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How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples.

• How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

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The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

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Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal?

A research paper conclusion is not just a summary of your study, but a synthesis of the key findings that ties the research together and places it in a broader context. A research paper conclusion should be concise, typically around one paragraph in length. However, some complex topics may require a longer conclusion to ensure the reader is left with a clear understanding of the study’s significance. Paperpal, an AI writing assistant trusted by over 800,000 academics globally, can help you write a well-structured conclusion for your research paper. 

• Sign Up or Log In: Create a new Paperpal account or login with your details.  
• Navigate to Features : Once logged in, head over to the features’ side navigation pane. Click on Templates and you’ll find a suite of generative AI features to help you write better, faster.  
• Generate an outline: Under Templates, select ‘Outlines’. Choose ‘Research article’ as your document type.  
• Select your section: Since you’re focusing on the conclusion, select this section when prompted.  
• Choose your field of study: Identifying your field of study allows Paperpal to provide more targeted suggestions, ensuring the relevance of your conclusion to your specific area of research. 
• Provide a brief description of your study: Enter details about your research topic and findings. This information helps Paperpal generate a tailored outline that aligns with your paper’s content. 
• Generate the conclusion outline: After entering all necessary details, click on ‘generate’. Paperpal will then create a structured outline for your conclusion, to help you start writing and build upon the outline.  
• Write your conclusion: Use the generated outline to build your conclusion. The outline serves as a guide, ensuring you cover all critical aspects of a strong conclusion, from summarizing key findings to highlighting the research’s implications. 
• Refine and enhance: Paperpal’s ‘Make Academic’ feature can be particularly useful in the final stages. Select any paragraph of your conclusion and use this feature to elevate the academic tone, ensuring your writing is aligned to the academic journal standards. 

By following these steps, Paperpal not only simplifies the process of writing a research paper conclusion but also ensures it is impactful, concise, and aligned with academic standards. Sign up with Paperpal today and write your research paper conclusion 2x faster .  

The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

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Home » Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Conclusion

Definition:

A research paper conclusion is the final section of a research paper that summarizes the key findings, significance, and implications of the research. It is the writer’s opportunity to synthesize the information presented in the paper, draw conclusions, and make recommendations for future research or actions.

The conclusion should provide a clear and concise summary of the research paper, reiterating the research question or problem, the main results, and the significance of the findings. It should also discuss the limitations of the study and suggest areas for further research.

Parts of Research Paper Conclusion

The parts of a research paper conclusion typically include:

Restatement of the Thesis

The conclusion should begin by restating the thesis statement from the introduction in a different way. This helps to remind the reader of the main argument or purpose of the research.

Summary of Key Findings

The conclusion should summarize the main findings of the research, highlighting the most important results and conclusions. This section should be brief and to the point.

Implications and Significance

In this section, the researcher should explain the implications and significance of the research findings. This may include discussing the potential impact on the field or industry, highlighting new insights or knowledge gained, or pointing out areas for future research.

Limitations and Recommendations

It is important to acknowledge any limitations or weaknesses of the research and to make recommendations for how these could be addressed in future studies. This shows that the researcher is aware of the potential limitations of their work and is committed to improving the quality of research in their field.

Concluding Statement

The conclusion should end with a strong concluding statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader. This could be a call to action, a recommendation for further research, or a final thought on the topic.

How to Write Research Paper Conclusion

Here are some steps you can follow to write an effective research paper conclusion:

• Restate the research problem or question: Begin by restating the research problem or question that you aimed to answer in your research. This will remind the reader of the purpose of your study.
• Summarize the main points: Summarize the key findings and results of your research. This can be done by highlighting the most important aspects of your research and the evidence that supports them.
• Discuss the implications: Discuss the implications of your findings for the research area and any potential applications of your research. You should also mention any limitations of your research that may affect the interpretation of your findings.
• Provide a conclusion : Provide a concise conclusion that summarizes the main points of your paper and emphasizes the significance of your research. This should be a strong and clear statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.
• Offer suggestions for future research: Lastly, offer suggestions for future research that could build on your findings and contribute to further advancements in the field.

Remember that the conclusion should be brief and to the point, while still effectively summarizing the key findings and implications of your research.

Example of Research Paper Conclusion

Here’s an example of a research paper conclusion:

Conclusion :

In conclusion, our study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Our findings suggest that there is a significant association between social media use and increased levels of anxiety and depression among college students. This highlights the need for increased awareness and education about the potential negative effects of social media use on mental health, particularly among college students.

Despite the limitations of our study, such as the small sample size and self-reported data, our findings have important implications for future research and practice. Future studies should aim to replicate our findings in larger, more diverse samples, and investigate the potential mechanisms underlying the association between social media use and mental health. In addition, interventions should be developed to promote healthy social media use among college students, such as mindfulness-based approaches and social media detox programs.

Overall, our study contributes to the growing body of research on the impact of social media on mental health, and highlights the importance of addressing this issue in the context of higher education. By raising awareness and promoting healthy social media use among college students, we can help to reduce the negative impact of social media on mental health and improve the well-being of young adults.

Purpose of Research Paper Conclusion

The purpose of a research paper conclusion is to provide a summary and synthesis of the key findings, significance, and implications of the research presented in the paper. The conclusion serves as the final opportunity for the writer to convey their message and leave a lasting impression on the reader.

The conclusion should restate the research problem or question, summarize the main results of the research, and explain their significance. It should also acknowledge the limitations of the study and suggest areas for future research or action.

Overall, the purpose of the conclusion is to provide a sense of closure to the research paper and to emphasize the importance of the research and its potential impact. It should leave the reader with a clear understanding of the main findings and why they matter. The conclusion serves as the writer’s opportunity to showcase their contribution to the field and to inspire further research and action.

When to Write Research Paper Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper should be written after the body of the paper has been completed. It should not be written until the writer has thoroughly analyzed and interpreted their findings and has written a complete and cohesive discussion of the research.

Before writing the conclusion, the writer should review their research paper and consider the key points that they want to convey to the reader. They should also review the research question, hypotheses, and methodology to ensure that they have addressed all of the necessary components of the research.

Once the writer has a clear understanding of the main findings and their significance, they can begin writing the conclusion. The conclusion should be written in a clear and concise manner, and should reiterate the main points of the research while also providing insights and recommendations for future research or action.

Characteristics of Research Paper Conclusion

The characteristics of a research paper conclusion include:

• Clear and concise: The conclusion should be written in a clear and concise manner, summarizing the key findings and their significance.
• Comprehensive: The conclusion should address all of the main points of the research paper, including the research question or problem, the methodology, the main results, and their implications.
• Future-oriented : The conclusion should provide insights and recommendations for future research or action, based on the findings of the research.
• Impressive : The conclusion should leave a lasting impression on the reader, emphasizing the importance of the research and its potential impact.
• Objective : The conclusion should be based on the evidence presented in the research paper, and should avoid personal biases or opinions.
• Unique : The conclusion should be unique to the research paper and should not simply repeat information from the introduction or body of the paper.

Advantages of Research Paper Conclusion

The advantages of a research paper conclusion include:

• Summarizing the key findings : The conclusion provides a summary of the main findings of the research, making it easier for the reader to understand the key points of the study.
• Emphasizing the significance of the research: The conclusion emphasizes the importance of the research and its potential impact, making it more likely that readers will take the research seriously and consider its implications.
• Providing recommendations for future research or action : The conclusion suggests practical recommendations for future research or action, based on the findings of the study.
• Providing closure to the research paper : The conclusion provides a sense of closure to the research paper, tying together the different sections of the paper and leaving a lasting impression on the reader.
• Demonstrating the writer’s contribution to the field : The conclusion provides the writer with an opportunity to showcase their contribution to the field and to inspire further research and action.

Limitations of Research Paper Conclusion

While the conclusion of a research paper has many advantages, it also has some limitations that should be considered, including:

• I nability to address all aspects of the research: Due to the limited space available in the conclusion, it may not be possible to address all aspects of the research in detail.
• Subjectivity : While the conclusion should be objective, it may be influenced by the writer’s personal biases or opinions.
• Lack of new information: The conclusion should not introduce new information that has not been discussed in the body of the research paper.
• Lack of generalizability: The conclusions drawn from the research may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, limiting the generalizability of the study.
• Misinterpretation by the reader: The reader may misinterpret the conclusions drawn from the research, leading to a misunderstanding of the findings.

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In a short paper—even a research paper—you don’t need to provide an exhaustive summary as part of your conclusion. But you do need to make some kind of transition between your final body paragraph and your concluding paragraph. This may come in the form of a few sentences of summary. Or it may come in the form of a sentence that brings your readers back to your thesis or main idea and reminds your readers where you began and how far you have traveled.

So, for example, in a paper about the relationship between ADHD and rejection sensitivity, Vanessa Roser begins by introducing readers to the fact that researchers have studied the relationship between the two conditions and then provides her explanation of that relationship. Here’s her thesis: “While socialization may indeed be an important factor in RS, I argue that individuals with ADHD may also possess a neurological predisposition to RS that is exacerbated by the differing executive and emotional regulation characteristic of ADHD.”

In her final paragraph, Roser reminds us of where she started by echoing her thesis: “This literature demonstrates that, as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Highlight the “so what”  

At the beginning of your paper, you explain to your readers what’s at stake—why they should care about the argument you’re making. In your conclusion, you can bring readers back to those stakes by reminding them why your argument is important in the first place. You can also draft a few sentences that put those stakes into a new or broader context.

In the conclusion to her paper about ADHD and RS, Roser echoes the stakes she established in her introduction—that research into connections between ADHD and RS has led to contradictory results, raising questions about the “behavioral mediation hypothesis.”

She writes, “as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Leave your readers with the “now what”  

After the “what” and the “so what,” you should leave your reader with some final thoughts. If you have written a strong introduction, your readers will know why you have been arguing what you have been arguing—and why they should care. And if you’ve made a good case for your thesis, then your readers should be in a position to see things in a new way, understand new questions, or be ready for something that they weren’t ready for before they read your paper.

In her conclusion, Roser offers two “now what” statements. First, she explains that it is important to recognize that the flawed behavioral mediation hypothesis “seems to place a degree of fault on the individual. It implies that individuals with ADHD must have elicited such frequent or intense rejection by virtue of their inadequate social skills, erasing the possibility that they may simply possess a natural sensitivity to emotion.” She then highlights the broader implications for treatment of people with ADHD, noting that recognizing the actual connection between rejection sensitivity and ADHD “has profound implications for understanding how individuals with ADHD might best be treated in educational settings, by counselors, family, peers, or even society as a whole.”

To find your own “now what” for your essay’s conclusion, try asking yourself these questions:

• What can my readers now understand, see in a new light, or grapple with that they would not have understood in the same way before reading my paper? Are we a step closer to understanding a larger phenomenon or to understanding why what was at stake is so important?  
• What questions can I now raise that would not have made sense at the beginning of my paper? Questions for further research? Other ways that this topic could be approached?  
• Are there other applications for my research? Could my questions be asked about different data in a different context? Could I use my methods to answer a different question?  
• What action should be taken in light of this argument? What action do I predict will be taken or could lead to a solution?  
• What larger context might my argument be a part of?  

What to avoid in your conclusion  

• a complete restatement of all that you have said in your paper.  
• a substantial counterargument that you do not have space to refute; you should introduce counterarguments before your conclusion.  
• an apology for what you have not said. If you need to explain the scope of your paper, you should do this sooner—but don’t apologize for what you have not discussed in your paper.  
• fake transitions like “in conclusion” that are followed by sentences that aren’t actually conclusions. (“In conclusion, I have now demonstrated that my thesis is correct.”)
• picture_as_pdf Conclusions

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• Dissertation

How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Conclusion

Published on September 6, 2022 by Tegan George and Shona McCombes. Revised on November 20, 2023.

The conclusion is the very last part of your thesis or dissertation . It should be concise and engaging, leaving your reader with a clear understanding of your main findings, as well as the answer to your research question .

In it, you should:

• Clearly state the answer to your main research question
• Summarize and reflect on your research process
• Make recommendations for future work on your thesis or dissertation topic
• Show what new knowledge you have contributed to your field
• Wrap up your thesis or dissertation

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Table of contents

Discussion vs. conclusion, how long should your conclusion be, step 1: answer your research question, step 2: summarize and reflect on your research, step 3: make future recommendations, step 4: emphasize your contributions to your field, step 5: wrap up your thesis or dissertation, full conclusion example, conclusion checklist, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about conclusion sections.

While your conclusion contains similar elements to your discussion section , they are not the same thing.

Your conclusion should be shorter and more general than your discussion. Instead of repeating literature from your literature review , discussing specific research results , or interpreting your data in detail, concentrate on making broad statements that sum up the most important insights of your research.

As a rule of thumb, your conclusion should not introduce new data, interpretations, or arguments.

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Depending on whether you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your length will vary. Generally, a conclusion should make up around 5–7% of your overall word count.

An empirical scientific study will often have a short conclusion, concisely stating the main findings and recommendations for future research. A humanities dissertation topic or systematic review , on the other hand, might require more space to conclude its analysis, tying all the previous sections together in an overall argument.

Your conclusion should begin with the main question that your thesis or dissertation aimed to address. This is your final chance to show that you’ve done what you set out to do, so make sure to formulate a clear, concise answer.

• Don’t repeat a list of all the results that you already discussed
• Do synthesize them into a final takeaway that the reader will remember.

An empirical thesis or dissertation conclusion may begin like this:

A case study –based thesis or dissertation conclusion may begin like this:

In the second example, the research aim is not directly restated, but rather added implicitly to the statement. To avoid repeating yourself, it is helpful to reformulate your aims and questions into an overall statement of what you did and how you did it.

Your conclusion is an opportunity to remind your reader why you took the approach you did, what you expected to find, and how well the results matched your expectations.

To avoid repetition , consider writing more reflectively here, rather than just writing a summary of each preceding section. Consider mentioning the effectiveness of your methodology , or perhaps any new questions or unexpected insights that arose in the process.

You can also mention any limitations of your research, but only if you haven’t already included these in the discussion. Don’t dwell on them at length, though—focus on the positives of your work.

• While x limits the generalizability of the results, this approach provides new insight into y .
• This research clearly illustrates x , but it also raises the question of y .

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You may already have made a few recommendations for future research in your discussion section, but the conclusion is a good place to elaborate and look ahead, considering the implications of your findings in both theoretical and practical terms.

• Based on these conclusions, practitioners should consider …
• To better understand the implications of these results, future studies could address …
• Further research is needed to determine the causes of/effects of/relationship between …

When making recommendations for further research, be sure not to undermine your own work. Relatedly, while future studies might confirm, build on, or enrich your conclusions, they shouldn’t be required for your argument to feel complete. Your work should stand alone on its own merits.

Just as you should avoid too much self-criticism, you should also avoid exaggerating the applicability of your research. If you’re making recommendations for policy, business, or other practical implementations, it’s generally best to frame them as “shoulds” rather than “musts.” All in all, the purpose of academic research is to inform, explain, and explore—not to demand.

Make sure your reader is left with a strong impression of what your research has contributed to the state of your field.

Some strategies to achieve this include:

• Returning to your problem statement to explain how your research helps solve the problem
• Referring back to the literature review and showing how you have addressed a gap in knowledge
• Discussing how your findings confirm or challenge an existing theory or assumption

Again, avoid simply repeating what you’ve already covered in the discussion in your conclusion. Instead, pick out the most important points and sum them up succinctly, situating your project in a broader context.

The end is near! Once you’ve finished writing your conclusion, it’s time to wrap up your thesis or dissertation with a few final steps:

• It’s a good idea to write your abstract next, while the research is still fresh in your mind.
• Next, make sure your reference list is complete and correctly formatted. To speed up the process, you can use our free APA citation generator .
• Once you’ve added any appendices , you can create a table of contents and title page .
• Finally, read through the whole document again to make sure your thesis is clearly written and free from language errors. You can proofread it yourself , ask a friend, or consider Scribbr’s proofreading and editing service .

Here is an example of how you can write your conclusion section. Notice how it includes everything mentioned above:

V. Conclusion

The current research aimed to identify acoustic speech characteristics which mark the beginning of an exacerbation in COPD patients.

The central questions for this research were as follows: 1. Which acoustic measures extracted from read speech differ between COPD speakers in stable condition and healthy speakers? 2. In what ways does the speech of COPD patients during an exacerbation differ from speech of COPD patients during stable periods?

All recordings were aligned using a script. Subsequently, they were manually annotated to indicate respiratory actions such as inhaling and exhaling. The recordings of 9 stable COPD patients reading aloud were then compared with the recordings of 5 healthy control subjects reading aloud. The results showed a significant effect of condition on the number of in- and exhalations per syllable, the number of non-linguistic in- and exhalations per syllable, and the ratio of voiced and silence intervals. The number of in- and exhalations per syllable and the number of non-linguistic in- and exhalations per syllable were higher for COPD patients than for healthy controls, which confirmed both hypotheses.

However, the higher ratio of voiced and silence intervals for COPD patients compared to healthy controls was not in line with the hypotheses. This unpredicted result might have been caused by the different reading materials or recording procedures for both groups, or by a difference in reading skills. Moreover, there was a trend regarding the effect of condition on the number of syllables per breath group. The number of syllables per breath group was higher for healthy controls than for COPD patients, which was in line with the hypothesis. There was no effect of condition on pitch, intensity, center of gravity, pitch variability, speaking rate, or articulation rate.

This research has shown that the speech of COPD patients in exacerbation differs from the speech of COPD patients in stable condition. This might have potential for the detection of exacerbations. However, sustained vowels rarely occur in spontaneous speech. Therefore, the last two outcome measures might have greater potential for the detection of beginning exacerbations, but further research on the different outcome measures and their potential for the detection of exacerbations is needed due to the limitations of the current study.

Checklist: Conclusion

I have clearly and concisely answered the main research question .

I have summarized my overall argument or key takeaways.

I have mentioned any important limitations of the research.

I have given relevant recommendations .

I have clearly explained what my research has contributed to my field.

I have  not introduced any new data or arguments.

You've written a great conclusion! Use the other checklists to further improve your dissertation.

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In a thesis or dissertation, the discussion is an in-depth exploration of the results, going into detail about the meaning of your findings and citing relevant sources to put them in context.

The conclusion is more shorter and more general: it concisely answers your main research question and makes recommendations based on your overall findings.

While it may be tempting to present new arguments or evidence in your thesis or disseration conclusion , especially if you have a particularly striking argument you’d like to finish your analysis with, you shouldn’t. Theses and dissertations follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the discussion section and results section .) The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

For a stronger dissertation conclusion , avoid including:

• Important evidence or analysis that wasn’t mentioned in the discussion section and results section
• Generic concluding phrases (e.g. “In conclusion …”)
• Weak statements that undermine your argument (e.g., “There are good points on both sides of this issue.”)

Your conclusion should leave the reader with a strong, decisive impression of your work.

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation shouldn’t take up more than 5–7% of your overall word count.

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation should include the following:

• A restatement of your research question
• A summary of your key arguments and/or results
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

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The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points derived from the findings of your study and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most college-level research papers, two or three well-developed paragraphs is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, more paragraphs may be required in describing the key findings and their significance.

Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the research problem. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis that advance new understanding about the research problem, that are unusual or unexpected, or that have important implications applied to practice.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly re-emphasize  your answer to the "So What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past research about the topic.
• Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed . The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [first identified in your literature review section] has been addressed by your research and why this contribution is significant.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers an opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings. This is particularly important if your study approached examining the research problem from an unusual or innovative perspective.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Bunton, David. “The Structure of PhD Conclusion Chapters.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 4 (July 2005): 207–224; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

The general function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Do this by clearly summarizing the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem you investigated in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. However, make sure that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your paper.

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• Present your conclusions in clear, concise language. Re-state the purpose of your study, then describe how your findings differ or support those of other studies and why [i.e., what were the unique, new, or crucial contributions your study made to the overall research about your topic?].
• Do not simply reiterate your findings or the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
• Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper. Highlighting the need for further research provides the reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem but that further investigations should take place beyond the scope of your investigation.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is presented well:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data [this is opposite of the introduction, which begins with general discussion of the context and ends with a detailed description of the research problem]. 

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have conducted will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way. If asked to think introspectively about the topics, do not delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply, not to guess at possible outcomes or make up scenarios not supported by the evidence.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Although an effective conclusion needs to be clear and succinct, it does not need to be written passively or lack a compelling narrative. Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following:

• If your essay deals with a critical, contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem proactively.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action that, if adopted, could address a specific problem in practice or in the development of new knowledge leading to positive change.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion already noted in your paper in order to lend authority and support to the conclusion(s) you have reached [a good source would be from your literature review].
• Explain the consequences of your research in a way that elicits action or demonstrates urgency in seeking change.
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to emphasize the most important finding of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point by drawing from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you presented in your introduction, but add further insight derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results from your study to recast it in new or important ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a succinct, declarative statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid

Failure to be concise Your conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too lengthy often have unnecessary information in them. The conclusion is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, and other forms of analysis that you make. Strategies for writing concisely can be found here .

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from the general [the field of study] to the specific [the research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from a specific discussion [your research problem] back to a general discussion framed around the implications and significance of your findings [i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In short, the conclusion is where you should place your research within a larger context [visualize your paper as an hourglass--start with a broad introduction and review of the literature, move to the specific analysis and discussion, conclude with a broad summary of the study's implications and significance].

Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. These are problems, deficiencies, or challenges encountered during your study. They should be summarized as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative or unintended results [i.e., findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section and discuss their implications in the discussion section of your paper. In the conclusion, use negative results as an opportunity to explain their possible significance and/or how they may form the basis for future research.

Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits within your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize briefly and succinctly how it contributes to new knowledge or a new understanding about the research problem. This element of your conclusion may be only a few sentences long.

Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives in the social and behavioral sciences change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine the original objectives in your introduction. As these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you presumably should know a good deal about it [perhaps even more than your professor!]. Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts! Don't undermine your authority as a researcher by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches that...." The overall tone of your conclusion should convey confidence to the reader about the study's validity and realiability.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin Madison; Miquel, Fuster-Marquez and Carmen Gregori-Signes. “Chapter Six: ‘Last but Not Least:’ Writing the Conclusion of Your Paper.” In Writing an Applied Linguistics Thesis or Dissertation: A Guide to Presenting Empirical Research . John Bitchener, editor. (Basingstoke,UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 93-105; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining that they are reaching the end of your paper. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. This why the conclusion rarely has citations to sources. If you have new information to present, add it to the discussion or other appropriate section of the paper. Note that, although no new information is introduced, the conclusion, along with the discussion section, is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; the conclusion is where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate that you understand the material that you’ve presented, and position your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic, including describing how your research contributes new insights to that scholarship.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

3-minute read

• 29th August 2023

If you’re writing a research paper, the conclusion is your opportunity to summarize your findings and leave a lasting impression on your readers. In this post, we’ll take you through how to write an effective conclusion for a research paper and how you can:

·   Reword your thesis statement

·   Highlight the significance of your research

·   Discuss limitations

·   Connect to the introduction

·   End with a thought-provoking statement

Rewording Your Thesis Statement

Begin your conclusion by restating your thesis statement in a way that is slightly different from the wording used in the introduction. Avoid presenting new information or evidence in your conclusion. Just summarize the main points and arguments of your essay and keep this part as concise as possible. Remember that you’ve already covered the in-depth analyses and investigations in the main body paragraphs of your essay, so it’s not necessary to restate these details in the conclusion.

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Highlighting the Significance of Your Research

The conclusion is a good place to emphasize the implications of your research . Avoid ambiguous or vague language such as “I think” or “maybe,” which could weaken your position. Clearly explain why your research is significant and how it contributes to the broader field of study.

Here’s an example from a (fictional) study on the impact of social media on mental health:

Discussing Limitations

Although it’s important to emphasize the significance of your study, you can also use the conclusion to briefly address any limitations you discovered while conducting your research, such as time constraints or a shortage of resources. Doing this demonstrates a balanced and honest approach to your research.

Connecting to the Introduction

In your conclusion, you can circle back to your introduction , perhaps by referring to a quote or anecdote you discussed earlier. If you end your paper on a similar note to how you began it, you will create a sense of cohesion for the reader and remind them of the meaning and significance of your research.

Ending With a Thought-Provoking Statement

Consider ending your paper with a thought-provoking and memorable statement that relates to the impact of your research questions or hypothesis. This statement can be a call to action, a philosophical question, or a prediction for the future (positive or negative). Here’s an example that uses the same topic as above (social media and mental health):

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Conclusions

What this handout is about.

This handout will explain the functions of conclusions, offer strategies for writing effective ones, help you evaluate conclusions you’ve drafted, and suggest approaches to avoid.

About conclusions

Introductions and conclusions can be difficult to write, but they’re worth investing time in. They can have a significant influence on a reader’s experience of your paper.

Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers from their own lives into the “place” of your analysis, your conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives. Such a conclusion will help them see why all your analysis and information should matter to them after they put the paper down.

Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject. The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have raised in your paper, to synthesize your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final impression and to end on a positive note.

Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond the boundaries of the prompt and allows you to consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings.

Your conclusion should make your readers glad they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest your reader, but also enrich your reader’s life in some way. It is your gift to the reader.

Strategies for writing an effective conclusion

One or more of the following strategies may help you write an effective conclusion:

• Play the “So What” Game. If you’re stuck and feel like your conclusion isn’t saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, “So what?” or “Why should anybody care?” Then ponder that question and answer it. Here’s how it might go: You: Basically, I’m just saying that education was important to Douglass. Friend: So what? You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen. Friend: Why should anybody care? You: That’s important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally. You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself “So What?” as you develop your ideas or your draft.
• Return to the theme or themes in the introduction. This strategy brings the reader full circle. For example, if you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay is helpful in creating a new understanding. You may also refer to the introductory paragraph by using key words or parallel concepts and images that you also used in the introduction.
• Synthesize, don’t summarize. Include a brief summary of the paper’s main points, but don’t simply repeat things that were in your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you made and the support and examples you used fit together. Pull it all together.
• Include a provocative insight or quotation from the research or reading you did for your paper.
• Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader’s thought process and help them to apply your info and ideas to their own life or to see the broader implications.
• Point to broader implications. For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies to avoid

• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as “in conclusion,” “in summary,” or “in closing.” Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.
• Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
• Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
• Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
• Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
• Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

Four kinds of ineffective conclusions

• The “That’s My Story and I’m Sticking to It” Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can’t think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
• The “Sherlock Holmes” Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don’t want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then “wow” them with your main idea, as in a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders’ power and also an important step toward freedom.
• The “America the Beautiful”/”I Am Woman”/”We Shall Overcome” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
• The “Grab Bag” Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn’t integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Douglass, Frederick. 1995. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. New York: Dover.

Hamilton College. n.d. “Conclusions.” Writing Center. Accessed June 14, 2019. https://www.hamilton.edu//academics/centers/writing/writing-resources/conclusions .

Holewa, Randa. 2004. “Strategies for Writing a Conclusion.” LEO: Literacy Education Online. Last updated February 19, 2004. https://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/conclude.html.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

Last Updated: May 8, 2024 Approved

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. This article received 42 testimonials and 83% of readers who voted found it helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 2,260,586 times.

The conclusion of a research paper needs to summarize the content and purpose of the paper without seeming too wooden or dry. Every basic conclusion must share several key elements, but there are also several tactics you can play around with to craft a more effective conclusion and several you should avoid to prevent yourself from weakening your paper's conclusion. Here are some writing tips to keep in mind when creating a conclusion for your next research paper.

Sample Conclusions

Writing a basic conclusion.

• Do not spend a great amount of time or space restating your topic.
• A good research paper will make the importance of your topic apparent, so you do not need to write an elaborate defense of your topic in the conclusion.
• Usually a single sentence is all you need to restate your topic.
• An example would be if you were writing a paper on the epidemiology of infectious disease, you might say something like "Tuberculosis is a widespread infectious disease that affects millions of people worldwide every year."
• Yet another example from the humanities would be a paper about the Italian Renaissance: "The Italian Renaissance was an explosion of art and ideas centered around artists, writers, and thinkers in Florence."

• A thesis is a narrowed, focused view on the topic at hand.
• This statement should be rephrased from the thesis you included in your introduction. It should not be identical or too similar to the sentence you originally used.
• Try re-wording your thesis statement in a way that complements your summary of the topic of your paper in your first sentence of your conclusion.
• An example of a good thesis statement, going back to the paper on tuberculosis, would be "Tuberculosis is a widespread disease that affects millions of people worldwide every year. Due to the alarming rate of the spread of tuberculosis, particularly in poor countries, medical professionals are implementing new strategies for the diagnosis, treatment, and containment of this disease ."

• A good way to go about this is to re-read the topic sentence of each major paragraph or section in the body of your paper.
• Find a way to briefly restate each point mentioned in each topic sentence in your conclusion. Do not repeat any of the supporting details used within your body paragraphs.
• Under most circumstances, you should avoid writing new information in your conclusion. This is especially true if the information is vital to the argument or research presented in your paper.
• For example, in the TB paper you could summarize the information. "Tuberculosis is a widespread disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Due to the alarming rate of the spread of tuberculosis, particularly in poor countries, medical professionals are implementing new strategies for the diagnosis, treatment, and containment of this disease. In developing countries, such as those in Africa and Southeast Asia, the rate of TB infections is soaring. Crowded conditions, poor sanitation, and lack of access to medical care are all compounding factors in the spread of the disease. Medical experts, such as those from the World Health Organization are now starting campaigns to go into communities in developing countries and provide diagnostic testing and treatments. However, the treatments for TB are very harsh and have many side effects. This leads to patient non-compliance and spread of multi-drug resistant strains of the disease."

• Note that this is not needed for all research papers.
• If you already fully explained what the points in your paper mean or why they are significant, you do not need to go into them in much detail in your conclusion. Simply restating your thesis or the significance of your topic should suffice.
• It is always best practice to address important issues and fully explain your points in the body of your paper. The point of a conclusion to a research paper is to summarize your argument for the reader and, perhaps, to call the reader to action if needed.

• Note that a call for action is not essential to all conclusions. A research paper on literary criticism, for instance, is less likely to need a call for action than a paper on the effect that television has on toddlers and young children.
• A paper that is more likely to call readers to action is one that addresses a public or scientific need. Let's go back to our example of tuberculosis. This is a very serious disease that is spreading quickly and with antibiotic-resistant forms.
• A call to action in this research paper would be a follow-up statement that might be along the lines of "Despite new efforts to diagnose and contain the disease, more research is needed to develop new antibiotics that will treat the most resistant strains of tuberculosis and ease the side effects of current treatments."

• For example, if you are writing a history paper, then you might discuss how the historical topic you discussed matters today. If you are writing about a foreign country, then you might use the conclusion to discuss how the information you shared may help readers understand their own country.

Making Your Conclusion as Effective as Possible

• Since this sort of conclusion is so basic, you must aim to synthesize the information rather than merely summarizing it.
• Instead of merely repeating things you already said, rephrase your thesis and supporting points in a way that ties them all together.
• By doing so, you make your research paper seem like a "complete thought" rather than a collection of random and vaguely related ideas.

• Ask a question in your introduction. In your conclusion, restate the question and provide a direct answer.
• Write an anecdote or story in your introduction but do not share the ending. Instead, write the conclusion to the anecdote in the conclusion of your paper.
• For example, if you wanted to get more creative and put a more humanistic spin on a paper on tuberculosis, you might start your introduction with a story about a person with the disease, and refer to that story in your conclusion. For example, you could say something like this before you re-state your thesis in your conclusion: "Patient X was unable to complete the treatment for tuberculosis due to severe side effects and unfortunately succumbed to the disease."
• Use the same concepts and images introduced in your introduction in your conclusion. The images may or may not appear at other points throughout the research paper.

• Include enough information about your topic to back the statement up but do not get too carried away with excess detail.
• If your research did not provide you with a clear-cut answer to a question posed in your thesis, do not be afraid to indicate as much.
• Restate your initial hypothesis and indicate whether you still believe it or if the research you performed has begun swaying your opinion.
• Indicate that an answer may still exist and that further research could shed more light on the topic at hand.

• This may not be appropriate for all types of research papers. Most research papers, such as one on effective treatment for diseases, will have the information to make the case for a particular argument already in the paper.
• A good example of a paper that might ask a question of the reader in the ending is one about a social issue, such as poverty or government policy.
• Ask a question that will directly get at the heart or purpose of the paper. This question is often the same question, or some version of it, that you may have started with when you began your research.
• Make sure that the question can be answered by the evidence presented in your paper.
• If desired you can briefly summarize the answer after stating the question. You could also leave the question hanging for the reader to answer, though.

• Even without a call to action, you can still make a recommendation to your reader.
• For instance, if you are writing about a topic like third-world poverty, you can various ways for the reader to assist in the problem without necessarily calling for more research.
• Another example would be, in a paper about treatment for drug-resistant tuberculosis, you could suggest donating to the World Health Organization or research foundations that are developing new treatments for the disease.

Avoiding Common Pitfalls

• These sayings usually sound stiff, unnatural, or trite when used in writing.
• Moreover, using a phrase like "in conclusion" to begin your conclusion is a little too straightforward and tends to lead to a weak conclusion. A strong conclusion can stand on its own without being labeled as such.

• Always state the main argument or thesis in the introduction. A research paper is an analytical discussion of an academic topic, not a mystery novel.
• A good, effective research paper will allow your reader to follow your main argument from start to finish.
• This is why it is best practice to start your paper with an introduction that states your main argument and to end the paper with a conclusion that re-states your thesis for re-iteration.

• All significant information should be introduced in the body of the paper.
• Supporting evidence expands the topic of your paper by making it appear more detailed. A conclusion should narrow the topic to a more general point.
• A conclusion should only summarize what you have already stated in the body of your paper.
• You may suggest further research or a call to action, but you should not bring in any new evidence or facts in the conclusion.

• Most often, a shift in tone occurs when a research paper with an academic tone gives an emotional or sentimental conclusion.
• Even if the topic of the paper is of personal significance for you, you should not indicate as much in your paper.
• If you want to give your paper a more humanistic slant, you could start and end your paper with a story or anecdote that would give your topic more personal meaning to the reader.
• This tone should be consistent throughout the paper, however.

• Apologetic statements include phrases like "I may not be an expert" or "This is only my opinion."
• Statements like this can usually be avoided by refraining from writing in the first-person.
• Avoid any statements in the first-person. First-person is generally considered to be informal and does not fit with the formal tone of a research paper.

Community Q&A

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• ↑ http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/724/04/
• ↑ http://www.crlsresearchguide.org/18_Writing_Conclusion.asp
• ↑ http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html#conclusion
• ↑ http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/conclusions/
• ↑ http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/conclude.html

About This Article

To write a conclusion for a research paper, start by restating your thesis statement to remind your readers what your main topic is and bring everything full circle. Then, briefly summarize all of the main points you made throughout your paper, which will help remind your readers of everything they learned. You might also want to include a call to action if you think more research or work needs to be done on your topic by writing something like, "Despite efforts to contain the disease, more research is needed to develop antibiotics." Finally, end your conclusion by explaining the broader context of your topic and why your readers should care about it, which will help them understand why your topic is relevant and important. For tips from our Academic co-author, like how to avoid common pitfalls when writing your conclusion, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

The discussion section contains the results and outcomes of a study. An effective discussion informs readers what can be learned from your experiment and provides context for the results.

What makes an effective discussion?

When you’re ready to write your discussion, you’ve already introduced the purpose of your study and provided an in-depth description of the methodology. The discussion informs readers about the larger implications of your study based on the results. Highlighting these implications while not overstating the findings can be challenging, especially when you’re submitting to a journal that selects articles based on novelty or potential impact. Regardless of what journal you are submitting to, the discussion section always serves the same purpose: concluding what your study results actually mean.

A successful discussion section puts your findings in context. It should include:

• the results of your research,
• a discussion of related research, and
• a comparison between your results and initial hypothesis.

Tip: Not all journals share the same naming conventions.

You can apply the advice in this article to the conclusion, results or discussion sections of your manuscript.

Our Early Career Researcher community tells us that the conclusion is often considered the most difficult aspect of a manuscript to write. To help, this guide provides questions to ask yourself, a basic structure to model your discussion off of and examples from published manuscripts. 

Questions to ask yourself:

• Was my hypothesis correct?
• If my hypothesis is partially correct or entirely different, what can be learned from the results? 
• How do the conclusions reshape or add onto the existing knowledge in the field? What does previous research say about the topic? 
• Why are the results important or relevant to your audience? Do they add further evidence to a scientific consensus or disprove prior studies? 
• How can future research build on these observations? What are the key experiments that must be done? 
• What is the “take-home” message you want your reader to leave with?

How to structure a discussion

Trying to fit a complete discussion into a single paragraph can add unnecessary stress to the writing process. If possible, you’ll want to give yourself two or three paragraphs to give the reader a comprehensive understanding of your study as a whole. Here’s one way to structure an effective discussion:

Writing Tips

While the above sections can help you brainstorm and structure your discussion, there are many common mistakes that writers revert to when having difficulties with their paper. Writing a discussion can be a delicate balance between summarizing your results, providing proper context for your research and avoiding introducing new information. Remember that your paper should be both confident and honest about the results! 

• Read the journal’s guidelines on the discussion and conclusion sections. If possible, learn about the guidelines before writing the discussion to ensure you’re writing to meet their expectations. 
• Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion. 
• Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of the research. 
• State whether the results prove or disprove your hypothesis. If your hypothesis was disproved, what might be the reasons? 
• Introduce new or expanded ways to think about the research question. Indicate what next steps can be taken to further pursue any unresolved questions. 
• If dealing with a contemporary or ongoing problem, such as climate change, discuss possible consequences if the problem is avoided. 
• Be concise. Adding unnecessary detail can distract from the main findings. 

Don’t

• Rewrite your abstract. Statements with “we investigated” or “we studied” generally do not belong in the discussion. 
• Include new arguments or evidence not previously discussed. Necessary information and evidence should be introduced in the main body of the paper. 
• Apologize. Even if your research contains significant limitations, don’t undermine your authority by including statements that doubt your methodology or execution. 
• Shy away from speaking on limitations or negative results. Including limitations and negative results will give readers a complete understanding of the presented research. Potential limitations include sources of potential bias, threats to internal or external validity, barriers to implementing an intervention and other issues inherent to the study design. 
• Overstate the importance of your findings. Making grand statements about how a study will fully resolve large questions can lead readers to doubt the success of the research. 

Snippets of Effective Discussions:

Consumer-based actions to reduce plastic pollution in rivers: A multi-criteria decision analysis approach

Identifying reliable indicators of fitness in polar bears

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

Organizing Academic Research Papers: 9. The Conclusion

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your research problem but a synthesis of key points. For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be required.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with several important opportunities to demonstrate your overall understanding of the research problem to the reader. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key points in your analysis or findings.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger implications of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly answer the "so what?" question by placing the study within the context of past research about the topic you've investigated.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers you a chance to elaborate on the significance of your findings.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing/contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Conclusions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008.

Structure and Writing Style

https://writing.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/535/2018/07/conclusions_uwmadison_writingcenter_aug2012.pdf I.  General Rules

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• State your conclusions in clear, simple language.
• Do not simply reiterate your results or the discussion.
• Indicate opportunities for future research, as long as you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Make sure, however, that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings because this reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your essay.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or point of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data.

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented, or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have done will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way.

NOTE : Don't delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply not to guess at possible outcomes.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following.

• If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you have reached [a good place to look is research from your literature review].
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point with a relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you introduced in your introduction, but add further insight that is derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results to reframe it in new ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a strong, succient statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid Failure to be concise The conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too long often have unnecessary detail. The conclusion section is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, etc. that you make. Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from general [the field of study] to specific [your research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from specific [your research problem] back to general [your field, i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In other words, the conclusion is where you place your research within a larger context. Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. Problems, drawbacks, and challenges encountered during your study should be included as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative results [findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section of your paper. In the conclusion, use the negative results as an opportunity to explain how they provide information on which future research can be based. Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits back into your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize it briefly and directly. Often this element of your conclusion is only a few sentences long. Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine your original objectives in your introduction, as these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you now know a good deal about it, perhaps even more than your professor! Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts!  Don't undermine your authority by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches...."

Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions . The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion . San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions . Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization . Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining to read, when an essay is about to end. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your Conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. If you have new information to present, add it to the Discussion or other appropriate section of the paper.  Note that, although no actual new information is introduced, the conclusion is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; it's where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate your understanding of the material that you’ve presented, and locate your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic.

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

Find out which type of conclusion best suits your research, how to write it step-by-step, and common mistakes to avoid.

When writing a research paper, it can be challenging to make your point after providing an extensive amount of information. For this reason, a well-organized conclusion is essential. 

A research paper’s conclusion should be a brief summary of the paper’s substance and objectives; what you present in your research paper can gain impact by having a strong conclusion section.

In this Mind The Graph article, you will learn how to write a conclusion for a research report in a way that inspires action and helps the readers to better understand your research paper. This article will provide you the definition and some broad principles before providing step-by-step guidance.

What is a conclusion for a research paper and why is it important?

A conclusion is where you summarize the main points and, if appropriate, make new research suggestions. It is not merely a summary of the key points discussed or a rehash of your research question.

The reader is expected to comprehend from the article’s conclusion why your study should be significant to them after reading it. A conclusion of one or two well-developed paragraphs is appropriate for the majority of research papers; however, in a few unusual cases, more paragraphs may be required to highlight significant findings and their importance.

Just as the introduction is responsible for giving the reader a first impression on the subject, the conclusion is the chance to make a final impression by summarizing major information of your research paper and, most often, giving a different point of view on significant implications.

Adding a strong conclusion to your research paper is important because it’s a possibility to give the reader the comprehension of your research topic. Given that the reader is now fully informed on the subject, the conclusion also gives you a chance to restate the research problem effectively and concisely.

Examples of conclusions for a research paper

Now that you are aware of what a conclusion is and its significance for a research paper, it is time to provide you with some excellent samples of well-structured conclusions so you may get knowledge about the type of conclusion you can use for your research paper.

Argumentative Research Paper Conclusion

The most convincing arguments from your research paper should be added to the conclusion if you want to compose a strong argumentative conclusion.

Additionally, if your thesis statement expresses your perspective on the subject, you should think about restarting it as well as including any other pertinent information.

Example: As a result of the sixth extinction, which is currently affecting Earth, many species are vanishing every day. There are at least three strategies that people could employ to keep them from going extinct entirely in the ensuing fifty years. More recycling options, innovative plastic production techniques, and species preservation could save lives.

Analytical Research Paper Conclusion

The first thing you should do is reiterate your thesis and list the main elements of your arguments.

There should undoubtedly be a spotlight on a bigger context in the analytical research paper conclusion, which is the key distinction between it and other types of conclusions. It means you can add some meaning to the findings.

Example: Elon Musk has revolutionized the way we drive, pay for things, and even fly. His innovations are solely motivated by the desire to simplify things, but they inevitably alter the course of history. When Musk was a student, he had his first idea for PayPal, which is now among the most widely used methods of online payment. Likewise with Tesla automobiles.

Comparative Research Paper Conclusion

The conclusion of a comparative essay should be deeply analytical. To clearly express your conclusions, you must be very thorough when reviewing the data. Furthermore, the sources must be reliable.

A paraphrased thesis statement and a few sentences describing the significance of your study research are also required, as per normal.

Example: Gas-powered vehicles are ineffective and inefficient compared to electric vehicles. Not only do they emit fewer pollutants, but the drivers also get there more quickly. Additionally, gas cars cost more to maintain. Everything stems from the details of the far more straightforward engines used in electric cars.

How to write a conclusion for a research paper

In this section, you will learn how to write a conclusion for a research paper effectively and properly. These few easy steps will enable you to write the most convincing conclusion to your research paper.

1. Remember about the main topic

The statement must be written clearly and concisely to be effective, just one sentence. Remember that your conclusion should be concise and precise, expressing only the most important elements.

2. Reaffirm your thesis

Restate the research paper’s thesis after that. This can be done by going back to the original thesis that you presented in the research’s introduction. The thesis statement in your conclusion must be expressed differently from how it was in the introduction. This section can also be written effectively in a single sentence.

3. Sum important points in a summary

It’s time to make a list of the important arguments in your research paper. This phase can be made simpler by reading over your research and emphasizing only the main ideas and evidence.

Remember that the conclusion should not contain any new information. Focus only on the concepts you cover in your paper’s main body as a result. And also, keep in mind that this brief summary reminds your readers of the importance of the topic you are researching.

4. Emphasize the importance

At this stage, you can genuinely express a few words about how significant your arguments are. A succinct but impactful sentence can successfully achieve its aim. You could also attempt to examine this circumstance from a wider perspective.

Give an example of how your discoveries have affected a certain field. It would be beneficial if you made an effort to answer the question, “So what?” if there was any ambiguity.

5. Finish up your argument

As you wrap up your conclusion, consider posing a question or a call to action that will encourage readers to consider your point of view even further. This sentence can also answer any queries that were not addressed in the paper’s body paragraphs.

In addition, if there is an unresolved question in the main body, this is a fantastic area to comment on.

Common mistakes you should avoid

After learning the fundamentals of producing a strong research paper conclusion, it’s time to learn the common mistakes to avoid.

• Weak conclusion: If your ending is weak, readers will feel dissatisfied and disappointed. Writing ambiguous closing lines for essays also lowers the quality of the paper and the capacity of your arguments to support your main topic.
• Abrupt conclusion: Your research has to be an expression of your writing as a whole, not just a section. Therefore, make sure your thoughts are fully stated.
• Adding new information: Only your research should only be summarized in the conclusion. As the conclusion cannot contain extra information, make sure to offer all of your conclusions and supporting evidence in the body paragraphs.
• Absence of focus: A conclusion needs to be concise and well-focused. Avoid concluding the research with inane or superfluous details.
• Absurd length: Research must be of a proper length—neither too long nor too short. If you write more than is necessary, you can miss the point, which is to revisit the paper’s argument straightforwardly. Additionally, if you write too little, your readers will think you’re being negligent. It should be written in at least one or two whole paragraphs.

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Writing a Paper: Conclusions

Writing a conclusion.

A conclusion is an important part of the paper; it provides closure for the reader while reminding the reader of the contents and importance of the paper. It accomplishes this by stepping back from the specifics in order to view the bigger picture of the document. In other words, it is reminding the reader of the main argument. For most course papers, it is usually one paragraph that simply and succinctly restates the main ideas and arguments, pulling everything together to help clarify the thesis of the paper. A conclusion does not introduce new ideas; instead, it should clarify the intent and importance of the paper. It can also suggest possible future research on the topic.

An Easy Checklist for Writing a Conclusion

It is important to remind the reader of the thesis of the paper so he is reminded of the argument and solutions you proposed.

Think of the main points as puzzle pieces, and the conclusion is where they all fit together to create a bigger picture. The reader should walk away with the bigger picture in mind.

Make sure that the paper places its findings in the context of real social change.

Make sure the reader has a distinct sense that the paper has come to an end. It is important to not leave the reader hanging. (You don’t want her to have flip-the-page syndrome, where the reader turns the page, expecting the paper to continue. The paper should naturally come to an end.)

No new ideas should be introduced in the conclusion. It is simply a review of the material that is already present in the paper. The only new idea would be the suggesting of a direction for future research.

Conclusion Example

As addressed in my analysis of recent research, the advantages of a later starting time for high school students significantly outweigh the disadvantages. A later starting time would allow teens more time to sleep--something that is important for their physical and mental health--and ultimately improve their academic performance and behavior. The added transportation costs that result from this change can be absorbed through energy savings. The beneficial effects on the students’ academic performance and behavior validate this decision, but its effect on student motivation is still unknown. I would encourage an in-depth look at the reactions of students to such a change. This sort of study would help determine the actual effects of a later start time on the time management and sleep habits of students.

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

When you're wrapping up a research paper, the conclusion is like the grand finale of a fireworks show – it's your chance to leave a lasting impression. In this article, we'll break down the steps to help you write a winning research paper conclusion that not only recaps your main points but also ties everything together. Consider it the "So what?" moment – why should people care about your research? Our professional essay writers will guide you through making your conclusion strong, clear, and something that sticks with your readers long after they've put down your paper. So, let's dive in and ensure your research ends on a high note!

What Is a Conclusion in a Research Paper

In a research paper, the conclusion serves as the final segment, where you summarize the main points and findings of your study. It's not just a repetition of what you've already said but rather a chance to tie everything together and highlight the significance of your research. As you learn how to start a research paper , a good conclusion also often discusses the implications of your findings, suggests potential areas for further research, and leaves the reader with a lasting impression of the importance and relevance of your work in the broader context of the field. Essentially, it's your last opportunity to make a strong impact and leave your readers with a clear understanding of the significance of your research. Here’s a research paper conclusion example:

In conclusion, this research paper has navigated the intricacies of sustainable urban development, shedding light on the pivotal role of community engagement and innovative planning strategies. Through applying qualitative and quantitative research methods, we've uncovered valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities inherent in fostering environmentally friendly urban spaces. The implications of these findings extend beyond the confines of this study, emphasizing the imperative for continued exploration in the realms of urban planning and environmental sustainability. By emphasizing both the practical applications and theoretical contributions, this research underscores the significance of community involvement and forward-thinking strategies in shaping the future of urban landscapes. As cities evolve, incorporating these insights into planning and development practices will create resilient and harmonious urban environments.

Conclusion Outline for Research Paper

This outline for a research paper conclusion provides a structured framework to ensure that your ending effectively summarizes the key elements of your research paper and leaves a lasting impression on your readers. Adjust the content based on the specific requirements and focus of your research.

Restate the Thesis Statement

• Briefly restate the main thesis or research question.
• Emphasize the core objective or purpose of the study.

Summarize Key Findings

• Recap the main points and key findings from each section of the paper.
• Provide a concise overview of the research journey.

Discuss Implications

• Explore the broader implications of the research findings.
• Discuss how the results contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the field.

Address Limitations

• Acknowledge any limitations or constraints encountered during the research process.
• Explain how these limitations may impact the interpretation of the findings.

Suggest Areas for Future Research

• Propose potential directions for future studies related to the topic.
• Identify gaps in the current research that warrant further exploration.

Reaffirm Significance

• Reaffirm the importance and relevance of the research in the broader context.
• Highlight the practical applications or real-world implications of the study.

Concluding Statement

• Craft a strong, memorable closing statement that leaves a lasting impression.
• Sum up the overall impact of the research and its potential contribution to the field.

Study the full guide on how to make a research paper outline here, which will also specify the conclusion writing specifics to improve your general prowess.

Tips on How to Make a Conclusion in Research

Here are key considerations regarding a conclusion for research paper to not only recap the primary ideas in your work but also delve deeper to earn a higher grade:

• Provide a concise recap of your main research outcomes.
• Remind readers of your research goals and their accomplishments.
• Stick to summarizing existing content; refrain from adding new details.
• Emphasize why your research matters and its broader implications.
• Clearly explain the practical or theoretical impact of your findings.
• Prompt readers to reflect on how your research influences their perspective.
• Briefly discuss the robustness of your research methods.
• End with a suggestion for future research or a practical application.
• Transparently address any constraints or biases in your study.
• End on a powerful note, leaving a memorable impression on your readers.

For your inspiration, we’ve also prepared this research proposal example APA , which dwells on another important aspect of research writing.

How to Write a Research Paper Conclusion

As you finish your research paper, the conclusion takes center stage. In this section, we've got five practical tips for writing a conclusion for a research paper. We'll guide you through summarizing your key findings, revisiting your research goals, discussing the bigger picture, addressing any limitations, and ending on a powerful note. Think of it as your roadmap to creating a conclusion that not only wraps up your research but also leaves a lasting impact on your readers. Let's dive in and make sure your conclusion stands out for all the right reasons!

Synthesize Core Discoveries. Initiate your conclusion by synthesizing the essential discoveries of your research. Offer a succinct recapitulation of the primary points and outcomes you have elucidated in your paper. This aids in reinforcing the gravity of your work and reiterates the pivotal information you have presented.

Revisit Research Objectives. Revisit the research objectives or questions you outlined at the beginning of your paper. Assess whether you have successfully addressed these objectives and if your findings align with the initial goals of your research. This reflection helps tie your conclusion back to the purpose of your study.

Discuss Implications and Contributions. Discuss the broader implications of your research and its potential contributions to the field. Consider how your findings might impact future research, applications, or understanding of the subject matter. This demonstrates the significance of your work and places it within a larger context.

Address Limitations and Future Research. Acknowledge any limitations in your study, such as constraints in data collection or potential biases. Briefly discuss how these limitations might have affected your results. Additionally, suggest areas for future research that could build upon your work, addressing any unanswered questions or unexplored aspects. This demonstrates a thoughtful approach to your research.

End with a Strong Conclusion Statement. Conclude your research paper with a strong and memorable statement that reinforces the key message you want readers to take away. This could be a call to action, a proposal for further investigation, or a reflection on the broader significance of your findings. Leave your readers with a lasting impression that emphasizes the importance of your research. Remember that you can buy a research paper anytime if you lack time or get stuck in writer’s block.

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Stylistic Devices to Use in a Conclusion

Discover distinctive stylistic insights that you can apply when writing a conclusion for a research paper:

• Rhetorical Questions. When using rhetorical questions, strategically place them to engage readers' minds. For instance, you might pose a question that prompts reflection on the broader implications of your findings, leaving your audience with something to ponder.
• Powerful Language. Incorporate strong language to convey a sense of conviction and importance. Choose words that resonate with the overall tone of your research and amplify the significance of your conclusions. This adds weight to your key messages.
• Repetitions. Repetitions can be employed to reinforce essential ideas. Reiterate key phrases or concepts in a way that emphasizes their importance without sounding redundant. This technique serves to drive home your main points.
• Anecdotes. Integrating anecdotes into your conclusion can provide a human touch. Share a brief and relevant story that connects with your research, making the information more relatable and memorable for your audience.
• Vivid Imagery. Lastly, use vivid imagery to paint a picture in the minds of your readers. Appeal to their senses by describing scenarios or outcomes related to your research. This creates a more immersive and lasting impression.

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How to Make a Conclusion Logically Appealing

Knowing how to write a conclusion for a research paper that is logically appealing is important for leaving a lasting impression on your readers. Here are some tips to achieve this:

Logical Sequencing

• Present your conclusion in a structured manner, following the natural flow of your paper. Readers should effortlessly follow your thought process, making your conclusion more accessible and persuasive.

Reinforce Main Arguments

• Emphasize the core arguments and findings from your research. By reinforcing key points, you solidify your stance and provide a logical culmination to your paper.

Address Counterarguments

• Acknowledge and address potential counterarguments or limitations in your research. Demonstrate intellectual honesty and strengthen your conclusion by preemptively addressing potential doubts.

Connect with Introduction

• Revisit themes or concepts introduced in your introduction to create a cohesive narrative, allowing readers to trace the logical progression of your research from start to finish.

Propose Actionable Insights

• Suggest practical applications or recommendations based on your findings. This will add a forward-looking dimension, making your conclusion more relevant and compelling.

Highlight Significance

• Clearly articulate the broader implications of your research to convey the importance of your work and its potential impact on the field, making your conclusion logically compelling.

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Avoid These Things When Writing a Research Paper Conclusion

As you write your conclusion of research paper, there’s a list of things professional writers don’t recommend doing. Consider these issues carefully:

• Repetition of Exact Phrases
• Repetitively using the same phrases or sentences from the main body. Repetition can make your conclusion seem redundant and less engaging.
• Overly Lengthy Summaries
• Providing excessively detailed summaries of each section of your paper. Readers may lose interest if the conclusion becomes too long and detailed.
• Unclear Connection to the Introduction
• Failing to connect the conclusion back to the introduction. A lack of continuity may make the paper feel disjointed.
• Adding New Arguments or Ideas
• Introducing new arguments or ideas that were not addressed in the body. This can confuse the reader and disrupt the coherence of your paper.
• Overuse of Complex Jargon
• Using excessively complex or technical language without clarification. Clear communication is essential in the conclusion, ensuring broad understanding.
• Apologizing or Undermining Confidence
• Apologizing for limitations or expressing doubt about your work. Maintain a confident tone; if limitations exist, present them objectively without undermining your research.
• Sweeping Generalizations
• Making overly broad or unsupported generalizations. Such statements can weaken the credibility of your conclusion.
• Neglecting the Significance
• Failing to emphasize the broader significance of your research. Readers need to understand why your findings matter in a larger context.
• Abrupt Endings
• Concluding abruptly without a strong closing statement. A powerful ending leaves a lasting impression; avoid a sudden or weak conclusion.

Research Paper Conclusion Example

That covers the essential aspects of summarizing a research paper. The only remaining step is to review the conclusion examples for research paper provided by our team.

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Final Thoughts

In conclusion, the knowledge of how to write the conclusion of a research paper is pivotal for presenting your findings and leaving a lasting impression on your readers. By summarizing the key points, reiterating the significance of your research, and offering avenues for future exploration, you can create a conclusion that not only reinforces the value of your study but also encourages further academic discourse. Remember to balance brevity and completeness, ensuring your conclusion is concise yet comprehensive. Emphasizing the practical implications of your research and connecting it to the broader academic landscape will help solidify the impact of your work. Pay someone to write a research paper if you are having a hard time finishing your coursework on time.

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How To Write A Conclusion For A Research Paper?

What should the conclusion of a research paper contain, how to start a conclusion paragraph for a research paper.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

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• How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Conclusion

How to Write a Dissertation Conclusion | Checklist and Examples

Published on 9 September 2022 by Tegan George and Shona McCombes. Revised on 10 October 2022.

The conclusion is the very last part of your thesis or dissertation . It should be concise and engaging, leaving your reader with a clear understanding of your main findings, as well as the answer to your research question .

In it, you should:

• Clearly state the answer to your main research question
• Summarise and reflect on your research process
• Make recommendations for future work on your topic
• Show what new knowledge you have contributed to your field
• Wrap up your thesis or dissertation

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Table of contents

Discussion vs. conclusion, how long should your conclusion be, step 1: answer your research question, step 2: summarise and reflect on your research, step 3: make future recommendations, step 4: emphasise your contributions to your field, step 5: wrap up your thesis or dissertation, full conclusion example, conclusion checklist, frequently asked questions about conclusion sections.

While your conclusion contains similar elements to your discussion section , they are not the same thing.

Your conclusion should be shorter and more general than your discussion. Instead of repeating literature from your literature review , discussing specific research results , or interpreting your data in detail, concentrate on making broad statements that sum up the most important insights of your research.

As a rule of thumb, your conclusion should not introduce new data, interpretations, or arguments.

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Depending on whether you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your length will vary. Generally, a conclusion should make up around 5–7% of your overall word count.

An empirical scientific study will often have a short conclusion, concisely stating the main findings and recommendations for future research. A humanities topic or systematic review , on the other hand, might require more space to conclude its analysis, tying all the previous sections together in an overall argument.

Your conclusion should begin with the main question that your thesis or dissertation aimed to address. This is your final chance to show that you’ve done what you set out to do, so make sure to formulate a clear, concise answer.

• Don’t repeat a list of all the results that you already discussed
• Do synthesise them into a final takeaway that the reader will remember.

An empirical thesis or dissertation conclusion may begin like this:

A case study –based thesis or dissertation conclusion may begin like this:

In the second example, the research aim is not directly restated, but rather added implicitly to the statement. To avoid repeating yourself, it is helpful to reformulate your aims and questions into an overall statement of what you did and how you did it.

Your conclusion is an opportunity to remind your reader why you took the approach you did, what you expected to find, and how well the results matched your expectations.

To avoid repetition , consider writing more reflectively here, rather than just writing a summary of each preceding section. Consider mentioning the effectiveness of your methodology , or perhaps any new questions or unexpected insights that arose in the process.

You can also mention any limitations of your research, but only if you haven’t already included these in the discussion. Don’t dwell on them at length, though – focus on the positives of your work.

• While x limits the generalisability of the results, this approach provides new insight into y .
• This research clearly illustrates x , but it also raises the question of y .

You may already have made a few recommendations for future research in your discussion section, but the conclusion is a good place to elaborate and look ahead, considering the implications of your findings in both theoretical and practical terms.

• Based on these conclusions, practitioners should consider …
• To better understand the implications of these results, future studies could address …
• Further research is needed to determine the causes of/effects of/relationship between …

When making recommendations for further research, be sure not to undermine your own work. Relatedly, while future studies might confirm, build on, or enrich your conclusions, they shouldn’t be required for your argument to feel complete. Your work should stand alone on its own merits.

Just as you should avoid too much self-criticism, you should also avoid exaggerating the applicability of your research. If you’re making recommendations for policy, business, or other practical implementations, it’s generally best to frame them as ‘shoulds’ rather than ‘musts’. All in all, the purpose of academic research is to inform, explain, and explore – not to demand.

Make sure your reader is left with a strong impression of what your research has contributed to the state of your field.

Some strategies to achieve this include:

• Returning to your problem statement to explain how your research helps solve the problem
• Referring back to the literature review and showing how you have addressed a gap in knowledge
• Discussing how your findings confirm or challenge an existing theory or assumption

Again, avoid simply repeating what you’ve already covered in the discussion in your conclusion. Instead, pick out the most important points and sum them up succinctly, situating your project in a broader context.

The end is near! Once you’ve finished writing your conclusion, it’s time to wrap up your thesis or dissertation with a few final steps:

• It’s a good idea to write your abstract next, while the research is still fresh in your mind.
• Next, make sure your reference list is complete and correctly formatted. To speed up the process, you can use our free APA citation generator .
• Once you’ve added any appendices , you can create a table of contents and title page .
• Finally, read through the whole document again to make sure your thesis is clearly written and free from language errors. You can proofread it yourself , ask a friend, or consider Scribbr’s proofreading and editing service .

Here is an example of how you can write your conclusion section. Notice how it includes everything mentioned above:

V. Conclusion

The current research aimed to identify acoustic speech characteristics which mark the beginning of an exacerbation in COPD patients.

The central questions for this research were as follows: 1. Which acoustic measures extracted from read speech differ between COPD speakers in stable condition and healthy speakers? 2. In what ways does the speech of COPD patients during an exacerbation differ from speech of COPD patients during stable periods?

All recordings were aligned using a script. Subsequently, they were manually annotated to indicate respiratory actions such as inhaling and exhaling. The recordings of 9 stable COPD patients reading aloud were then compared with the recordings of 5 healthy control subjects reading aloud. The results showed a significant effect of condition on the number of in- and exhalations per syllable, the number of non-linguistic in- and exhalations per syllable, and the ratio of voiced and silence intervals. The number of in- and exhalations per syllable and the number of non-linguistic in- and exhalations per syllable were higher for COPD patients than for healthy controls, which confirmed both hypotheses.

However, the higher ratio of voiced and silence intervals for COPD patients compared to healthy controls was not in line with the hypotheses. This unpredicted result might have been caused by the different reading materials or recording procedures for both groups, or by a difference in reading skills. Moreover, there was a trend regarding the effect of condition on the number of syllables per breath group. The number of syllables per breath group was higher for healthy controls than for COPD patients, which was in line with the hypothesis. There was no effect of condition on pitch, intensity, center of gravity, pitch variability, speaking rate, or articulation rate.

This research has shown that the speech of COPD patients in exacerbation differs from the speech of COPD patients in stable condition. This might have potential for the detection of exacerbations. However, sustained vowels rarely occur in spontaneous speech. Therefore, the last two outcome measures might have greater potential for the detection of beginning exacerbations, but further research on the different outcome measures and their potential for the detection of exacerbations is needed due to the limitations of the current study.

Checklist: Conclusion

I have clearly and concisely answered the main research question .

I have summarized my overall argument or key takeaways.

I have mentioned any important limitations of the research.

I have given relevant recommendations .

I have clearly explained what my research has contributed to my field.

I have  not introduced any new data or arguments.

You've written a great conclusion! Use the other checklists to further improve your dissertation.

In a thesis or dissertation, the discussion is an in-depth exploration of the results, going into detail about the meaning of your findings and citing relevant sources to put them in context.

The conclusion is more shorter and more general: it concisely answers your main research question and makes recommendations based on your overall findings.

While it may be tempting to present new arguments or evidence in your thesis or disseration conclusion , especially if you have a particularly striking argument you’d like to finish your analysis with, you shouldn’t. Theses and dissertations follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the discussion section and results section .) The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

For a stronger dissertation conclusion , avoid including:

• Generic concluding phrases (e.g. “In conclusion…”)
• Weak statements that undermine your argument (e.g. “There are good points on both sides of this issue.”)

Your conclusion should leave the reader with a strong, decisive impression of your work.

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation shouldn’t take up more than 5-7% of your overall word count.

The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation should include the following:

• A restatement of your research question
• A summary of your key arguments and/or results
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

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George, T. & McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). How to Write a Dissertation Conclusion | Checklist and Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 7 June 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/conclusion/

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Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

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What Is Internal Validity In Research?

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Criterion Validity: Definition & Examples

Top 50 Geography Research Topics [Revised]

Geography isn’t just about maps and memorizing capital cities; it’s a dynamic field that delves into everything from understanding our planet’s physical features to unraveling the complexities of human societies. In this blog, we’ll embark on a journey through fascinating geography research topics, ranging from climate change and urbanization to cultural dynamics and emerging trends. Whether you’re a curious student or simply someone intrigued by the world around you, join us as we explore the diverse realms of geography research.

What Are The Three Main Topics Of Geography?

Table of Contents

• Physical Geography
• Study of Earth’s physical features, processes, and phenomena.
• Example: Investigating the formation of mountains, erosion patterns in river systems, or the impact of climate change on ecosystems.
• Human Geography
• Examination of the interactions between human societies and their environments.
• Example: Analyzing urbanization trends, migration patterns, cultural landscapes, or economic activities within specific regions.
• Environmental Geography
• Focus on the relationship between humans and their natural surroundings, including the impact of human activities on the environment.
• Example: Researching pollution levels in urban areas, deforestation rates in tropical rainforests, or the conservation of endangered species and habitats.

50 Geography Research Topics: Category Wise

Physical geography research topics.

• Impact of climate change on polar ice caps.
• Patterns of desertification in arid regions.
• Formation and evolution of volcanic islands.
• Study of river meandering and channel migration.
• Factors influencing the distribution of biomes worldwide.

Human Geography Research Topics

• Urbanization dynamics in developing countries.
• Social and economic impacts of gentrification in urban neighborhoods.
• Migration patterns and trends in Europe.
• Cultural landscapes and identity politics in contested territories.
• Gender disparities in access to resources and opportunities in rural areas.

Environmental Geography Research Topics

• Analysis of air quality in megacities.
• Impacts of deforestation on local biodiversity in the Amazon rainforest.
• Water scarcity and management strategies in arid regions.
• Ecotourism and its role in sustainable development.
• Effects of marine pollution on coral reef ecosystems.

Geographical Techniques and Tools Research Topics

• Applications of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in disaster management.
• Remote sensing techniques for monitoring agricultural productivity.
• Cartographic visualization of population density and distribution.
• Spatial analysis of crime patterns in urban areas.
• Geographical modeling of disease spread and containment strategies.

Regional Geography Research Topics

• Socioeconomic disparities between urban and rural regions in India.
• Geopolitical tensions in the South China Sea.
• Cultural diversity and integration in multicultural cities like London or New York.
• Environmental challenges facing the African Sahel region.
• Regional impacts of globalization on indigenous communities in South America.

Cultural Geography Research Topics

• Influence of religion on cultural landscapes in the Middle East.
• Cultural diffusion and globalization in the digital age.
• Preservation of intangible cultural heritage in UNESCO World Heritage sites.
• Impact of colonialism on indigenous cultures in Australia.
• Gender roles and cultural practices in traditional societies.

Economic Geography Research Topics

• Spatial distribution of industries in emerging economies.
• Trade patterns and economic integration in the European Union.
• Impact of globalization on labor markets in Southeast Asia.
• Role of transportation infrastructure in regional economic development.
• Economic consequences of natural disasters on local communities.

Political Geography Research Topics

• Border disputes and territorial conflicts in the Middle East.
• Secessionist movements and autonomy struggles in Europe.
• Role of international organizations in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.
• Geopolitical implications of Arctic resource extraction.
• Influence of soft power and cultural diplomacy in international relations.

Social Geography Research Topics

• Spatial patterns of poverty and social exclusion in urban areas.
• Dynamics of neighborhood segregation and integration in diverse cities.
• Impact of social media on community engagement and activism.
• Gender-based violence and spatial justice in urban environments.
• Cultural dimensions of health disparities in rural communities.

Historical Geography Research Topics

• Legacy of colonialism in shaping urban landscapes in former colonies.
• Evolution of trade routes and their impact on cultural diffusion.
• Archaeological landscape studies of ancient civilizations.
• Historical geography of migration and diaspora communities.
• Environmental history of industrialization and its long-term impacts on ecosystems.

How To Write A Geography Research Paper?

Writing a geography research paper involves several key steps to ensure a well-structured, coherent, and informative document. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to write a geography research paper:

• Choose a Topic: Select a specific and focused research topic within the field of geography that interests you. Consider the scope of your paper, available resources, and the significance of the topic in the field.
• Conduct Research: Gather relevant sources of information such as scholarly articles, books, journals, government publications, and online databases. Use both primary and secondary sources to support your research and develop a comprehensive understanding of the topic.
• Develop a clear and short thesis statement that explains what your research paper is about. This statement should show the main idea or point you’re going to talk about in your paper.
• Organize your paper by making a plan or outline. Split it into different parts like the introduction, where you start talking about your topic and explain why it’s important. Then, include a literature review where you talk about what others have already studied about your topic. If you did any special methods in your research, talk about them in the methodology section. Then, show your findings or results, discuss them, and finally, conclude your paper. Make sure you outline all the important things you want to talk about in each section.
• Start your paper with an interesting introduction. Tell the reader some background information about your topic and why it’s important. Also, introduce your thesis statement here. Explain what you’ll be talking about in your research paper to help guide the reader through your paper.
• Conduct a Literature Review: Review existing literature and research related to your topic to contextualize your study and identify gaps or areas for further investigation. Summarize key findings, methodologies, and theories from previous studies to support your own research.
• Describe Your Methodology (If Applicable): If your research involves empirical data collection or analysis, describe the methodology and research design used in your study. Explain the research methods, data sources, sampling techniques, and analytical tools employed to gather and analyze data.
• Present Your Findings: Present the results of your research in a clear and systematic manner. Use tables, graphs, maps, and other visual aids to illustrate your findings and enhance comprehension. Provide descriptive and analytical interpretations of the data to support your arguments.
• Discuss Your Results: Analyze and interpret the significance of your research findings in relation to your thesis statement and research objectives. Discuss any patterns, trends, or relationships observed in the data and explore their implications for the broader field of geography.
• Draw Conclusions: Summarize the main findings of your research and reiterate the significance of your study. Discuss any limitations or constraints encountered during the research process and propose areas for future research or further investigation.
• Cite Your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources of information used in your research paper according to the citation style specified by your instructor or academic institution. Use in-text citations and include a comprehensive bibliography or reference list at the end of your paper.
• Proofread and Revise: Review your research paper carefully for grammatical errors, typos, and inconsistencies. Revise and refine your writing to improve clarity, coherence, and overall quality. Consider seeking feedback from peers, mentors, or academic advisors to further enhance your paper.

Emerging Topics in Geography Research

As our world continues to evolve, new frontiers of geography research are constantly emerging. From the quest for sustainable development to the rise of smart cities and the challenges of climate resilience, researchers are grappling with complex issues that defy easy solutions.

One promising avenue of research is the integration of indigenous knowledge and perspectives into geographic studies. By recognizing the wisdom of traditional cultures and their deep connection to the land, researchers can develop more holistic approaches to environmental management and conservation.

In conclusion, geography research offers a rich tapestry of topics that span the natural and social sciences. Whether it’s unraveling the mysteries of climate change, exploring the dynamics of urbanization, or celebrating the diversity of cultural landscapes, there’s something for everyone in the world of geography research.

So, whether you’re a student embarking on geography research topics or simply a curious explorer seeking to understand the world around you, take heart in knowing that the adventure has only just begun. Happy exploring!

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• Open access
• Published: 07 August 2023

The rise of resilient healthcare research during COVID-19: scoping review of empirical research

• Louise A Ellis 1 ,
• Maree Saba 1 ,
• Janet C Long 1 ,
• Hilda Bø Lyng 2 ,
• Cecilie Haraldseid-Driftland 2 ,
• Kate Churruca 1 ,
• Siri Wiig 2 ,
• Elizabeth Austin 1 ,
• Robyn Clay-Williams 1 ,
• Ann Carrigan 1 &
• Jeffrey Braithwaite 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  23 , Article number:  833 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The COVID-19 pandemic has presented many multi-faceted challenges to the maintenance of service quality and safety, highlighting the need for resilient and responsive healthcare systems more than ever before. This review examined empirical investigations of Resilient Health Care (RHC) in response to the COVID-19 pandemic with the aim to: identify key areas of research; synthesise findings on capacities that develop RHC across system levels (micro, meso, macro); and identify reported adverse consequences of the effort of maintaining system performance on system agents (healthcare workers, patients).

Three academic databases were searched (Medline, EMBASE, Scopus) from 1st January 2020 to 30th August 2022 using keywords pertaining to: systems resilience and related concepts; healthcare and healthcare settings; and COVID-19. Capacities that developed and enhanced systems resilience were synthesised using a hybrid inductive-deductive thematic analysis.

Fifty publications were included in this review. Consistent with previous research, studies from high-income countries and the use of qualitative methods within the context of hospitals, dominated the included studies. However, promising developments have been made, with an emergence of studies conducted at the macro-system level, including the development of quantitative tools and indicator-based modelling approaches, and the increased involvement of low- and middle-income countries in research (LMIC). Concordant with previous research, eight key resilience capacities were identified that can support, develop or enhance resilient performance, namely: structure, alignment, coordination, learning, involvement, risk awareness, leadership, and communication. The need for healthcare workers to constantly learn and make adaptations, however, had potentially adverse physical and emotional consequences for healthcare workers, in addition to adverse effects on routine patient care.

Conclusions

This review identified an upsurge in new empirical studies on health system resilience associated with COVID-19. The pandemic provided a unique opportunity to examine RHC in practice, and uncovered emerging new evidence on RHC theory and system factors that contribute to resilient performance at micro, meso and macro levels. These findings will enable leaders and other stakeholders to strengthen health system resilience when responding to future challenges and unexpected events.

Peer Review reports

Resilient Health Care (RHC) is defined as the ability of a system to adjust its functioning prior to, during, or following changes and disturbances, so that it can sustain required operations under both expected and unexpected conditions [ 1 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic presented challenges that healthcare systems must address to maintain service quality and safety, highlighting the need for resilient and responsive healthcare systems more than ever before [ 2 ]. Healthcare practitioners, managers, and policy makers had to suddenly, and dramatically, adapt in order to absorb the shock of the pandemic and coordinate the capacities needed to deal with its impact. Since the onset of the pandemic, ‘health systems resilience’ has emerged as a key concept in global public health with the World Health Organization (WHO) publishing several papers [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ] on the importance of building and strengthening health emergency preparedness and responsiveness to future epidemics and shocks.

The application of resilience thinking to healthcare is however not new, with RHC being first proposed by Eric Hollnagel in 2011 [ 8 ] to describe the application of resilience engineering [ 9 ] and disaster resilience [ 10 , 11 ] to healthcare. RHC acknowledges the complex adaptive nature of healthcare, recognising the adaptive and transformative capabilities that enable healthcare systems to continue to perform their functions in the face of challenges [ 12 , 13 ]. Despite its conceptual appeal, there have been challenges in translating the principles of RHC into concrete improvements, with compelling examples remaining scarce [ 14 ].

The importance of RHC is reflected in the growing number of reviews on the topic [ 13 , 15 , 16 ]. Although these reviews identified that the RHC literature has been predominantly conceptual, rather than empirical [ 13 , 15 , 16 ], empirical applications of RHC have increased. A systematic review conducted prior to the pandemic identified 71 empirical studies on health system resilience from 2008 to 2019, with 62% of these published in the last two years of the review (i.e., from 2017 to 2019) [ 15 ]. However, much of this existing empirical literature has focused on clinical microsystems at the ‘sharp end’ and how frontline healthcare professionals within hospital settings collectively adapt, ‘work around’, or enable things to go well [ 2 , 13 ], with a lack of empirical studies particularly at the meso and macro-levels (i.e., government, national, international) [ 14 ]. Qualitative research methods have also predominated in the empirical studies [ 13 , 15 ], reflecting that priorities have been placed on gaining in-depth understanding of everyday clinical work at the micro-level.

Another noteworthy gap in the RHC literature is the limited discussions on how ‘individual agents’ (e.g., doctors, nurses) [ 17 ] within the health system may be personally affected by their efforts to maintain system resilience [ 18 ]. However, the time appears ripe for this issue to be explored in the context of RHC, particularly in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has caused major disruptions across all system levels and created a need for ongoing adaptation by healthcare workers, which many suggest has resulted in widespread mental health issues and burnout amongst these workers [ 19 , 20 ].

The present study

Interest in RHC has accelerated since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, as indicated by the sharp increase in the number of publications in ‘health systems resilience’ since 2020 (Fig.  1 ). With the growth in empirical contributions in this field, it is timely to examine the published empirical research to determine the status of the field and identify whether there is any further evidence on how to generate or strengthen resilient performance to manage future pandemics and emergencies. Understanding factors that develop or enhance RHC is critical to developing strategies and tools for strengthening their resilience [ 12 ]. For this review, we defined an empirical study as one that reports primary or secondary data gathered by means of a specific methodological approach [ 21 ]. The objective of this study was to conduct a scoping review of empirical investigations of RHC in response to the COVID-19 pandemic with four key aims:

Map out the empirical research within the resilient healthcare domain across all system levels (micro, meso, macro).

Identify the key areas of research, including study designs and research methods that have been employed.

Synthesise findings on factors (capacities, actions, or strategies) that developed or enhanced resilient performance.

Identify any reported findings on consequences of maintaining system performance on system agents (healthcare workers, patients).

Increased publications in PubMed using the search term “health systems resilience” in titles or abstracts

The review followed a pre-determined protocol, developed in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) [ 22 , 23 ] (also see PRISMA-ScR in Supplementary File 1 ). A scoping review method was used; a method which is used to examine the extent, range and nature of work on this topic and to identify gaps and provide suggestions to improve future directions for RHC research [ 24 ]. Quality assessments were not undertaken, as the aim was to examine the full breadth of the empirical literature, consistent with general aims and methodology of scoping reviews [ 25 ].

Search strategy

Three academic databases (Medline, EMBASE, Scopus) were searched from 1st January 2020 to 30th August 2022. The search strategy consisted of terms pertaining to: systems resilience (e.g., resilient healthcare) and related concepts (e.g., Safety-II); healthcare (e.g., health care) and healthcare settings (e.g., primary care, hospital); and COVID-19. The search strategy was adapted for each database as necessary (see Supplementary File 2 for the complete search strategy, using Ovid MEDLINE as an example). The search strategy was developed in consultation with an academic research librarian and was reviewed by all authors prior to execution.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Articles were included if they were: (a) published between the onset of COVID-19 (from 1st January 2020) and 30 August 2022, (b) in the English language, (c) peer-reviewed publications, (d) had an explicit focus on healthcare or health systems resilience in the context of COVID-19, and (e) were empirical studies. Studies that only mentioned “resilience” briefly, were concerned with individual or psychological resilience (e.g., the psychological wellbeing of healthcare workers) rather than systems-resilience or were not conducted in the context of COVID-19 were excluded. Study protocols, review papers, journal commentaries, and editorials were also excluded, as were studies not in English.

Eligibility screening

Reference details (including abstracts) were downloaded into the reference management software Endnote X9 and then exported to Rayyan QCRI for title and abstract screening. Seven reviewers (LAE, MS, JCL, KC, EA, LT, DT) screened the title/abstracts to determine their inclusion against the criteria, with 5% of the retrieved publications being independently screened by the entire review team to ensure consistent inclusion. Any discrepancies among reviewers’ judgements were reviewed by two authors (LAE and MS) with JB available for consultation if and as needed.

Data extraction

Data from included studies meeting inclusion criteria were extracted into a custom workbook in Microsoft Excel. Full-text screening was conducted initially by two independent reviewers (LT, DT), with LAE and MS subsequently duplicating the full-text review process, with any discrepancies being discussed and resolved in consultation with JB. The extraction workbook included data items on: [ 1 ] publication details (paper title, year, output type); [ 2 ] study context (e.g., hospital, primary care); [ 3 ] system level (micro: healthcare practitioner; meso: management, organisation; and/or macro: government, national, international); [ 4 ] study design (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods); [ 5 ] study data type (primary or secondary); [ 6 ] data collection method/s (quantitative, qualitative, mixed-methods); [ 7 ] conceptual framework, model, or theory used; [ 8 ] resilience measure or tool used; [ 9 ] factors (capacities, actions, or strategies) that developed and enhanced systems resilience; and [ 10 ] reported negative consequences of resilient performance on system agents (healthcare workers, patients).

Data synthesis and analysis

A data-based convergent synthesis was employed [ 26 ]; where quantitative data were transformed into categories or themes, and summarised through narrative techniques [ 27 ]. Country of the corresponding author was coded by income classification based on World Bank definitions of gross national income per capita. The three categories were low (< US$1085), middle (US$1086–13,205), and high income (> US$13,205) [ 28 ]. Data collection methods were categorised as qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods, with specific data collection methods (e.g., interviews, surveys) also extracted and examined.

The factors that supported, developed or enhanced systems resilience were initially identified through an inductive thematic approach [ 29 ] by two authors (LAE, MS). Themes and sub-themes were then discussed and agreed by the researchers using an iterative process. Upon further analysis and reflection of the themes, it was clear that a number of the themes aligned with the ‘capacities’ for resilience outlined by Lyng et al. [ 30 ]. Therefore, in the next phase, a deductive approach was taken where the themes and sub-themes were mapped to eight of the resilience ‘capacities’. Some minor amendments were made based upon differences in themes identified in the literature included in the present review compared with the capacities. Two of the ‘capacities’ outlined by Lyng et al. [ 30 ], namely ‘competence’ and ‘facilitators’, were not included owing to the lack of data mapping to these themes, as identified from the initial inductive analysis. Themes and subthemes were cross-referenced across all studies to ensure that the revised thematic map captured the meaning across all the included studies. The last phase involved defining the themes (see Table  1 for definitions as applied in this study). Consequences of maintaining resilient performance were similarly identified using an inductive thematic approach [ 29 ] by two authors (LAE, MS).

Overview of included studies

The initial search retrieved a total of 5844 publications. After removing duplicates, 4634 remained for title and/or abstract review. Following title and/or abstract screening, 4404 publications were discarded as they did not meet the inclusion criteria. Based on the full-text assessment, a further 184 publications did not meet the inclusion criteria, resulting in 50 publications included in this review (see Supplementary File 3 for included articles). Figure  2 demonstrates the inclusion and exclusion of papers at each stage of the screening process.

PRISMA flow diagram for study selection process

Summary characteristics of the included studies

A summary of the key characteristics of the included papers is provided in Table  2 . The 50 studies were spread widely, across 45 different journals, with Safety Science (n = 3, 6.0%) and the International Journal of Health Policy and Management (n = 3, 6.0%) being the most popular. The source location was also spread widely, across 25 different countries, with most corresponding authors from the United Kingdom (n = 8, 16.0%), followed by the United States (n = 6, 12.0%). Although most studies were restricted to high-income countries (n = 34, 68%), a notable number of corresponding authors were identified from low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) (n = 16, 32.0%), and with four (8%) of these being from Brazil.

Close to half (n = 20, 40%) of the studies were conducted in the context of hospitals, which generally involved hospital healthcare workers and/or hospital leaders as participants. Four studies (8%) [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ] were specifically focused on supply chain issues related to medical supply availability in the context of system adaptability and resilience, and its impact on the healthcare system more broadly. Of the studies conducted in the context of community and specialised care (n = 15, 30%), a number were focused on the resilient performance of aged care services [ 35 , 36 , 37 ] or community mental health services [ 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Primary care was a setting in seven studies (14%), with a focus on the perspectives of primary care providers in relation to healthcare system resilience [ 38 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ]. Over half of the studies were classified as being at the meso level (n = 29, 58%) of the healthcare system, with fewer studies being at the micro level (n = 17, 34%) or macro level (n = 18, 36%). Notably, eleven (61%) of these macro-level studies, incorporated data from multiple countries, such as a comparison study of health system resilience across six European countries, a comparison study of government actions and their relation to systems resilience between Canada and Australia, and an indicator-based analysis of risk and resilience that incorporated ‘big data’ from 11 countries.

Three-quarters of the studies were qualitative (n = 39, 78%), seven were mixed-methods (14%) and four were quantitative (8%). Although most studies utilised primary data alone (n = 39, 78%), seven studies relied on secondary datasets (14%), such as existing big data sources [ 47 ] and questionnaire data [ 48 , 49 ], and a smaller number used both primary and secondary datasets (n = 4, 8%).

Data collection methods and tools to assess RHC

Most of the studies collected data from direct sources (i.e., where participants directly express their experience of how work takes place in practice) [ 16 ], and included interviews (n = 32, 64%), surveys (n = 15, 30%) or focus groups (n = 3, 6%). A smaller number of studies included indirect sources, such as document analysis (n = 9, 18%), observations (n = 4, 8%), and/or simulation (n = 2, 4%). One-third of studies developed and/or used tools to study RHC (n = 17, 34%); of these, over half employed researcher-developed questionnaires to assess or understand resilient performance (n = 11, 65%), three adopted a ‘big data’ indicator-based approach to assess systems resilience for emergency preparedness, two studies drew on the more commonly regarded Functional Resonance Analysis Method (FRAM) [ 50 ], and one study used observation tools based on the “Mayo high performance team scale” [ 51 ] and the “Scrub Practitioners List of Intra-operative Non-Technical Skills (SPLINTS)” [ 52 ].

Over half the researcher-developed questionnaires (n = 7, 64%) were based on a conceptual framework, including Hollnagel’s [ 53 ] ‘four cornerstones of resilience’ [ 54 ], Anderson et al.’s [ 55 ] Integrated Resilience Attributes Framework [ 56 ], Bueno et al.’s [ 57 ] guidelines for coping with complexity [ 58 ], Macrae and Wiig’s [ 59 ] resilience framework [ 35 ], the WHO’s [ 60 ] fundamental ‘building blocks’ of health systems [ 61 , 62 ] and the WHO’s hospital readiness checklist [ 63 , 64 ]. Three additional survey studies lacking a conceptual framework collected predominantly open-ended questionnaire data on how everyday clinical work is being performed during the pandemic (i.e., work-as-done), via the perceptions and experiences of healthcare workers [ 32 , 43 ], using inductive content analysis, and to confirm or corroborate any emerging themes identified from interview data [ 65 ]. One final questionnaire tool was developed to assess hospital inventory management, including the impact of COVID-19 on the availability of supply and the processes established to enhance supply chain resilience [ 31 ].

Capacities that developed and enhanced resilient performance

Based on the analysis of the included studies, eight key factors or capacities were identified at different system levels to develop or enhance resilient performance, as outlined in the following section. In this section, the eight resilience capacities have been discussed sequentially from the capacity that occurred most prevalently within the included studies to the capacity that occurred least prevalently, namely: structure, alignment, coordination, learning, involvement, risk awareness, leadership, and communication. Figure  3 provides a visual summary of the eight factors and their sub-themes (also see Supplementary File 4 giving examples for each subtheme).

Resilience capacities and related sub-themes

Structure as a capacity for resilience was identified in more than four-fifths of included studies (n = 37, 74%) and referred to the structures that support work and practice within healthcare organisations. Across the included studies in this review, five sub-themes contributed to structural capacity, including: technology, physical equipment, workforce, governance systems and financial resources.

The most prevalent among the subthemes, technology (n = 27, 54%), concerned how software and hardware were utilised during the pandemic to support the continued delivery of regular healthcare services, as well as COVID-specific responses. Several studies highlighted a spike in the use of different technologies to enable the provision of patient care in different settings [ 41 , 44 , 66 , 67 ]. For example, Gifford et al. [ 66 ] reported the way in which wards and outpatient clinics rapidly converted to “digital” wards involving e-health, video and phone consultations. Alternatively, in one study from Canada [ 68 ], a lack of appropriate technology impeded resilient performance, with the rapid but “piecemeal” adoption of multiple virtual care technologies during COVID-19 resulting in systems that duplicated administrative work for healthcare professionals.

Access to physical equipment (n = 18, 36%), such as personal protective equipment (PPE), or flexible workspaces, was another prevalent subtheme across the studies. In many instances it was the lack of availability of this equipment, particularly during the early stages of the pandemic, that impeded the COVID response [ 36 , 46 , 69 ]. However, several studies reported the way in which organisations rapidly responded by adapting equipment levels, including how and where they sourced physical equipment, as well as their novel repurposing of in-house equipment [ 35 ] and wards to create additional capacity [ 66 ].

Workforce (n = 11, 22%) involved access to staff, workforce stability, and the designation of roles and responsibilities. Some of these studies highlighted challenges in recruitment, and how understaffing affected resilient performance [ 39 , 69 ], as there was both increased demand for healthcare and staff shortages due to workers contracting COVID-19. Organisational adaptations to promote resilience and address this issue included the reassignment of staff to other parts of the hospital [ 56 ] and expanding their reach in hiring new staff, which included the provision of financial incentives [ 39 ] and the re-employment of recently retired staff [ 66 ].

Governance systems and protocols (n = 19, 38%) involved the development of new policies, or modification of existing ones, to support the many changes in work practices during the pandemic. In some instances, these policies were devised at a macro-level [ 39 ], while in others they were more locally developed [ 70 ]. Along with this, financial resources (n = 5, 10%), involved funding changes wrought by the pandemic, including the allocation of funding to support COVID care delivery [ 71 ], as well as the financial implications of the pandemic in lost revenue due to a reduction in consultations, particularly identified for small healthcare providers [ 41 ].

Alignment as a capacity for resilient performance referred to the adaptation of practices in response to the ever-changing problems posed by the COVID-19 pandemic [ 30 ]. Identified in over half of the included studies (n = 30, 60%), the alignment capacity included three subthemes: role evolution; micro-level workarounds and trade-offs; and meso- to macro-level re-structuring, rescaling and compensation strategies.

Role evolution (n = 13, 26%) concerned how roles and responsibilities of healthcare workers and leaders changed or expanded in response to the ongoing challenges of the pandemic. Healthcare managers and leaders were asked to step into different functions; for example, in crisis management, communications and crisis responses [ 66 ]. Clinical staff also needed to expand their responsibilities, extend their working hours, and were redeployed to other wards to fulfill staff shortages and meet patient demands [ 66 ]. A smaller number of staff were redeployed to special COVID-19 teams, providing direct care to infected patients [ 56 , 66 , 72 ] and healthcare leaders worked from home [ 56 ], to limit further staff exposure to the virus. The change in workspace and role, as well as the pressing needs of COVID-19 infected patients, meant that staff had to be trained in new procedures and practices; for instance, redeployed physiotherapists into intensive care units and research staff into clinical roles [ 71 ]. Although redeployment sometimes caused stress and uncertainty, with the additional challenge of unfamiliar workspaces and colleagues, redeployment was also perceived as an opportunity for positive career development and empowerment [ 65 ].

The COVID-19 pandemic introduced a need for healthcare workers to improvise and develop solutions to unexpected and frequent problems, introducing workarounds and trade-offs (n = 19, 38%) at the micro-system level. Several studies highlighted how healthcare workers developed unique and creative workarounds at the front-line to help them cope with ongoing challenges [ 35 , 41 , 66 , 70 ]. For example, workarounds intended to ease the impact of the pandemic on patients and their families included: decorating PPE masks, using dance as a greeting instead of hugging, and providing outdoor concerts for patients [ 35 , 70 ]. Additionally, some studies described staff changes in prioritization, also known in the RHC literature as trade-offs, directing their capacity to where it was needed most. This meant that scheduled surgeries and regular care were scaled down to increase capacity such as in intensive care units (ICUs) and emergency departments [ 66 ]. The risk of infection also introduced trade-offs for community health workers, as home visits were no longer allowed; instead, community health workers began to take on administrative tasks at health clinics [ 43 ].

The COVID-19 pandemic also led to alignment strategies at the meso- and macro-levels, as COVID-19 provided exceptional demands for all parts of the health system. Re-organisation , rescaling and compensation (n = 19, 38%) strategies at the organizational level included arranging for COVID-19 treatment areas, wards, assessment clinics, COVID-19 teams, and new types of administration [ 71 ]. Furthermore, new emergency plans, policies, and safety standards, such as providing separate entrances and exits at nursing homes [ 35 ], were initiated to limit spread of the virus [ 69 ]. Unlike their traditional way of working, strategies for restructuring, rescaling, and compensation often had to be created “on the go” due to the unpredictability and unfamiliarity of the situation [ 39 ]. However, two studies highlighted [ 58 , 66 ] that healthcare systems can cope more effectively with future crises by factoring in “slack resources” at an organizational level and collective level (i.e., network or national), thereby ensuring the continued availability of critical medical supplies, equipment, and human resources. Likewise, supply chain resilience studies described the adoption of “buffering” and “bridging” strategies [ 34 ], along with “strategic purchasing” [ 33 ], to ensure continued healthcare supply and equipment availability across the healthcare system.

Coordination

Coordination as a capacity for resilience referred to how teams facilitated and organised work within and between teams and organisations. Identified in over half (n = 28, 56%) of studies in this review, coordination included the following five subthemes: team cohesion; multidisciplinary teamwork; team communication; inter-organisational coordination; and intra-organisational coordination. In terms of team cohesion (n = 10, 20%), building a supportive and cohesive team was regarded as an important factor in developing and sustaining resilient performance, particularly at the clinical micro-systems of care. Several studies expressed increased “connection” [ 72 ], “collaboration” [ 39 , 70 , 71 , 72 ] and a “sense of camaraderie” [ 70 ] among teams during the pandemic as they “rallied together” [ 40 ] and “worked together toward a common goal” [ 70 ]. Traditional clinical hierarchies were also reported as less important during delivery of care [ 72 ], leading to enhanced team dynamics and coordination [ 73 ]. Three studies also highlighted the role of “peer support” [ 56 , 65 , 69 ] as co-workers provided reassurance and supported staff wellbeing.

Multidisciplinary teamwork (n = 10, 20%) was also emphasised as critical in developing and sustaining resilient performance during the pandemic. Multidisciplinary teamwork was often initially made more difficult (e.g., in cases where teams were physically divided, or fewer staff on site), however, healthcare workers adapted [ 70 ] and used creative solutions to make multidisciplinary care more accessible [ 44 , 56 , 70 , 74 ]. Hodgins et al. [ 71 ] described the “breaking down of silos”, with staff from different disciplines “coming together” to support each other and sustain resilience. Ensuring that team communication (n = 5, 10%) remained open within and between teams was also critical to ensure teams remained connected and up to date with the ever-changing situation, as well as helping to facilitate the support process [ 39 , 42 , 72 , 75 ].

Along with evolving processes and workflows, inter-organisational coordination (n = 15, 30%) and teamwork evolved throughout the pandemic. Several studies outlined the establishment of multidisciplinary teams being formed at the hospital throughout various stages of the pandemic (e.g., COVID-19-management teams, emergency response teams, specialist care teams) [ 40 , 63 , 66 , 72 , 74 ] to enable rapid response and care to changing situations. Resilient performance was fostered by experienced teams and inter-organisational collaborations who adapted and worked together, with tenacity and creativity, in ways that previously had not been required [ 36 , 67 , 70 ]. Intra-organisational coordination (n = 7, 14%) was also described as critical during the pandemic, providing a buffer to combat resource shortages (e.g., workforce, equipment, knowledge). Services were reported as drawing on both new and pre-existing relationships to overcome barriers to care [ 34 , 36 , 74 ].

Learning as a capacity for resilient performance described the facilitation of knowledge acquisition, through the provision of learning activities and opportunities [ 30 ]. Learning was identified in just under half of the included studies (n = 21, 42%), and consisted of three subthemes: on-the-job learning, training, and simulation.

On-the-job learning (n = 9, 18%) became particularly important during the COVID-19 pandemic. Exposure to new situations, equipment, and regulations, forced healthcare personnel to continuously adjust and learn during everyday work; for example, the appropriate use of protective equipment [ 35 ] or the prompt need to develop decision-making and communication skills [ 69 ]. The novelty of the situation, with lack of standardized treatment plans often brought a trial-and-error approach whereby healthcare personnel became prepared through on-going daily training sessions [ 72 ], and through shared knowledge and experience [ 65 , 69 , 72 ].

Training ( n = 15, 30%) referred to more planned and scheduled efforts to increase knowledge and preparedness through organised learning efforts, such as courses, simulations, e-learning, and workshops [ 56 ]. These training efforts had different aims than those before the pandemic, ranging from technical skill development, such as medical equipment [ 69 ], to non-technical skills such as management skills [ 66 , 70 ]. The training sessions often took place at in-house-learning arenas such as simulation centres or labs, but also online learning resources were applied to reach a boarder audience and avoid spread of the virus [ 70 ].

Simulation (n = 3, 6%) as a novel training approach was identified in a small number of studies to increase preparedness to the COVID- 19 situation. Simulations allowed for interdisciplinary teams to train together and become confident in their technical and non-technical skills [ 75 ]. New simulation teams were created, and schedules developed to run consecutive training sessions, allowing for a large part of the healthcare personnel to be involved in the training [ 71 ].

Involvement

Involvement, as a key capacity for resilience in healthcare, referred to how the organisation involved and supported effective interactions between different system actors such as family, patients, and other stakeholders [ 35 ]. Meaningful involvement was evident in over one-third (n = 18, 36%) of the included studies and identified through two subthemes: communication with patients and families, and meeting patients’ needs.

Technology and roles were leveraged as a means for communication with patients and families (n = 14, 28%) and ensured patients and families continued to be engaged with care delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic. Changes to protocols and policy intending to reduce the transmission of COVID-19 (e.g., physical distancing, reduced capacity) required healthcare personnel to adjust how patients and families were meaningfully involved in care from primarily face-to-face to remote platforms. For example, teleconsultation technology was used to facilitate patient access to care services including a 24-hour helpline [ 76 ], and new systems to provide care services with the means to monitor and support patients remotely [ 41 ]. Technology was also used during the ‘no visitor policy’ to allow COVID-19 patients to connect with their family and medical staff when in isolation [ 66 ]. Volunteer networks and patient navigators were also used to extend services and connect healthcare providers with families [ 70 , 77 ], with posters and flyers on public noticeboards also used to share important health related information with families with limited literacy [ 70 ].

Practices and processes were adapted to ensure the health system was meeting patients’ needs (n = 10, 20%) during the pandemic. Changes to practices and processes were intended to mitigate unintended consequences of reduced or remote interaction service delivery methods to manage COVID-19 (e.g., postponing care, contagion fear) and ensure care delivery strategies had the capacity to address the needs of patients and that patient access to care was maintained [ 38 ]. For example, nursing specific care delivery processes were adapted to overcome difficulties in involving patients and family members to meet the immediate needs of patients [ 72 ] and practices were reorganised to comply with hygienic guidelines, thus enabling patients with acute non-COVID-19 needs to access care [ 41 ].

Risk awareness

Risk awareness as a capacity for resilient performance, enhances a system’s resilience when understanding and responding to potential adverse events [ 30 ]. Identified in over one-third of included studies (n = 18, 36%), risk awareness comprised two subthemes: emergency preparedness; and proactive responses.

From the early stages of the pandemic, emergency preparedness (n = 10, 20%) to COVID-19 was fundamental in planning and arranging strategies to meet the constant demands on the health system [ 72 ]. The development and continued “fine-tuning” of emergency preparedness plans [ 39 , 41 , 42 , 61 , 78 ] has been described as both important and necessary [ 39 ]. Emergency plans were attuned to strengthen other resilience capacities, such as streamlining communication systems [ 42 , 78 ], governance structures (78) and decision-making structures, to ensure the “continued, effective operation of the health system” [ 42 ]. One study also highlighted that the knowledge and experience gained from COVID-19 has led to ongoing conversations at a leadership level around emergency preparedness for any future crises [ 39 ].

Monitoring and proactive response (n = 16, 32%) referred to the understanding of situational risks to allow for proactive responses at all healthcare levels [ 30 ]. Early responses to the pandemic were often described as “ad-hoc”, but as the pandemic progressed, indicators and responses were monitored internationally [ 36 , 72 , 79 ] to assess risk, enabling proactive rather than reactive responses to problems [ 36 , 72 , 79 ]. Several studies outlined the implementation of an emergency taskforce [ 36 , 61 , 72 ] which met daily to evaluate emerging evidence [ 36 ], or devised new prevention strategies [ 61 ] or digital healthcare supply chain strategy [ 78 ]. Other studies discussed organisational infrastructure to prepare for the future risk of an outbreak, such as tracking COVID-19 positive individuals within hospitals, monitoring PPE levels [ 71 ] and developing plans for housing patients at alternative locations [ 39 ].

Leadership (n = 16, 32%) as a resilient capacity demonstrated the important contribution of leaders to both their employees and the broader healthcare organisation. Four subthemes were identified that contributed to the leadership capacity: transparent and open communication; visibility at the frontlines of care; supportive and empowering; and decisive leadership.

Transparent and open communication (n = 4, 8%) from leaders was noted as crucial in dealing with the pandemic. Leaders were required to distribute a continuous flow of information from national and regional authorities to the front-line staff through various channels [ 35 ], providing updates as new information became known. In general, frontline staff found this information to be both useful and supportive [ 72 ].

Increased visibility of leaders at the frontlines of care (n = 8, 16%) was also identified as important. For example, Lyng et al. [ 35 ] reported that leaders at Norwegian nursing homes heavily affected by the pandemic altered their daily work schedules so they could be present at the frontlines of care. On the other hand, where staff expressed an absence of effective and visible leadership, there was a sense of “mistrust in leaders”, generating a negative environment [ 65 ].

Resilient performance was also associated with leaders who were s upportive and empowering (n = 8, 16%). Along with visibility at the frontlines, leaders were reported as providing logistical support, expressing “appreciation of hard work”, offering “motivations and rewards” to continue, and “empowerment” to adapt to the changed conditions [ 69 ]. At one large healthcare organisation, leaders were reported as showing genuine concern for their staff’s mental and physical wellbeing [ 39 ], and at others, as providing reassurance to “frightened and exhausted” staff [ 36 ].

The value of decisive leadership (n = 10, 20%) in enabling resilient performance during the pandemic was reported in several studies. The ongoing changing nature of the pandemic required leaders to make rapid decisions [ 36 ], be flexible yet decisive [ 39 ], take proactive steps, and adopt a more hierarchical “military” style of command [ 80 ]. For example, with the constant stream of new updates and information comings to leaders, they needed to adopt a “learning mindset” to respond effectively and be willing to change course if warranted by the new information [ 66 ].

Communication

In almost one-third of included studies (n = 15, 30%), communication was identified as a key capacity for resilient performance and included the systems of communication used to translate information within and between teams and organisations. Two main systems of communication were identified: formal communication, such as information communication technology [ 72 ] and policies sent via email [ 70 ]; and informal communication, such as social media apps [ 56 , 65 , 70 ].

Several studies reported the utilisation of formal communication systems (n = 10, 20%) during the COVID-19 pandemic. It was widely accepted that the pandemic necessitated the rapid upskilling and education of staff and patients, and it was crucial that information was accurately resourced and disseminated [ 71 ]. For example, rapidly changing information from national and regional authorities was circulated, and healthcare executives provided daily COVID-19 updates via several communication platforms, such as the staff intranet and emails [ 35 , 70 , 71 , 80 ]. Providers also received regular policy and procedural updates (e.g., infection control) as more information from regulatory bodies became available [ 72 ]. However, some communication gaps were also identified; for example, a lack of communication aligned with rapidly changing protocols that increased the difficulty of remaining informed [ 56 ]. Challenges included a lack of intra-and inter professional communication between other units [ 56 ], a lack of access to technology and inconsistent information [ 81 ].

Informal communication (n = 10, 20%) was also reported among many of the included studies, commonly involving the development of group chats via social media apps, such as WhatsApp. These communication tools facilitated the sharing of information, such as policy and procedural change, and helped to provide emotional support and load sharing at the start of the pandemic among teams [ 35 , 56 , 65 , 70 , 76 ].

Consequences on system agents

It was clear from the included studies that navigating the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic, which came with the need to constantly learn and make adaptations in response to unexpected variation and changes, came at a personal cost to healthcare workers, particularly to those at the frontlines of care. Nine (18%) of the included studies reported that the increased workload and strenuous work conditions had negative physical consequences on healthcare workers [ 54 , 56 , 61 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 79 , 81 , 82 ]. For example, nurses reported increased “tiredness”, “exhaustion”, “muscle weakness” and “loss of appetite”, during the pandemic as a result of working longer shifts, often without breaks, while being “weighed down by PPE equipment” [ 67 , 69 ].

The pandemic also exposed staff to stressful situations, which had considerable emotional consequences on staff, a theme identified in one-third of studies (n = 17, 34%). During the early stages of the pandemic, COVID-19 created an environment of uncertainty and fear among the population as a whole, but especially among front line workers [ 43 ], who expressed fear of dying from COVID-19, depression, worry, and frustration, among other psychological complaints [ 69 ]. Leaders were no different, with one study reporting that COVID-19 had also been emotionally demanding for staff in administrative and clinical leadership roles, with “constant exposure to vicarious trauma seeping into their personal and family time outside of work” [ 39 ]. Facing simultaneous pressures of physical and emotional demands, resulted in increased incidence of severe stress, emotional exhaustion, and burnout amongst healthcare workers [ 69 ]. One study further identified the cyclical nature of the problem, with burnt out healthcare workers on stress-leave causing greater staff shortages and increased workload for those remaining at work [ 56 ].

Several studies also identified that despite the healthcare system demonstrating several capacities to exhibit resilient performance in response to COVID-19, negative “spillover effects” were exhibited on routine patient care [ 44 ]. For example, Lotta et al. noted that the physical distancing requirements and mandatory use of PPE undermined everyday clinical work, with healthcare workers not being able to maintain contact with families [ 43 ]. Additionally, Akinyemi et al. [ 80 ] detailed that the COVID-19 pandemic negatively impacted service delivery in the healthcare system, for example, through disruptions to the appointment system and emergency and routine care services, which affected patient access to healthcare.

RHC broadly refers as a system’s capacity to maintain or restore its functions despite disruptions caused by external factors [ 59 ]. RHC does not focus on an individual’s coping and resilience capacity but rather on the factors and tools that enable the workers, teams, department and organisation to adapt and cope effectively in different situations [ 16 ]. RHC is a theoretically attractive concept, with its positive focus on how ‘things go right’ rather than wrong, and as evidenced by the number of reviews that have appeared on the topic in recent years [ 10 , 13 , 16 ].

Despite signs that RHC is maturing and formalising as a research paradigm [ 13 , 16 , 59 ], there have been calls for continued developments to strengthen RHC theory and research [ 13 ]. As evidenced by this review, the COVID-19 pandemic presented a unique opportunity to research and critically advance our understanding of RHC, and in particular, created a shift in focus from theoretical conceptualisations to identifying how we might understand factors or capacities that foster resilience across the health system [ 83 ]. Previously, empirical studies on RHC were rare and skewed towards the clinical microsystems of care, however, the surge of literature on RHC during the pandemic provided a unique opportunity to take stock of the empirical landscape [ 83 ]. Indeed, since the previous review by Iflaifel et al. [ 16 ], which found 71 empirical studies on RHC over an 18-year period, the present scoping review identified a further 50 studies, highlighting the unprecedented growth of empirical applications within the RHC field over the past three years.

Consistent with previous reviews [ 13 , 16 ], qualitative methods dominated the included studies, with interviews typically being used to capture healthcare workers’ perceptions and experiences during the pandemic. Although the extensive use of qualitative methods has been cited as one of the strengths of RHC [ 13 ], this review saw the application of existing tools (e.g., FRAM, SPLINTS) along with the emergence of new quantitative assessments and indicator-based modelling approaches that could have fruitful implications, particularly in terms of enhancing system preparedness and advancing measurement and monitoring of resilient performance over time. We also identified the development of new questionnaires to assess RHC; many of which were based on a conceptual framework (e.g., such as Hollnagel’s [ 53 ] ‘four cornerstones of resilience’ and Anderson et al.’s [ 55 ] Integrated Resilience Attributes Framework). In addition, we saw an increased number of studies examining RHC in LMICs. For example, the two studies of Karamaji et al. [ 48 , 49 ] presented an approach to assessing and monitoring health systems functionality in developing African countries, with a set of indicators that combine into a “resilience index”, each with varying levels of “transformation capacity”. While RHC theorists have historically resisted establishing indicators and measurement in this field, some people are expressing a need to advance our understanding of system resilience beyond the conventional health system building blocks of the WHO published 15 years ago [ 60 ]; thus, including measurement and monitoring is increasingly pressing.

A previous criticism has been that a preponderance of studies of RHC at micro and meso levels is “not sufficient to understand systems resilience” [ 84 ], and thus it was promising to see the emergence of macro level studies in this review. The macro-level study by Smaggus et al. [ 14 ], for example, examined government responses to the pandemic, by way of a document analysis of media releases, in two countries, Canada and Australia, expanding the scope of RHC research to different system levels, and incorporating a cross-country comparison [ 84 ]. Furthermore, Smaggus et al. [ 14 ] integrated several resilience theoretical frameworks to guide their study, illustrating how theory can inform research design and analysis. However, this study also highlighted some of the difficulties of researching RHC, particularly at the macro level, and that a mixed-methods approach (e.g., including interviews and observations alongside document analysis) would be likely to provide a more complex understanding on how government actions affect health system resilience, and build a better understanding of the links between actions at the macro level and other system levels.

What was clear was that the included studies reported varying degrees of preparedness and adaptive capacity across the different healthcare services. For example, a number of studies reported how well organisations or the people who work in them “evolved” to make things work [ 39 , 54 , 81 ], while others reported extreme physical and emotional demands, leading to stress and burnout amongst healthcare workers and poor clinical care [ 37 , 39 , 43 , 65 , 69 , 73 ]. This discrepancy between resilient performance and physical and emotional burnout could be explained by the extensive use of short-term adaptations, rather than long-term innovation and system change [ 35 ]. This tradeoff between short and long term adaptations can also be expressed as a tradeoff between “specified” and “general” resilience [ 85 ]. Healthcare personnel initiating short term adaptations and workarounds, such as taking on extra responsibility, working longer shifts, often without breaks to compensate for systems deficiencies, such as workforce shortages, may only have a short-term ‘firefighting’ effect on the specific situation [ 86 ]. Without long-term, general adaptations that foster organisational and system change, short term adaptations could potentially end up as a barrier for systemic resilient performance instead of a capacity [ 55 , 87 , 88 ].

This issue also reminds us of Woods [ 89 ] notion that all systems have an “envelope of performance”; a range of how much they can adapt, due to finite resources and the inherent variation in the system. When a system is pushed to the edge of its envelope, the system can either adapt and expand its performance further into “graceful extensibility” or become “brittle” and potentially lead to system collapse. Wear and Hettinger [ 90 ] also pointed to circumstances where local adaptations may become too extensive (the “tragedy of adaptability”). In the case of COVID-19, the continuous need for short-term adaptations placed the responsibility of the system’s ability for resilient performance on the sharp-end agents rather than the system itself, who over time became physically and emotionally exhausted. Although RHC has not often considered an individual’s coping and resilience capacity, how individual-level resilience interacts with team-, organizational- and broader systems resilience is a key area for future research.

An important contribution of this study is the recognition of eight key factors or capacities in the existing literature that potentially develop and enhance resilient performance. Recognising that healthcare is highly complex and unpredictable, and understanding that these factors were identified from studies in the context of COVID-19, these findings are highly concordant with the “capacities for resilient performance” identified in the qualitative study by Lyng et al. [ 30 ]. It is hoped that the capacities identified in this study can be facilitated and supported through the development of tools and interventions [ 91 ]. As identified by Lyng et al. [ 30 ] there were obvious interdependencies between the capacities; for example, between structure and leadership, given that leaders often facilitated the implementation and adherence to different structural features such as technology, guidelines or learning arenas; and between coordination and learning given that the greatest number of learning efforts related to team training and coordinating efforts to tackle the challenges related to COVID-19.

One noticeable difference, however, between our findings and those reported by Lyng et al., [ 30 ] was the emphasis placed of the the need for teamwork and collaboration during COVID-19. While Lyng et al. [ 30 ] suggested that different capacities require different levels of collaboration, higher levels of collaboration may have been required across all eight capacities during the pandemic. Again, this may reflect that many of the adaptations reported were largely reactive efforts focused on system recovery and restoring its equilibrium, particularly during the early stages of the pandemic, thus requiring short-term workarounds or solutions particularly at the front lines of care; but which are noble and important responses to handle peak activity situations [ 87 ]. Furthermore, COVID-19 prompted higher levels of collaboration, with the need to ‘rally together’ as they faced the same issues or ‘enemy’ across contexts and system levels. In the same way, two capacities presented by Lyng et al., namely ‘facilitators’ by way of champions and ‘competence’ by way of experience and knowledge, were less prominent in the present study. This is not to say that Lyng et al.’s capacities of competence and facilitators are not important for resilient performance, but rather, in the context of the pandemic, that the collaborative efforts needed to adapt to their joint challenges, may have made individual competencies and facilitators less important, or they were not reported in our included studies. Future studies should continue advancing this theoretical framework in order to integrate factors from different countries and settings and under different situations (stress, crisis, ordinary). Arguably, three of the most important capacities in advancing systems from reactive short-term adaptations at the micro-system level to longer-term “graceful extensibility” are effective leadership, communication and learning [ 92 ]. Indeed, examples of interventions promoting these three capacities are appearing in the literature [ 92 , 93 , 94 ]. For example, ‘tiered team huddles’ to enable sharing of ideas and issues from health workers at the ‘sharp end’ with middle and senior leadership, enabling communication across boundaries and enabling organizational learning [ 92 ]. A ‘learning health system’ [ 95 , 96 ], cultivated through innovative interventions like tiered team huddles, could improve communication across boundaries and facilitate long-term lasting change. Leaders also need to consider the negative impacts of short-term adaptations and workarounds on staff mental health.

The importance of system “slack” (or “buffer”) at an organizational level and collective level (i.e., network or national), was also highlighted in the study findings, to ensure that the healthcare system is prepared and enables organizational flexibility to deploy equipment and staff rapidly and effectively to where they are needed most [ 97 ]. The provision of a margin of manoeuvrability may also reduce the resulting negative effects of continuous micro-adaptations and increased staff workloads; thereby serving as a protective [ 98 ] mechanism.

Implications for research, policy and practice

Despite that the literature confirms that resilience-based efforts and analysis need to occur across system levels (i.e., micro, meso, macro), there is still relatively little understanding – both conceptually and empirically – about how the system levels interact with each other. Although the pandemic affected all system levels, presenting the perfect opportunity to study “cross-level interactions”, most of our included studies focused on one level of analysis. Yet as our review showed, there can be a “dark side or downside of resilience” [ 29 ]. What started out as resilient short-term adaptations were exhausting for the people working in the system, resulting in stress and burnout. Considerations for how individual-level resilience factors affect resilience factors at the team and organization-level is an important area for future research.

Of course, identifying the interactions between system levels is challenging, given the non-linear nature of such interactions and the time over which they may occur. Again, this issue points to the need for mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative) approaches, the dual consideration of both positive consequences (e.g., performance, efficiency, safety outcomes), and negative consequences (e.g., by including measures of stress, job satisfaction and burnout) of systems resilience, as well as the need to collect data longitudinally to increase our understanding of causal processes between the various system levels. Although quantitative resilience tools are emerging in the literature, more work is needed to establish theory driven and well validated tools for application at the various system levels.

In this study, the resilience capacities developed by Lyng et al. [ 30 ] proved to be an applicable and useful framework. Further empirical research building on this framework would be valuable, such as clarifying the degree of interrelatedness between the capacities, as well as designing and testing interventions around the capacities. One issue remains to be resolved, however; clarification is needed as to whether resilience should be studied as an “outcome, mediator, or determinant of a system’s performance” [ 83 ]. Some previous studies use these interchangeably: with resilience described as an underlying potential required to achieve a given outcome, while at the same time concluding that the system “was” or “proved” to be resilient. The capacity approach that we have taken here suggests that resilience is an underlying potential of the system, at its various levels, to adapt or restore its functions in response to disruption. We also call on researchers to be specific about whether they are referring to reactive adaptations focused on recovery or proactive efforts to minimise brittleness, with Woods’ [ 99 ] four conceptions of resilience potentially serving as a useful framework in this regard.

The results of this study, in combination with the Lyng et al.’s [ 30 ] capacities for resilient performance framework, can be used to guide interventions to support, develop or strengthen resilience. Understanding factors that develop or enhance RHC is critical to developing interventions and tools for strengthening their resilience [ 100 ]. This study thereby contributes to this work with key insights for intervention development that can be employed to enhance resilience performance.

Strengths and limitations

Data analysis and synthesis built on and strengthened the work of Lyng et al.’s [ 30 ] capacities for resilient performance framework; this framework can be further used as a basis to guide the next wave of research on RHC. The limitations of this review are primarily methodological. Due to our search strategy, we may have not identified valuable findings published in books, research reports and white papers. Future reviews of empirical studies in this field would benefit from by-hand searching particularly of books, where much of the foundational RHC literature has been identified [ 13 ]. Although we identified a relatively high proportion of articles from medium-income countries, our restriction to records in English and published works may have underestimated the true amount of literature emerging from LMIC. Our data extraction was also restricted to what was reported and discussed in the included studies. As a result, we may have under identified some important capacities and negative consequences. Using a data-based convergent synthesis approach, we transformed data from quantitative studies into categories or themes and did not analyse or report the results separately for different study types. Future research involving innovative methods for combining systematic review, concept analysis and bibliometric analysis could be used to summarise qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods RHC studies [ 101 ].

Our review identified an explosion of new empirical studies on health system resilience associated with COVID-19. The pandemic provided a unique ‘natural experiment’ and unprecedented opportunity to examine RHC theory in practice, and uncovered emerging new evidence on RHC theory and system factors that contribute to resilient performance at micro, meso and macro levels. Additionally, we identified potential unintended consequences of short-term responses to improve resilience without due consideration of the longer-term effects. These findings will facilitate strengthening of health system performance and resilience in responding to challenges and other unexpected events in the future.

Data Availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Functional Resonance Analysis Method

Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews

Resilient Health Care

Scrub Practitioners List of Intra-operative Non-Technical Skills

World Health Organisation

Low- and middle-income countries

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank and acknowledge Dylan Thomas (DT) and Lillian Tricker (LT) for their assistance with the title/abstract and full-text screening and Mr Jeremy Cullis for his help with devising the search strategy.

This work was supported by funded from NHMRC Partnership Centre in Health System Sustainability (Grant ID 9100002) and NHMRC Investigator Grant (Grant ID 1176620). HBL, CHD and SW receiving funding from the Research Council of Norway from the FRIPRO TOPPFORSK program (Grant ID 275367) to support their time on this project. These funding bodies had no role in the conception, design, data collection, analysis or decision to publish.

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This study was originally conceived by LAE. Data extraction and screening was conducted by LAE, MS, JCL, KC, EA, with assistance from HBL, CHD, SW, AC, RCW and JB. First draft of the results section was written by LAE and MS. All authors provided critical feedback and helped shape the final manuscript.

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Ellis, L.A., Saba, M., Long, J.C. et al. The rise of resilient healthcare research during COVID-19: scoping review of empirical research. BMC Health Serv Res 23 , 833 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-023-09839-0

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-023-09839-0

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Using psychology to understand and fight health misinformation

Executive summary

Misinformation spreads rapidly across social media and other online platforms, posing risks to individual health and societal well-being. Research on the psychology of misinformation has proliferated in recent years, yet many questions remain about how and why misinformation spreads , how it affects behavior , and how best to counter it . Answering these questions well depends in part on how misinformation is defined; it can include inaccurate news, conspiracy theories, disinformation campaigns, propaganda, and slanted reporting. In this report, we define misinformation as “any information that is demonstrably false or otherwise misleading, regardless of its source or intention.”

Misinformation has been described as a global harm, but the amount of misinformation encountered by people is difficult to determine. Estimates indicate that it accounts for 0.2% to 29% of overall news consumption, but the proportion may be higher for specific groups or for topics such as health. The problem with current estimates is that they tend to be platform-specific, constrained to text-based information (vs. images or videos), based on limited public data, and insensitive to the fact that some groups are disproportionately targeted. Further insight requires large-scale studies in real-world settings across different social media platforms.

This report describes the best available psychological science on misinformation, particularly as it relates to health. It offers eight specific recommendations to help scientists, policymakers, and health professionals respond to the ongoing threats posed by misinformation.

Our analysis centers on three crucial questions:

• What are the psychological factors that make people susceptible to believe and act on misinformation?
• How and why does misinformation spread?
• What interventions can be used to counter misinformation effectively?

Recommendations

Although significant questions remain, the available psychological science yields important conclusions about the origins and spread of misinformation and how to counter it effectively. Based on these findings, we present eight specific recommendations for scientists, policymakers, media, and the public to meet the ongoing risk of misinformation to health, well-being, and civic life:

• Avoid repeating misinformation without including a correction.
• Collaborate with social media companies to understand and reduce the spread of harmful misinformation.
• Use misinformation correction strategies with tools already proven to promote healthy behaviors (e.g., counseling, skills training, incentives, social norms).
• Leverage trusted sources to counter misinformation and provide accurate health information.
• Debunk misinformation often and repeatedly using evidence-based methods.
• Prebunk misinformation to inoculate susceptible audiences by building skills and resilience from an early age.
• Demand data access and transparency from social media companies for scientific research on misinformation.
• Fund basic and translational research into the psychology of health misinformation, including effective ways to counter it.

Read more details about the recommendations

APA resolution

Combating misinformation and promoting psychological science literacy

Approved by APA Council of Representatives, February 2024

Download the executive summary (PDF, 69KB)

Download the full report (PDF, 1.7MB)

Read the press release

Related topics

• Misinformation and disinformation
• Journalism and facts