"What could happen next in the story?"

Complex questions often encourage children to use vocabulary and concepts from the book, which helps solidify their grasp of the words and their meanings. These queries require learners to analyze, synthesize, and apply the information from the story to their own experiences or predictions, fostering a higher level of engagement and deeper comprehension .

Level of Questions: Literal, Inferential, Evaluative

The dialogic reading model incorporates various levels of questioning to encourage a holistic understanding of the text. The questions can be categorized as:

Literal : Questions that can be answered directly from the text. For example, "What did the girl see in the garden?"
Inferential : Questions that require the child to read between the lines or infer meaning beyond what is explicitly stated. For instance, "Why do you think the bird flew away when it saw the cat?"
Evaluative : Questions that ask the child to form and express opinions about the content of the story. An example prompt would be, "Do you think the character made a good decision?"

Using a mix of literal, inferential, and evaluative questions not only supports the child's comprehension but also encourages them to interact with the text dynamically, thus promoting more profound levels of cognitive engagement. When used as part of dialogic reading, these levels of questions support a rich and layered exploration of the reading material.

How Dialogic Reading Supports Language Development

Dialogic reading is more than just a storytelling practice—it's a vital interaction that facilitates the growth of language in the early, formative years of childhood. By embracing the back-and-forth nature of narrative dialogue, children are exposed to a learning experience that surpasses the passive act of listening. They are invited to engage, question, and respond, turning story-time into a dynamic exchange that nurtures their language abilities. This interaction lays down the foundation for verbal fluency and nuanced understanding of language, which are essential elements for mastering reading comprehension.

Through dialogic reading, children aren’t just exposed to new vocabulary; they are encouraged to use these new words in conversation. By actively participating in the story's unfolding, children are more inclined to feel connected and invested in the material, which can bolster their confidence and interest in reading. The strategy not only helps them to grasp the meaning of new words but also demonstrates their practical use in dialogue and narrative contexts—critical components for overall language development.

Furthermore, the repetitive and guided nature of dialogic reading enables children to practice and solidify their grasp on complex language structures in a supportive environment. As they narrate, predict, and react to stories, they organically pick up on the nuances of grammar and storytelling. Consequently, dialogic reading serves as one of the more engaging and effective methods to foster oral language skills and set children on a successful path toward literacy.

Enhancing Receptive Language Skills

Dialogic reading is an influential tool in the early educational landscape for bolstering receptive language skills—those which govern a child's ability to understand and process information . Its reading sessions are hinged on dynamic interaction, which in turn contributes to improved vocabulary and pre-reading capabilities. Direct vocabulary instruction—integral to dialogic reading—is particularly beneficial for students who may be at risk of reading difficulties. It provides them with a responsive , stimulating platform to grow their word knowledge.

An underdeveloped receptive language skillset can have repercussions beyond literacy. It can hinder the formation of solid social skills and impede interactions with peers and adults alike. By incorporating dialogic reading, children are given consistent opportunities to listen, decode, and internalize language, which not only prepares them for academic success but also equips them with the skills necessary for social engagement. Recognizing the signs and filling in the gaps early through dialogic practices can preempt challenges that might otherwise emerge in behavioral contexts or in the course of their educational journey.

Improving Expressive Language Skills

Dialogic reading's impact on language development extends to expressive skills—the ability to convey thoughts and feelings through speech. For children, particularly those at risk for literacy difficulties , dialogic reading acts as a bridge, spanning the gap between passive listening and active expression. By inviting dialogue and encouraging verbal exchanges, it fosters a learning environment where children increase their spontaneous utterances and are more likely to use complex phrases and thoughts .

Studies have shown that the effect of dialogic reading on such children's vocabulary and expressive language is significant, even more so when dialogic interventions involve both preschool settings and the home environment. As children are praised for their contributions and engaged in a rich exchange of ideas, they acquire a stronger and more diverse expressive vocabulary, which serves them well both academically and socially . Moreover, this method encourages interaction, ensuring that adults are not merely presenting information but are also listening and responding to the child's input, hence reinforcing the child's narrative skills.

9 Tips for Embracing Dialogic Reading in your Classroom

The strategies utilized in dialogic reading are not only fundamental in developing day-to-day language skills but are also instrumental in fostering academic language proficiency. With its emphasis on open-ended questions and expansion of children's responses, dialogic reading sets the stage for higher-level thinking and comprehension. Unlike traditional reading methods that may lean more toward teacher-focused instruction, dialogic reading puts the child at the front and center of the learning process.

Here are nine practical tips for teachers aiming to effectively implement dialogic reading strategies in the classroom to enhance students' oral vocabulary skills and enrich the reading process:

Choose the Right Books : Select picture books that are rich in detail and narrative to captivate children’s interest and stimulate their imagination during picture book reading sessions.
Vary Your Questions : Incorporate different kinds of questions throughout the reading activity. Start with simple "what" questions and build up to "why" and "how" questions to encourage deeper thinking and engagement.
Encourage Prediction : Before turning the page, ask students to predict what might happen next in the story. This not only keeps them engaged but also helps them connect various parts of the story and develop reasoning skills.
Link to Prior Knowledge : Connect the themes or events in the book to the children's own experiences or previously acquired knowledge . This relevance helps deepen understanding and retention.
Focus on Vocabulary : Introduce new words purposefully and use them in context to help children build a well-developed oral vocabulary. Discuss the meanings of words as they come up during reading.
Use Completion Questions : Employ completion questions during reading by pausing and letting children fill in the blanks of sentences. This encourages active participation and helps assess their understanding in real-time.
Rephrase Their Responses : When a child answers a question, rephrase their response in a more complex or detailed way. This models more advanced language use and helps expand their oral vocabulary.
Encourage Role Play : After reading, let children act out parts of the story. This helps them internalize the vocabulary and concepts from the book, enhancing their understanding through active involvement.
Follow Up : After the reading activity, revisit the story and vocabulary in different contexts and throughout the day. Repetition helps solidify learning and ensures the new vocabulary becomes a part of the children's active language use.

Implementing these strategies can make book reading sessions more interactive and enriching, significantly boosting children's language skills and their enjoyment of the stories.

Key Studies on Dialogic Reading

1. Towson, J. A., Gallagher, P. A., & Bingham, G. E. (2016). Dialogic reading . Journal of Early Intervention, 38 (4), 230-246.

Summary : This study shows that dialogic reading significantly improves receptive and expressive vocabulary skills in preschool children with disabilities, compared to traditional storybook reading.

2. Brannon, D., & Dauksas, L. (2014). The effectiveness of dialogic reading in increasing English language learning preschool children's expressive language. Early Childhood Education Journal, 42 (5), 1-10.

Summary : Dialogic reading training for ELL parents significantly enhances children's expressive language and parent-child literacy interactions, showing positive vocabulary gains over a ten-week period.

3. Towson, J. A., Fettig, A., Fleury, V. P., & Abarca, D. L. (2017). Dialogic reading in early childhood settings: A summary of the evidence base. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 37 (3), 132-146.

Summary : The study reviews dialogic reading's efficacy across various settings, highlighting its positive impact on children's language skills but noting variability in adherence to the DR protocol.

4. Gutiérrez, R. (2016). Effects of dialogic reading in the improvement of reading comprehension in students of primary education. Revista De Psicodidactica, 21 (2), 303-320.

Summary : Implementing dialogic reading groups in primary education significantly improves students' reading comprehension skills compared to traditional methods, underscoring its educational potential.

5. Şimşek, Z. C., & Erdoğan, N. (2015). Effects of the dialogic and traditional reading techniques on children's language development. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 197 , 754-758.

Summary : Dialogic reading outperforms traditional reading techniques in enhancing the receptive and expressive language skills of 4-5 year old children from low-income families .

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Public Health

Why writing by hand beats typing for thinking and learning

Jonathan Lambert

A close-up of a woman's hand writing in a notebook.

If you're like many digitally savvy Americans, it has likely been a while since you've spent much time writing by hand.

The laborious process of tracing out our thoughts, letter by letter, on the page is becoming a relic of the past in our screen-dominated world, where text messages and thumb-typed grocery lists have replaced handwritten letters and sticky notes. Electronic keyboards offer obvious efficiency benefits that have undoubtedly boosted our productivity — imagine having to write all your emails longhand.

To keep up, many schools are introducing computers as early as preschool, meaning some kids may learn the basics of typing before writing by hand.

But giving up this slower, more tactile way of expressing ourselves may come at a significant cost, according to a growing body of research that's uncovering the surprising cognitive benefits of taking pen to paper, or even stylus to iPad — for both children and adults.

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In kids, studies show that tracing out ABCs, as opposed to typing them, leads to better and longer-lasting recognition and understanding of letters. Writing by hand also improves memory and recall of words, laying down the foundations of literacy and learning. In adults, taking notes by hand during a lecture, instead of typing, can lead to better conceptual understanding of material.

"There's actually some very important things going on during the embodied experience of writing by hand," says Ramesh Balasubramaniam , a neuroscientist at the University of California, Merced. "It has important cognitive benefits."

While those benefits have long been recognized by some (for instance, many authors, including Jennifer Egan and Neil Gaiman , draft their stories by hand to stoke creativity), scientists have only recently started investigating why writing by hand has these effects.

A slew of recent brain imaging research suggests handwriting's power stems from the relative complexity of the process and how it forces different brain systems to work together to reproduce the shapes of letters in our heads onto the page.

Your brain on handwriting

Both handwriting and typing involve moving our hands and fingers to create words on a page. But handwriting, it turns out, requires a lot more fine-tuned coordination between the motor and visual systems. This seems to more deeply engage the brain in ways that support learning.

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"Handwriting is probably among the most complex motor skills that the brain is capable of," says Marieke Longcamp , a cognitive neuroscientist at Aix-Marseille Université.

Gripping a pen nimbly enough to write is a complicated task, as it requires your brain to continuously monitor the pressure that each finger exerts on the pen. Then, your motor system has to delicately modify that pressure to re-create each letter of the words in your head on the page.

"Your fingers have to each do something different to produce a recognizable letter," says Sophia Vinci-Booher , an educational neuroscientist at Vanderbilt University. Adding to the complexity, your visual system must continuously process that letter as it's formed. With each stroke, your brain compares the unfolding script with mental models of the letters and words, making adjustments to fingers in real time to create the letters' shapes, says Vinci-Booher.

That's not true for typing.

To type "tap" your fingers don't have to trace out the form of the letters — they just make three relatively simple and uniform movements. In comparison, it takes a lot more brainpower, as well as cross-talk between brain areas, to write than type.

Recent brain imaging studies bolster this idea. A study published in January found that when students write by hand, brain areas involved in motor and visual information processing " sync up " with areas crucial to memory formation, firing at frequencies associated with learning.

"We don't see that [synchronized activity] in typewriting at all," says Audrey van der Meer , a psychologist and study co-author at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. She suggests that writing by hand is a neurobiologically richer process and that this richness may confer some cognitive benefits.

Other experts agree. "There seems to be something fundamental about engaging your body to produce these shapes," says Robert Wiley , a cognitive psychologist at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro. "It lets you make associations between your body and what you're seeing and hearing," he says, which might give the mind more footholds for accessing a given concept or idea.

Those extra footholds are especially important for learning in kids, but they may give adults a leg up too. Wiley and others worry that ditching handwriting for typing could have serious consequences for how we all learn and think.

What might be lost as handwriting wanes

The clearest consequence of screens and keyboards replacing pen and paper might be on kids' ability to learn the building blocks of literacy — letters.

"Letter recognition in early childhood is actually one of the best predictors of later reading and math attainment," says Vinci-Booher. Her work suggests the process of learning to write letters by hand is crucial for learning to read them.

"When kids write letters, they're just messy," she says. As kids practice writing "A," each iteration is different, and that variability helps solidify their conceptual understanding of the letter.

Research suggests kids learn to recognize letters better when seeing variable handwritten examples, compared with uniform typed examples.

This helps develop areas of the brain used during reading in older children and adults, Vinci-Booher found.

"This could be one of the ways that early experiences actually translate to long-term life outcomes," she says. "These visually demanding, fine motor actions bake in neural communication patterns that are really important for learning later on."

Ditching handwriting instruction could mean that those skills don't get developed as well, which could impair kids' ability to learn down the road.

"If young children are not receiving any handwriting training, which is very good brain stimulation, then their brains simply won't reach their full potential," says van der Meer. "It's scary to think of the potential consequences."

Many states are trying to avoid these risks by mandating cursive instruction. This year, California started requiring elementary school students to learn cursive , and similar bills are moving through state legislatures in several states, including Indiana, Kentucky, South Carolina and Wisconsin. (So far, evidence suggests that it's the writing by hand that matters, not whether it's print or cursive.)

Slowing down and processing information

For adults, one of the main benefits of writing by hand is that it simply forces us to slow down.

During a meeting or lecture, it's possible to type what you're hearing verbatim. But often, "you're not actually processing that information — you're just typing in the blind," says van der Meer. "If you take notes by hand, you can't write everything down," she says.

The relative slowness of the medium forces you to process the information, writing key words or phrases and using drawing or arrows to work through ideas, she says. "You make the information your own," she says, which helps it stick in the brain.

Such connections and integration are still possible when typing, but they need to be made more intentionally. And sometimes, efficiency wins out. "When you're writing a long essay, it's obviously much more practical to use a keyboard," says van der Meer.

Still, given our long history of using our hands to mark meaning in the world, some scientists worry about the more diffuse consequences of offloading our thinking to computers.

"We're foisting a lot of our knowledge, extending our cognition, to other devices, so it's only natural that we've started using these other agents to do our writing for us," says Balasubramaniam.

It's possible that this might free up our minds to do other kinds of hard thinking, he says. Or we might be sacrificing a fundamental process that's crucial for the kinds of immersive cognitive experiences that enable us to learn and think at our full potential.

Balasubramaniam stresses, however, that we don't have to ditch digital tools to harness the power of handwriting. So far, research suggests that scribbling with a stylus on a screen activates the same brain pathways as etching ink on paper. It's the movement that counts, he says, not its final form.

Jonathan Lambert is a Washington, D.C.-based freelance journalist who covers science, health and policy.

handwriting

Young boy with medium skin tone and an anesthetic mask over his mouth lies on a hospital operating table

CHLA Researchers Conduct First-of-Its-Kind Review of Anesthesia Exposure’s Impact on Childhood Brain Development

Anesthesia makes it possible for infants and children to undergo medical procedures and surgeries that save or improve the quality of their lives. Some children must receive anesthesia multiple times while very young. While anesthesia is an essential tool, it may also disrupt the developing brain, leading to later cognitive and behavioral issues. Accumulating evidence from in vitro, animal and human clinical trials suggests that anesthesia can harm children’s brains and neurological development. But because of varying study designs, no consensus yet exists on the level of anesthesia exposure risk that could translate into practical guidance for clinicians on how to balance its risks against its benefits.

Faculty Researcher Matthew Borzage, PhD , and Bradley Peterson, MD , Director of the Brain Imaging Lab at Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, reviewed the existing preclinical evidence to relate the findings to recent clinical, real-world trials in humans.

“The effects of multiple exposures to anesthetics evaluated by in vitro or behavioral studies is only beginning to be understood,” says Dr. Borzage, co-author of the 131-study scoping review. “We all want to know how anesthesia impacts the developing brain. We decided the best way to find out was a thorough review of the existing research studies—from cells and animals to humans.”

Deciphering different studies

The researchers used a modified Patient Intervention, Comparison, Outcome (PICO) framework to review studies of anesthesia according to key maturational events in normal brain development. The researchers tried to compare the effects of different drugs and dosages in animal and humans according to equivalent development stage.

They found that exposure to anesthesia alters brain development, changes animal behavior and could impair human neurodevelopment. Both in vitro and animal studies showed that changes in brain development associated with anesthesia exposure occurred across multiple studies with very different experimental designs.

Still more questions

In humans, the literature showed the strongest evidence for neurotoxic effects when children had multiple exposures. The impacts were highest in the domains of attention and disruptive behaviors, and possibly executive functioning, memory, motor skills and language abilities. Most children exposed to anesthesia (71%) receive multiple exposures by the age of 6.

“This review unequivocally showed that anesthetics cause neurotoxicity, at least in rodents,” says Dr. Borzage. “Further research is needed to evaluate the implications of both single and multiple exposures, and monitor pain, stress and physiological changes during and after surgery.”

The review was published in Anesthesia & Analgesia.

Learn about research on brain development at Children’s Hospital Los Angeles.

Research Faculty Spotlight: Matthew Borzage, PhD

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J Pediatr (Rio J)
v.97(4); Jul-Aug 2021

The potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on child growth and development: a systematic review

Liubiana arantes de araújo.

a Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Pediatria, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil

Cássio Frederico Veloso

b Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Psicologia, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil

Matheus de Campos Souza

c Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Medicina/Psicologia, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil

João Marcos Coelho de Azevedo

Giulio tarro.

d Azienda Ospedaliera “D. Cotugno”, Naples, Italy

e Commissione sulle Biotecnologie della Virosfera, WABT – UNESCO, Paris, France

f University Thomas More U.P.T.M., Rome, Italy

g Beaumont Bonelli per Le Ricerche Sul Cancro (ONLUS), Naples, Italy

This was a systematic review of studies that examined the impact of epidemics or social restriction on mental and developmental health in parents and children/adolescents.

Source of data

The PubMed, WHO COVID-19, and SciELO databases were searched on March 15, 2020, and on April 25, 2020, filtering for children (0–18 years) and humans.

Synthesis of data

The tools used to mitigate the threat of a pandemic such as COVID-19 may very well threaten child growth and development. These tools — such as social restrictions, shutdowns, and school closures — contribute to stress in parents and children and can become risk factors that threaten child growth and development and may compromise the Sustainable Development Goals. The studies reviewed suggest that epidemics can lead to high levels of stress in parents and children, which begin with concerns about children becoming infected. These studies describe several potential mental and emotional consequences of epidemics such as COVID-19, H1N1, AIDS, and Ebola: severe anxiety or depression among parents and acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress, anxiety disorders, and depression among children. These data can be related to adverse childhood experiences and elevated risk of toxic stress. The more adverse experiences, the greater the risk of developmental delays and health problems in adulthood, such as cognitive impairment, substance abuse, depression, and non-communicable diseases.

Information about the impact of epidemics on parents and children is relevant to policy makers to aid them in developing strategies to help families cope with epidemic/pandemic-driven adversity and ensure their children’s healthy development.

Introduction

There are scarce data about the impact of epidemics on children’s growth and development. Preserving children’s well-being during stressful times such as pandemics needs greater attention in the medical literature. Children’s health is one of the most important issues in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and science has shown that genetic predispositions are modified by environmental influences, such as those experienced during a pandemic, and affect learning capacities, adaptive behaviors, lifelong physical and mental health, and adult productivity.

Epidemics or pandemics, such as COVID-19, produce potential risks to child development due to the risk of illness, protective confinement, social isolation, and the increased stress level of parents and caregivers. This situation becomes an adverse childhood experience (ACEs) and may generate toxic stress, with consequent potential losses for brain development, individual and collective health, and the long-term impairment of cognition, mental and physical health, and working capacity of future adults.

Studies to improve the understanding of the impact of epidemics and pandemics such as COVID-19 on children’s mental health and development can help to guide strategies to prevent damage to children’s growth and promote positive development.

The COVID-19 pandemic has produced impacts on general health and child development through exposure to the virus and consequent infection, as well as through the social confinement recommended or mandated in an attempt to slow the progress of COVID-19, enable adequate medical care, and prevent the collapse of health care systems.

Consequently, the pandemic demands that millions of parents and caregivers demonstrate a high capacity for resilience to ensure protective health measures to prevent contagion. One of the pillars for overcoming adversity is interaction among people, which is compromised by isolation, leading to increased stress in both parents and children. In addition to general care and strategies to minimize stress, preserving children's well-being is an important focus, increasingly highlighted in medical literature. Children’s good health is one of the most important issues for the SDGs, and science demonstrates that genetic predispositions (biology) are modified by environmental influences (ecology) and affect learning capacities, adaptive behaviors, lifelong physical and mental health, and adult productivity. 1

From this perspective, there are several factors that influence the physical and mental health of children and adolescents experiencing the stress inherent in a pandemic, such as isolation itself, school shutdown, reduced social life and physical activities, changes to routine, sleep difficulties, exposure to disharmony at home, excessive screen use, unhealthy diet, and others. 2

Depending on levels and kinds of support, high and continuous stress may either be tolerable or become toxic to children and adolescents. ACEs are traumatic or stressful events that occur in childhood, such as abuse, neglect, domestic violence, and parents with substance dependence or mental illness. The pandemic can be understood as another source of ACE. 3

This review of the scientific literature about the impacts of isolation, environmental restriction, social distancing, and the challenges of maintaining general child health and development within the context of previous epidemics and the COVID-19 pandemic was undertaken in light of the above.

The guidelines from the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews 4 were used to conduct this review of the scientific literature about the impacts on the general health, development, and mental health of children and adolescents as a result of previous epidemics and/or the COVID-19 pandemic.

Observational, cross-sectional, cohort, and ecological studies, case series, and systematic reviews, without language restrictions were included in the study. Studies of non-human subjects and experimental studies were excluded. The target population for this review was that aged 0–18 years, with no limitations related to gender, race or health condition.

The PubMed, World Health Organization (WHO) COVID-19 and SciELO databases were searched on March 15, 2020, and again on April 25, 2020. All articles were double-screened by two authors according to title and summary in order to answer the following research question: "What are the consequences of previous epidemics and the COVID-19 pandemic on children’s quality of life, health, and development?" Health descriptors for research and related terms derived from DeCS and MeSH were: child, stress, pandemic, Ebola, influenza pandemic, and COVID-19. Combinations of descriptors were: (Child AND stress AND [pandemic OR Ebola OR flu pandemic OR COVID-19]), (child AND COVID-19), (pandemic AND COVID-19 AND child).

All of the studies were assessed in relation to their characteristics, quality, and congruence with the theme. Each study’s summary was initially analyzed and those that did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded. Papers whose full-text was included were reviewed by author. A list of references for each article was analyzed in an attempt to select additional articles related to the topic. Experts in the field also suggested certain articles. Two tools were used to measure the quality of the articles included in this review: CASP and AMSTAR 2 ( Fig. 1 ).

Screening profile.

From the PubMed platform, 80 articles were selected, of which 14 were analyzed and eight were included in this review. A search for the descriptors resulted in only two studies from the WHO COVID-19 database, neither of which was selected, since they did not meet the criteria of the present review. No articles containing the descriptors were found on the Scielo platform. One further article was retrieved by manual search. In total, nine studies were included in this review. The CASP checklist resulted in scores greater than 5 in six studies and one less than 5. Using the ASTAR 2 criteria, the quality of the systematic reviews included was classified as high high ( Table 1 ).

Summary of the studies included in this review.

The study by Almond describes poor educational and physical performance and lower income and socioeconomic status as adults in children whose mothers were infected by the Spanish flu during the 1918 pandemic. 5

The study by Wang et al. on the psychological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, investigated 1210 individuals, the majority female (67.3%), from families of three to five people (80.7%), with children (67.4%), in 194 Chinese cities. In total, 53.8% of respondents rated the psychological impact of the outbreak as moderate or severe, 16.5% reported moderate to severe depressive symptoms, 28.8% reported moderate to severe anxiety symptoms, and 8.1% reported moderate to severe levels of stress. The majority of respondents spent 20 to 24 h a day at home (84.7%) and stated that they were concerned about family members contracting COVID-19. The “parents” group had higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression when compared with the “no children” group, a statistically significant difference, and the majority of parents stated that they were “very” or “somewhat worried” about a child getting COVID-19. 6

In another study, data were obtained from 586 parents interviewed in 2009 in the United States, Mexico, and Canada about the H1N1 pandemic. 7 The respondents were predominantly female (78%), with an average age of 37 years. In the investigation of factors related to child stress, the most common diagnosis was acute stress disorder (16.7%), while 6.2% of children had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A total of 44.4% reported that their children did not receive professional mental health support, while 93.2% of the parents did not receive psychological assistance from professionals. Of the children who had access to mental health services during the pandemic, the most common diagnosis was anxiety disorder (20%), while only 1.4% had PTSD. Additionally, the criteria for diagnosing PTSD were found in 30% of the confined children and in 25% of the parents (based on reports from 398 parents), which indicates the high traumatic potential of social isolation and living in conditions of constant fear due to the advance of the pandemic. 7

Sharp et al. studied the level of child stress in 466 children between the ages of 7–11 years in South Africa orphaned due to HIV/AIDS, based on responses to a questionnaire survey. Of the respondents, 51.93% were female. Most respondents were in serious financial difficulties: 57% of the respondents did not have adequate clothes, and 60% did not have adequate school uniforms. Only 49.1% received three main meals a day. Just over half of the orphans' families had an income, 75% of which were based on subsidy. In addition, 31.7% of the surveyed children met the criteria for anxiety disorder, 26 (5.6%) met the criteria for affective disorder, and 40.6% of the sample met the criteria for ADHD. 8

Kamara et al. described a mental health awareness and promotion project in the midst of a high fatality Ebola epidemic in Sierra Leone, in which a large number of people reported psychosocial problems. A total of 8700 people were infected and 3600 died, resulting in 3400 orphaned children. In the 143 interviews of patients attending the psychosocial and counseling clinic, 19% were aged 0–17 years, and half of the patients (71) experienced mild distress or depression, anxiety disorders, and grief or social problems, while 30 patients (21%) had psychosis and needed medication. Interventions took the form of individual care in hospitals aimed at improving the mental health of patients and professionals. 9

A cross-sectional study assessed the psychological distress of 117 patients having an average age of 34 years who had survived or had contacts with the Ebola epidemic in Nigeria. 10 Of the 117 respondents to a questionnaire, 78 (66.7%) were female of maternal age, 77 (65.8%) had a university education, and 45 (38.5%) were healthcare professionals. The death of a friend (OR = 6.0, 95% CI, 1.2–32.9) was significantly associated with feeling unhappy or depressed and with loss of ability to concentrate. Additionally, the most reported psychological suffering was “inability to focus on the task at hand” (38.5%) and “loss of sleep due to worry” (33.3%).

The systematic review by Lachman et al. focused on three important challenges for the protection of children's physical and mental integrity in the 21st century: poverty, HIV/AIDS, and wars, especially in less developed countries. 11 The review specifically addressed problems associated with the economic situation in African countries (in Nigeria, for example, 58% of boys, 44% of girls, and 55% of children under 4 years of age were in a state of chronic malnutrition), and the challenges faced by those orphaned due to HIV/AIDS. The study suggests interventions and presents statistical data regarding weak economies and insufficient investments in countries such as Nigeria and Namibia, as well as citing data on the situation of refugees and on the psychological impact of wars (10–20% of children exposed to war are susceptible to psychiatric disorders).

Xie et al. investigated symptoms of depression and anxiety among students in Hubei province, China, during the COVID-19 school closures through an online crowdsourcing platform. Out of 2330 students, 1784 agreed to participate (1012 boys, 56.7%). A total of 22.6% of students reported depressive symptoms, while 18.9% reported anxiety symptoms. They concluded that serious infectious diseases, such as COVID-19, may cause mental health problems in children and that more studies are needed on this issue. 12

Brooks et al. conducted a review of studies on the psychological impact of quarantine due to COVID-19. Most studies reported anxiety, stress, and depression. 13 From the surveys included in the review, data revealed that more than 20% (230 out of 1057 individuals) reported fear, 18% reported nervousness and 186 reported sadness. Additionally, pre-quarantine predictors were shown to influence the level of psychological impact — for example, having a history of psychiatric illness was associated with feelings of anxiety and anger, while lower levels of formal education, lower age (16–24 years), female gender, and having one child as opposed to no children (although having three or more children appeared somewhat protective) were also associated with negative psychological impacts. The longer the quarantine, the greater the levels of post-traumatic stress. Fear of infection, a lack of basic supplies, and unclear information from officials were associated with frustration and anger. Among the post-quarantine stressors analyzed, financial loss was considered to be a risk factor for psychological disorders. Another study compared post-traumatic stress symptoms in quarantined parents and children with those who were not quarantined, revealing higher mean post-traumatic stress scores in children who had been quarantined than those who had not. Conversely, one study found that, although very few participants were extremely concerned about becoming infected or transmitting the virus to others, those who were concerned tended to be pregnant women and those with young children. Finally, the review proposed activities to mitigate the consequences of isolation, which included providing the population with as much clear information as possible, providing adequate supplies, seeking to reduce stress, and providing organizational support for health-care professionals. 13

The COVID-19 pandemic has imposed a number of changes on daily routines needed to preserve individual health. Meanwhile, it is important to note that children around the world continue to grow and develop. In this scenario, one priority challenge is identifying and discussing pandemic-related factors that can negatively affect children’s growth and development and impair each child’s full potential, in order to develop prevention strategies that enable a healthier and more productive population over both the short and long term.

The scientific literature describes healthy pregnancy, balanced nutrition, immunity to diseases, restful sleep, a family environment rich in positive stimuli, and a high-quality educational system as the fundamentals for optimal child growth and development. 14 All these fundamentals are relevant to the prevention of toxic stress and for the development of strong and lasting neural connections in the child's brain. 15

The high level of stress that humanity is experiencing as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic may generate tolerable or toxic stress for children and adolescents, depending on if and how support is ensured. Under the appropriate care and support of adults who provide children with constant feelings of security and affection, the child’s body reorganizes itself biochemically and quickly returns to levels of physiological functioning without further damage. 16 However, when this support is non-existent or inadequate, a failure of the body's functions to return to basal level primarily impacts the cardiovascular and neurological systems, with consequent irreversible loss of connections in the infant brain, due to toxic stress. 17 , 18

Several factors related to the pandemic are recognized as ACEs and negatively interfere in the construction and structuring of the child's brain architecture. 19 , 20 Restrictive social and economic reconfigurations, the fear of contagion, illness caused by COVID-19, isolated family life, school closures, the lack of support networks for other adults, the loss of loved ones, the difficulty of combining working from home with full-time childcare, financial challenges, increased exposure to pre-existing vulnerabilities (such as domestic violence, drug use, and mental illness in family members) can result in toxic stress, which will increase according to the sum of ACEs. 21

The literature demonstrates that, for both parents and children, sleep routines and the balance of daily activities are usually altered during social isolation. In this context, the quality and duration of sleep may be irregular, the level of physical and outdoor activities substantially decreases, and the use of electronic devices such as TVs, cell phones and tablets (screen time) increases. 2 These changes prevent child development from reaching its full potential. 22

An increase in parental stress levels during a pandemic, a factor that directly interferes in children's quality of life, is therefore evident. 6 Anxiety, excessive concern with cleanliness, excessive fear of falling ill or losing a loved one, concern for the elderly, increased domestic accidents, mood disorders, anxiety disorder, panic, or obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress are consequences that children and adolescents may experience, according to research into pandemic situations similar to the current one. 7 , 23

In addressing the challenges for pregnant women during pandemics, fetal losses caused by possible maternal infection have been investigated; however, losses due to secondary causes, such as mood changes during pregnancy and in the postpartum period are also relevant. 24 , 25

The literature reveals that maternal anxiety and depression during pregnancy are related to impairments in children’s neurodevelopment and predispose increased behavioral disorders. 5

Although there are no consolidated studies on the possible impacts of COVID-19 on the health of pregnant women and their children, especially over the long term, the maternal stress caused during this period is a problem that needs to be more widely addressed. 26

Genetic developmental programming is strongly influenced by the environment. In an environment with social restrictions — where play and leisure activities are only possible within the home environment; where people wear masks and the learning of facial expressions, communication, and language is restricted; and where demonstrating affection is discouraged by many — there is a tendency towards limitations in the formation of certain areas of the brain, including the social brain, with consequent impairment in the acquisition of cognitive, behavioral, social, and communication skills. 27

Social isolation taken as a prophylactic measure during pandemics is important, but may have several negative impacts — such as anxiety and stress in adults and also in children — since free socialization and relationships are important for well-being, increasing social behaviors and stimulating synaptic connections, favoring the construction of the social brain. Physical activities relevant to adequate physical conditioning, emotional well-being, and growth and development in childhood are also restricted. 28 , 29

Studies comparing the symptoms of post-traumatic stress in parents and children confined in pandemic situations with those of families in normal routines indicate that stress levels are four times higher for children who have been in quarantine. 7

During pandemics such as the current one, one common measure is suspending in-person school activities to aid in controlling the spread of the virus. The possible ways and times to carry out such activities are heavily discussed in the scientific context and their impacts affect families in different ways.

The effectiveness of school shutdown as a measure to combat the spread of epidemics such as COVID-19 has been discussed. 30 Viner et al. examined 16 studies (ten studies of the SARS outbreak in 2003, one of other coronavirus epidemics, and five addressing COVID-19) and found scarce data relating to the effectiveness of closing schools to control COVID-19. Although some studies point to the effectiveness of school closure as part of a general package of social isolation measures, some studies using models indicate divergent results, while an isolated analysis of school shutdown was not found. In addition, school closure in cases of virus pandemic appeared to have better results when transmission was greater in children than adults, unlike with COVID-19.

A modeling study by Bayham et al. included information from 3.1-million American individuals and estimated the impact of school shutdown on healthcare professionals involved in the care of children between the ages of 3–13 years. 31 They concluded that, although there may be a decrease in COVID-19 mortality due to a reduction in cases as a result of school closures, loss of children’s access to school healthcare workers may result in an increase in mortality, i.e ., the net benefit of closures may be lower. A definitive conclusion could not be reached because the real damage to the health-related workforce and of possible social interactions to address this problem (local care networks and family for example) was not definitively known.

Kim et al., in a 2020 study based on a mathematical model that evaluated populations in two groups, one aged 19 years or below and another aged over 19, using a susceptibility-exposure-infection-recovery model to analyze school closure in Korea, concluded that this approach was essential in mitigating the COVID-19 epidemic. 32 They added that maintaining the suspension of classes would save 255 children in the Korean population, factoring a 30-fold increase in infection rate among students returning to school.

In families with more favorable socioeconomic conditions, children and caregivers need to adapt to a distance-learning model. This can generate increased demands for parents to provide guidance to their children about the excessive use of electronic devices (screen time). It is also important to note that, in many cases, closing schools in less developed countries causes a total shutdown of learning activities, since the socioeconomic reality of a large portion of the population prevents access to distance education projects using the internet. 2

In these countries, children have access to a range of playful, evaluative, extracurricular and socialization activities at school, and school closure therefore involves a substantial loss in the teaching/learning and socialization processes. In addition, a number of public policies take place in schools — mainly in public institutions — such as balanced and free food programs, guidance about personal hygiene, sports projects, citizenship incentives, and others.

In a context in which children spend the whole day at home, 33 there are increased lonely periods and moments for child self-care. Situations such as these are fragile, particularly for children under 13 years of age who care for younger siblings without assistance from adults, which can cause an increased risk of domestic accidents, serious behavioral impacts and developmental disorders, such as selective mutism, speech delay, social interaction deficits, and others. Other possible consequences of school closures are the possibility that child abuse may remain unreported and that the longer the period of school closures the higher the possibility that the child will never return to school.

There are also nutritional risks and other impacts on children’s growth and development. The literature demonstrates that a lack of basic supplies such as food, water, and clothing causes frustration and has been consistently associated with anxiety, months after quarantine in previous epidemics. 13

The causal factors of social contexts already related to dietary errors, child malnutrition, or obesity worsens due to decreased public support for the vulnerable (closures or limited functioning of schools that provide food, NGOs, and popular restaurants) with consequent difficulties with healthy nutrition.

The pandemic, by restricting the maintenance of outside activities and weight loss programs, encourages a sedentary lifestyle due to social distancing and a ban on attending gyms, parks, and leisure areas, alongside an increase in the consumption of canned food (high in sodium) and industrialized foods (with a longer shelf life) containing less essential nutrients for the developing brain, resulting in a negative impact on the growth of children and adolescents.

It is therefore important to anticipate malnutrition and childhood obesity classically associated with a higher incidence of respiratory infections and precarious immune response. In addition, there is a clear tendency for such patients to get worse due to these factors, and this may continue for many months after the pandemic has ended, due to a growing economic crisis and accentuated social vulnerabilities.

In turn, a cross-section of 1319 American adults — including 284 fathers — suggested that 68% of fathers feel closer or much closer to their children since the pandemic. 34

This increased involvement with their fathers can have many benefits for kids, including strengthening cognitive and emotional development and increasing the chances of academic and career success and life satisfaction. 35

Child toxic stress in previously unstructured homes

The pandemic experience of COVID-19 aggravates the rates of substance abuse, domestic violence, and untreated and pre-existing mental health problems. 2 Many caregivers have experienced symptoms of post-traumatic stress, confusion, anxiety, and anger. This leads to caregivers having a greater predisposition to mental health problems, compounded by the reduced availability of elective care, while users of illicit substances face increased levels of stress, and families with a history of domestic violence do not benefit from the supervision of guardianship services. 13 , 36

Issues such as these become even more relevant when analyzing children previously exposed to vulnerable domestic environments and who, through social isolation, are confined full time. 37 , 38 Added to this is the child's inability to access external support networks, such as school, tutoring services, friendly environments, and play activities.

It is thus evident that social isolation should be evaluated as a contributing factor for environments inappropriate to children's mental health. It is also necessary to understand that, in many homes, social isolation amplifies the harmful experiences that the child has faced for a long time, without the possibility of minimizing psychological aggression and resulting in toxic stress. There is therefore an urgent need for psychosocial support, especially for families that had already displayed risk factors for healthy child development prior to the pandemic.

Strategies for preventing health problems and promoting child growth and development

Around the world, millions of children live with ACEs and many adults live with their legacy. Scientific findings suggest that a 10% reduction in ACE prevalence could equate to annual savings of three million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) or $105 billion. Programs to prevent ACEs and moderate their effects are hugely important, in line with SDG priorities. Rebalancing expenditures towards ensuring safe and nurturing childhoods is economically beneficial and would relieve pressures on healthcare systems. 3

Initiatives that have a great impact on the general and mental health of children and adolescents include: public health education and family support strategies; parental training in organizing play, physical activities, a balanced diet, appropriate screen time and content, mindfulness techniques, moments to share anguish, listening time for children, the transmission of a sense of security and resilience, affection, and reciprocity in relationships between parents and children; satisfactory school learning; and specialized treatment for children who suffer toxic stress and its consequences. 21 , 27 , 29

This systematic review has several limitations. Firstly, due to the immediacy imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, this study was conducted in mere months. Secondly, the review revealed a scarcity of publications that address the topic of child development and health in epidemic contexts, which reflects the continued inadequate focus on child development and its determinants.

Conclusions

The COVID-19 pandemic has produced high morbidity and mortality rates within the global population, 39 as well as risk factors for healthy growth and development among children. The increase in parental stress, the suspension of classroom activities, social isolation measures, nutritional risks, children’s exposure to toxic stress, especially in previously unstructured homes, and a lack of physical activities are some of the factors found in the literature.

In the face of this pandemic, the creation of activities to promote health and healthy development and prevent toxic stress becomes a priority in order to improve the individual health of children and adolescents and their families, the health of the community, and the intellectual and working capacity of these individuals over the long term, with positive economic and social results for each nation, in order to ensure that the SDGs are fulfilled.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

To librarian Marilene da Conceição Felix da Silva, who organized the reference list, and and to Warren Ediger, for grammar and spelling review.

A QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF VISUAL FUNCTION FOR YOUNG AND MEDICALLY COMPLEX CHILDREN WITH CEREBRAL VISUAL IMPAIRMENT: DEVELOPMENT AND INTER-RATER RELIABILITY

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Background Cerebral Visual Impairment (CVI) is the most common cause of low vision in children. Standardized, quantifiable measures of visual function are needed.

Objective This study developed and evaluated a new method for quantifying visual function in young and medically complex children with CVI using remote videoconferencing.

Methods Children diagnosed with CVI who had been unable to complete clinic-based recognition acuity tests were recruited from a low-vision rehabilitation clinic(n=22)Video-based Visual Function Assessment (VFA) was implemented using videoconference technology. Three low-vision rehabilitation clinicians independently scored recordings of each child’s VFA. Interclass correlations for inter-rater reliability was analyzed using intraclass correlations (ICC). Correlations were estimated between the video-based VFA scores and both clinically obtained acuity measures and children’s cognitive age equivalence.

Results Inter-rater reliability was analyzed using intraclass correlations (ICC). Correlations were estimated between the VFA scores, clinically obtained acuity measures, and cognitive age equivalence. ICCs showed good agreement (ICC and 95% CI 0.835 (0.701-0.916)) on VFA scores across raters and agreement was comparable to that from previous, similar studies. VFA scores strongly correlated (r= -0.706, p=0.002) with clinically obtained acuity measures. VFA scores and the cognitive age equivalence were moderately correlated (r= 0.518, p=0.005), with notable variation in VFA scores for participants below a ten month cognitive age-equivalence. The variability in VFA scores among children with lowest cognitive age-equivalence may have been an artifact of the study’s scoring method, or may represent existent variability in visual function for children with the lowest cognitive age-equivalence.

Conclusions Our new VFA is a reliable, quantitative measure of visual function for young and medically complex children with CVI. Future study of the VFA intrarater reliability and validity is warranted.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by the EyeSight Foundation of Alabama, Alie B. Gorrie Low Vision Research Fund and Research to Prevent Blindness. Additional support came from the National Institutes of Health [UL1 TR003096 to R.O.] and Grant T32 HS013852.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

IRB of the University of Alabama at Birmingham gave ethical approval for this work

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

All data produced in the present study are available upon reasonable request to the authors

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Part of our series: FMHS community members from away – The Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences (FMHS) is made up of diverse communities, including people from across Canada and around the world. This series recognizes those from outside the province who have chosen to bring their talents and expertise to McGill University. Thank you for all that you contribute!

Keiko Shikako, OT, PhD, moved from Brazil to Canada nearly 20 years ago to pursue a master’s degree in Rehabilitation Science, with the intent of applying her previous experience as a pediatric occupational therapist and early childhood music educator to the treatment of children with disabilities. Her success would lead the now Associate Professor in the School of Physical and Occupational Therapy at McGill University, to become a disability rights advocate informing public policy towards the implementation of the United Nations’ Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

Success at both the academic and public policy levels have convinced Prof. Shikako that her decision to attend McGill was wise. “I knew that the Rehab Science program at McGill was renowned worldwide, and I always appreciated the diverse languages and multicultural environment that the university provides. I also wanted to live in Montreal. I always thought it was an easy place to be as an immigrant to Canada. I took French classes before coming and as soon as I arrived, to be able to practise occupational therapy and integrate the Quebec culture.”

A mother of two, Prof. Shikako enrolled her children in French elementary school. “We speak Portuguese at home. They are in secondary now and they speak the three languages (Portuguese, French and English) fluently, and they can operate very naturally in any of those three languages,” she says. “This is the reality for all of their friends. Everybody’s very proud of their heritage. But at the same time, everybody’s making an effort to learn French.”

Her path to social advocacy began believing music could be therapeutic for children with disabilities. “In Brazil, I used to teach music and do occupational therapy groups using music as a medium for children with multiple disabilities. Part of my research shows the importance of leisure and play for the development, well-being and inclusion of children in various aspects of society.”

Intending to facilitate access to participation in leisure and community for children with disabilities, Prof. Shikako co-developed a mobile application after her PhD studies called Jooay (jooay.com). Its title derived from ‘jouer,’ the French word for play , the app helps locate leisure opportunities that are close-by, accessible, and that suit the needs of children with disabilities. Jooay also helps parents, rehabilitation professionals, and educators connect and exchange pertinent information about leisure and inclusion.

“We launched it in 2015 and today we have over 3,000 users,” says Prof. Shikako. “We have almost 4,000 activities that are inclusive or adaptive, listed across all Canadian provinces. We are implementing gamification features in the app which, in addition to parents, clinicians, and educators, will allow for a higher involvement of youth with disabilities with the app, and consequently with leisure opportunities in their communities. These features will make the app more fun to use and interact with, and we are measuring how people are interacting with it and how to build more inclusive technology for people with disabilities.”

The combined results of her research, which includes the Jooay app and other projects involving knowledge translation to policy, have fostered several policy dialogues that have included representatives of Quebec municipalities, organizations that promote leisure in Quebec, educators, and families, says Prof. Shikako. “Through our research we have prompted the integration of inclusive directives for the ‘Ville amie des enfants,’ an initiative of Quebec Ministry of Families and Children, where municipalities can become accredited as child-friendly cities. We’ve contributed expertise on what makes cities accessible for children with disabilities and their families, and have added inclusive public play spaces like playgrounds and parks into the Jooay app. The goal is to make cities more accessible to children with disabilities, and to bring the information about inclusive spaces to the families and children.”

An Associate Member of the Department of Ethics, Equity, and Policy, holding a Canada Research Chair in Childhood Disability, Prof. Shikako says, “The ultimate goal is to create, just, equitable, and inclusive communities with policies that consider the needs of children with disabilities and their families.”

Achieving that goal relies on having detailed knowledge of the demographic, and that has become another focal point in Prof. Shikako’s efforts. In a paper titled Giving A Voice To Children’s Rights published by the Council of Canadians with Disabilities, she highlighted Canada’s lack of data. “Canada has not collected data on children with disabilities since 2006. Canada’s current data collection tool, the Canadian Survey on Disability, excludes children from birth to age 14. Without this information, targeted programs cannot effectively be formulated to specifically address and improve the situation of children with disabilities in Canada.” This information was also presented by Dr. Shikako to the United Nations Committee on the Convention of Persons with Disabilities during the first reporting of Canada to the committee. Following this, the UN committee made the recommendation to collect more data on children with disabilities in Canada.

Since then, the data has started to accumulate. “Questions about children with disabilities have been integrated into the Canadian Health Survey on Children and Youth, and my team is completing a CIHR-funded project in collaboration with Statistics Canada and UNICEF Canada to identify child disability indicators to inform the Canadian Index of Well-being framework.”

https://healthenews.mcgill.ca/strength-in-diversity/

https://www.chairs-chaires.gc.ca/chairholders-titulaires/profile-eng.aspx?profileId=3577

www.jooay.com

https://www.childhooddisability.ca/

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Psychology Research Topics on Child Development. Researching the psychology of child development can be a very difficult thing to do. However, if you think you are up to the task, pick one of these great psychology research topics on child development: Define the term "sociocultural theory" The 4 stages of psychological development.
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Three research efforts have collaborated to create the Global Scale for Early Development (GSED): the Infant and Young Child Development from the WHO, 16 the Caregiver-Reported Early Development Instrument from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, 17 and the Developmental Score from the Global Child Development Group at the University of ...
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Developmental Psychology Topics
Topics you might pick can range from prenatal development to health during the final stages of life. Developmental psychology is a broad topic that involves studying how people grow and change throughout their whole lifetime. Topics don't just include physical growth but also the emotional, cognitive, and social development that people ...
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Developmental theorists use their research to generate philosophies on children's development. They organize and interpret data based on a scheme to develop their theory. A theory refers to a systematic statement of principles related to observed phenomena and their relationship to each other. A theory of child development looks at the children's growth and behavior and interprets it. It ...
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The Journal of Early Childhood Research is a peer-reviewed journal that provides an international forum for childhood research, bridging cross-disciplinary areas and applying theory and research within the professional community. This reflects the world-wide growth in theoretical and empirical research on learning and development in early childhood and the impact of this on provision.
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Researchers using quantitative methods typically take the following steps when conducting research: Determining a research question. Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review) Determining a method of gathering information. Conducting the study.
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Child & Adolescent Development
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Social, personal and emotional development. Physical development. Literacy skills. Understanding the world around them. Communication and language. Therefore, if you want a top-rated child development research paper, start with these simple steps: Conduct thorough research on various aspects of child development.
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Part of my research shows the importance of leisure and play for the development, well-being and inclusion of children in various aspects of society." Intending to facilitate access to participation in leisure and community for children with disabilities, Prof. Shikako co-developed a mobile application after her PhD studies called Jooay ...
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InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood Development

Content in This Guide

Step 2: How Does Early Child Development Happen?

Step 3: What Can We Do to Support Child Development?

Brains are built over time, from the bottom up.

The interactive influences of genes and experience shape the developing brain.

The brain’s capacity for change decreases with age.

Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities are inextricably intertwined throughout the life course.

Toxic stress damages developing brain architecture, which can lead to lifelong problems in learning, behavior, and physical and mental health.

Policy Implications

Related Topics: toxic stress , brain architecture , serve and return

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Developmental Psychology Topics on Childhood

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adolescence

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adulthood

Choosing Developmental Psychology Topics

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What This Means For You

Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care

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2 Research Methods

Knowing What We Know

Flowchart Outlining the Steps of the Scientific Method

The Basic Principles of the Scientific Method

The Relationship Between Observation, Theory, Hypothesis and Research

Applying the Scientific Method

Why the Scientific Method Is Important for Psychology

General Research Methodologies: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods

Specific Research Methodologies

Descriptive or Qualitative Research