essay on ancient education and modern education

Essay on Ancient Education and Modern Education

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100 Words Essay on Ancient Education and Modern Education

Introduction.

Education has always been a crucial part of human society. From ancient times to the modern era, it has seen significant changes.

Ancient Education

In ancient times, education was mainly about survival skills and cultural values. It was informal and passed down from generation to generation.

Modern Education

Modern education, on the other hand, is formal and structured. It focuses on subjects like science, mathematics, and languages. It aims to prepare students for various professions.

While the methods of ancient and modern education differ, both share the common goal of imparting knowledge and skills to the next generation.

250 Words Essay on Ancient Education and Modern Education

Education, a cornerstone of societal development, has undergone significant transformations over time. From the rudimentary systems in ancient civilizations to the digital classrooms of today, the evolution of education reflects the progression of human intellect and technology.

Ancient education was primarily oral, with a focus on building moral character and practical skills. In Greece, education was a means to create a well-rounded citizen, while in India, the Gurukul system emphasized spiritual education. The ancient Egyptian system, on the other hand, was vocational, equipping students with skills necessary for specific trades.

Contrastingly, modern education is more structured, standardized, and inclusive. It centers around literacy and numeracy, while also integrating a wide array of subjects to provide a holistic learning experience. Modern education, facilitated by technological advancements, has transcended geographical boundaries, enabling learning anytime, anywhere.

While ancient education was tailored to individual needs and local societal structures, modern education aims to provide a uniform learning experience. The latter, however, is criticized for its one-size-fits-all approach, often failing to cater to individual learning styles.

In conclusion, ancient and modern education systems, distinct in their methodologies and objectives, are reflective of their respective eras. The challenge for contemporary education is to integrate the strengths of ancient education – its focus on character building and individuality – with the benefits of modern systems, thereby fostering a balanced and effective educational landscape.

500 Words Essay on Ancient Education and Modern Education

Education, a fundamental human right, is a dynamic and evolving process. Over time, it has transformed significantly, from the ancient Gurukul system to the modern digital classrooms. This essay explores the journey of education from its ancient roots to its contemporary form.

Ancient Education System

The ancient education system was primarily focused on developing a holistic personality. Students were taught ethics, philosophy, warfare, literature, and various other subjects. The Gurukul system in India, for example, emphasized moral education and character building. The Greek system, on the other hand, focused on intellectual and physical education. In China, Confucianism played a significant role in shaping the education system, which emphasized respect for elders, love for learning, and moral virtues.

Ancient education was a personalized experience where the teacher-student relationship was central. Knowledge was orally transmitted, and learning was more experiential and practical. However, it was often exclusive, with education primarily accessible to the upper classes, and there was a lack of standardized curriculum.

Transition to Modern Education

The transition from ancient to modern education was marked by the democratization of knowledge. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century was a significant turning point, making books more accessible and affordable, thereby promoting literacy among the masses. The industrial revolution further necessitated a shift in the education system to produce skilled workers for factories.

Modern Education System

Modern education is characterized by its structured and systematic approach. It is universal, compulsory, and is based on a standardized curriculum. The focus is on cognitive development, with emphasis on subjects like mathematics, science, and languages.

Modern education promotes critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity. The use of technology has further revolutionized education, making it more interactive and engaging. Online platforms, digital classrooms, and e-learning have made education accessible to everyone, regardless of geographical boundaries.

However, modern education is often criticized for its examination-oriented approach, which can limit the scope of learning. It is also seen as overly theoretical, with less emphasis on practical, hands-on learning.

In conclusion, both ancient and modern education systems have their strengths and weaknesses. While the ancient system was more holistic and personalized, it was less accessible and lacked standardization. The modern system, on the other hand, is universal and systematic but can sometimes be overly theoretical and examination-driven.

The ideal education system would be a blend of both, taking the holistic approach of ancient education and the accessibility and standardization of modern education. It would foster a learning environment that encourages critical thinking, creativity, and character building, while also being inclusive and accessible to all.

Education, being an ever-evolving process, should continue to adapt and transform, incorporating the best of both worlds to foster a more enlightened and inclusive society.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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• Essay on Aim of Education
• Essay on Advantages of Education
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Difference Between Ancient Education and Modern Education System

• Difference between Ancient Education and Modern Education System
• Ancient education vs modern education
• Traditional education vs modern education
• The ancient and modern education system in India

It all started with that Stone Age fellow who realized that he and his contemporaries could understand each other’s cries and grunts.

Then came another fellow who invented tools and soon they all had improved fashion wear and the basic makings of a language. And what do you do when you have a language? You pass it on.

Ancient education and modern education are very different but also have some similarities like using a language or a particular place to study.

Yes, we romanticize ancients with their pyramids, Parthenon and Stonehenge wondering what hidden knowledge they bore. But frankly, those ain’t cost-effective structures to be built in the 21st century.

The chief Difference between Ancient Education and Modern Education systems would be that in the modern education system, it is free and compulsory.

You are going to school whether you like it or not. Joking aside, the ancient education system was more on trying to understand the world philosophically than scientifically. In the modern education system, you’ve got to prove what you say.

Ancient Education vs Modern Education

If we were to go Ancient education vs modern education, both have their benefits well suited for their times. The latter seems more valuable and sane than the prior.

However, they do have their differences mostly sticking to the facts of great technological differences, world view, and the fantastic size of the population. Besides we cannot forget religious and societal differences.

To better understand the differences between ancient education and modern education systems, we will have to compare them with certain facets. It will be done by comparing ancient Greeks and Romans with the modern education system.

Students in The Ancient Education System

Although there is no absolute information, it is safer to assume that the city populace had a higher literacy rate. There existed group schools which were mostly for boys.

A few girls did learn to read but at home. They never went to school. The possibility of homeschooling for girls entirely depended on their parent’s choice.

Students in The Modern Education System

Besides, it is the parent’s civic duty to send their children to school failing which can attract legal prosecution in some countries.

Educators in The Ancient Education System

Teachers in ancient Greece suffered from the same problem that teachers suffer in the modern world, low wages.

Meanwhile, teachers were literates but not all were scholars. Education was mostly about reading and writing for some.

Given the legend of Greek achievements in philosophy and other areas, Romans often employed Greeks as schoolteachers.

Some of these teachers were from the enslaved population. Romans believed that Greeks had a scholarly ability and hence Greek literature was part of the roman curriculum.

Educators in The Modern Education System

Teachers in modern schools and the education system are required to have at least 16 or more years of formal education. They have to be certified and have to bear degrees that are particularly designed for the carrier.

Subjects Studied in The Ancient Education System

Ancient Greeks fancied oratory, reading and writing, history, poetry, music , athletics, and arithmetic. Similarly, Romans incorporated the same system with an addition of Latin. Also, rhetoric was given a greater preference.

Subjects Studied in The Modern Education System

There is no lack of a variety of subjects available for a learner to learn in the modern education system. There are basic subjects all must learn and then there are specializations by choice.

The basic subjects include reading, writing, languages, science, social science, math, physical education, sports, music, art, and applied sciences.

Those looking for specialization can pick anything from economics, fine arts to medicine and quantum mechanics.

School in The Ancient Education System

An individual would have a bunch of small buildings where he did hire teachers to take classes or a self-employed teacher would take classes at his house or out near a tree or a brook.

Romans kind of followed what Greeks did and their school year began in March.

School in The Modern Education System

Huge buildings and campuses housing hundreds if not thousands of students. Separate spaces for learning, entertainment, food preparation, residence, and infirmary.

Total Years of Schooling in The Ancient Education System

There wasn’t exactly a proper period of education and largely depended on the students and their parents.

Meanwhile, in the Roman Empire, education started from the age of seven and lasted till twelve. Later, some students went to high schools.

Total Years of Schooling in The Modern Education System

Students begin their education from the age of 4 and continue till the age of 18 assuming, they cleared all the exams every year. Later, they can study another 3 to 7 years to complete higher education.

Careers Requiring Education in The Ancient Education System

Anyone trying to become a politician had to have a good public speaking ability. Therefore training in rhetoric was essential.

Meanwhile, businesses were conducted orally than in writing. Similarly, politicians and those of the priestly class were required to have literacy and rhetoric. Education wasn’t mandatory for businessmen.

Careers Requiring Education in The Modern Education System

No matter which profession, basic education is almost always required. Besides, there aren’t many jobs available for the uneducated.

In the ancient education system, literacy was not universal. It was neither a duty nor a right.

Generally, rich folk’s children were taught to read while the education of the children in the labour class was limited to their parent’s trade.

However, the modern education system is free and compulsory for all. Governments spend millions of dollars to get their entire population educated, at least with a basic level of education. Achieving 100% literacy is more of a civic goal .

People in the ancient world valued education but not knowing to read or write was not considered an embarrassment.

One could seek and find assistance for reading or writing something. Besides, a man’s word in that era did bear his respect and value.

Coming to the modern world, education is considered valuable and prestigious. Parents rich or poor, want their children to get educated to the highest level possible.

A bad effect of this is that some students who are extremely good or pretty bad at studies usually get shamed.

Traditional Education vs Modern Education

The traditional education system and modern education system are unique and very different from each other.

Considering Traditional education vs modern education, it can be observed that the prior deals with traditions passed from one generation to the other.

The latter, however, deals with a more scientific approach that is, it teaches students, skills to survive in the present world of science and technology.

In traditional education, a teacher passes on values , skills, manners, and social practices from their generation to the next generation. The aim is to ensure the survival of the future generation.

Education mostly revolves around traditions and customs. It is usually done through oral recitation and involves very little written or practical work .

The students will listen to the recitation and by-heart it. They might have to pass through a not-so-formal oral exam.

Traditional education has got everything to do with religion, tradition, and customs. It does not give any importance to science and technology.

Modern education is in an entirely other direction. It is a scientific method and is the form of education imparted in schools today.

It teaches a student the basic skills required to survive in the modern world of science and technology. This system involves listening, writing, speaking, imagining, visualizing, and problem-solving skills .

Students are expected to pass through very formal tests and prove that they have learnt their lessons well.

In other words, the modern education system has evolved from the traditional oral education system.

The latter then improved to the traditional system of writing on blackboards and books. This in turn has gone modern with online education on laptops and tablets.

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The Ancient and Modern Education System in India

India’s ancient education system has attracted scholars from throughout the world. Besides, Nalanda University in India is considered to be the first residential university in the world.

The ancient and modern education system in India is two different faces of the education system in India.

However, they do have a common history connecting them. It is worth noting that the education system in India has always been an attraction worldwide, be it in ancient or modern times.

The ancient education system in India began with Rigveda, which dealt with the growth and taking care of the inner and other self of an individual.

It focused on moral , physical, spiritual, and intellectual aspects of life. It was later followed by other forms of Vedas and Upanishads.

Education was imparted at home, in temples, gurukuls , or pathshalas. Education could be given in residential ashrams or for some hours daily.

Accounts of Chinese scholars describe that kings and society took great interest in promoting education.

This led to the creation of many famous educational centres like Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramshila, Odantapuri, and others.

The syllabus as well as the selection of students was completely in the hands of the teacher.

The course concluded when the teacher was satisfied with the student’s performance. The method of teaching was through debate and discussion .

It may be noted that education was considered sacred and was free of charge. However, any donations for education were considered to be of the highest form.

The ancient education system in India was not centralized and focused on the holistic development of the students through rich cultural traditions.

The modern education system was introduced into India by the British which is still followed in the country. This system changed the age-old archaic systems with the English way.

Past the independence of India, the government of India understood the great need and value of education and put in great effort to get people into schools and educate them.

The far-sight of the visionary leader Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the much-needed educational reforms in the country. Presently, the country has world-renowned universities attracting students from all over the world.

The modern education system in India follows a pyramidal structure starting with the Pre-primary level, Primary (elementary) level, Secondary level, and higher education.

Through the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2002, elementary education has been made a fundamental right.

Successive Union and state governments have spent millions of rupees to spread literacy in the country with Kerala becoming the state with the highest literacy rate in India.

The Indian modern education system aims to provide free and compulsory elementary education to all irrespective of their caste or creed.

To ensure there is no disparity in access to education, the government has also provided reservations for the SC, ST, OBS, and other minorities in the society.

There are differences between Ancient Education and Modern Education systems but where we have reached now, it all thanks to someone in history noticing the need and value of education.

It is worth mentioning that though we have gone modern, we are now incorporating ancient methods into the modern system to further optimize it.

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Difference between Ancient and Modern Education System in India

Back to: UGC NET Paper 1 Unit 10

Difference between ancient and modern education system in India

Education in India dates back to the 3rd century BC. It mainly consisted of religious training elements and imparting of traditional knowledge. The education was imparted orally by sages and scholars while palm leaves and the barks of trees were used as writing materials. Both formal education and informal education were imparted at the time and indigenous education was imparted at temples, tols, Gurukuls, and the like. The foundation of ancient Indian education was epistemological and philosophical traditions revolving around the idea of the ephemerality of life and world, concept of ultimate death, and the futility of mundane pleasures.

Difference Between Ancient and Modern Education System in India 

There are many differences between the ancient Indian education system and modern education system. A lot of advancement has been made in the sphere of education since the early days. These days, many digital initiatives are being taken to facilitate quality and convenient education which was not so during ancient days.

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Home > Books > Lifelong Learning - Education for the Future World [Working Title]

Bridging the Gap: Traditional vs. Modern Education (A Value-Based Approach for Multiculturalism)

Submitted: 13 November 2023 Reviewed: 06 December 2023 Published: 18 January 2024

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.114068

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Lifelong Learning - Education for the Future World [Working Title]

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The dynamic landscape of education has witnessed a profound shift from traditional to modern pedagogical paradigms over the years. The discussion of results delves into the intriguing debate between traditional and modern educational systems (TES and MES), examining them through the lens of a value-based approach. This exploration is crucial in understanding how these two approaches shape the educational experiences of learners, faculty, and impact society at large. Drawing from the literature review and insights from a survey involving 179 students and 28 faculty staff, the work advocates a balanced integration of traditional and modern educational approaches. It underscores the pressing need for a value-based model that harmonizes age-old wisdom with contemporary innovations. The survey reveals student aspirations for a holistic, value-driven education, while the faculty acknowledges challenges and opportunities inherent in bridging this educational gap. In conclusion, the data reinforce the value-based approach, emphasizing its importance in curricula and pedagogy to promote ethical values, critical thinking, and empathy. Furthermore, the findings shed light on practical implementation challenges and offer valuable guidance to educators and policymakers. In an era of transformative education, bridging theory and practice will resonate with both students and faculty who recognize the societal benefits of a balanced synthesis between tradition and modernity.

• traditional education
• modern education
• value-based approach
• multiculturalism
• pedagogical paradigm
• ethical values
• critical thinking

Author Information

Oksana chaika *.

• National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected], [email protected]

1. Introduction

The contemporary state of education is subject to be in constant flux, paving new ways and vision for the pedagogical paradigms with technological advancements, evolving societal needs, and being parallelly shaped by historical traditions driven by established educational practices. In recent decades, the dichotomy between traditional and modern educational systems (TES and MES) has emerged as a central point of debate [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Traditional education, deeply rooted in heritage, often emphasizes rote learning and discipline [ 4 , 5 ], especially for science majors such as math, physics, etc. that lay primary focus on calculation and comprehension, that is, according to Wang “some subjects that focus more on thinking application and deep calculation should be taught in traditional ways” ([ 4 ], p. 272) and “although traditional lecture-style teaching is more boring than high-tech classrooms, it can be more effective at improving test scores” ([ 4 ], p. 271); it is also stated that “rote learning is a well-practiced approach at all educational level, where education and assessments emphasize on memorization of content rather than comprehension and application of content in real life events” ([ 5 ], p. 114). On the other hand, modern education emphasizes innovation, learner-centric methodologies, and the integration of technology, among which cultural literacy, originality, and creativity play a crucial role, for example, “the content [of cultural literacy] in the pedagogical culture is seen pertinent to the modern FL teacher” and at the same time, it includes “professionalism, non-standard way of thinking/thinking out of the box, originality, high level literacy, expressiveness, logic, lexical wealth and communication, creativity, and culture awareness and readiness for diversity in perception” ([ 2 ], p. 103). This evolving educational landscape necessitates a critical examination to address the challenges and opportunities it presents.

Thus, the research problem at hand is the need to navigate this evolving terrain of education effectively. Understanding the dynamics, strengths, and limitations of TES and MES is crucial. Moreover, it is essential to explore how a value-based approach can bridge the gap and create a more holistic educational experience [ 6 , 7 , 8 ] for students and teachers. In this regard, Dogan believes, “the empowerment of the employees who believe in the organization’s values and respect to employees enable the employees to work at full capacity and to become happy” ([ 6 ], p. 84]); moreover, “making radical changes in the behaviors of individuals based on the values is composed of three stages, including seeing, feeling and change” and for instance, “the stage of ‘seeing’ increases the employees’ awareness towards the values” [ 6 ]. The significance of this research lies in its potential to inform educators, policymakers, and stakeholders on the path towards a more balanced and meaningful educational model.

What are the key characteristics and pedagogical paradigms of TES as defined by faculty and students?

How does MES differ from TES, and what innovations does it bring to the educational landscape?

What is the concept of a value-based approach in education, and how can it be implemented effectively, for example, for foreign language teaching and acquisition (FLT and FLA)?

What is the potential impact of a value-based educational model on learners and society?

To address these research questions, a comprehensive approach, combining literature reviews and the survey, was employed. This mixed-method approach [ 7 ] allowed for a deep exploration of the topic, incorporating both theoretical data and comments by the students and faculty from perspectives of their empirical value as real-world experiences from the educational community.

The research findings break into several sections. The introduction is followed by the review of the literature related to TES and MES, value-based education, in the light of the research agenda. Following that, the methodology section explains the survey design, data collection, and analysis. Then, the focus is laid on a discussion of the value-based approach, including its principles, theoretical framework, and practical implications. Finally, the research explores the challenges and opportunities in implementing a value-based approach in education, offering the educational model to be considered by educators, policymakers, and stakeholders. It concludes by summarizing key findings, emphasizing the importance of a balanced approach to education, and suggesting potential future research directions.

2. Theoretical readings

Education, deeply intertwined with culture and tradition, has a rich historical legacy. TES, often characterized by rote learning, discipline, and the transmission of societal values, can be traced back to ancient civilizations [ 8 , 9 ]. For example, the Confucian educational system in ancient China placed a strong emphasis on the teachings of classic texts, which became a cornerstone of traditional education [ 10 ]. The emergence of MES marked a shift towards learner-centric approaches, innovation, and the integration of technology [ 1 , 11 , 12 ]. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, educational reform movements in Europe, such as those initiated by Rousseau and Pestalozzi, laid the groundwork for contemporary educational principles with Rousseau’s three components in education: “This education comes to us from nature itself, or from other men, or from circumstances” as cited in Bazaluk ([ 13 ], p. 17) and Pestalozzi’s “new understanding of the meaning of human life and a cultural ideal”, as well as the philosopher’s basic principle of education: “education should be built according to the natural course of mental development in a child” [ 13 ]. The implementation of compulsory education and the advent of public schooling in the United States and Europe, including Ukraine, further exemplified this shift [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Value-based education, rooted in the philosophical underpinnings of moral and ethical development, seeks to instill values such as empathy, critical thinking, and global awareness in learners, based on fostering poly- and multiculturalism in educational classrooms [ 12 , 16 , 17 ]. This approach draws from various theories, including Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, which emphasizes the importance of nurturing ethical reasoning in education [ 18 , 19 ]. Moreover, McKenzie and Blenkinsop’s “ethic of care” highlights the significance of empathy and relationships in the educational process [ 19 ].

3. Research methodology

The methodology for this study involved the creation of a structured survey instrument to gather data on the perceptions and experiences of individuals within the traditional and modern educational systems. The survey was meticulously designed to explore key aspects of both systems and their potential convergence in a value-based approach [ 17 ]. Development included the formulation of clear and concise questions that addressed the objectives of the research and followed either the Likert scale or open-ended questions that allowed for argumentation and substantiation of opinions. Statistically, the research sample consisted of 179 students and 28 faculty staff members from the National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine. A purposive sampling technique was employed to ensure a representative mix of participants with varying educational backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Data collection primarily relied on an online survey platform, allowing for the efficient distribution of the questionnaire to the selected participants. The survey comprised both closed-ended and open-ended questions, providing a balance between quantifiable data and in-depth qualitative responses. Participants were given a reasonable time frame to complete the survey to ensure thoughtful and accurate responses. The data collected from the survey was subjected to both quantitative and qualitative analysis. Qualitative data from open-ended questions were subjected to thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns. The integration of both quantitative and qualitative analyses allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the research questions.

The study adhered to ethical guidelines and protocols. Informed consent was secured from all participants, assuring them of anonymity and confidentiality. Data was stored securely, and all personal identifiers were removed during data analysis to ensure participants’ privacy and confidentiality. The research was conducted with the utmost integrity and respect for the rights and well-being of the participants.

4. Results and discussion

The research findings point to the dichotomy between TES and MES, reinforcing the approaches to education. Thus, the study by Alsubaie investigated the effects of traditional and modern teaching methods on student achievement and found that student-centered modern approaches tend to yield better results [ 20 ]. Contrarily, another study by Chavan and Chavan [ 21 ] emphasized the value of traditional education, on the one hand, in preserving cultural heritage and moral values and certain concerns, on the other, for example, “Within the traditional knowledge system, there was a natural obligation, empathy, and overall mentoring towards students by teachers and reverence and submissiveness was exhibited by students towards teachers. Today, teachers, students, and knowledge are all treated as ‘objects’ whose value depends on the quantitative returns ‘it’ can provide” ([ 21 ], p. 278).

TES focuses on teacher-centered instruction while MES embraces learner-centered and interactive approaches: P18, “I reckon most of the seminars being conducted traditionally are rather good, especially when all the students are asked the questions and no one is bored”, P54, “MES offers personalized learning, technology integration, and a focus on critical thinking and problem-solving”;

TES uses textbooks and printed materials as primary resources as contrasted to MES which utilizes a wide range of digital and multimedia resources: P53, “TES provides a time-tested approach to education. This can offer a sense of stability and familiarity for students. However, MES incorporates modern technology and teaching methods, promoting more interactive learning and adaptability to individual student needs”, P75, “The usage of most of the online pros, such as laptops, presentations, there are more opportunities for the future; Nevertheless, I can’t deny the effectiveness of TES”;

in TES, teachers are seen as the primary source of knowledge and authority, however, in MES, teachers would rather encourage student autonomy and self-directed learning: Participant 14 (P14), “The main advantages [of TES] are the opportunities for students to master the theoretical part of knowledge. This will allow them to use it in the future with possible practical skills”; P36, “TES has limitations, such as potential limitations in adapting to individual learning styles and the rapid pace of technological advancements. MES, on the other hand, offers benefits such as personalized learning, technology integration, and global connectivity”;

TES is mainly characterized by its hierarchical and discipline-oriented structure whereas MES is perceived as flexible and adaptable, and according to the students’ answers in their key focus—often tailored to individual needs of the learner: P27, “TES can provide stronger learning of core knowledge through in-depth interaction with teachers and a focus on core academic subjects. It also often includes a rigorous curriculum and structured learning process, which can promote a disciplined approach to learning”, P122, “TES often prioritizes the basics, such as reading and writing. In addition, the teacher plays a central role, providing direct instruction and guidance, which can be beneficial for students who learn well in a structured learning environment. Also, traditional systems emphasize discipline, punctuality, obedience, and compliance.”, P81, “MES often provide more accessibility through technology, learning experiences, and up-to-date content. They can better cater to individual student needs and adapt to a rapidly changing world, making education more engaging”, and

TES promotes uniformity and conformity in learning while MES encourages creativity and independent thinking of the learner: P162, “TES - Stability and reliability, cultural heritage, specialization, number 1 system”, P171, “Modern education often allows for more flexible scheduling, catering to non-traditional students, working adults, or those with diverse time commitments”, P72, “MES focuses on fostering twenty-first century skills such as critical thinking, creativity, communication, collaboration, and digital literacy”, etc.

Demographic information: participants’ age range.

These and other comments were made by the participants with the following educational background: 29.3% were participants with a college degree (high school) and incomplete bachelor’s that referred mainly to students in their first through fourth years at university; 51.2% were master students; 9.8% were faculty staff with a Ph.D. and/or more advanced degree in science, and ultimately 2.4%—“other”, that stands for a visiting researcher.

Moreover, 78% of participants experienced education in both the systems—TES and MES whereas 22% underlined their good acquaintance and journeys with either TES or MES ( Figure 2 ).

Education experience.

Finally, when the questions regarded the emotional part of the participants’ experience with TES and MES and the information about their education systems awareness and educational preferences, that is, which educational systems they feel most familiar with or have spent the most time in, under the half (41.5%) replied they felt comfortable and familiar with both the systems and the other two groups had a difference of 14.6% as to their understanding and preferences for TES (36.6%) over MES (22%) ( Figure 3 ).

Familiarity with TES and MES.

P44, “TES typically follows a well-defined curriculum, providing a structured and organized approach to learning.”

P56, “Traditional education often leads to recognized degrees, diplomas, or certificates, which are widely accepted by employers and institutions. This provides students with formal qualifications that can enhance their career prospects.”

P32, “In traditional educational settings, students have access to experienced educators who can provide guidance, support, and mentorship.”

P101, “Traditional educational institutions typically provide access to libraries, laboratories, and other resources, which can be essential for hands-on learning and research.”

P49, “MES is better in the practical part of learning of any subject. You receive more applied information and learn new practical skills, which are more similar to real-life situations.” and P94, “An individualized approach to each student and a variety of techniques are the strengths of the modern educational model. This allows the student to feel comfortable and apply knowledge in practice.”

P8, “Modern education leverages technology to enhance learning. This includes e-learning platforms, multimedia resources, and online collaboration tools, which can make education more engaging and accessible.”

P78, “Modern education often allows for more flexible scheduling, catering to non-traditional students, working adults, or those with diverse time commitments.”

P163, “Educational technology allows for the collection and analysis of data to gain insights into student progress and areas of improvement, enabling more targeted interventions.”

These and many other comments, feedback, and remarks allowed for grouping the received data under the keywords and phrases that resulted in Table 1 .

Traditional educational system vs. modern educational system.

Another remarkable aspect of the survey makes it conclude that it is not always that the younger generation, as compared to the teaching/lecturing faculty of more age seniority and less digital proficiency, would favor MES, for instance, let us follow P86, “For me, a person who doesn’t like to explore new things, the traditional system is the best, as it has everything I’m used to.”

Next, like the above, where behavioral patterns and/or values play their crucial role, the below comments shed light on what may be significantly valuable while designing and implementing curricula. The values of critical thinking, future vision, and empathy matter to a greater degree, that is, P49 names critical thinking as a value because “MES places a strong emphasis on developing critical thinking skills, students are encouraged to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information independently” and adds that “This skill is invaluable in various aspects of life, including problem-solving and decision-making”; P90 focuses on the importance of preparation for the future as “MES equips students with skills relevant to the rapidly changing job market” and “Emphasis on subjects like computer science, coding, and digital literacy prepares students for careers in technology and other evolving fields.”

That underscores the importance of scanning the learning mood and educational preferences in classrooms and outside; in an ever-evolving world, the need for innovation is not limited to technology alone; it extends to the way we approach education and pedagogical systems.

5. Value-based approach in education

Taking the discussion further, the exploration leads to the integration of a value-based educational model and bridging the gap between TES and MES, offering real-world solutions that can enhance quality, progress, and enjoyment.

A value-based educational model is a holistic approach to learning, emphasizing the development of not only academic knowledge but also strong ethical principles and values. In this model, core values such as integrity, empathy, and responsibility are integrated into the educational process, ensuring that students not only excel academically but also grow as responsible, ethical individuals [ 22 ].

Drawing from educational theories such as social learning, constructivism, and moral development, the integration of values into education is a well-structured framework [ 23 , 24 ]. These theories provide a foundation for teaching critical thinking, ethical decision-making, and empathy, allowing students to become well-rounded individuals who can navigate an ever-changing world while adhering to timeless ethical principles [ 13 , 16 , 22 ].

Traditional education often relies on rote learning, while modern education places an emphasis on critical thinking and creativity. The value-based approach bridges this gap by combining the strengths of both, nurturing individuals who can adapt to a changing world while upholding ethical principles [ 1 , 3 , 17 ].

According to the survey, 85.3% of participants believe that values are very important/important in education as contrasted to only 4.9% who do not find them very important almost similar to 2.4% who state they are not important at all as only technical knowledge, expertise, and practical skills matter in the job market today ( Figure 4 ); and 7.3% neither agree nor disagree, where the comments specify that the value component is fully personal and plays little role in education; however, it will play its role in family and work life in future.

Values in education.

To bridge the gap between TES and MES via a value-based approach, participants suggest as follows: P3, “We should try to change the basic course of study and let students decide for themselves what to prioritize. Some people prefer practical knowledge, some prefer theory. We should respect people’s preferences in exploring the approaches that suit them.”; P70, “Implement a blended learning approach that combines elements of TES and MES, this can involve a mix of traditional classroom instruction and technology-enhanced learning experiences.”; P32, “Provide comprehensive and ongoing professional development for teachers to adopt innovative teaching methods and effectively integrate technology into their instructional practices”, which can ensure that teachers are equipped with the skills and knowledge to harness the benefits of both TES and MES in their classrooms; P162, “Design educational frameworks that allow for individualized learning paths” to involve incorporating personalized learning plans, adaptive learning technologies, and student self-assessment; P117, “Place a greater emphasis on developing essential skills such as critical thinking, creativity, communication, collaboration, and digital literacy because these skills are crucial for success in the modern world and can be integrated into both TES and MES approaches.”, etc.

Implementing a value-based educational model has practical implications that positively impact both students and the education system. Students exposed to this approach are more likely to become empathetic, socially responsible individuals who can address complex ethical challenges, leading to improved classroom behavior and a positive school culture [ 3 , 4 , 16 ].

6. Impact on learners and society

The study has brought to the forefront the contrasting characteristics of TES, rooted in tradition and discipline, and MES, driven by innovation and learner-centric methodologies. Participants have expressed a resounding consensus on the need for a more holistic educational model, one that combines the strengths of both systems while emphasizing values such as empathy, tolerance, and cultural diversity.

Speaking about the impact on learners and society, it is required to spotlight (a) the imperative of a balanced approach, (b) the need to transform the educational landscape, and (c) a call to action for educators and policymakers, in particular.

Thus, the implications of the research underscore the critical significance of a balanced educational approach. A value-based educational framework that seamlessly integrates the merits of TES and MES can give rise to a more comprehensive and harmonious learning environment. It fosters not only academic excellence but also the ethical and emotional intelligence essential for thriving in an increasingly interconnected world.

Next, the findings extend beyond the boundaries of this study. They have far-reaching implications for the educational landscape, offering the promise of transformation. The integration of a value-based approach carries the potential to shape a generation of learners who are not only academically proficient but also socially responsible, empathetic, and culturally aware. Finally, the present research calls for consideration, further reflection, and most importantly, action. It calls upon educators, policymakers, and stakeholders to reevaluate the core values that underpin education and the pedagogical methodologies employed. A value-based approach represents an opportunity to redefine the educational landscape, nurturing empathetic, critical, and globally aware individuals. With the onward look to the future, education is not confined to the acquisition of knowledge alone; it is about the transformation of individuals and the enrichment of society. It is believed that with an embraced balanced approach and prioritized value-based education, learners and society at large may reap the benefits of the best of both traditional and modern educational systems.

7. Conclusions and recommendations

In the realm of education, the coexistence of TES and MES presents a fascinating landscape for researchers. Along with the challenges, there are opportunities and lessons learned from the coexistence of these systems, that lead to shape future research directions.

To be realistic, it is necessary to address the obstacles in implementing a value-based approach, especially the two identified with the processed and analyzed research data—resistance to change and assessment methods.

Following the findings, one significant challenge in integrating a value-based approach into both TES and MES is the resistance to change. Educators, parents, and institutions may be reluctant to shift from traditional content-focused teaching to a more values-oriented curriculum. Another challenge arises with the assessment methods. Traditional systems often rely on standardized testing for assessment, making it challenging to evaluate students’ personal values and ethics. It also reads in Halstead and Taylor [ 25 ] that developing effective and standardized methods for assessing values is an ongoing challenge.

However, by laying more focus on incorporating technology in classroom and advancing community engagement, TES and MES can find more opportunities for promoting value-based education. The integration of technology, such as e-learning platforms and educational apps, offers a promising avenue to promote value-based education. Today, more and more researchers are exploring how technology can be used to deliver values-centered content [ 1 , 8 , 9 ]. Collaborating with community organizations and stakeholders provides an opportunity to reinforce values taught in school. There have been many works published where research focuses on strategies to engage local communities in shaping students’ values [ 17 , 23 ].

To design and implement strategies (a) for integrating values into educational curricula, (b) guidance for educators, policymakers, and stakeholders as educators should effectively integrate values into their teaching methods, policymakers should establish these clear guidelines for values-based curricula, and stakeholders should offer support through resources and advocacy.

To consider future research directions for long-term impact, cross-cultural studies, and teacher training.

Future research should focus on assessing the long-term impact of values-based education on students’ personal and professional lives, examining its influence on career success, societal well-being, and global citizenship. Comparative studies across different cultural and socio-economic backgrounds are needed to determine the adaptability and effectiveness of value-based education in diverse settings. In the end, more research should explore effective teacher training programs that prepare educators to deliver values-centered content and foster ethical development in students.

In conclusion, the coexistence of TES and MES presents both challenges and opportunities in the integration of value-based education. Lessons from the survey and literature review highlight the positive impact of values-based education on students, while recommendations emphasize the importance of standardized curricula and support from educators, policymakers, and stakeholders.

A. Survey questionnaire

Section 1: demographic information

1.1. What is your age ?

18–24

25–34

35–44

45–54

55–64

1.2. What is your gender?

Prefer not to say

1.3. What is your educational background?

High school

Bachelor’s degree

Master’s degree

Ph.D. or other advanced degree

Other (please specify)

Section 2: experience and preferences

2.1. Have you experienced education in both traditional and modern educational systems (TES and MES)?

2.2. Which educational system do you feel most familiar with or have spent the most time in?

Traditional educational system (TES)

Modern educational system (MES)

Both equally

2.3. What, in your opinion, are the key strengths of TES in comparison to MES? Why?

2.4. What, in your opinion, are the key strengths of MES in comparison to TES? Why?

Section 3: values in education

3.1. How important do you believe it is to integrate values such as empathy, tolerance, and cultural diversity into the education system?

Very important

Not very important

Not important at all

3.2. Do you think traditional educational systems place enough emphasis on teaching these values?

3.3. Do you think modern educational systems place enough emphasis on teaching these values?

3.4. What other values in your opinion are important for education today? Why?

Section 4: bridging the gap 4 .1. In your opinion, what strategies or changes could be made to bridge the gap between TES and MES and create a more balanced educational model?

Section 5: overall impressions

5.1. Overall, do you believe it is possible to create a value-based educational system that successfully combines elements of both TES and MES?

Section 6: additional comments

6.1. Is there anything else you would like to share or any additional comments related to traditional and modern educational systems?

• 1. Dewsbury B, Brame CJ. Inclusive teaching. CBE – Life Sciences Education. 2019; 18 (2):1-5. DOI: 10.1187/cbe.19-01-0021
• 2. Chaika O. Implementing technology of poly-/multicultural education for future foreign language teachers: Integrated approach. International Journal of Philology. 2022; 13 (4):101-109. DOI: 10.31548/philolog13(4_2).2022.011
• 3. Alsubaie MA. The influence of traditional and modern teaching methods on students' achievements. Journal of Education and Practice. 2015; 6 (19):29-40
• 4. Wang Y. A comparative study on the effectiveness of traditional and modern teaching methods. In: 2022 5th International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2022). Zhengzhou: Atlantis Press; 2022. pp. 270-277
• 5. Ahmed A, Ahmed N. Comparative analysis of rote learning on high and low achievers in graduate and undergraduate programs. Journal of Education and Educational Development. 2017; 4 (1):111-129. Available from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1161522.pdf
• 6. Dogan S. Model of values-based management process in schools: A mixed design study. International Journal of Higher Education. 2016; 5 (1):83-96
• 7. Bergman M. Advances in Mixed Methods Research: Theories and Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; 2008
• 8. Takahiro N. Confucian modernity in Japan religion and the state. Journal of Japanese Philosophy. 2020; 6 (1):45-62
• 9. O'Dwyer S. Deflating the ‘Confucian Heritage Culture’ thesis in intercultural and academic English education. Language, Culture and Curriculum. 2017; 30 (2):198-211
• 10. Bahtilla M, Xu H. The influence of Confucius’s educational thoughts on China’s educational system. Open Access Library Journal. 2021; 8 (5):1-17
• 11. Abe H. Borrowing from Japan: China’s first modern educational system. In: China’s Education and the Industrialized World. London: Routledge; 2017. pp. 57-300
• 12. Chaika O, Lytvyniuk O, Trofymenko A, Zaluzhna O, Shepel Y. Fundamentals of poly-/multicultural education for a modern foreign language instructor in the system of their professional and personal growth. AD ALTA: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research. 2022; 11 (02 (Special Issue XXIV)):150-155
• 13. Bazaluk O. Plato’s traditions in modern educational theories. Analele Universității din Craiova. Seria Filosofie. 2019; 1 (43):5-20
• 14. Carpentier V. The history of higher education in modern Europe. In: Tamura EH, editor. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2019
• 15. Chicosky CL. Restructuring the modern education system in the United States: A look at the value of compulsory education laws. Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal. 2015; 2015 :7-20. Available from: https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/elj/vol2015/iss1/2
• 16. Chaika O, Absaliamova Y, Marchuk V, Dovhaniuk E, Kolesnykov A. Poly- and multiculturalism underpinning personality formation of future foreign language teachers. Amazonia Investiga. 2022; 11 (52):221-231. Available from: https://www.webofscience.com/wos/woscc/full-record/WOS:000806131700024
• 17. Biesta GJ. Why ‘what works’ still won’t work: From evidence-based education to value-based education. Studies in Philosophy and Education. 2010; 29 :491-503
• 18. Mathes EW. An evolutionary perspective on Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Current Psychology. 2021; 40 (8):3908-3921
• 19. McKenzie M, Blenkinsop S. An ethic of care and educational practice. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning. 2006; 6 (2):91-105
• 20. Alsubaie MA. Examples of current issues in the multicultural classroom. Journal of Education and Practice. 2015; 6 (10):86-89
• 21. Chavan JR, Chavan SV. Human evolution–A key focus of transformational teacher. In: Knowledge Globalization Conference; Pune, India. Massachusetts, USA: Knowledge Globalization Institute LLC; 2012. pp. 275-285
• 22. Gilfoil DM, Focht JW. Value-based delivery of education: MOOCs as messengers. American Journal of Business Education. 2015; 8 (3):223-238
• 23. Rushton JP. Moral cognition, behaviorism, and social learning theory. Ethics. 1982; 92 (3):459-467
• 24. Cummings R, Harlow S. The constructivist roots of moral education. The Educational Forum. 2000; 64 (4):300-307
• 25. Halstead M, Taylor MJ. Values in Education and Education in Values. London, Washington, D.C.: The Falmer Press; 1996

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Ancient vs Modern education

Modern india has produced a mass level of intellectuals, scientists, doctors, bureaucrats and experts of various diverse fields they pursue in life. however the sad part is that any of those has hardly given credit to the indian education system for their success.

 It is satirically painful that most of the eminent jewels of the nation had to ignore or go against the education system in order to grow or reach the peaks of mountains.

The notable fact is that things were not always like this and we have somewhat contaminated the society after the medieval and colonial era with certain elements that are holding back our growth.

The ancient education system was entirely different from the latter in its ideals, approach, and its mechanism. The distorted version today can be differentiated from the sorted one earlier can be better analyzed by the following aspects of education:

Ethical education:

The Brahmanical system of education is mainly a domestic system of education. A student undergoes very rigid physical, mental and moral discipline.

It aims to convert the student into a ‘full human being’ and train him efficiently to shoulder the responsibilities of society. Buddhist education concentrates, more, on spiritual training.

It is mainly a monastic system of education. But, both the systems molded the moral and spiritual personality of the students not only by teaching moral ethics but also trains them to practice those ethics. After performing the Vidyarambha ceremony and the Prabrajya

ceremony in the Vedic and Buddhist system respectively, the student would go to live with the teacher till his formal education completed. This inculcated the disciplines and the ethics towards life which is a basic ingredient in a student’s life.

The focus on moral values and ethical training in the modern age is just left to be a textual matter in our books while parroting these is considered to be a skill in a child’s life. The burden of formal education should be reduced to some practical life values to be taught at the initial stages of a student.

Curriculum ahead:

Both Vedic and Buddhist systems of education had different subjects of study. Certain other subjects common to both the systems were arithmetic, military science, law, performing arts, ethics, and art and architecture. In order to earn a livelihood, men needed to know an art form.

As per the ancient Indian education system, there were about 64 art forms, including dance, music, jewel making, sculpture, agriculture, and medical sciences. To acquire vocational training in a particular art form, men were required to work as trainees under a master’s to gain expertise.

They were taught without any cost, and food and boarding were also taken care of by the master. 

Such diversity of subjects is rather missing in the current education system and if there exists,  there comes the prejudiced outlook for certain subjects and therefore discouraged to learn.

Often that is the case for some vocational courses. The lack of options in the curriculum for a student compels him/her to study for survival in society rather than enhancing as a human.

Autonomy of institutions:

The institutions of education enjoyed complete autonomy from the state with no interference. The gurukuls were inhabited by highly revered teachers with saintly knowledge along with expertise in the subjects of worldly affairs. However, At that time, knowledge was considered sacred and no fee was charged.

Contributions towards education were considered the highest form of donation. All members of the society contributed in some form or the other. Financial support came from rich merchants, wealthy parents, and society. Besides gifts of buildings, the universities received gifts of land.

This form of free education was also prevalent in other ancient universities like Valabhi, Vikramshila, and Jagaddala.

The education of the modern age influenced by western ideals is characterized by the state’s interference in schooling along with the prevailing chaos of capitalist institutions.

The exorbitant fees and social taboos existing in rural areas are the key determinants for the inadequate education acquired by a student.

Aim of education:

The main objective of education was to equip the students with a good quality of education. The education mostly focused on the enrichment of culture, character, and personality, development, and cultivation of noble ideals.

The objective was to gain the mental, physical, and intellectual personality of students, to make the students future-ready and survive in any situation

whereas today the aim of education is entirely hijacked by the western powers and we are yet to be freed from neo-colonization.

The ideals and goals are easily swayed by the materialistic longings and the desire to be creative and contribute to society is somewhere lost with the lost spirit of Indian culture befittingly suited to this environment.

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Ancient Education vs Modern Education - Which is Better?

Princi Rai ,

Mar 4, 2024

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Ancient education vs modern education has different parameters; Gurukul were the teaching institutes at the time of the ancient education system. Now, formal bodies like institute colleges are there for teaching.

Ancient education vs modern education can be easily understood via different perspectives; ancient education focused on the philosophical world rather than the scientific world, and in modern education, science and experiment are prioritised.

Modern education is the recent form of education which primarily focuses on developing critical thinking ability, value education, and analytical skills along with decision-making ability.

Table of Contents

Ancient Education vs Modern Education: Overview

What is ancient education, what is modern education, difference between ancient education and modern education systems, school, students and teachers in the ancient education system, school, students and teachers in the modern education system, which is better: ancient education or modern education.

The overview of ancient education vs modern education is tabulated below, considering all the important parameters like location, teaching methods, prime focus, and information sources used for education.

General education or traditional education are other names for ancient education. The transmission of the morals, values, and social skills necessary for the next generation to survive is a primary driving force behind traditional education. 

The learner gains knowledge of the traditions and customs of the community in which they reside through traditional education. Students receive this kind of instruction primarily through oral repetition.

Also Check : Buddhist Education System in India: Meaning, Objectives, Subjects

Modern education is synonymous with most reason education systems, which comprises classrooms and education institutes, is known as modern education. Modern education emphasises the excellent overall development of the student. 

It provides multiple streams according to the interests and career prospects of students, like the science stream, commerce stream, and humanity stream. 

Modern education also emphasises developing critical thinking ability and life skills value education and is also delivered in both online and offline modes. 

The sources for modern education are numerous mobile phone applications, audio and video for maths like YouTube, podcasts and ebooks.

Also Read: Modern Education System: Purpose, Benefits, Challenges

The ancient education vs modern education system are distinct and opposed, so a few of the most basic differences are listed below:

• Approach to Education: When traditional education is compared to modern education, it is very clear that in traditional education, the customs and rituals are passed down through generations. Still, in modern education, the scientific approach, the technologies, and the techniques are thriving in the world of science and technology.
• Methods of Teaching: In traditional education, a teacher instructs the following generation in social norms, skills, values, and manners. Ensuring the survival of the next generation is the goal. The majority of education is centred on conventions and traditions. Unlike, modern education, where there is extensive coursework and written assignments included, there is relatively little written or practical work involved in ancient education, and it is often completed by oral recitation.
• Subjects & Syllabus: Religion, rituals, and tradition are all integral parts of traditional schooling. It does not value science or technology at all. The trend of modern schooling is completely different. It is a scientific approach and the kind of instruction taught in schools these days.
• Teachers: In ancient education system, teachings were passed on by the religious leaders or scholars. Whereas, in today's modern education system, students are taught by trained educators and professors.

Also Read: Guide to 12 Types of Modern Teaching Methods    

The basic information about the schooling, students and teachers in the ancient education system is mentioned below:

• School in the Ancient Education System

Schools and the ancient education system were very informal places that could be the house of the religious scholar, who is the Guru, or a park under a tree, and which lakh the facilities that are provided today in the modern education system.

• Students in the Ancient Education System

Students in the ancient education system were expected to leave their homes and recite in gurukuls. In some places, the girls refused to receive home instructions or homeschooling, and they were not encouraged to attend school like boys and rested solely with their parents.

• Educators in the Ancient Education System

Educators in the ancient education system were basically religious scholars and experts who primarily focused on narrating the skills reading the skills. The educators in the ancient system were known as gurus.School, Students and Teachers in the Modern Education System.

Also Check : What is Quality Education?

The basic information about the schooling, students and teachers and teaching methodologies of the modern education system is mentioned below:

• School in the Modern Education System

School infrastructure in the modern education system comprises large buildings and campuses spread over large acres of areas, hostels, medication facilities, transportation halls, and other essential infrastructure.

• Students in the Modern Education System

In the modern education system, all the students, apart from their residence, are required to attend school. It is also a compulsory civic obligation for parents to send their children to school. The government also provides initiatives like free basic education to increase the school enrollment of students.

• Educators in the Modern Education System

In the education system, there is a criterion fixed for educators that they must hold specific degrees and experience to teach students in class. Educators are known as mentors, teachers, and professors.

Also Read: Importance of Adult Education

While there are distinctions between the ancient education vs modern education system, it is important to note that, despite our modern advancements, we are currently enhancing the efficiency of the current system by integrating antiquated techniques.

• Each form of education has a specific role and significance. It is impossible to categorise schooling as excellent or bad.
• Both traditional and modern education had their merits in their respective eras. In actuality, it varies per individual. 
• Depending on what the individual wishes to learn, yes. A person is better off receiving a traditional education if he wishes to learn about his culture and religion.

Also Check : Different Types Of Educational Technology for Highly-Engaged Classroom

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Wiccans through the Ages: a Historical Perspective

This essay about Wicca explores its roots in ancient European pagan religions, detailing its evolution through historical suppression and revival. It highlights key figures like Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente, the influence of feminist movements, and the rise of various Wiccan traditions. The text also discusses Wicca’s increasing acceptance, public visibility, and its modern emphasis on environmentalism and nature reverence.

How it works

Wicca, often referred to as modern witchcraft, represents a contemporary Pagan religious movement with deep connections to various historical traditions. Although Wicca officially emerged in the mid-20th century, it draws extensively from ancient pagan practices, folklore, and occult traditions. The evolution of Wicca is a compelling story of revival, adaptation, and innovation.

The prehistory of Wicca is rooted in the ancient pagan religions of Europe. Before the rise of Christianity, numerous polytheistic and animistic traditions thrived, worshipping multiple deities often linked to natural forces.

These early religions conducted rituals to ensure fertility, successful harvests, and protection from harm. Archaeological sites like Stonehenge in England provide evidence of the significance of solar and lunar cycles in these rituals. While these ancient practices were not Wiccan, they established a foundation for the development of Wicca by fostering a connection to nature and the divine.

As Christianity spread across Europe, many pagan traditions were suppressed, forcing their practices underground. The Christian church frequently labeled pagan rituals as witchcraft and heresy, leading to widespread persecution. The notorious witch hunts from the 15th to the 18th centuries resulted in the torture and execution of thousands accused of witchcraft. These persecutions significantly shaped modern perceptions of witchcraft and contributed to the clandestine nature of later Wiccan practices.

Despite this persecution, elements of pre-Christian traditions endured, often blending with Christian customs in rural areas. Folk magic and herbal medicine, practiced by cunning folk and healers, remained integral to daily life for many people. These practices, although not explicitly Wiccan, preserved knowledge and customs that would later be incorporated into modern Wicca. The grimoires and spellbooks of the Renaissance period, documenting occult knowledge and magical practices, also played a crucial role in preserving esoteric traditions.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a resurgence of interest in the occult and paganism, fueled by the Romantic movement’s fascination with folklore and the supernatural. Secret societies like the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Theosophical Society emerged, reflecting a growing interest in mystical and esoteric traditions. These societies explored various spiritual practices, including magic, alchemy, and Eastern religions, influencing the development of modern witchcraft.

Gerald Gardner, often considered the father of modern Wicca, emerged within this context. Gardner, an amateur anthropologist and occultist, claimed to have been initiated into a coven of witches in the New Forest, England, in the late 1930s. According to Gardner, this coven practiced a form of witchcraft that had survived from pre-Christian times. In 1954, Gardner published “Witchcraft Today,” outlining the beliefs and practices of this tradition, which he called Wicca. Gardner’s Wicca was a syncretic creation, blending elements of ceremonial magic, folk magic, ancient paganism, and contemporary occult movements.

Gardner’s writings sparked renewed interest in witchcraft and led to the formation of numerous covens, spreading Wicca beyond England. Doreen Valiente, Gardner’s high priestess, significantly shaped Wiccan liturgy and rituals, infusing them with poetic and mystical elements. Valiente’s contributions helped establish a coherent and accessible framework for Wiccan practice.

In the United States, the countercultural movements of the 1960s and 1970s provided fertile ground for Wicca’s growth. The feminist movement, in particular, resonated with Wicca’s emphasis on the divine feminine and the Goddess. Figures like Starhawk and Zsuzsanna Budapest were instrumental in developing feminist forms of Wicca, emphasizing women’s empowerment, ecological consciousness, and social justice. Starhawk’s book “The Spiral Dance,” published in 1979, became a seminal text for feminist Wiccans and Pagans, promoting a vision of spirituality that was both mystical and activist.

As Wicca gained popularity, it diversified. Various traditions and branches emerged, each emphasizing different aspects of Wiccan practice. Alexandrian Wicca, founded by Alex Sanders, closely mirrored Gardnerian Wicca but placed greater emphasis on ceremonial magic. Other traditions, such as Dianic Wicca, focused exclusively on the worship of the Goddess and were often women-only. Eclectic Wicca, which allows practitioners to draw from multiple traditions and create personalized practices, also gained prominence.

The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw Wicca gain greater public visibility and acceptance. In 1985, Wicca was recognized as a legitimate religion by the U.S. military, and Wiccan chaplains have since been appointed to serve in the armed forces. The internet played a crucial role in connecting Wiccans worldwide, facilitating the exchange of information and the formation of online communities. This period also saw the publication of numerous books on Wicca, making its teachings more accessible to a broader audience.

Wicca’s emphasis on environmentalism and reverence for nature resonates strongly in an era of growing ecological awareness. Wiccans celebrate seasonal festivals, known as the Wheel of the Year, and perform rituals honoring the cycles of nature, reflecting a deep commitment to living in harmony with the Earth. This ecological aspect of Wicca has attracted many individuals concerned about environmental degradation and seeking a spiritual path aligned with their values.

Today, Wicca continues to evolve, reflecting the diverse and dynamic nature of its practitioners. Contemporary Wiccans come from all walks of life and may practice alone or in covens, drawing on a rich tapestry of traditions and personal inspirations. The core principles of Wicca—reverence for nature, belief in the divine, and the practice of magic—remain constant, even as the forms and expressions of these principles change.

The history of Wicca is a testament to the enduring power of spirituality and the human quest for connection with the divine. From its roots in ancient paganism to its modern incarnation as a vibrant and dynamic religious movement, Wicca has navigated persecution, adaptation, and revival. Its journey reflects a broader narrative of resilience and transformation, echoing the cycles of nature that Wiccans hold sacred. As Wicca continues to grow and change, it remains a living tradition, offering a path of spirituality that honors both the past and the ever-unfolding present.

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At Museums, a Revolution Gains Momentum

Faced with dwindling attendance and changing demographics, museum directors are shifting their approach, with an eye toward “radical hospitality.”

By Ted Loos

Reporting from Washington

When Melissa Chiu began her tenure as the director of the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden 10 years ago, she had a stray thought about the institution’s location, on the National Mall, and its appearance, a doughnut-shaped concrete structure by the architect Gordon Bunshaft with a certain resemblance to a spaceship.

“Maybe some of our visitors thought it was the Air and Space Museum,” she said of the popular institution next door, which, like the Hirshhorn, is part of the Smithsonian and which was getting more than six million visitors a year at the time. “So, OK,” she said, “that’s not a bad thing.”

Chiu — who is appearing this week at the Art for Tomorrow conference in Venice with the artist and writer John Akomfrah to discuss how artists and museums can work together to address social, political and ecological issues — did not wait around for confusion to boost attendance at her museum. (The annual conference was founded by The New York Times, and is convened by the Democracy & Culture Foundation, with panels moderated by Times journalists.)

The number of people visiting the Hirshhorn has increased dramatically since she started in 2014, when the museum received 552,000 visitors. In 2018 and 2019 that figure was up more than 50 percent, and even in the post-lockdown phase of the pandemic, a time when many museums have faced a slump in visitors, the numbers are still well above that decade-old baseline.

The issue of attendance has been a focus of museums large and small across the country lately, as tourism has shifted, interest on the part of younger people has waned in some places and regional demographics have changed. Museums have taken various steps to manage the challenge: featuring newer and sometimes lesser-known artists, catering more to local audiences, and adding technological enhancements to attract nontraditional visitors.

Seated in her office surrounded by high-energy art — including Lucio Fontana’s “Spatial Concept: Expectations” (1962), a red canvas with large, dramatic slashes in its canvas— Chiu talked about what she calls “radical accessibility,” her guiding principle.

“How do we welcome everyone?” she said. “Radical accessibility became an important way of working for us when we thought about really fulfilling our national mission.”

This year marks the 50th anniversary of the Hirshhorn. Founded as the nation’s modern and contemporary art museum in 1974, it was fueled by a gift of some 6,000 artworks from the collector Joseph H. Hirshhorn.

A current show, ​“Revolutions: Art From The Hirshhorn Collection, 1860—1960,” showcases art from the founding gift alongside more recent acquisitions. Near the beginning of the show is an 1884 John Singer Sargent portrait hung next to a portrait by the contemporary Ghanaian painter Amoako Boafo.

“It’s a great way of signaling our intentions,” said Chiu of the pairing, which links two works of similar subject matter that were painted by very different artists in very different times.

The Hirshhorn is free to the public and always has been. But given the number of other free options on the Mall, that does not mean that visitors necessarily stream in.

Chiu dated the beginning of the attendance bump to the 2017 show “Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors.” Kusama, now 95 and living in Japan, has been an acclaimed artist since at least the 1960s, and she has had a particularly robust late-career renaissance. Her Instagrammable, selfie-friendly work at the Hirshhorn became a sensation, boosting museum attendance to 1.1 million that year, an all-time high.

“There were lines from 3 a.m. and it broke the Smithsonian server three times with the demand for passes,” Chiu said. “We had never seen anything like it.”

The programming decisions may have attracted people, but Chiu and her team have also made serious efforts to engage viewers with the exhibitions once they are inside.

Chief among the innovations is the Hirshhorn Eye, a mobile video guide that shows artists talking about their works; it has been adopted by other Smithsonian museums, including the National Museum of African Art.

Chiu also drew attention to the museum in an unconventional way with a six-episode TV show, The Exhibit: Finding the Next Great Artist . The competition series featured Chiu as the lead judge, and one of the prizes was a solo show at the Hirshhorn.

The biggest item on Chiu’s future agenda is outdoors: an overhaul of the sculpture garden that sits on the Mall. The $68 million project, which is being designed by the Japanese artist Hiroshi Sugimoto, is scheduled to be completed in 2026.

Without expanding the garden’s footprint, the renovation will feature 50 percent more artworks from the collection than it had previously, and more than triple the amount of seating.

“We’re the only museum with an active presence on the Mall,” said Chiu, referring to the garden’s position directly on the Mall. She hopes to capture more of the 35 million annual visitors to the manicured grassy expanse. The museum’s entrance will be reoriented to that side, too.

Chiu and her staff’s challenge, of having a huge potential audience so close to their museum, which is free, is the opposite situation in many ways to that faced by the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art , with an adult admission of $30 and a downtown San Francisco location that is proving challenging for visitors.

Attendance at SFMOMA is down since 2019, from nearly 900,000 visitors that year to around 600,000 in 2023.

Christopher Bedford, the museum’s director since 2022, has his own mantra for bringing people back, that sounds similar to Chiu’s: “radical hospitality.”

“We are attempting, without a compromise in scholarship, to meet people more where they are in terms of their interests,” Bedford said.

Populist programming is at the heart of his efforts, notably the current music-themed show, “Art of Noise,” and a sports-related exhibition, “Get in the Game,” planned for the fall.

“They don’t advance art history, they advance social and political history through art,” said Bedford of the shows.

One of Bedford’s “fixations,” he said, was that, in his opinion, many modern and contemporary museums don’t provide any cultural context for modern art, and they assume visitors’ knowledge of the subject with a posture of, as he put it, “‘You should appreciate this.’”He contrasted that with shows of ancient art at other museums, which take pains to explain the social and cultural context in which the works were made.

The same should be true of the 20th-century works by Ellsworth Kelly and Andy Warhol at SFMOMA, Bedford said, “So we assume total ignorance on the part of the consumer.”

To that end, in July the museum will open a gallery called “Museums 101,” where rotating installations will frame modern art in the context of modern life. The first presentation will look at the idea of newness in art, with works by Isamu Noguchi and Georges Braque, alongside developments like the baby monitor and the telephone.

Also, although SFMOMA charges visitors to get into its primary galleries, Bedford creatively deploys the 60,000 square feet of the museum that is free — an amount of space that is larger than some entire museums, he notes.

In July, part of that free space will house a new commission by the artist Kara Walker, the multidisciplinary artist and a winner of the MacArthur Fellowship, sometimes known as the “genius grant.”

“You’ll cross the threshold and experience a multimillion-dollar installation by, in my view, the country’s most important artist,” Bedford said — and, crucially, such free programming may beckon visitors into the main galleries as paying customers.

Another issue is where the museum’s visitors come from, given that San Francisco has had a blow to its image in recent years , because of problems like homelessness.

“Our museum is scaled for national and international tourism as well as the local audience,” said Bedford, referring to the fact that SFMOMA is one of the country’s largest modern and contemporary art museums. “We’ll scratch and claw our way back with the locals — and when that moment comes, it will be irresistible to tourists, too.”

Accessibility and hospitality are measured in total visitors to museums, but also in the type of people who come through the door.

At the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, the director, Rand Suffolk, has focused on the diversity of his audience, given that the 2020 census reported that 47 percent of Atlanta’s residents were Black.

In 2015, when he arrived in the director’s chair, the museum’s attendance was 15 percent Black, Indigenous and other people of color (BIPOC); in both 2022 and 2023, it was 57 percent.

“We call it the mantra of our DNA: growth, inclusivity, collaboration and connectivity,” Suffolk said.

The exhibition slate has been the primary lever. “We’ve made significant changes in our programming,” Suffolk said, citing a dramatic shift to shows that focus on women, BIPOC and L.G.B.T.Q. artists. “We’ve doubled down.”

The upcoming exhibition “Tyler Mitchell: Idyllic Space,” running June 21 to Dec. 1, features images by Mitchell, an Atlanta native who was the first Black photographer to shoot the cover of Vogue.

But the museum is also shifting its marketing. “It was exhibition-focused,” Suffolk said of the older campaigns, which were driven by touting prestige. “It used to be, ‘We’re the leading art museum in the Southeast U.S.’ But we don’t want to lead with that now.”

By contrast, the current messaging centers on the line, “My place too,” which Suffolk and his team think emphasizes the idea of belonging.

Echoing Bedford’s term, Suffolk added, “We’ve increased our hospitality.”

Visitors, of course, have their own ideas of what will make them feel welcome.

The Hirshhorn’s quirky architecture has one facet that Chiu said visitors often cited in their feedback: Currently, there are only bathrooms on the basement level, and more are needed, particularly on the primary exhibition floors.

Chiu said that would be addressed in a renovation of the building itself, a long-term project that she intends to embark on after the garden overhaul.

Accessibility, like everything else, takes time. “At a museum,” Chiu said, “change is a seven to ten-year proposition.”