ssue(s) — where you outline the specific issues that are relevant to your essay.
hesis — where you state your position in relation to the issues.
cope — where you outline what exactly is going to be covered in relation to your argument.
Each paragraph should focus on one idea only.
The idea can then be developed in a number of ways, such as through explanation, evaluation, exemplification or incorporation of research data.
Your paragraphs should be balanced — keep to the rule of no less than 3 sentences per paragraph.
Your paragraphs should link together — use connective words, both within and between paragraphs, to keep a sense of cohesion and linkage.
Begin with a link to the preceding paragraph.
Restate your thesis and summarise your principal points.
End with a broad statement relating to the significance of your argument.
Writing a good essay can be compared to baking a cake—if you do not mix the right ingredients in the right quantities or order, and do not follow the required processes, then the end result will not be what you hoped for! There is no set model for an essay, but the English for Uni website presents one popular way to do it. The following example is based around a 1000 word discussion essay. To read about essays in greater detail, download this PDF or Word document .
It is important for you to analyse your topic and title very carefully in order to understand the specific aim of the question. To do this, you need to break down the question. Most essay questions will contain these three elements:
Content/Topic words give the subject of the essay. Limiting/Focus words provide a narrower scope for the essay. Directive or Instructional words tell you how to approach the essay. Look at these sample essay titles from A) Economics and B) Nutrition:
In example B, answering the question fully involves looking closely at the directive word Discuss and analysing its exact meaning.
Discuss: Present various points and consider the different sides. A discussion is usually longer than an explanation, as you need to present evidence and state which argument is more persuasive.
So, in your essay entitled:
“Chocolate is a healthy food”. Discuss.”
you would need to:
You also need to consider the length of your essay. In a 2000 word essay you can cover more points than in a 1000 word one! This example is based on a 1000 word essay.
In relation to Content words your focus is clear: chocolate!
In relation to Limiting words, you need to consider what healthy food actually means. A good way to expand your vocabulary is to look at the Academic Word List (developed by Averil Coxhead at Victoria University of Wellington in New Zealand). The uefap website also has very useful lists of words found in particular subjects, such as mathematics, business and health science.
Directive or Instructional words
There are a number of directive words, or instructional words as they are sometimes called, which tell you what to do in your essay. Some common directive words include:
Look at something in depth, examining the details. | |
Give reasons for why you agree or disagree with something and show that you understand different points of view. | |
Compare different points and see if the argument or information is true or persuasive. | |
Show the similarities between two sets of information or arguments. ‘Compare’ often appears with ‘contrast’ in essay questions. | |
Show the differences between two sets of information or arguments. ‘Contrast’ often appears with ‘compare’ in essay questions. | |
Evaluate an argument or a text to see if it is good. ‘Criticise’ does not mean you have to be negative. | |
Evaluate an argument or a text to see if it is good. ‘Critique’ does not mean you have to be negative. | |
Explain the meaning of a word or a term, especially in the context of your essay. You can use a dictionary definition if it’s helpful, but remember that the word might be used in a particular way in the subject you are studying. | |
Give details about something. | |
Look at the different sides of an argument and say which is more convincing. Help your reader to understand more about something by giving relevant details. | |
Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the material and give your final opinion of it. | |
Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the material and give your final opinion of it. | |
Help your reader to understand more about something by giving relevant details. | |
Give examples to make something clearer. | |
Help your reader to understand more about something and provide your own perspective if necessary. | |
Give reasons to explain what you think about a subject. | |
Give a broad explanation of something without too many details. | |
Show if something is true and demonstrate how you reached that conclusion. | |
Look at something in detail and give your perspective on it. | |
Put your ideas or arguments clearly. | |
Pull everything together and present it clearly without using too much detail. |
Brainstorming means producing ideas related to a theme. You can write the ideas down in any order.
Here is a possible brainstorm for the chocolate essay, done in the form of a mind map:
Text description of the above image.
Note that the central focus (the essay question) has several boxes linked to it which represent the writer’s first ideas. Other boxes area then added. A brainstorm like this is organic; it does not necessarily stop growing. You can add, remove or reorganise it as you wish. If you like to put more system into your brainstorm, use a step-based model such as the following:
Step 1 Time yourself for the first draft of your mind map Set a fixed time for this drafting from your base topic/question and stick to it.
Step 2 Look critically at your draft Which ideas could you develop or remove? Is there a balance of ideas?
Step 3 Think about ordering Which issues might you tackle first in your essay and why?
Step 4 Anticipate readers’ needs Are there any words and/or phrases that might need explaining? If so, when is the best time in the essay to do this?
Step 5 Move Reflect upon your brainstorming. Once you are happy with your brainstorm you can use it to plan your essay.
Once you have done some brainstorming, it’s time to get researching!
Remember that an academic essay requires academic sources.
Finding what you want takes time and effort. The best place to start (assuming you haven’t already been given a prescribed reading list!) is by using an academic database. If you are not sure how to use a database, then book an appointment with your subject librarian at your institution.
Another option is to use an internet academic search engine such as Google Scholar. N.B. Make sure you are logged in to the library at your educational institution, so that you can use the full database capacities linked to Google Scholar.
You need to enter keywords to begin with. For the chocolate essay, one of the first associations we thought of was chocolate and mood. If we enter these words into Google Scholar it will look like this:
This will take you to a webpage which lists a number of relevant articles, like this:
The first two articles have been cited 90 times and 103 times respectively, suggesting that they might be good sources for your essay. The links to the right indicate that you can access the articles through your university website.
If you think an article looks promising, click on the link and look at the abstract:
Read the abstract and ask yourself if the content of the article is likely to be relevant to your essay.
a) If yes, click on the PDF. This will take you to the full article which you can then skim read quickly to decide if it is relevant. b) If no, then you have a choice. Either click on the links to other related articles or go back to Google Scholar and then choose another article to skim read.
If you do not find what you are looking for, then you need to change your keywords search.
When you have found what you think might be useful, make a note in your plan at the appropriate place.
Do the same thing for all the points that need academic references to support them.
Remember that during your research you might discover new issues and perspectives that you hadn’t considered before, so your original plan might be quite different from the final one!
Once you have brainstormed your ideas and done some initial research, start putting them into a logical order as part of the essay planning process. Brainstorming helps you to see what you know about the topic. Researching will give you more depth. Brainstorming, researching and planning are cyclical, which means that each process helps the other processes and you might want to do each process more than once.
Here is the brainstorm for the chocolate essay again, which you can use to develop the planning process:
Read the text version of the brainstorming mind map .
Planning or a plan?
In the first instance, it is important to distinguish between planning and a plan . Planning is an ongoing process, from when you receive the essay title to when you submit your final draft. A plan is a physical outline of the way you intend to conceptualise, structure and present your ideas.
Plans can be structured/restructured at any time during the planning process.
At this point it is time to write your first plan. However, do not stop doing research yet. Why not?
A plan helps you to put your ideas into a form which gives you a for your . | Once you have written your ideas up into a plan, you are beginning to in . | You might surprise yourself by discovering . This can help . |
Remember that a plan is just that—a plan. It can be modified after you do more research; you might discover some different perspectives or issues you hadn’t previously anticipated.
Example: Developing an essay plan after research (linear style)
Title: “Chocolate is a healthy food.” Discuss.
Introduction Context for paper – popularity of chocolate. Issue – whether chocolate is a healthy food is questionable. Thesis – chocolate may be enjoyable but not healthy. Scope – (only 4 aspects are covered here to keep the example short)
Positive: | Can positively impact on mood |
---|---|
Positive: | Possible health benefits for cardiovascular system |
Negative: | Chocolate can be seen as a drug rather than a food |
Negative: | Potential correlation between over-consumption of chocolate and obesity |
Main body Paragraph 1 with possible sources Ways in which chocolate can impact positively on mood. ‘Feel good effect’ - Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006), Scholey and Owen (2013), Macht and Dettmer (2006) and Macht and Mueller (2007).
Is the chocolate and improved mood scenario measurable/transient? Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006) – chocolate mood effects do not last. Macht and Dettmer (2006) – anticipation effect and more studies needed.
Paragraph 2 Possible benefits of chocolate on cardiovascular health – how much/what type(s) of chocolate have benefit? (Sources needed to help answer these questions.) Problems with measuring correlation between chocolate consumption and cardiovascular health. (Sources needed to help answer this.)
Paragraph 3 Chocolate best viewed as a food or a drug? Indulgence or addiction – are the boundaries unclear? (See what external sources have to say on this) Medication elements of chocolate? (Readings needed around this issue.)
Paragraph 4 The correlation between chocolate and obesity. (Definition of obesity needed.) What does the literature say in relation to other causal factors?
Conclusion Summary of four arguments presented. Chocolate is not a healthy food, but it is enjoyable nevertheless.
Example: Developed essay plan (linear style)
Main body Paragraph 1 Ways in which chocolate can impact positively on mood. ‘Feel good effect’-Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006), Scholey and Owen (2013), Macht and Dettmer (2006) and Macht and Mueller (2007)
Is the chocolate and improved mood scenario measurable/transient? Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006) chocolate mood effects do not last. Macht and Dettmer (2006) – anticipation effect and more studies needed.
Paragraph 2 Possible benefits of chocolate on cardiovascular health – how much/what type(s) of chocolate have benefit? Can provide heart-friendly flavanols (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002) – helps with blood clotting and is anti-inflammatory (Schramm et al., 2001) Maximising benefits of chocolate lies in minimising fat levels (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002). Current processes destroy flavanols (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002). Note the change of focus from the original idea (correlation between chocolate consumption and cardiovascular health) due to the lack of research data available.
Paragraph 3 Chocolate best viewed as a food or a drug? Indulgence or addiction – are the boundaries unclear? Chocolate contains some biologically active ingredients, but in small amounts (Bruinsma & Taren, 1999). ‘Chocolate addicts’ – negative correlation: chocolate consumption and mood (Macdiramid & Hetherington, 1995) but chocolate cravings sensory rather than addictive (Bruinsma & Taren,1999). Medication elements of chocolate? Used in relation to magnesium deficiency in women (Pennington, 2000 in Steinberg et al., 2003). Findings concur with Abraham and Lubran (1981) who found a correlation between magnesium deficiency and nervous tension in women. Note the narrow focus of medical benefits (i.e. only considering magnesium) due to the short length of the essay.
Paragraph 4 The correlation between chocolate and obesity. No specific correlation found in literature (Beckett, 2008; Lambert, 2009). Note the findings show that there is no clear relationship between chocolate and obesity – an issue flagged in the introduction. Typified by Mellor’s (2013) findings – adults showed no weight increase after chocolate controlled diet. Lambert (2009) exemplified that chocolate consumption alone unlikely to precipitate obesity. ‘Chocoholic’ more likely to consume other sweet foods and less likely to exercise as much as others. Chocolate consumption thus marginal in causes of obesity.
Conclusion Summary of four arguments presented Chocolate is not a healthy food, but it is enjoyable nevertheless.
It might seem strange to think about writing your conclusion before you write the body of your essay, but unless you know where you are going you can easily lose direction. Also, the conclusion is the last thing the reader actually reads, so it needs to be memorable.
There are a number of questions you should ask yourself, such as:
How will everything finish? What are you aiming for? What final impression do you want your readers to have?
Your conclusion ties your essay together. It should normally:
So, our chocolate essay conclusion should mirror this pattern.
The conclusion should not just repeat the ideas from the introduction. The introduction includes the background to the essay, the important issues and a thesis statement. The introduction leads your reader into the essay. The conclusion reminds your reader of the main points made in your essay and leaves your reader with a final impression and ideas to think about later.
Chocolate essay conclusion
The following conclusion has three parts.
(A) The first sentence links the conclusion to the discussion in the previous paragraph. (B) The following sentences restate the main points and reaffirm the thesis. (C) The last sentence is a broad statement relating to the significance of the argument.
(A) Obesity and chocolate consumption seemingly have no proven correlations. (B) Yet, in this essay, many chocolate focused arguments have been presented, including the transient effect of chocolate on mood and evidence that it is as likely to create feelings of guilt as of well-being. Another possible positive dimension to chocolate is a correlation with cardiovascular health. Yet the potential benefits of flavanols in chocolate are currently offset by the high fat/carbohydrate content of most forms of chocolate. Whether chocolate is a food or a drug is also unclear. The literature outlines the chemical properties of chocolate which could help explain some addictive type behaviour, particularly in regards to nervous tension in women, but also there is a strong research focus on chocolate as a sensory-based indulgence. (C) It can therefore be said that chocolate is not a healthy food, but can be enjoyed as part of a healthy and balanced diet and lifestyle.
At the heart of your essay lie your body paragraphs. Typically, a body paragraph will follow the format below.
The topic sentence can function as a sentence of transition from the previous paragraph. The Topic Sentence should unambiguously express the topic of the paragraph and be linked with the overall thesis of the essay. | |
Elaboration of the main point should add more detailed information in relation to the topic sentence. Examples and Evidence should support your main point using paraphrases, summaries or direct quotations, all of which need to be appropriately referenced. | |
The Concluding Sentence should echo the main point of the paragraph and function as a bridge to the next paragraph. |
N.B. Paragraphs should be balanced – keep to the ‘no less than 3 sentences per paragraph’ rule.
Remember to link all the points in your paragraph to the idea in the topic sentence. One way to check if you have done this is to write keywords in the margin for each sentence. If your keywords are related to the topic sentence, your paragraph is good. If there are ideas that are not related, you should remove them.
In the following example, the unrelated ideas are highlighted in red:
Paragraph | Sentence keywords |
---|---|
It has been claimed that chocolate is a healthy food, but in fact it contains a lot of sugar, which can be unhealthy. For example, sugar can cause tooth decay, which can lead to dental problems in later life. Too much sugar can also lead to obesity, which is a serious health risk. In addition, sugar contains a high amount of fructose, which is bad for the liver. The amount of sugar contained in chocolate means, therefore, that chocolate, particularly milk and white chocolate, may not be healthy. | Topic sentence – sugar and health sugar and tooth decay (health)
obesity (health)
|
These unrelated ideas can be removed to make a more coherent paragraph:
It has been claimed that chocolate is a healthy food, but in fact it contains a lot of sugar, which can be unhealthy. For example, sugar can cause tooth decay, which can lead to dental problems in later life. Too much sugar can also lead to obesity, which is a serious health risk. In addition, sugar contains a high amount of fructose, which is bad for the liver. The amount of sugar contained in chocolate means, therefore, that chocolate, particularly milk and white chocolate, may not be healthy.
You can then add examples and references to make your paragraph stronger.
Here is an example:
View the text description of the above body paragraph example .
Once you have drafted your main body paragraphs and your conclusion, it is time to draft your introduction.
Writing your introduction last means you are more likely to have a tighter fit between the introduction, main body and conclusion because you already know what your essay will be about.
Let us have another look at the functions of an introduction:
B ackground statement — where you set the context for your essay I ssue(s) — where you outline the specific issues that are relevant to your essay. T hesis — where you state your position in relation to the issues. S cope — where you outline what exactly is going to be covered in relation to your argument.
The thesis and scope are sometimes combined to form one or more sentences known as a thesis statement . The thesis statement often comes at the end of the introduction, although it can be written earlier.
Sometimes an essay will begin with a direct quote to draw readers into the essay.
Sometimes, particularly in very short essays, the essay will begin with an issue rather than a background statement.
Essays also sometimes begin with an issue, outline the scope and then move on to end the introduction with the thesis statement.
It is important to remember that there is not a fixed ordering for the introduction, though the BITS/BIST patterning is a very common one, which is why it is modelled for you as an example.
Example introduction
“Chocolate is a healthy food”. Discuss.
Explanation | Sentence(s) in order |
---|---|
Background statement which draws the reader into the issue | Since Spanish explorers brought back chocolate from the new world, chocolate consumption has become a worldwide phenomenon. |
Additional information to the background statement | At first, chocolate, a derivative of the cacao bean, was consumed as a drink, only later achieving mass popularity in tablet or bar form. |
The issue that is suggested by the title | However, chocolate's inherent popularity does not equate to it possessing healthy properties, as suggested by the title. |
Scope of the essay | The realities of chocolate are more down to earth; a number of these realities will be addressed in this essay. Chocolate has chemical properties that can influence mood and there is possible evidence for some positive impacts of chocolate on cardiovascular health. Yet, such positive attributes are counterbalanced somewhat by the argument that, in some instances, chocolate can be viewed as a drug rather than a food. Moreover, there is the possibility of some correlation between over-consumption of chocolate and obesity. |
Thesis statement | Thus, it will be argued that despite chocolate's positive effect in some cases on mood and the cardiovascular system it has also been linked to addiction and obesity. |
When you are writing an essay you will need to include references to external academic sources.
Why do you need to reference?
What does referencing include?
A. In-text citations, which can take three forms:
B. A reference list at the end of your essay, which includes details such as:
Referencing is integral to academic essay writing and shouldn’t be viewed as an ‘add-on’. When you are referencing, always use a referencing guide to help you ensure 100% accuracy.
Normally, when writing an essay at university you will be expected to use only academic sources. The following learning guide on source credibility will help you to determine whether an external source is academic or not.
The chocolate essay uses the American Psychological Association (APA) style of referencing, which is easy to distinguish from the Harvard Author-Date System, as the format is different:
Harvard | APA |
---|---|
When you are writing an essay and including external sources, more often than not you want the reader to focus on what is said rather than who is saying it. In that case the information comes before the author. For example:
Such citations are called information-centred citations.
When the focus is more on who is saying it then the citation is written like this:
Such citations are called author-centred citations.
Try and achieve a balance between both types of in text-references in your essay writing.
Reference list
In the APA style of referencing, the reference list has certain conventions that you must also follow. Here are some examples from the chocolate essay:
Text description of the APA style of referencing example above.
Don’t make referencing something you do just as an editing or proofreading activity. Include your in-text citations and reference list as part of your first draft.
An excellent website to help with your APA referencing is the APA Interactive tool at Massey University.
Leave yourself enough time to look at your essay more than once. For a 1000 word essay you need at least three days to redraft your essay.
Always save each draft as a separate file; then you can see how your essay develops and improves.
Here are the sorts of questions you should ask yourself:
View a text version of the redrafting your essay diagram above.
You can also look at other checklists such as this one on editing your own work .
Let’s see how the writer of the chocolate essay redrafted their original introduction:
View the text version of the redrafted essay .
Now compare the above with the final draft:
Since Spanish explorers brought back chocolate from the new world, chocolate consumption has become a worldwide phenomenon. At first, chocolate, a derivative of the cacao bean, was consumed as a drink, only later achieving mass popularity in tablet or bar form. However, chocolate’s inherent popularity does not equate to it possessing healthy properties, as suggested by the title. The realities of chocolate are more down to earth; a number of these realities will be addressed in this essay. Chocolate has chemical properties that can influence mood and there is possible evidence for some positive impacts of chocolate on cardiovascular health. Yet, such positive attributes are counterbalanced somewhat by the argument that, in some instances, chocolate can be viewed as a drug rather than a food. Moreover, there is the possibility of some correlation between over-consumption of chocolate and obesity. Thus, it will be argued that despite chocolate’s positive effect in some cases on mood and the cardiovascular system it has also been linked to addiction and obesity.
Take your time and be careful when redrafting—it will be worth it!
How do you write in an academic way?
Your lecturers will want to hear your ‘voice’ as they read your essay.
Imagine your essay as a kind of story. You are the principal storyteller, the internal voice of the writer, leading the reader through to your conclusion.
During the story, there are different voices that appear from time to time. These are the external voices (citations) that add substance to your story, providing detail and support for what you are saying and sometimes even giving an alternative perspective. The external voices can be divided into two categories in your essay: the direct external voice of an author (through a direct quote) and the indirect external voice of an author (through a paraphrase).
The reader needs to know at all times whose voice they are hearing. Is it your internal voice or the external voice of other authors?
You might wonder how you can include your own voice and still sound academic when you are writing about a subject area in which you have little (or no) knowledge. Including your voice does not mean that you should say ‘I think’ or ‘in my opinion’.
Here are some examples of the critical/analytical language that you can use as your own internal voice when you present other people’s ideas:
Phrase | How your voice is included |
---|---|
It has been argued (Smith & Jones, 2010) that… | Pointing out what has been said by an external source |
As Smith and Jones (2010) note… | Showing your agreement with the external source |
However, Smith and Jones (2010) fail to address… | Showing that you recognise the limitations of the source |
Seemingly, Smith and Jones (2010) have… | Showing you have tentative support for the external source |
On the other hand, Smith and Jones (2010) argue that… | Showing that there is a contrast with a previous argument you have included |
Smith and Jones (2010) assert that… | Showing that the position of the external source is strong but you are likely to have doubts about it |
It has been suggested that… (Smith & Jones, 2010; Brown & Culbertson, 2005; Lloyd & Giggs, 2004) | Showing that you recognise a number of authors have reached a similar conclusion, and you might/might not agree with it |
One advantage of the work of Smith and Jones (2010)… | Showing that you are positively engaging with an external source |
Let’s look at one of the paragraphs from the chocolate essay to see how the text is an interplay of the internal voice of the writer and the external voices of other authors. The internal voice of the writer is colour-coded in yellow; the indirect external voices of other authors (i.e. paraphrases) are coded in grey; and the direct external voices of other authors (i.e. quotations) are coded in blue.
View a text version of the voice explanation above.
This is a balanced paragraph. The writer sets the scene at the beginning of the topic sentence and also links together all of the sentences, using their own voice to lead into content which is provided by the external voices.
Look at the same paragraph re-written, with the amount of the writer’s voice substantially reduced:
View a text version of the above re-written paragraph .
Here the writer is not ‘in charge’ of the paragraph, and it reads a little like a list. That is something your lecturers do not want to see.
When you are drafting your paragraphs, use a colour-coding system like the one used here. It will help you ensure your academic voice is clear!
When you get more confident in using external sources, you will gradually expand the language of your critical internal voice. The Phrasebank website at Manchester University provides examples of some more expressions to use when assessing external sources.
Editing focuses on the big picture elements such as overall structure, appropriate paragraphing and whether the question has been answered.
Proofreading has a micro-focus on the details of your essay, such as formatting, grammar and punctuation.
Everybody has their own personal style of editing and proofreading. You need to focus on the types of errors you commonly make by looking at the marker’s comments on your previous work.
Some people proofread alone; some get other people involved. Having others involved is a really good idea.
Fresh eyes can help you find things you might not otherwise have seen.
Here are some things to consider when proofreading and editing:
View a text version of the above proofreading and editing your essay considerations.
The Purdue OWL website has even more detail on the proofreading process.
Students regularly underestimate the time it takes to write an essay, in particular the planning and researching stages.
Before you begin your essay, have a look at the Massey University assignment planning calculator . You might be surprised how long the whole process takes!
As you can see from the assignment planning calculator, if you only start your essay a few days before the due date, you will have to do things too quickly.
If you think of the essay/cake analogy, you need time to mix all the ingredients properly, or the end result will not be what you want to share with others!
To write a 1000 word essay, ideally you should allow yourself about 3 weeks.
Let’s have a look at how an essay time management ‘cake’ could be divided into slices:
View a text description of the writing an essay time management 'cake' .
You can see that the biggest part of your time is spent on the planning/research elements and redrafting/editing/proofreading elements, which together should comprise around 60% of your time.
Have a look at another model to see what you also need to consider:
Here is the final version of the chocolate essay. You can also download a PDF version of the chocolate essay .
“Chocolate is a healthy food.” Discuss.
Since Spanish explorers brought back chocolate from the new world, chocolate consumption has become a worldwide phenomenon. At first, chocolate, a derivative of the cacao bean, was consumed as a drink, only later achieving mass popularity in tablet or bar form. However, chocolate’s inherent popularity does not equate to it possessing healthy properties, as suggested by the title. The realities of chocolate are more down to earth; a number of these realities will be addressed in this essay. Chocolate has chemical properties that can influence mood and there is possible evidence for some positive impacts of chocolate on cardiovascular health. Yet, such positive attributes are counterbalanced somewhat by the argument that, in some instances, chocolate can be viewed as a drug rather than a food. Moreover, there is the possibility of some correlation between over-consumption of chocolate and obesity. Thus, it will be argued that despite chocolate’s positive effect in some cases on mood and the cardiovascular system it has also been linked to addiction and obesity.
Consumption of chocolate is something that many enjoy, and there is evidence (Parker, Parker, & Brotchie, 2006) that high carbohydrate foods such as chocolate do have a ‘feel good’ effect. Moreover, Scholey and Owen (2013) in a systematic review of the literature in the field point to several studies, such as Macht and Dettmer (2006) and Macht and Mueller (2007), which appear to confirm this effect. Yet, as Parker, Parker and Brotchie (2006, p. 150) note, the mood effects of chocolate "are as ephemeral as holding a chocolate in one’s mouth". In addition, mood is something that is difficult to isolate and quantify, and aside from the study by Macht and Dettmer (2006) there appears to be little research on any longer term mood affecting influences of chocolate. Another point is raised by Macht and Dettmer (2006), whose study found that positive responses to chocolate correlated more with anticipation and temporary sensory pleasure, whereas guilt was also a statistically significant factor for many, for whom the ‘feel-good’ effect would be minimalised. As these authors stress, “temporal tracking of [both] positive and negative emotions” (p.335) before and after consuming chocolate in future studies could help in further understanding the ‘feel good’ effect and more negative emotions.
Another possible positive influence of chocolate is upon cardiovascular health. Chocolate, processed accordingly, can be a provider of significant quantities of heart-friendly flavanols (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002) which help in delaying blood clotting and reducing inflammation (Schramm et al., 2001). Such attributes of flavanols in chocolate need to be considered in the context of chocolate’s other components – approximately 30% fat, 61% carbohydrate, 6% protein and 3% liquid and minerals (Hannum, Schmitz, & Keen, 2002). The key to maximising the benefits of flavanols in chocolate appears to lie in the level of fats present. Cocoa, which is simply chocolate minus the fat, is the most obvious candidate for maximising heart health, but as Hannum, Schmitz and Keen (2002) note, most cocoa products are made through an alkali process which destroys many flavanols. Optimal maximisation of the flavanols involves such compounds being present in cocoa and chocolate products at levels where they are biologically active (Ariefdjohan & Savaiano, 2005).
The biological makeup of chocolate is also relevant in determining whether chocolate is better viewed as a food or a drug, but the boundaries between indulgence and addictive behaviour are unclear. Chocolate contains some biologically active elements including methylxanthines, and cannabinoid-like unsaturated fatty acids (Bruinsma & Taren, 1999) which could represent a neurochemical dependency potential for chocolate, yet are present in exceedingly small amounts. Interestingly, and linked to chocolate and mood, Macdiarmid and Hetherington (1995) claim their study found that “self-identified chocolate ‘addicts’” reported a negative correlation between chocolate consumption and mood. This is perhaps indicative of addictive or compulsive type behaviour. However, as Bruinsma and Taren (1999) note, eating chocolate can represent a sensory reward based, luxurious indulgence, based around texture, aroma and flavour anticipation, rather than a neurochemically induced craving. Yet, it has been argued that chocolate is sometimes used as a form of self-medication, particularly in relation to magnesium deficiency. A study by Pennington (2000 in Steinberg, Bearden, & Keen 2003) noted that women do not generally meet US guidelines for trace elements, including magnesium. This correlates with earlier studies by Abraham and Lubran (1981), who found a high correlation between magnesium deficiency and nervous tension in women. Thus, tension-related chocolate cravings could be a biological entity fuelled by magnesium deficiency. Overall, however, it would appear that the proportion of people using chocolate as a drug rather than a food based sensory indulgence is small, though further research might prove enlightening.
A final point to consider in relation to chocolate is the perception that chocolate is linked to obesity. A person is defined as being obese when their Body Mass Index is greater than 30. The literature on chocolate and obesity has clearly demonstrated that there are no specific correlations between the two variables (Beckett, 2008; Lambert, 2009). This is typified by the findings of Mellor (2013), who found that, over a period of eight weeks of eating 45 grams of chocolate per day, a group of adults demonstrated no significant weight increase. As Lambert (2009) notes, chocolate consumption alone is not likely to cause obesity, unless large amounts of other calorie dense foods are consumed and this calorie dense intake is greater than needed for bodily function, bearing in mind levels of activity. The stereotypical ‘chocoholic’ seems more likely to consume many other sweet foods and be less likely to take exercise than other people, so chocolate consumption is only one possible variable when considering the causes of obesity.
Obesity and chocolate consumption seemingly have no proven correlations. Yet, in this essay, many chocolate focused arguments have been presented, including the transient effect of chocolate on mood and the fact that it is as likely to create feelings of guilt as of well-being. Another possible positive dimension to chocolate is a correlation with cardiovascular health. Yet the potential benefits of flavanols in chocolate are currently offset by the high fat/carbohydrate content of most forms of chocolate. Whether chocolate is a food or a drug is also unclear. The literature outlines the chemical properties of chocolate which could help explain some addictive type behaviour, particularly in regards to nervous tension in women, but there is also a strong research focus on chocolate as a sensory-based indulgence. It can therefore be said that chocolate is not a healthy food, but can be enjoyed as part of a healthy and balanced diet and lifestyle.
(Word count: 1087. This is within 10% of the word limit, which is usually acceptable. Check this with your lecturer if you are in any doubt.)
Abraham, G. E., & Lubran, M. M. (1981). Serum and red cell magnesium levels in patients with premenstrual tension. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 34 (11), 2364-2366. Retrieved from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/34/11/2364.short
Ariefdjohan, M. W., & Savaiano, D. A. (2005). Chocolate and cardiovascular health: Is it too good to be true? Nutrition Reviews , 63 (12), 427-430. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2005.tb00118.x
Beckett, S. T. (2000). The science of chocolate . Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
Bruinsma, K., & Taren, D. L. (1999). Chocolate: Food or drug? Journal of the American Dietetic Association , 99 (10), 1249-12. doi: 10.1016/S0002-8223(99)00307-7
Hannum, S. M., Schmitz, H. H., & Keen, C. L. (2002). Chocolate: A heart-healthy food? Show me the science! Nutrition Today , 37 (3), 103-109. Retrieved from http://journals.lww.com/nutritiontodayonline/Abstract/2002/05000/Chocol…
Lambert, J. P. (2009). Nutrition and health aspects of chocolate. In S. Beckett (Ed.), Industrial chocolate manufacture and use , (4th ed., pp. 623-635). London: Wiley Blackwell. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444301588.ch27/pdf
Macht, M., & Dettmer, D. (2006). Everyday mood and emotions after eating a chocolate bar or an apple. Appetite , 46 (3), 332-336. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2006.01.014
Macht, M., & Mueller, J. (2007). Immediate effects of chocolate on experimentally induced mood states. Appetite , 49 (3), 667-674. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2007.05.004
Macdiarmid, J. I., & Hetherington, M. M. (1995). Mood modulation by food: An exploration of affect and cravings in ‘chocolate addicts’. British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 34 (1), 129-138. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1995.tb01445.x
Mellor, D. D. (2013). The effects of polyphenol rich chocolate on cardiovascular risk and glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus (Doctoral dissertation, University of Hull, UK). Retrieved from https://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:7109
Parker, G., Parker, I., & Brotchie, H. (2006). Mood state effects of chocolate. Journal of Affective Disorders , 92 (2), 149-159. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2006.02.007
Scholey, A., & Owen, L. (2013). Effects of chocolate on cognitive function and mood: a systematic review. Nutrition reviews , 71 (10), 665-681. doi:10.1111/nure.12065
Schramm, D. D., Wang, J. F., Holt, R. R., Ensunsa, J. L., Gonsalves, J. L., Lazarus, S. A., Schmitz, H. H., German, J. Bruce, & Keen, C. L. (2001). Chocolate procyanidins decrease the leukotriene-prostacyclin ratio in humans and human aortic endothelial cells. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 73 (1), 36-40. Retrieved from http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/73/1/36.full
Steinberg, F. M., Bearden, M. M., & Keen, C. L. (2003). Cocoa and chocolate flavonoids: Implications for cardiovascular health. Journal of the American Dietetic Association , 103 (2), 215-223. doi: 10.1053/jada.2003.50028
‘Integrity’ relates to ‘honesty’, and academic integrity involves writing in an honest way, so that no one will think you are claiming that words or ideas from someone else are your own. This is very important in academic writing in western countries, and if you do not do this you might be accused of plagiarism, which is a serious offence at university.
Plagiarism means using someone else’s words, ideas or diagrams without acknowledgement.
Of course, when we write an essay we need to refer to other people’s ideas. We gave some of the reasons for this before:
Being a good writer involves using other people’s ideas to support your work. However, you should never forget to say where these ideas come from, even if you don’t quote the person’s exact words.
Include a reference in the text, where the words or ideas appear, and in a reference list at the end of the essay.
All the references in the text must appear in the reference list, and all the references in the list must also appear in the text.
There is a short video clip on plagiarism here and a wonderful Plagiarism Carol video here (click on ‘captions’ to get subtitles in English).
Another word connected to academic integrity is collusion .
Collusion means that you work with someone else and submit the same or very similar assignments without your lecturer’s permission.
For example, if you and a friend work together on an essay and then submit identical or very similar versions of the essay, one under your name and one under your friend’s name, that is collusion . However, if you are doing a group work assignment and your lecturer has asked you to work together and submit the assignment jointly, that is not collusion . Collusion, like plagiarism, has an element of dishonesty in it. People who collude do so secretly, as they know that the lecturer would not be happy.
People make genuine mistakes, so lecturers are usually very happy to advise you if you ask them.
The ASG covers the most common style questions for writers and editors in Australia, with invaluable advice for:
Our guide covers both the print and digital environments, and it is equally suitable for the government, corporate and university sectors in Australia.
We base our recommendations on the latest evidence on clear communication. Where style advice has evolved in recent years, we explain why without excessive detail. And where there are options, the ASG will help you make an informed choice for your text and context.
Use the ASG every day at work to:
There are 3 ways you can navigate the ASG:
1 Type a keyword in the search box | In the top right corner of the screen |
2 Use the A–Z menu to find a specific entry | Across the top of the screen |
3 Explore the guide by category | In the menu down the left of the screen |
This means you can quickly find the answer to a specific question, but also delve into broader topics. The ASG entries range from the essentials of plain English to the technicalities of punctuation. We cover the nuances of language and numbers as well as formatting and referencing.
The ASG has distilled the best practical advice on the most common style issues in an easy-to-use but definitive guide.
Academic skills office, academic skills.
Introduction
Sometimes a good example of what you are trying to achieve is worth a 1000 words of advice! When you are asked to write an essay, try to find some samples (models) of similar writing and learn to observe the craft of the writer. You can use the samples as a basis for working out how to write in the correct style.
Most books on essay writing will supply you with a number of model essays—collect some of these as they are great teachers! No matter what the topic is, you will see similarities between your writing tasks and these model essays. This is because many features of writing are common across subject areas. In some subjects (e.g. Law, Economics, Psychology and others), it is very useful to find subject -specific essay models as you can use these to work out the ‘peculiarities’ of writing for that subject area.
The following five paragraph essay has paragraph labels to show the parts of an academic essay. (Note: This essay does not contain authentic references and has been written specifically to use for this teaching task.)
Body paragraph 1
Body paragraph 2
Using assignment essays for assessment supports student learning better than the traditional examination system. It is considered that course-work assignment essays can lessen the extreme stress experienced by some students over ‘sudden-death’ end of semester examinations:
If we insist that all students write about everything they have learned in their study courses at the same time and in the same place (e.g. in examinations), we are not giving all of our students equal opportunities. Some students are not daunted by the exam experience while others suffer ‘exam nerves’ and perform at the lowest level of their capabilities. (Wonderland University, 2006, p. 4)
Additionally, Jones et al. (2004, pp. 36-37) propose that assignment essays can be used to assess student learning mid-course and so provide them with helpful feedback before they are subjected to the exam experience. Exams only provide students with a mark rather than specific feedback on their progress. Therefore, setting assignment essays for a substantial part of student assessment is a much fairer approach than one-off examination testing.
Body paragraph 3
Bloggs, J. (2003). Linking teaching, learning and succeeding in higher education . London: Bookworld.
Jinx, J.M. (2004). Student essay writing. Journal of Research in University Education, 9 (2), 114-125.
Jones, J., Smith, P.L., Brown, K., Zong J., Thompson, K., & Fung, P.A. (2004). Helpline: Essays and the university student . Tokyo: Courtyard Printers.
Sankey, J.M., & Liger, T.U. (2003). Learning to write essays [CD-ROM]. Sydney: Wonderland University.
Taylor, G. (1989). The student’s writing guide for the arts and social sciences . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wonderland University. (2006). Attributes of a university graduate . doi:10.1098/063-112
Yang, S., & Baker, O.E. (2005). Essay writing and the tertiary student . Melbourne: Diamond Press.
Zapper, Y. (2006). Learning essay writing. In F.T. Fax & Y. Phoney (Eds.), Learning Experiences at University (pp. 55-70). Calcutta: Academic Scholar Press.
Most students really appreciate seeing a finished product. If you are to really benefit from model essays, you need to learn how to read the ‘techniques of the writer’. The following exercise helps you to get started with developing your ‘read the writer’ skills.
1. The introduction paragraph
2. Body paragraph 1
3. Body paragraph 2
4. Body paragraph 3
5. The conclusion paragraph
6. The reference list
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This resource looks at what an essay is and how it is structured. More information on aspects of essay writing, along with annotated examples of essays from different disciplines are available in the further resources section at the bottom of the page.
An essay is a coherent text that presents an argument in response to a question. An essay at university assesses how well you can convincingly articulate and develop an argument through deep engagement with the subject content.
When writing an essay you must consider what has already been written on the topic in well-regarded academic sources such as journal articles. A good essay answers the question clearly, is well structured and researched, and is error free. It is also written in formal and impersonal language, and follows the referencing conventions of the discipline you are studying.
At university, you may be asked to write different types of essays, depending on the discipline you are in. Types of essays include:
Irrespective of the type of essay, the following structure is almost always found.
The introduction of an essay is where the topic of the essay is introduced and an overview of your argument is given. It includes a general statement about the topic followed by a thesis statement. A thesis statement is your answer to the essay question in one or two sentences - in other words, it is your main argument, point or idea. Your introduction should also include a brief summary of the arguments, points or ideas that back up your claim.
Throughout time people have learnt more than one language. However, in the 21st century there has been an unprecedented increase in global bilingual populations. Migration, the lure of travel or national policy can be some of the reasons for the growth in bilingualism or multilingualism. Whatever the reasons for the increase, bilingualism undoubtedly holds distinct benefits. This essay seeks to highlight the importance of bilingualism by outlining its key cognitive and social advantages. Furthermore, by considering pre-existing myths that surround bilingualism, this essay will argue that encouraging students to learn languages from an early stage is not only beneficial but crucial to cognitive and academic development.
The body of your essay is where you clearly state and elaborate on the arguments, points or ideas that back up your claim. The number of paragraphs in the body of your essay will depend on how many individual points you need to make to develop your argument and, of course, the required word count.
The general structure of a body paragraph is:
Bilingualism can have a positive impact on both cognition and brain function. Despite differing evidence that secondary language learning can result in cognitive overload, overwhelming research consensus has shown that well-developed bilingualism enhances one's intellectual ability in certain areas. Experiments in psychology conducted by Bialystok (2011) show that bilinguals outperform monolinguals in certain cognitive tasks that involve sorting conflicting data. Bilingualism is also a contributing factor in delaying dementia (Alladi et al, 2013; Mortimer, 2013). An earlier study by Alber and Obler, 1978 (cited in Cummins 1994) goes even further in stating that bilingual learners mature earlier than mono-lingual learners in terms of linguistic abstractions, because their brains have developed the ability to engage with the syntax of two different languages. These are some of the cognitive benefits of learning more than one language. However, language acquisition with adults may prove more problematic as cognitive rigidity may interfere or hinder their ability to process increasingly complex grammatical structures (DeKeyser, 2015). Thus, although more problematic for older learners, encouraging the learning of two or more languages can offer long lasting intellectual benefits .
The conclusion of an essay is where you restate your main argument and the arguments that back it up. You may also want to include a one final comment if appropriate.
Bilingualism is crucial in contributing to the cognitive capabilities and social development in today’s youth. This can be attributed to two main reasons. Firstly, learning a second language can have positive effects on the cognitive development of the brain and maturity of young learners. Secondly, because a person's language is closely connected with their identity, the teaching of a community language is likely to help create social coherence. Thus, the positive gains of second language learning far outweigh any cost that encouraging bilingualism might entail.
Write a first draft.
Your first draft will help you work out:
Your first draft will not be your final essay; think of it as raw material you will refine through editing and redrafting . Once you have a draft, you can work on writing well.
Structure your essay in the most effective way to communicate your ideas and answer the question.
All essays should include the following structure.
1. Introduction
The introduction moves from general to specific. This is where you:
The body of your essay consists of paragraphs. Each is a building block in the construction of your argument. The body is where you:
If your question has more than one part, structure the body into sections that deal with each part of the question.
The conclusion moves from specific to general. It should:
However, NEVER introduce new information or ideas in the conclusion - its purpose is to round-off your essay by summing up.
A paragraph is a related group of sentences that develops one main idea. Each paragraph in the body of the essay should contain:
Referencing your essay
If you need help understanding the question, please check with your tutor. We may also be able to help:
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At university, you will come across many different kinds of essay questions. The one thing to remember, no matter the question, is that academic essay writing is persuasive. This means that you are expected to take a position and present an argument in order to convince the reader of your views.
A position refers to taking a stance on a question or an issue. An argument is a list of reasons, supported by evidence, that are used to persuade readers of that position.
Arguing for a position goes beyond simple description or the presentation of a series of facts. It means understanding the question, engaging with the debate and using evidence critically.
These pages provide strategies you can use to help refine, structure and present your position and argument throughout a written essay. The principles of persuasive writing presented here apply to most forms of academic writing and can be adapted to all disciplines.
Find your argument >>
Find your argument
Develop your argument
Plan your essay
Write your essay
Polish your essay
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Home / Writing in Wordapp / Writer Resources / Australian English style guide
Spelling and punctuation guide.
While written Australian English is very close in many ways to its sister language American English, there are some important differences. This Australian English style guide will help highlight some of the important spelling and punctuation differences between the two languages. It will help ensure your success when writing for the Australian reader.
Common Spelling Mistakes The first major difference between these two systems lies in spelling. For instance, American English uses iza , ize , izi and yze , while Australian English uses isa , ise , isi and yse . Thus, ‘ realize ’ is American and ‘ realise ’ is Australian. Similarly, ‘ analyze ’ is American and ‘ analyse ’ is Australian.
When writing academically for an Australian university or publication, American spellings must not remain in your text. Therefore, we recommend doing a search for iza , ize , izi and yze to find and correct these errors.
There are two big differences between these two systems in terms of punctuation. The first relates to the use of the serial comma (the comma before ‘and’ in a list). While the second relates to the punctuation used with quotations.
In Australian English, the serial comma is not used. This means that usually in a list no comma is placed before ‘and’; for example:
This essay will investigate the roles of the Parliament, the Ministers and the Judiciary.
In American English, this would be: This essay will investigate the roles of the Parliament, the Ministers, and the Judiciary.
Note that if the list looks like it could be confusing without the serial comma (e.g., the items in the list are long, or there are multiple ‘ands’ in the list), you can use a comma to remove that confusion.
This is one of the most common mistakes made by writers in Australian English. American English uses double quotation marks, and only uses single quotations marks when quoting inside a quotation; for example: According to Lines (2010), “these soldiers served as models of the ‘New Woman.’”
In Australian English, single quotation marks are used, with double quotation marks only used to quote within quotations:
According to Lines (2010), ‘these soldiers served as models of the “New Woman”’.
You will also notice in the example quotations above that the punctuation at the ends of the sentences are different.
In American English, the punctuation mark (i.e., the full stop or comma) always comes before the closing quotation mark. Conversely, in Australian English, the punctuation mark will usually come after the closing quotation mark, unless the quotation is also a complete sentence. Compare the following two examples. (Both use Australian English).
The salsola is a salt marsh plant. ‘It stores the salt in its leaves, so is a naturally seasoned plant.’
The salsola is a salt marsh plant. As salt is stored in its leaves, it is ‘naturally seasoned’.
Note that in the first example, the quotation and the complete sentence (from capital letter to full stop) are one and the same. Therefore, in Australian English, the punctuation mark is placed inside the quotation marks. In all other instances, the punctuation mark is placed outside the quotation marks.
By keeping just these few differences in mind while writing, you will dramatically reduce the number of stylistic errors in your text caused by confusion between the conventions of American and Australian English.
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Students are often asked to write an essay on Australia in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.
Let’s take a look…
Australia’s location.
Australia is a country in the Southern Hemisphere, located between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It’s the world’s smallest continent but the sixth-largest country by total area.
Australia is famous for its natural beauty. It has unique animals like kangaroos and koalas. The Great Barrier Reef, the world’s largest coral reef system, is found here.
Australia is a multicultural country with people from many backgrounds. English is the main language. Australians are known for their friendly and laid-back nature.
Australia has a strong economy, with sectors like mining, agriculture, and tourism playing key roles.
Introduction.
Australia, often referred to as “Down Under”, is a unique country that is also a continent. It is renowned for its rich culture, diverse ecosystem, and vibrant economy.
Australia is the world’s smallest continent but the sixth-largest country by land area. It boasts a diverse geography, from the arid deserts of the Outback to the snowy peaks of the Australian Alps. This diversity extends to its wildlife, with species like kangaroos and koalas that are found nowhere else on earth.
Australian culture is a blend of its Indigenous roots and more than two centuries of immigration. This multicultural mix has created a vibrant, inclusive society that values diversity. Australians are known for their laid-back attitude and friendly demeanor, often characterized by the term ‘mateship’.
Australia has a strong, stable economy, ranked 13th largest in the world. It is rich in natural resources, including coal, iron ore, and gold. The services sector, including tourism, education, and finance, also plays a significant role.
Australia is more than just a country; it’s a unique blend of diverse cultures, landscapes, and wildlife. Its robust economy and multicultural society make it a fascinating study for students of geography, culture, and economics. Despite being geographically isolated, Australia’s impact on the global stage is significant and continues to grow.
Australia, also known as “the land Down Under,” is a country known for its rich cultural heritage, diverse ecosystems, and progressive economy. The country is characterized by its unique flora and fauna, captivating landscapes, and vibrant cities that blend modernity with tradition.
Australia is the world’s sixth-largest country by total area and is located in the Southern Hemisphere. It is surrounded by the Indian and Pacific Oceans, featuring a wide range of geographical landscapes, from arid deserts and stunning beaches to lush rainforests and snow-capped mountains. This geographical diversity has resulted in a unique biodiversity. Australia is home to a myriad of endemic species, including the kangaroo, koala, and emu. The Great Barrier Reef, the world’s largest coral reef system, is another testament to Australia’s rich biodiversity.
Australian culture is a blend of its Indigenous heritage and multiple waves of immigration. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, the country’s original inhabitants, have a rich cultural history dating back at least 65,000 years. Their stories, traditions, and living cultures are a significant part of Australia’s identity.
Influences from British colonization are also evident in Australian culture, particularly in its legal and political systems. More recent immigration waves from Europe, Asia, and Africa have further diversified the cultural fabric, making Australia a multicultural society with a high degree of social integration.
Australia’s education system is highly regarded globally. The country is home to several world-class universities that attract international students from around the globe. Research and development play a crucial role in Australia’s economic and social progress. Australian researchers have made significant contributions in various fields, including medicine, climate science, and technology.
Australia is a vibrant and dynamic country with a rich history, diverse culture, and robust economy. Its unique biodiversity, commitment to education and research, and multicultural society make it a fascinating subject of study. Understanding Australia’s complexities and nuances provides valuable insights into how diverse elements can coexist and thrive in harmony.
Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .
Learning Materials
What do the following four actors have in common?
Millions of flashcards designed to help you ace your studies
Write the following words using Australian English spelling:
Write the irregular past participle of the following words:
True or false?
In Australian English, a plural collective noun can take either a singular or plural verb.
What does the slang term "barbie" mean?
Australian English often uses long vowel sounds. Are they longer or shorter than British English vowel sounds?
What does the slang term "mate" mean?
FIll in the blank:
Australian English is native to ________.
Fill in the blank:
Australian English is a _______ of English native to Australia.
The standard Australian accent is known as what?
What is the most well-known Australian English accent?
Australian English is often considered to be a mixture of which two other English varieites
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Indian English
Hugh Jackman
Nicole Kidman
Chris Hemsworth
Margot Robbie
They all speak Australian English!
Australian English is a variety of English native to Australia. Australian English is often considered to be a mixture of standard British English and standard American English, as it shares features with both varieties. The most well-known Australian English accent is General Australian English, which will be the main focus of this article. We will also take a look at Australian English grammar and commonly used slang words/phrases!
The history of Australian English is not too extensive as it is a fairly new language variety (in comparison to American English and British English). Did you know Australian English has only been spoken for a little over 200 years?
Australian English was a result of British colonialism in Australia, which occurred from 1788 until 1901. The British first colonized Australia in order to establish a penal colony (placing prisoners in a remote area away from others). This means Australian English was heavily influenced by regional dialects of British and Irish due to the British and Irish settlers who migrated to Australia during the late 1700s. Australian English was first spoken in the late 1700s/early 1800s by native-born colonists in the Colony of New South Wales.
Australian English has also been influenced by American English features, which is mostly due to pop culture influences (such as tv and movies). Over time, Australian English has evolved and now contains its own distinct features.
As is the case with most other language varieties, there are different Australian English accents - each with slightly different features. But, unlike British English, which has around 40 regional accents, Australian English only has a few, and the differences between them are more subtle. We will focus on the General Australian accent, as this is the most commonly used and well-known Australian accent. Check out the definition below:
General Australian English is an accent regarded as the "standard" Australian accent. It is the most commonly used Australian accent and is also most frequently used in the media (such as on television and radio). It is mainly spoken in urban areas, such as cities.
General Australian English is similar to Standard British English in that it does not necessarily give away much about a person's geographical location or socioeconomic background.
The General Australian English accent has distinct pronunciation features that make it recognizable. It is often said to be a mixture of Standard British and Standard American, as it shares some similarities with both of these accents! A few of the most noticeable features of Australian English are as follows:
Australian English often uses long vowel sounds (like Standard British, but typically longer), meaning they are pronounced for a long duration. This often means that one-syllable words can be lengthened to two syllables, i.e., "near" is pronounced more like "nee-uh" instead of "neer." To non-native speakers, this may sound quite exaggerated.
Also worth mentioning is the long "o" sound, as this is quite a unique sound and has now become somewhat of a meme on the internet! The Australian "o" sounds like a mixture between an /ɑː/ and /ʌ/ with a hint of /r/. For example, the word "no" sounds more like "naur."
The long /aɪ/ in words such as "night" and "find" sound more like a softer /ɔɪ/ (oi) sound. For example, "noight" and "foind."
The long /eɪ/ in words such as "save" and "mate" is more elongated and contains a stronger "y" sound, so would sound more like "aye." For example, "s-aye-ve" and "m-aye-te."
The short /æ/ in words such as "sat" and "hand" is pronounced a bit more like /e/. For example, "seht" and "hehnd."
Australian English is non-rhotic (like Standard British English), meaning when the /r/ sound is in the middle of a word, it is not pronounced unless it is followed by a vowel sound. For example, "hard" is pronounced like /hɑːd/. The r at the end of words is also not pronounced and makes more of a schwa sound instead. For example, "farmer" is pronounced like ˈ/fɑːmə/.
General Australian English uses the tapped /t/ (similar to American English) instead of pronouncing a hard /t/. A tapped /t/ sound is made by the tongue quickly tapping behind the front teeth. For example, take the word "butter." Instead of pronouncing a hard /t/, Australian English uses a softer sound similar to a /d/, i.e., "budder."
Most varieties of English, including Australian English, are stress-timed. This means the stress patterns (emphasis placed on certain words/phrases in a sentence) are evenly spaced out.
Intonation (the way the voice rises or falls in pitch) in Australian English is generally quite flat, which is similar to Standard British English.
Australian English typically follows most British English grammar rules, which differs from American English. For example:
Australian English generally tends towards the British spelling of words instead of American. For example:
"Colour" instead of "color"
"Analyse" instead of "analyze"
In both Australian and British English , the past participles of verbs such as "smell," "spell," and "burn" can be irregular, i.e., "smelt," "spelt," and "burnt." In American English, they would instead be "smelled," "spelled," and "burned."
In Australian and British English, a plural collective noun (e.g., audience/ class/ crowd/ group/ team) can take either a singular or plural verb. For example:
"My family is kind" or "my family are kind."
"The football team is handsome" or "the football team are handsome."
This differs from American English, which only uses the singular verb.
As well as a distinct pronunciation, Australian English also uses its own slang words and phrases (sometimes referred to as Australianisms ). Most of these will likely only be understood if you have an understanding of Australian English vocabulary or are aware of the context. Check out some examples of Australian English words and their meanings below:
Australian English slang word | Meaning |
Barbie | Barbecue |
Thongs | Flip-flops |
G'day mate | Hey friend |
Arvo | Afternoon |
Crikey! | Blimey! / Oh my! |
Ace! | Great! / Amazing! |
Bloke | Man |
Ta | Thanks |
You beauty! | Great! / Fantastic! |
Servo | Petrol/gas station |
Polly | Politician |
Lollies | Sweets/candy |
Bizzo | Business |
Devo | Devastated |
Agro | Aggressive |
Kindie | Kindergarten |
Brolly | Umbrella |
Coldie | Beer |
Cabbie | Taxi/cab driver |
Truckie | Truck driver |
Sunnies | Sunglasses |
Lippie | Lipstick |
Do you notice how lots of Australian slang words are shortened and end with 'o' or 'ie'?
Check out a few examples of Australian English sentences and their phonetic transcriptions:
Example sentence | Phonetic pronunciation | Meaning |
Let's have a barbie. | /lets hæv ə baːbi/ | Let's have a barbecue. |
G'day mate! | /ɡədeɪ meɪʔ/ | Hey friend! |
Do you wanna hang out this arvo? | /dʒu wɔnə hæŋ æɔʔ ðɪs ɑːvəʊ/ | Do you want to hang out this afternoon? |
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Is Australian English different from English?
Australian English is a variety of the English language. Other varieties include:
British English
American English
What type of English is Australian?
Australian is the type of English native to Australia.
How is Australian English different from American English?
The most noticeable differences between Australian English and American English is the pronunciation. For example, Australian English uses longer vowels, whereas American English uses shorter vowels. Australian English is non-rhotic, whereas American English is rhotic.
Also, Australian English tends to move toward British grammar and spelling conventions instead of American.
Why is Australian English different?
Australian English is different from other varieties of English as it developed from a variety of British and Irish regional dialects.
What is Australian English?
Australian English is a variety of the English language. It is not its own language.
True or false?In Australian English, a plural collective noun can take either a singular or plural verb.
True or false?Australian English has been spoken for over 500 years.
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For an overview of English Language, the study design, what’s involved in the exam and more, take a look at our Ultimate Guide to English Language .
Essays in English Language require contemporary examples of language being used in Australia , in order to justify your response to the topic. English Language essays are often said to only be as good as the examples that are used, so it follows that your essays will only be as good and interesting as the examples that you find. It’s a really good idea to start collecting examples, or evidence, in a “bank” from day one, and throughout the year as you prepare for essay SACs and the final exam. Great examples not only lead your discussion, but also make your essay more interesting and therefore stand out.
Primarily you want your evidence to comprise examples of how language is being used within a specific context in contemporary Australia . For instance, you might explore how leaders in Australia use overtly prestigious language with Victorian Premier Daniel Andrews’ use of the formal vocative phrase 'my fellow Victorians' at a press briefing. You may not always be able to find a specific instance of a particular language feature being used, which can be especially true for language that is not frequently used in public contexts, such as slang and ethnolects . It is okay to just have general examples that you discuss in these instances; perhaps the ellipsis (omission of understood words) of auxiliary verbs in varieties such as Greek Australian English . What is important is that the majority of your examples are actually instances of language features being used , and not simply a quote of someone else’s analysis of language, such as a linguist’s quote. Such quotes can be used in essays, but should complement your own discussion of your own examples.
Good examples must also be 'contemporary', as per the majority of essay prompts. As a general rule of thumb, ask yourself if the example you have is older than two years , and if so you may want to think of something newer. This does not mean you can never employ an older example. For instance, you may want to discuss language change in an essay, which sometimes necessitates discussing the historical context of certain language features.
Many students find it highly beneficial to create a table or list of examples that they will practice and get comfortable with – you cannot bring this into the exam of course, but it is a very effective tool for preparation. In your table or list, consider including the following:
An example is given below:
These examples do not necessarily have to be something that you put a huge effort into going out and finding, so long as you make sure that you write down interesting language features that you come across in your day-to-day life . Keep an eye on places like the news, social media ( including emojis and text speak ), and any Australian television, radio, podcasts you watch or listen to. You will of course also discuss different examples of contemporary language use in class too, so make sure to add them as well.
Getting evidence is only step one of preparing for essay writing in English Language, but is the most important step for writing interesting and engaging essays. Keep in mind that this doesn’t have to be a solo activity; collaborating with classmates and group discussions, especially as you prepare for the exam can be a great way to make evidence collection fun. Be sure to check out our other blog, What Is an English Language Essay? for other tips and tricks to make your essays stand out.
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Extinction by Hannie Rayson is usually studied in the Australian curriculum Area of Study 1 - Text Response. For a detailed guide on Text Response, check out our Ultimate Guide to VCE Text Response .
[Modifed Video Transcription]
This is the prompt that I have decided to approach for this video and blog post:
Heather Dixon-Brown and Piper Ross’s dynamic is fuelled by competitiveness unique to the female experience in contemporary times.
Let’s break it down!
Today I’ll be talking about different interpretations of texts , specifically the feminist lens, which is a critical lens for you to know if you’re wanting to get those top marks. Even if you’re not there yet, and you want to amp up your essay, this is it. So keep watching (or reading)!
I won’t be talking about the feminist lens in detail in this video/blog, but know that this is one of the must-know VCAA criteria points I discuss in my How To Write A Killer Text Response ebook. It is particularly relevant to Extinction because by viewing your text through a feminist lens, you’ll be able to get so much more out of your discussion. Think about it this way, you can wear all sorts of ‘glasses’ (i.e. lenses) when you’re reading a text: a feminist lens, a pro-sustainability lens, an ecocritical lens. If you were to put these lenses on, how would it change your interpretation of the text? By adopting this advanced way of approaching a text, you’ll undoubtedly wow examiners because you’re able to discuss your texts on a level that the majority of students aren’t even aware of! I touch more on feminist and ecocritical lenses at the end of the video above :)
Whenever you get a new essay topic, you can use LSG’s THINK and EXECUTE strategy , a technique to help you write better VCE essays. This essay topic breakdown will focus on the THINK part of the strategy. If you’re unfamiliar with this strategy, then check it out in How To Write A Killer Text Response .
Within the THINK strategy, we have 3 steps, or ABC. These ABC components are:
Step 1: A nalyse
Step 2: B rainstorm
Step 3: C reate a Plan
Character-Based Essay Prompt: Heather Dixon-Brown and Piper Ross’s dynamic is fuelled by competitiveness unique to the female experience in contemporary times.
Not sure what we mean by ‘Character-Based Essay Prompt’? Then, you’ll want to learn more about the 5 types of essay prompts here .
This prompt specifies two characters – Dixon-Brown and Piper – and therefore mandates an in-depth discussion of them within your essay. However, it is important to be careful of focusing exclusively on the explicitly mentioned characters when given a character prompt. After all, while Dixon-Brown and Piper are both very important to Extinction, they are not the only relevant characters! In order to ensure that your discussion covers enough of the text, make sure your brainstorming stage includes the ideas and themes exemplified by the unmentioned characters , and how they relate to the ones that are specified.
Body Paragraph 1: Contemporary demands for female competitiveness undoubtedly underlie the dynamics between Dixon-Brown and Piper Ross.
Body Paragraph 2: The primary source of female conflict between Dixon-Brown and Piper is that of their incongruent ages; Rayson maintains that the tension between ‘younger’ and ‘older’ individuals contributes massively to the wider tenseness in their dynamic.
Body Paragraph 3: Conversely, while the spheres of politics certainly overlap occasionally within feminism and the question of female competition, they nevertheless form a largely distinct motivation behind the conflict between Piper and Dixon-Brown.
For further reading see our Extinction blog post where we cover themes, characters, symbolism and more! And for more essay help, you'll definitely want to take a look at Risini's fully annotated Extinction essay.
If you're studying Extinction yourself, then LSG's A Killer Text Guide: Extinction study guide is for you! In it, we teach you to think like a 50 study scorer through advanced discussions on things like structural feature analysis, views and values, different interpretations and critical readings. Included are character breakdowns, a play summary, 5 A+ fully annotated essays and so much more!
From year 7-10 the traditional essays we have written have had an introduction, three body paragraphs and a conclusion. In these essays we write about characters, plot points and themes. Hence, it is understandable that upon entering English Language in year 11 or 12, it can be difficult to grasp a hold on how to write an essay without characters, plots or themes. To be precise, the requirement in an English Language essay is to ‘use key linguistic concepts and metalanguage appropriately to discuss/analyse/investigate…in an objective and systematic way” (English Language Study Design) .
Essentially, in section C of the exam, you are required to present a discussion of a given idea. The word ‘discussion’ is defined as ‘a conversation or debate about a specific topic.’ In this sense, your essay is effectively a written conversation which needs to display an understanding of both sides of the topic.
In saying that, it is still important to form a contention, such as ‘indeed non-standard varieties are more acceptable in speaking than in writing in the Australian context’ however in arguing this contention, you must to explore both sides to show the examiner your understanding of language in Australian society.
The overarching idea of the essay is presented to you in the form of a prompt. For example, in the 2016 VCAA exam, a possible essay prompt given was: “In Australia today, variations from the standard tends to be more acceptable in speaking than in writing.”
In this prompt, the idea to be discussed is standard vs. non-standard Australian English. The main idea or topic forms an umbrella under which the essay is formed. This is the foundation of your essay. Each main argument will relate to this topic. In this example, standard vs non-standard Australian English is a topic from which an array of sub-topics can be extracted, the choice of which is to your discretion.
The sub-topics you choose to delve into will depend on your preferences and strengths. You may choose to discuss online-speak, ethnolects or Australian slang in relation to non-standard English, or legal and political jargon in relation to standard English.
Regardless of the choice of sub-topic, each body paragraph must explicitly link to three things; the prompt, the topic sentence and the contention. This is the criteria for your discussion. Ensuring clear links to these three will assure the examiner that you have confidence in the material you are discussing.
Your body paragraphs should be used to show the examiner how the ideas you have chosen to talk about relate to the prompt provided. Here it is necessary to use a combination of contemporary media examples, personal examples and linguist quotes as a means to prove the link between your chosen paragraph idea, your contention and the prompt. Try to find the most relevant examples which clearly demonstrate your line of thinking to the examiner. You don’t want to give them a reason to question the arguments you choose to present.
It is also important to be wary of this so that your essay flows in an orderly, sequential manner. Each idea presented within a paragraph and across the essay itself should follow a pathway, one leading into another. Use the ending of each body paragraph to come back to your essay prompt and reiterate your contention. This ensures you stay on topic and the examiner can clearly visualize your understanding of your topic.
In the end, your job in your essay is to present a discussion of a given prompt; an understanding of both sides. Use examples and explanations to show your examiner that you comprehend how the prompt can be debated.
Wondering what VCAA examiners might be looking for in a high-scoring essay? Each year, the VCE EAL Examination Reports shed light on some of the features that examiners are looking for in high-scoring responses for the Listening and Language Analysis sections of the EAL exams. Let's go through 5 key points from the reports so that you know how to achieve a 10/10 yourself.
For advice on how you can apply the VCE EAL Examination Reports to strengthen your skills in the listening section, see Tips on EAL Listening .
Let’s take the 2017 VCAA EAL Examination Report as an example:
‘The highest-scoring responses analysed argument use and language in an integrated way. Some responses used a comparative approach that analysed arguments and counter arguments from both texts in the same paragraph. However, only comparatively few responses focused on how the overall argument was structured .’
So how do we write about/analyse ‘how the overall argument was structured’?
To save time during the exam, we can adopt templates that can help us transfer our thoughts into words in a fast and efficient way. You can construct your own templates, and you may want to have various templates for various scenarios or essays. Below, I have provided a sample template and I’ll show you how you can use this template in your own essays.
(AUTHOR)’s manner of argument is proposed in real earnest in an attempt to convince the readers of the validity of his/her proposal of...by first…and then supplying solutions to...(DIFFICULTIES), thus structuring it in a logical and systematic way.
The above template ONLY applies to opinion pieces that satisfy these 2 rules:
For example, say the author, John White, contends that plastic bags should be banned and does so by:
When we use our template here, the intro may look like this - note that I’ve bolded the ‘template’ parts so you can clearly see how the template has been used:
John White’s manner of argument, proposed in real earnest in an effect to convince the readers of the validity of his proposal of banning plastic bags by first exposing the deleterious nature of these bags to our environment and natural habitat and then supplying solutions to ban plastic bags, putting it in effect in a logical and systematic way.
Head to Introductions for EAL Language Analysis for more templates and guidance on how to nail your Language Analysis Introduction.
The 2019 VCAA EAL Examination Report states:
‘Students are encouraged to use the key words in the questions as a focus for their listening...Short-answer questions require concise and precise answers. Responses that demonstrated understanding provided what was asked for without including extraneous information .’
Some students tend to add unnecessary information in their answers. Although the answers are correct, they will NOT earn you any extra marks. Listening answers should NOT be a mini essay. Writing irrelevant information will not only waste time but may also compromise the accuracy and overall expression of your response.
The examination reports frequently point out that students struggle with identifying and describing the tone and delivery. For example, the 2017 VCAA EAL Examination Report states:
‘Identifying tone and delivery is challenging for students and emphasis on this is needed...Students are encouraged to use the key words in the questions as a focus for their listening’.
The good news is, just like most skills, listening and identifying the tone can both be improved with practice. In fact, VCAA acknowledges the importance of daily practice as well.
‘Students need to develop their critical listening skills both in and outside of the classroom. They are encouraged to listen, in English, to anything that interests them – current affairs, news, documentaries and podcasts can all be useful.’ (2017 VCAA EAL Examination Report)
Practicing listening does not necessarily mean sitting down and doing Section A questions; it can be as simple as talking with classmates, teachers, neighbours, friends from work, church, etc.
Take a look at our EAL Listening Practice and Resources for a comprehensive list of external resources for practicing listening and a step-by-step guide on how to use them!
VCAA encourages us to write answers that make sense to the reader and are grammatically correct. Make sure you do address, and ONLY address, what the question is asking, because marks will not be rewarded for redundant information.
‘Short answer questions require concise and precise answers. Responses that demonstrated understanding provided what was asked for without including extraneous information . Expression skills need to be sufficiently controlled to convey meaning accurately. ’ ( 2017-2019 VCAA EAL Examination Report )
HINT: This may sound super simple, but a lot of EAL students struggle with it. If you do, you are definitely not alone. Some students seek to use complicated words and/or sentence structures, but we should not compromise clarity over complexity.
VCAA acknowledges the importance of sophisticated vocabulary. This phrase ‘a nalysis expressed with a range of precise vocabulary’ has been repeatedly used to describe high-scoring essays in the examination reports from 2017 onwards
Below is a list of commonly misspelled, misused and mispronounced words. If you don’t know the meaning of a word, check out Collins Online Dictionary for definitions OR you can use a physical copy of the Collins Dictionary (which you are allowed to bring into the exam and SACs).
For an overview of the EAL study design plus tips and tricks for reading comprehension, time management and more, check out The Ultimate Guide to EAL .
We’ve explored themes, literary devices and characters and development amongst other things over on our After Darkness by Christine Piper blog post. If you need a quick refresher or you’re new to studying this text, I highly recommend checking it out!
Here, we’ll be breaking down an After Darkness essay topic using LSG’s THINK and EXECUTE strategy , a technique to help you write better VCE essays. If you’re unfamiliar with this strategy, you can learn about it in our How To Write A Killer Text Response study guide.
Let’s get into it!
The Prompt:
‘While Ibaraki clearly suffers the consequences of his actions, it is those closest to him who pay the highest price. Discuss.’
This is a theme-based prompt, and the keywords are: suffer, consequence, actions and highest price . You want to explore both the evidence that supports the statement and also any evidence that may offer a contradiction to the statement. From here you can find the definition of the keywords to help develop some questions to explore.
To suffer is to be affected by or subject to something unpleasant.
A consequence is a result of an action.
An action is the process of doing something, typically to achieve an aim.
Highest price refers to Ibaraki’s suffering being above all else.
At this point, you can begin to group your ideas and evidence from the text to support your claims.
Throughout the novel, Piper uses a variety of literary devices including dialogue, simile and foreshadowing to convey her message of every action having a consequence . The most prominent of these is her use of imagery and metaphor which she uses to illustrate Ibaraki’s guilt and the way it impacts his actions. However, the story is not only centred around Ibaraki. Piper also highlights that people will often face consequences no matter what decision they make. She does this through her use of foil characters (characters who are used to highlight a particular trait in another character). For example, Ibaraki’s fear and obedience are emphasised by the courage of Kayoko and Johnny Chang. These characters, alongside Ibaraki, face suffering as a result of their actions.
From these ideas, the main themes I am going to explore are what factors affect the character’s actions, and how the consequences of these actions can lead to negative, but also positive change.
Paragraph 1:
Paragraph 2:
Paragraph 3:
Now it is time to write the essay!
Set during the Pacific War, Christine Piper’s After Darkness explores the difficulties and misfortunes many face during wartime. Depicting the rise and fall of Japan’s war efforts (1) , After Darkness highlights that all actions have consequences of varying severity, particularly those of protagonist Dr Ibaraki Tomokazu. Throughout the novel, Ibaraki’s lack of action perpetuates the suffering of those closest to him, however, this is shown to be one of many factors and often initiates positive change within him, allowing his character to develop. Fundamentally, After Darkness highlights that change can only occur if people face the repercussions of their actions. (2)
Annotations (1) In the introduction, it is important to introduce the text with context . As After Darkness is predominantly set in 1942 during wartime in both Japan and Australia, it is important to include this in the introduction in order to explore the essay topic with a complete understanding.
(2) Another key part of the introduction is to briefly introduce the topics you will discuss throughout the essay.
Throughout the novel, Piper emphasises the idea that all actions have consequences, however, this idea is not limited to Ibaraki. Across the three novel strands, protagonist Dr Tomokazu Ibaraki’s suffering as a result of his mistakes is depicted through both his internal and external dialogue. Ibaraki makes many significant mistakes throughout his lifetime, one of these being his failure to perform a dissection of a child when working at Unit 731. Despite ‘not [being] [him]self’ (3) when asked to perform the operation, Ibaraki is promptly fired. His termination of employment is not the only consequence of his failure, as shame continues to take over his confidence. This is illustrated when he was ‘unable to go on’ during an operation in Broome, despite being in a completely different scenario. Through Ibaraki’s flashback of ‘Black dots on a child’s belly’, Piper indicates the torment and lasting effects of consequences on an individual (4) . Whilst the novel centres around his mistakes, it is revealed that Ibaraki is not the only character who is forced to face the repercussions of their actions. Despite acting as foils for Ibaraki and presenting many different qualities, Australian internees Johnny Chang and Stan Suzuki also struggle immensely to overcome the results of their behaviours. Johnny Chang’s outspoken nature is often shown to cause disruption among the camp, for example, labelling the imperialist Japanese as ‘emperor worshipping pig’s.’ In standing for his beliefs, Johnny creates a tense division within groups, leading to the half Australian internees being treated like ‘outcasts’. Conversely, Stan’s introverted behaviour results in his eventual death (5) . Piper’s contention that all actions have consequences is arguably enforced strongly through Stan’s death, as it results from the failure of many characters to act. Ibaraki’s inability to open up, Johnny’s selfishness and Stan’s loss of self are inevitably all factors leading to his eventual demise. This is ultimately reinforced when Johnny states ‘It should’ve been me Doc’, indicating he has finally realised his role in the tragedy.
Annotations (3) In order to embed quotes , words, prefixes and suffixes can be added to ensure the sentence flows correctly. However, you must indicate that you have edited the quote by placing your changes in square brackets. Here, the original quote was ‘not myself’ but it has been changed to fit the sentence.
(4) Whilst it is important to include quotes, it is even more important that you analyse how the author uses the quote to convey a message. In this case, the example of one of Ibaraki’s many flashbacks is used to bear Piper’s belief that one cannot escape the repercussions of their actions.
(5) Comparison is a powerful way of exploring the author’s ideas throughout the text. Here, Johnny’s outspoken nature is contrasted with Stan’s ‘introverted behaviour’, yet both concede repercussions. This supports the idea that all actions have consequences, no matter their nature.
Ibaraki’s lack of action acts as a perpetuating factor for the suffering of those closest to him, however, it is not the only factor. After Darkness shows the faults in many of Ibaraki’s actions, suggesting his mistakes lead to the misfortunes of many of those around him but this is only partially true. Stan Suzuki’s death is a pivotal moment in the novel where Ibaraki begins to truly express his emotions and open up about the pain he feels (6). Ibaraki realises that he ‘could have done something’ when opening up to the investigators of Stan’s death, leading to the conclusion that Ibaraki is to blame. Piper illustrates that suffering results as a combination of factors through the later revelations of Johnny’s escape attempt and the instability of the ‘trigger-happy’ guard who shot Stan. This idea is reinforced through the breakdowns of Ibaraki’s close relationships with Kayoko and Sister Bernice. Whilst Ibaraki’s emotionally distant nature catalysed the loss of these significant relationships, it was not the only factor. Both Kayoko and Sister Bernice are structured with similar characteristics in the novel, one being their confidence and strength in their beliefs. Nevertheless, both women lack this characteristic when it comes to their relationship with Ibaraki (7) . Ibaraki admits his separation from Kayoko is his ‘greatest regret’, and whilst the first-person perspective does not give an insight into Kayoko’s side, she is shown to lack her usual self-assuredness. Similarly, Ibaraki’s allowance of ‘silence [to] stretch between…’ him and Sister Bernice is hurtful and a failure on his behalf, yet she still willingly confesses her feelings, aware of the risks involved. This is evident when ‘her eyes dart away from [his]’, implying she is ashamed of her statement as it contradicts her religion and the terms of their work relationship and friendship. This results in an abrupt end to their friendship as the embarrassment of the repercussions of her actions overwhelm Sister Bernice. Whilst the series of mistakes that Ibaraki makes throughout the novel show that his actions cause grief for both him and the people around him, they also highlight that the misfortune of others is not always the fault of one individual.
Annotations (6) Referring to specific events in the text is extremely useful to support your ideas and claims. However, it is important that you avoid over-explaining the event, as this will lead to you retelling , rather than analysing the text. See How To Avoid Retelling the Story for more tips.
(7) An often-overlooked literary device is the use of foils . A foil is a character that is used to highlight a particular trait in another character, often a flaw. In this case, Piper uses the similarities between Kayoko and Sister Bernice, and the ultimate failure of their relationships. This highlights Ibaraki’s repetition of his mistakes, which we can attribute to his ongoing guilt.
Ibaraki ultimately pays the highest price for his actions; although this is shown to result in positive change. Through her descriptions of Australia and Japan, Piper uses the juxtaposition of light and dark imagery to illustrate how suffering can lead to learning and growth. Facing racism in Broome when labelled as a ‘Bloody Jap…’, trauma from his experiences in Unit 731 and hardship during his internment at Loveday, Ibaraki is constantly a victim of circumstance. Even so, the pressures and torment of these events force him to seek the support of others. The colourful descriptions of the ‘pink spur of land crested with green’ foreshadow the positive change to come for Ibaraki (8) . This becomes evident when Ibaraki finally opens up to Stan in the infirmary about his separation from Kayoko. Ibaraki’s development as a character continues as he learns to trust despite the unfair circumstances of being interned. Although memories of trees haunting the river’s edge ‘like lost people’ and the bark of red trees appearing ‘like blistered skin’ continue to plague Ibaraki’s conscience, they force him to confront his past and in turn begin to heal. Through the retrospective novel, Piper describes Japan as where ‘darkness crowded the corners’ and Ibaraki worked ‘in the basement’, indicating his misguided obedience and attachment to silence. This not only illustrates (9) Ibaraki’s trauma, but emphasises his drastic development through his experiences. The importance of the consequences Ibaraki has faced throughout his lifetime are reinforced in the final pages of the novel after he reads Sister Bernice’s letter and has an epiphany. The discovery that he had ‘clung to the ideal of discretion’ creates a sense of hope for Ibaraki’s future and emphasises his newfound understanding of life through the consequences he has faced. (10)
Annotations (8) Ensure you don’t just randomly place quotes throughout the essay, but instead, analyse them to give them meaning. An easy way to do this is by including the quote , its connotations and what emotions or ideas they provoke, followed by why the author has used it. In this case, the quote was the ‘pink spur of land crested with green.’ Its connotations were positive such as colour, happiness, and hope. These connotations were used to foreshadow positive change.
(9) Using a variety of vocabulary such as ‘illustrates’, ‘explores’ and ‘demonstrates’ shows that you are not only identifying what the author is doing but that you understand how and why they have done it in this way. This is ultimately the goal of a text response essay.
(10) It is important to ensure the flow of your essay to show sophistication in your writing. It is not only the ideas you have, but the way in which you convey and explain them that ultimately indicates your understanding of the text. A simple way to do this is to use a summary sentence at the end of each topic that subscribes to the idea and links to the previous or following paragraph.
Essentially After Darkness highlights the necessity of facing consequences for our actions to promote learning and growth. Whilst Ibaraki and many other characters suffered as a result of their behaviour, Piper asserts that Ibaraki is not the overall perpetrator but ultimately pays the highest price of all. (11)
Annotations (11) Just like the introduction, the conclusion is a brief summary of the discussion topics throughout your text response. Most importantly, after exploring all of the evidence you must form a stance in relation to the essay topic. Many students believe that this needs to be a simple and definite yes or no, which is not the case. Instead, I have suggested that Ibaraki is not the only one to blame for other character’s suffering, but that ultimately, he paid the highest price. Check out 5 Tips for a Mic-Drop Worthy Essay Conclusion if you need more help finishing your essay off with a bang!
If you found this essay breakdown helpful, then you might want to check out our After Darkness Study Guide which includes 5 A+ sample essays with EVERY essay annotated and broken down on HOW and WHY these essays achieved A+ so you reach your English goals!
After Darkness is usually studied in the Australian curriculum under Area of Study 1 - Text Response. For a detailed guide on Text Response, check out our Ultimate Guide to VCE Text Response .
David Malouf’s Ransom and Stephan Frears’ The Queen was a brand-new text pairing added to the study design in 2020. It is a unit with many nuances and intricacies to discuss, making it a perfect pairing to unpack in an essay topic breakdown!
For some context, backstory and a plot summary of both Ransom and The Queen , head to an earlier post Understanding Ransom and The Queen . This may help with your understanding of the essay prompt later in this post. And if you need a refresher on what the Comparative is, see our Ultimate Guide to VCE Comparative .
Overall, both Ransom and The Queen overlap fairly heavily in terms of key themes, ideas and messages. Even if you haven’t watched The Queen or read Ransom yourself, the essay topic I have chosen can give you an idea of how to seamlessly integrate such thematic overlaps and similarities into your own writing, whilst also acknowledging the differences in both texts.
The Essay Prompt:
'it is true that the gods made me a king, but they also made me a man, and mortal.' – Priam (87-88)
'Your Majesty, there’s a last minute addition from Downing Street. They’re suggesting adding and as a grandmother here.' – Janvrin (Script, 87th Minute)
How do both texts explore the tensions that are created between a person’s public and private life?
This prompt is both a quote-based, and a how-based prompt (learn more about the five types of prompts here). This means that the examiner wants us to explain how the text creators (Frears and Malouf) convey tensions between one’s public and private life, using the quote to help us do so.
First, let’s break down the prompt part of the essay question. Here, the keywords are:
‘tensions’ - we have to focus on the contrast, and the hardships, that stem from the characters in both texts as they juggle their roles as leaders and individuals of their own accord. These difficulties are explored in more detail in an earlier LSG blog Ransom and The Queen.
‘public and private lives’ - invites us to consider the individuals in both texts, specifically leaders such as Queen Elizabeth and Priam, who have distinctly different public and private personas. Specifically, we want to focus on how the differences that arise between these two ‘lives’ suggest that compromises must be made in order for leaders to perform their role to its greatest potential.
Now it’s time to break down the quote itself!
Both the quotes from Ransom and The Queen illustrate points of tension in the lives of leaders.
Priam’s quote occurs toward the climax of Ransom . The examiner is directing you to discuss how being ‘a man’ , and therefore seemingly unremarkable in nature, challenges Priam’s existence as a ‘king’ , thus creating a point of tension in his reign.
Similarly, Janvrin’s quote also highlights how being a ‘grandmother’ is a role that must be performed by Queen Elizabeth in conjunction with her existence as the Queen of England. Yet, the inclusion of ‘Downing Street’ in this quote also moves you to consider how the queen’s own private affairs, such as Diana’s death, must be handled in conjunction with an outside team such as Tony Blair as British Prime Minister, thus entangling both her public and private personas.
Through both quotes, it is evident that when responding to how Frears and Malouf explore tensions in their respective texts, you should analyse the key characters of each text and their roles as both leaders and individuals in their own right.
I’ve grouped my ideas in a logical order so you can easily identify how each idea relates to my essay plan in Section C. During your own brainstorming, this will be difficult to achieve, so just keep in mind that you don’t need a logical layout of ideas until the planning stage!
By dissecting the prompt’s keywords and briefly analysing the quote and its meaning, I have come up with three main points:
Paragraph 1: In both texts, Frears and Malouf suggest that in allowing themselves to be controlled by their public personas, leaders may struggle to connect with both their people and their own families
Paragraph 2: Yet, in revealing an aspect of their personal lives, leaders risk compromising their public authority
Paragraph 3: This delicate balance between one’s public and private lives is achieved most successfully when leaders reveal an element of their private selves and make themselves vulnerable and relatable to their people.
Stephen Frears’ film The Queen , set in contemporary England, and David Malouf’s novel Ransom , taking place in Ancient Greece, both explore the concept that one’s public identity can create tensions between their ceremonial constructed persona, and their own private identities. In both texts, Frears and Malouf (1) suggest that in allowing themselves to be controlled by their public personas, leaders may struggle to connect with their people, and their own families. Yet, in revealing an aspect of their own lives, they may also risk compromising their own public authority. This delicate balance between one’s public and private lives, therefore, is conveyed throughout Ransom and The Queen to be achieved most successfully when leaders reveal an element of their private lives and make themselves both vulnerable and relatable to their people, harnessing aspects of both their public and private lives in order to confidently perform their roles to the greatest extent possible. (2)
Annotations (1) Make sure to refer to the author/director in your introduction and continually throughout your essay. This helps to ensure you are considering their purpose and its intended effect/message to the audience (see Views and Values for more on this).
(2) This is where I have included the broader implications of the topic – it will be my final paragraph where I somewhat challenge the prompt
In both Ransom and The Queen , leaders that allow themselves to be dictated by their public identities and subsequent rules, protocols and expectations, are portrayed to express difficulty in connecting with their constituents and their own families. In The Queen , Queen Elizabeth finds comfort in placing 'duty first, self second', as in performing in her role as a monarch for many years, she foregrounds such identity over her ability to connect personally with those around her. However, this struggle to formulate intimate connections is conveyed by Frears (3) to, at times, be at her detriment. Upon meeting the Royal Family, Cherie Blair, who symbolises the wider British society (4) , describes that family as 'a bunch of free loading, emotionally retarded nutters'. This blunt description serves to indicate that in acting according to 'how [she] was brought up' and 'all [she’s] ever known', the queen compromises her public image and relatability to her people. In a similar manner, in Ransom , Somax describes only having 'seen King Priam at a distance…he is surprised at how old he looks', clearly illustrating the emotional and physical distance between the king and the people of Troy. Such distance is portrayed by Malouf to not only affect the way the people view their king, but also the manner in which Priam himself is able to formulate and express basic human emotions, as 'royal custom – the habit of averting his gaze', initially prevents him from connecting with Somax on a more intimate level. Through this, both Malouf and Frears highlight how, (5) in allowing themselves to be consumed by their roles as leaders, both Priam and Queen Elizabeth have sacrificed their ability to truly connect and engage with those around them, leaving them out-of-touch with the same people they govern. However, this lack of connection is also shown to extend to their families, as the queen is pictured by Frears to be physically disconnected with her own grandsons. Upon learning of Diana’s death, Prince Charles is depicted delivering the news to his sons, whilst the queen watches on from the corridor, as Frears uses a mid-shot with the door frame obstructing the audience’s view of Queen Elizabeth herself. This can be seen to symbolise (6) the ‘barricade’ between the queen and her own family, as her role as monarch separates her from those she loves. (7) In a similar manner, Priam’s only recollection of the birth of his son is 'recall[ing] a series of small squalling bundles', as his 'role…to hold myself apart in ceremonial stillness' directly prevents him from understanding, and becoming involved with his family, emotionally distancing himself from his own sons. Consequently, Frears and Malouf convey to their audience that the role of being a leader can negatively impact upon one’s relationship with others, serving as a constant burden and barrier to achieving intimate emotional connections.
Annotations (3) In writing ‘conveyed by Frears’ as opposed to ‘conveyed’ I am trying to demonstrate that I am aware the film is a construction made by a director (in this case Frears) for a purpose – he is trying to communicate with the audience through the actions of his characters. See LSG’s Views and Values blog post or How To Write A Killer Text Response (the Views and Values section) for more on this.
(4) In this case, I am attempting to go ‘beyond’ what is simply portrayed in this scene and incorporate the setting of the text – in this case, highlighting my awareness of the time and place in which the film is set (i.e. context ). While aimed at Literature students, this blog on context is helpful as it walks you through some contextual aspects you should consider.
(5) This is one of the main ways I would link my two ideas in Year 12, and draw ‘mini conclusion’ or a link (think of the TEEL structure ) back to the topic. Yet, in beginning with ‘Malouf and Frears’, I am keeping the purpose of each text central to my link.
(6) When using film techniques , try to analyse their meaning. Rather than simply stating ‘Frears uses a mid-shot’, tell your assessor WHY he does this and what its intended effect is on the audience. This not only acts as a form of ‘textual evidence’ but also demonstrates your understanding of the text itself.
(7) In this sentence, I have tried to draw connections between the physical world and the author’s purpose in portraying the isolation of the British Royal family. Here, I’m referring to the ideas, views and values of the author/director.
On the other hand, however, in revealing one’s private life and expressing humility, leaders are also shown to risk their public authority. In Ransom , Priam becomes determined, following the death of Hector, to try 'something impossible. Something new' and allow for an element of vulnerability to be expressed, in order to successfully ransom his son’s body. Such an unusual, unconventional method of leadership, however, is depicted to take the people of Troy by surprise, as they witness their leader dressed 'in plain white' (8) , stripped of his former royal gown. Therefore, the Trojans, who 'crowd the ramparts of the city' and 'line the walls of Troy' each day, in an attempt to view and 'cheer' their leader, 'do not know how to react' upon viewing Priam in such a common, ignoble state, reconsidering the way in which they regard and respect him. In a similar manner, in The Queen , Tony Blair is a Prime Minister whose ‘unconventional' style of leadership is seen to initially unnerve the Royal family. Upon being elected, Blair is described in a montage scene (9) to be a 'wonderful new Prime Minister…a compassionate young man…such a breath of fresh air', a different style of leader to previous Prime Ministers whom the queen previously worked with. The description of Blair as a 'compassionate young man' is significant as such compassion, combined with his youth, acts as a deterrent for the Royals in showing him respect as a leader, taken aback by his unusual views and values. Consequently, upon the death of Diana, although Blair attempts to advise Queen Elizabeth on behalf of the British People, Prince Phillip declares 'who does he think he’s talking to? You’re the sovereign. The head of state. You don’t get dictated to' clearly symbolising their lack of respect and willingness to consider Blair’s perspectives and ideas. In this way, Frears highlights how, in adopting an unconventional style of leadership, those in power may struggle to gain the respect of others around them, particularly their fellow leaders, with the Queen Mother’s statement of 'silly Mr Blair and his Cheshire cat grin' clearly portraying Tony Blair’s lack of authority within the Royal Family. Whilst, in Ransom , the people of Troy struggle to come to terms with Priam’s own change in his leadership style, wondering 'is the king deserting them?', those in The Queen are seen to accept Blair’s leadership style, evident through his 'landslide victory', as, unlike the people of Troy, they are seen to be open to a more progressive form of leadership. In both texts, however, Frears and Malouf demonstrate that leaders who illustrate an element of vulnerability, such as Priam and Tony Blair, may struggle asserting their authority over those with more traditional standards and views, such as the Trojan people and the Royal Family, and thus sacrifice an element of their public image and reputation.
Annotations (8) This is a brief quote – these are useful to ‘replace’ your own words. It ensures you are remaining relevant in your analysis (aka not going off track!!) and acts as a way to ‘show off’ to your assessors that you know your text. However, as these quotes are so simple, I would rarely go into depth with my analysis of them – save this for your longer quotations.
(9) Although naming the scene as a ‘montage’ isn’t entirely necessary in this case, it shows the assessor that you remember where this scene takes place and gives a bit of context , further achieving that first criterion.
Yet, both David Malouf and Stephen Frears examine the notion that in revealing an element of their private life and making themselves vulnerable, a leader may be able to become more relevant, thereby easing the tension between their public and private personas (10). In The Queen , Queen Elizabeth’s adamant refusal to 'dance to their tune' and abide by the requests of her people leads her to proclaim 'I don’t think I have ever been hated like that', with Frears’ depiction of her crying outside Balmoral evident of her realisation that she needs to adapt to the 'change…shift in values' occurring among her constituents. This private expression of vulnerability by Elizabeth is the catalyst for her change in leadership style, with the setting of Balmoral itself, and subsequent events that take place there, symbolising the ability for leaders to harness an element of their personal lives and use it to adapt and connect with their people. In a similar manner, Priam’s declaration that coming to Achilles 'as a man of sorrow' gives him the 'chance to break free of the obligation of always being the hero' highlights Malouf’s view that, at times, leaders must 'break free' of the overwhelming 'obligation[s]' of their public life in order to achieve their objectives and desires within the private sphere. Priam’s realisation that the 'gods made me…mortal' (11) and subsequent appearance as 'a man of sorrow' allow him to successfully bury the body of his son, as he places his identity as 'a man' at the forefront. Priam’s ability to use his emotion in order to fulfil the desires of both him, as 'a father', and the wider people of Troy in allowing their most esteemed warrior to receive a proper burial, is mirrored in The Queen , where Queen Elizabeth adopts the use of emotion to regain the respect of British society. In returning from Balmoral, the queen directly interacts with the people outside Buckingham Palace, with Frears using a long shot to capture the extremely large numbers that had gathered outside the palace gates to emphasise the scale of public sorrow occurring. The queen’s interaction with her people, combined with her public address 'as a grandmother' (12) , symbolises the way in which she was able to harness her identity both 'as your queen, and as a grandmother' to appeal to her people, gain their respect, and successfully lead them through an unprecedented, tumultuous event, thus easing the strain between her public and private personas. Likewise, Priam’s claim 'that the gods made me a king, but also made me a man' (13) highlights that he too has developed an understanding that in order to lead most successfully, one must express an element of vulnerability and humility, allowing for the people to emotionally connect and relate to those whom they admire. Therefore, both Malouf and Frears highlight that expressing elements of their private lives through their public identities is a method most effective in gaining leaders the respect and admiration they crave, as those they lead are able to find an element of commonality and relatability within such esteemed individuals.
Annotations (10) Here is where I begin to go beyond simply the limitations or ‘obvious’ points made in the prompt and consider its wider implications. One strategy I used to help plan and write these paragraphs in Year 12 was to ask myself ‘Why is this a topic? What is the author/director trying to tell me as a member of the audience?’ It usually helps to closely consider the author’s purpose , thus ensuring you achieve a coherent and comprehensive analysis.
(11) Here, I am using part of the quote in the prompt to serve as evidence and back up my point regarding Priam’s combination of both his public and private identities. See How To Embed Quotes in Your Essay Like a Boss to learn how to seamlessly include quotes in your writing.
(12) It is here where I have used the quote from the prompt to influence my reasoning and my overall argument.
(13) Now I am moving on to explain the significance of the quote in the prompt.
Ultimately, both The Queen and Ransom explore the various tensions that can occur throughout the public and private lives of leaders, and their need to grapple with and understand such a concept in order to perform their duties most effectively. Whilst being constrained by one’s public persona may create emotional distance between an individual and those around them, in revealing an element of vulnerability, both texts illustrate that leaders risk losing respect and authority within public society. However, Frears and Malouf suggest that despite the difficult balance between one’s public and private lives, in order to lead most effectively, esteemed individuals should not allow each respective realm to create tension and unease, but rather harness elements of both their intimate and public personas in order to create a modern, effective and relatable leadership style (14) .
Annotations (14) My final sentence aims to focus on the ‘bigger picture’. Think of this as your ‘mic drop moment’ – you want to finish your essay with an overall statement that touches upon the author’s expressed or implied point of view. 5 Tips for a Mic-Drop Worth Essay Conclusion will help you nail your conclusion.
Throughout this essay, I have implemented the CONVERGENT and DIVERGENT strategy to help me discuss insightful points of similarity and difference. This is particularly important when it comes to essay writing, because you want to know that you're coming up with unique comparative points (compared to the rest of the Victorian cohort!). I don't discuss this strategy in detail here, but if you're interested, check out How To Write A Killer Comparative .
If you found this helpful and you’d like to dive deeper into this text pairing, see A Killer Comparative Guide: Ransom & The Queen. In this guide you'll learn unique points of comparison, we'll teach you how to think like a 45+ study scorer through advanced discussion on topics like literary and cinematic techniques, and we give you 5 A+ sample essay fully annotated!
The political correctness debate is one which has been surfacing over the past few years, particularly with certain political figuring bringing this debate to the public platform. Let’s firstly define politically correct language. Political correctness is the avoidance of expressions which may offend, exclude or marginalize certain groups or individuals on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation or disability.
Politically correct (PC) language is a framework used to promote and maintain social harmony. However, PC language can also be viewed to be a hindrance to expression and freedom of speech. The take an individual has on this debate is dependent on the connotations they associate with the phrase “political correctness”. Do they consider political correctness to be a social stabilizer or do they see it as language policing?
On one hand, the use of political correctness helps to confront prejudice in society and reinforce the idea of egalitarianism. This is achieved by slowly weakening the links between certain titles and the social groups they are associated with. This includes terms such as ‘black’, ‘wogs’, ‘curries’, ‘retarded’, ‘spastic’. Using PC terms such as ‘African-American’, ‘from Greek ethnicity’, ‘South-East Asian’ and ‘person with a disability’ are more respectful ways in which to address individuals without using titles which associate them with certain stereotypes or prejudiced thoughts. In particular, using ‘person with a disability’ rather than ‘disabled person’ is a way in which to dilute the link between the individual and the “disability” and to reiterate that the disability is only a single element of many which make up the individual.
While these are the currently accepted, politically correct terms, their appropriateness is likely to change with time. Originally, it was socially acceptable to use terms like ‘retard’, ‘chairman’, ‘policeman’ ‘black’, ‘man up’, ‘mother tongue’. However, with time, values change and society progresses and what is at one point considered socially acceptable becomes politically incorrect as further neutral terms are normalized. Thus, replacements such as, ‘differently abled’, ‘chairperson’, ‘police officer’, ‘African American’ and ‘native language’ are formed. As society continues to progress, these phrases will be outdated and replaced by new, more socially acceptable terms. This consistent cycle is spinning at a more rapid rate with globalization. With globalization, ideologies and values can be shared on wide platforms instantaneously. Through the sharing of ideas, new ideas and perceptions are molded and with this, the language we use to express ourselves also changes and develops.
This rapid evolution in “socially acceptable” language angers the public. Certain PC subtleties are seen by many as unnecessary. The trend towards political correctness is seen to inhibit freedom of expression, restricting individuals from speaking their mind in fear of causing offence. When there is public backlash over the lack of political correctness in a given situation, many individuals find this reaction to be highly excessive and a sign of over-sensitivity of the millennial generation. In an interview with ABC News, former solider stated that, ‘we just seem to bend over backwards for anyone that’s different. It is making Australia a lot softer, it’s making us a big more of a pushover country’.
This frustration of many is further exasperated by the rapid evolvement of normalized accepted terms in society.
When language used in the public domain borders on politically incorrect, there is a public uproar, in particular, by the younger generation. Donald Trump is a prime example of this and as put by The Atlantic, “the press takes him literally, but not seriously; his supporters take him seriously, but not literally.” Simply put, the language choices of Donald Trump are strikingly bold; they incite fear and frustration amongst the public, deepening social prejudice through the reinforcement of stereotypes.
However, Trump’s language echoes the frustration of Americans. It is void of obfuscating, complex politically correct language, giving the indication that Trump speaks his mind, hence garnering public support and above all trust. Building trust for a politician is next to impossible, however, when Trump speaks his mind, without fear of causing office to minority groups, he is indeed able to build trust, as he speaks aloud what many think but fear to vocalize.
While this may sound bizarre given the strong global hatred towards Donald Trump, the matter of the fact is that Donald Trump won a majority vote. With a strong following of supporters despite his many controversies, it is important to recognize the power of Trump’s linguistic choices.
We all remember the famous, ‘build a wall’ statement, which became a defining factor of Trump’s presidential campaign. While a highly politically incorrect agenda, which marginalized Mexican people, many people supported Trump’s endeavors. In particular, Americans who were frustrated with their employment conditions are given an excuse to place blame onto a certain group of people. Trump, an influential figures’ use of politically incorrect language to target Mexican’s effectively gave the freedom to others to speak what they had previously restricted themselves from vocalizing for fear of being politically incorrect.
Aside from freedom of speech, the second major issue associated with political correctness is obfuscation. This form of political correctness is institutionalized and because of this here is a genuine danger that the immense emphasis on being politically correct means that often, vital information can be omitted from news scenarios because it targets or potentially targets a certain individual or minority group. As a result, information presented can be bias and incomplete. The 2013 Rotherham child sex abuse scandal in the United Kingdom is a strong example of this. An estimated 1400 children were violated sexually. However, in the media, it was intentionally omitted that the majority of perpetrators were of Pakistani heritage. Similarly, in fear of provoking racial attacks against migrants during refugee resettlement, the German media made an effort to hide that the multiple sexual assaults during the 2016 New Year celebrations were conducted by men of North African or Middle Eastern ethnicity. The omission of such details does avoid marginalizing ethnic groups, but at the cost of significant and rightful information for the public. This tradeoff is one which is still being explored in society as the wave of political correctness is still quite new.
This debate is one which is still raw in society; it is yet to progress and as the world develops, the role PC language plays in our society will become clearer. Will PC language become more prevalent as society focuses more on social inclusion? Or, will the movement towards PC language be restricted due to the black-lash it faces for the shortcomings of this framework of communication?
2017 australia day lamb ad by meat and livestock co : this company releases an australia day lamb ad every year which aims to show a progressive and egalitarian australian society, celebrating the idea of a politically correct society., facebook video by the line promoting gender equality and challenging the expectations of men and women:.
Let’s talk about emoji’s. There is a wide debate about whether or not these small icons we know as emoticon’s are the birth of a whole new language. What once started off as a :) at the end of an email has rapidly grown into a vast array of icons which serve multiple purposes and convey various meanings. I would not call emoji’s a new language for it lacks grammar; the very foundation which kneads a language together. Most often, emoji’s are used in conjunction with words on online platforms to enhance communication. The laughter emoji or smiling emoji is frequently used to close social distance or convey a sense of playfulness where a message may be perceived to be hostile. They can also be used to save face and reduce personal embarrassment. Frankly, emoji’s can be used to express a range of emotions and conversational tones which are difficult to achieve with words alone. In this way, they cater for the inability to use intonation and paralinguistic features such as hand gestures, facial expressions within written speech.
As emoji’s become a more prevalent part of online communication, they have begun to carry their own connotations. The eggplant and water-drop emoji’s are classic examples of this within young adolescents. However, even within smaller social groups, emoji’s can take on secondary meanings. (You probably have emoji’s within your friendship group which have connotations or act as inside jokes).
In this way, emoji’s are not replacing our language, but rather, they are an addition to comprehension of written language.
While emoji’s don’t have a complex syntactical system, they are loosely governed by grammatical rules. While this does not constitute emoji’s as a new language, one can still communicate meaning by stringing emoticons through semantic fields. Content words can be replaced with emoticons, however the relationship between emoticons must be inferred or expressed through functional words.
Hence, there can be communication difficulties when the relationship of an emoji to context is not effectively implied or explained. Julie Bishop’s use of the red faced emoji to describe Vladimir Putin on Twitter is a classic example of this notion. This emoji used on its own caused confusion as to what Julie Bishop thought of Putin, whether he was an angry man or whether she disapproved of him. Due to limited context and no words to back up Bishop’s opinion, there was controversy around her response.
Emoji’s are an addition to the written mode of language, catering for paralinguistic features which cannot be expressed through words. However, due to the lack of complex grammar binding emoji’s they cannot become a new language.
The English Language exam is split into three sections - Short Answer Questions, Analytical Commentary and an Essay (see here for an explanation of what’s involved in the Essay component). The Short Answer Questions (SAQs) are at the very start of the exam and include 15 marks in total, usually consisting of 3-5 questions that are in response to a text. SAQs are designed to test your knowledge of metalanguage and your ability to elaborate on the situational and social context of the text in a concise manner.
As SAQs only have 15 marks, you should aim to spend 20-25 mins on this section in the exam. Because there are only about 25 minutes available to allocate to this section, they are also a test of your ability to quickly identify key features in a text.
The good thing about SAQs is that because there are specific mark allocations for each question, there’s a formula that you can apply to every question to help you obtain all the marks possible - and that’s what we’ll go through in this blog post, so you can ace every SAQ you come across :)
The first thing you should do when approaching an SAQ is to recognise (and even better, highlight) the command words in each question in order to help you understand exactly what is required.
Here is a list of commonly seen command words and what they entail:
Identify In response to this command word, you should state the example using metalanguage and line numbers.
Describe If you are asked to ‘describe’, you should state the example with metalanguage and also give some details about it, such as how it links to the context of the text and/or its functions and social purposes.
Analyse, comment on, explain, discuss Now we get to the heavier words that require a lot more elaboration and analysis. For these types of words, you should state the example with metalanguage, describe the immediate impact it creates and then link it to the broader context of the text (whether that be situational or social). So, you can think of these questions as a combination of ‘identify’ and ‘describe’ questions, with a bit of further elaboration attached to them.
SAQs usually range from 1-6 marks each and the way you should answer the question depends on how many marks are available.
As a general rule of thumb, do as the question says.
For example, if we look at this question:
‘Give one function of this text. Using appropriate metalanguage, identify two different language features that support this function.’ (3 marks)
The key phrase here that would distinguish a 2/3 from a 3/3 response is ‘that support this function’. Rather than simply stating two different language features, you should explain how they support the function of the text. It doesn’t have to be long, but at least 1 sentence of elaboration would be required to get full marks.
So, the overall mark allocation for this question is:
1/3: Stating the function 2/3: Identifying two language features 3/3: Linking the language features to the function
A question with a higher mark allocation might be:
‘Using appropriate metalanguage, analyse at least three stylistic and discourse features that contribute to the cohesion of this text. Refer to line numbers in your response.’ (5 marks)
This question has 5 marks, but only one command term (analyse). As such, in response to this question you would have to elaborate on each example - in this case, stylistic and discourse features - and link to how they contribute to the cohesion of the text.
Each example should be followed by at least 1 sentence that explains how it contributes to the text’s cohesion. You could also link the examples to their social purpose/function if this is relevant.
As a general rule, any sort of ‘analyse’ or ‘discuss’ question can follow this template:
1) Identify the example using appropriate metalanguage 2) Describe the immediate effect of that example (e.g. if it creates a humorous effect, if it makes the text hard to understand) 3) Provide further elaboration such as linking to social purpose/function/identity
If you think back to what we covered in the earlier section of this blog, you’ll see that this template follows the rule that higher-order command words (like ‘analyse’ and ‘discuss’) are a combination of ‘identify’ and ‘describe’ questions, with a bit of further elaboration also required.
Finally, here are some general tips to keep in mind when answering SAQs:
For more about how you can boost your marks in English Language, see this blog post about how to extend your skills further.
Study design stuff.
English Language is 1 of the 4 different English subjects that are offered as part of the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE). In this subject, you’ll explore how individuals and groups of various identities use different varieties of English, and how this ties in with reflecting their values and beliefs. English Language will provide you with a substantial understanding of the impact language has on societies, what it communicates about ourselves and the groups that we identify with, and how societies in turn can also influence language.
If you’re feeling uncertain about what exactly this subject entails, don’t worry! Let’s go through what’s involved in each unit, and what you’re expected to do in each.
Note: The study design contains a metalanguage list for Units 1 & 2 and for Units 3 & 4. They’re pretty similar, except the Units 3 & 4 list includes several new features, such as the addition of patterning (phonological, syntactic, and semantic), as well as a significant addition to the discourse subsystem (coherence, cohesion, features of spoken discourse, and strategies of spoken discourse).
AoS1 is called ‘the nature and function of language’. You’ll learn about the functions of different types of texts, the differences between spoken and written texts, how situational and contextual factors can influence texts, and most importantly, you’ll learn about metalanguage as per the Units 1 & 2 metalanguage list.
AoS2 is called ‘language acquisition.’ Here, you’ll learn about theories various linguistics and sociologists have proposed regarding how children acquire languages. Furthermore, you’ll also cover how second languages are acquired. One of the most important skills you’ll pick up in this AoS is how to apply metalanguage in discussions and essays.
English Across Time’, will provide you with a historical context for how we have achieved the form of English that we use today. You’ll learn about the processes which led to the development of Modern English from Old English, the changes this had on all the subsystems ( learn about the syntax subsystem here ), and the various attitudes that are held towards linguistic change.
‘Englishes in contact’, you will learn about the processes which have led to the global spread of English, the intersections between culture and language, and the distinctive features of pidgins, creoles and English as a lingua franca.
‘Informal language’, will give you an understanding of the roles of informal language in the contemporary Australian context. You’ll learn about what makes texts informal, how this differs for spoken and written texts, and what social purposes can be achieved through informal language - such as maintaining or threatening face needs, building intimacy or solidarity, creating an in-group, or supporting linguistic innovation.
‘Formal language,’ will provide you with a detailed insight of what makes texts formal, distinguishing features for spoken and written texts, and what social purposes can be achieved through formal language - such as reinforcing authority, establishing expertise, clarifying, obfuscating, or maintaining and challenging positive and negative face needs.
In both of these AoS, you’ll be applying the Units 3 & 4 Metalanguage in your short answer responses and analytical commentaries. The additional metalanguage is typically taught in Term 1 of year 12, while you learn the content for Unit 3.
‘Language variation in Australian society,’ is a detailed study on how both standard and non-standard Australian English are used within contemporary society. You’ll learn about how identity is constructed through language, how varieties of English vary by culture (such as ethnolects or Australian Aboriginal English), and the attitudes that are held towards different varieties by different groups.
In ‘Individual and group identities’, you’ll look at how language varies by different factors, such as age, gender, occupation, interests, aspirations, or education, and how these factors all contribute to our identities. You’ll learn more about in-groups and out-groups, and how they can be created and maintained through language. Furthermore, you’ll learn about the relationship between social attitudes with language, and how language can be shaped by, but also influence, social attitudes and community expectations.
For more information, have a look at the study design .
The Year 12 Exam involves 2 hours of writing time and 15 minutes of reading time. It has three sections:
Make sure you have a read through of the assessment criteria for each section.
Section A is 15 marks of short answer questions. You are given a text, and you’re required to respond to questions about the stylistic and discourse features used in the text, while ensuring that you’re demonstrating a detailed knowledge of metalanguage through carefully selecting relevant examples from the text.
A strong understanding of the metalanguage is really important, both in terms of knowing the meanings of each metalinguistic term, and also in knowing which category each term fits under (For example, knowing that inference is part of coherence and not cohesion). Therefore, it is important that you learn your metalanguage in terms of what each terminology means, and also in terms of which category each term fits into.
As a general guide:
One of the biggest mistakes students make here is not reading the questions properly. Students sometimes miss how many examples the questions specifies to identify (this information is often given as ‘identify 2 examples’ or ‘identify the purposes’ as plural), forget to check how many marks a question is, or mix up certain metalanguage terms, such as confusing sentence types with sentence structures. So, be very careful in answering these questions.
[Question 2, 2017 VCAA] - Identify and comment on the use of two different prosodic features. (4 marks).
Here, you would identify 2 different prosodic features (pitch, stress, volume, intonation, or tempo), and discuss what effect they have on the text, taking contextual factors into consideration. For example, stress could be used to draw emphasis, or intonation could influence the emotion conveyed.
[Question 1, 2015 VCAA] - What sentence types are used in lines 15 to 36? How do they reinforce the purposes of this text? (3 marks)
Here, you would identify the relevant sentence types (declaratives, imperatives, interrogatives, and exclamatives), and explain their role in the text. You would also want to ensure that your explanations are specific to the context of the text.
[Question 9, 2010 VCAA] - Discuss the function of two different non-fluency features between lines 70 and 96. (4 marks)
Here, you would identify two non fluency features (such as pauses, false starts, repairs, repetition) and give a 1 sentence explanation of its role or what it indicates.
[Question 1, 2012 VCAA] - Identify the register of the text. (1 mark)
This question is quite straightforward, and you could use terms such as formal, informal, predominantly formal/informal in your response.
[Question 4, 2012 VCAA] - How does the verb tense in lines 9–34 support the purpose of this section of the text? (2 marks)
Here you would identify whether the verb tense is in past, present, or future tense, and explain why it has been used in that way based on the contextual factors.
[Question 3, 2017 VCAA] - Using appropriate metalanguage, identify and explain two specific language features that reflect the speaker’s identity.(4 marks)
Here, you can pick examples from any subsystem that relate to the speaker’s identity, such as jargon, colloquialisms, semantics of certain jokes, expletives, or pejoratives.
Note: The exams prior to 2012 have 2 sets of short answer questions, because analytical commentaries weren’t a part of the exam back then. This leaves you with lots of practice questions! However, do keep in mind that the metalanguage lists differed and certain features were categorised in different ways. For example, Question 2 from the VCAA 2013 exam asks you to talk about prosodic features, however, in the examiner’s report, pauses are suggested as an option. We know that in the present study design, pauses are classified as features of spoken discourse, under the discourse subsystem, whereas prosodic features are classified under the subsystem of phonetics and phonology.
Check out How To Respond to Short Answer Questions in VCE English Language if you need more help tackling Section A of the exam.
Section B is an analytical commentary (AC) worth 30 marks. The introduction for an AC is an explanation of the contextual factors, the social purpose, and the register, of the text. In the body paragraphs (generally three), you group your examples from the text by themes, and explain their roles.
There are two main approaches for body paragraphs; the sub-system approach, and the holistic approach. In the sub-system approach, you would organise your examples so that each paragraph is addressing a specific subsystem. For example, your AC could be composed of the introduction, and then a paragraph on lexicology, one on syntax, and one on discourse. This approach is easier for when you’re starting out with ACs, but one of the issues with it is that you end up limiting yourself to just one portion of the text for the one paragraph. In the holistic approach, you would typically do a paragraph on social purpose, register, and discourse. In this approach, you are able to group examples from multiple subsystems and talk about how they work together in achieving specific roles in the texts.
Make sure you’re attempting a range of different types of texts, such as, opinion pieces, recipes, oaths, editorials, advertisements, eulogies, social media posts, public notices, television transcripts, radio transcripts, letters, speeches, legal contracts, conversations, narratives, and more.
For more information, have a look at this video:
Section C is an essay worth 30 marks. There are a range of topics that can potentially come up in the exam, and it is really important that you practice writing a variety of essays.
In essays, it is really important to ensure that you set out a clear contention in your introduction. This will basically tell the assessor what point you’re making in your essay, and it’ll also help you remember which direction to take your essay. After your contention, you need to signpost your ideas. This means that you need to summarise what 3 points you are stating in your body paragraphs.
Here’s an exercise which is really helpful in refining introductions - When you’re writing your contention, write “In this essay, I will argue that [Insert contention]. I will do this by stating the following points [Insert signposting].” When you’re happy with your introduction, you can remove the underlined parts. This will help you really understand how the roles for contentions and signposting differ. You’ll also thoroughly understand what position you’re taking in the essay.
The body paragraphs follow TEEL structure. You begin with your topic sentence, state your evidence, explain it, and then link it back to your contention. You have three options for the type of evidence that you’ll use (stimulus material, contemporary examples, and linguist quotes), and it's important to use a combination of them. According to the exam rubric, you have to be using at least 1 piece of stimulus material. Contemporary examples should ideally be from the current year and the previous. Linguist quotes don’t have time restrictions but it’s a good idea to try and find recent ones.
One of the most important things in body paragraphs is to make sure that you’re able to link your example back to your contention. If you’re unable to do this, it means that your examples aren't relevant to the points that you’re trying to make.
In your conclusion, you need to ensure that you don’t introduce any new examples or points. The role of the conclusion is to summarise and reinforce your points and your overall contention.
If you would like further clarification, have a look at this post on English Language Essays.
Time management and organisation.
Having a study timetable will make studying much less stressful than it needs to be. In your timetable, make sure you are allocating enough time for all of your subjects, as well as time for rest, extra-curricular activities, work, and socialising. A realistic time-table will also mean that you’re less likely to waste time trying to decide which subjects to study for. For example, every Sunday, you could spend 15 minutes planning out your week based on which assessments you have, and which subjects you would like to give time to. This becomes especially useful in SWOTVAC, where you’ll be responsible for ensuring you’re spending enough time on each subject whilst also balancing everything else outside of school.
Here are some extra resources to help you with time management:
SWOTVAC: Planning Your Life
10 Hacks For Time Management
How to survive VCE - motivation and approach
Consistently revising metalanguage is one of the most important study methods for English Language.
The basics of metalanguage are covered in Unit 1. Make sure you keep a clear set of notes for this content so that you’re able to look back on it to revise throughout the year. Before the year 12 year begins, you want to make sure that everything in the year 11 metalanguage list makes sense to you. Spending the summer holidays before year 12 begins in reinforcing the basics will help you throughout year 12, as you’ll be able to pick up on the new metalanguage much faster. One of the first things you'll cover is coherence and cohesion, so if you would like to get a head start, have a look at this post.
Throughout year 12, consistently revising metalanguage will be your responsibility. It is likely that you’ll be spending a greater proportion of class time in learning content, and writing short answer responses, analytical commentaries, or essays. Therefore, it’s really important to figure out a way that works best for you in being able to frequently revise metalanguage. Flashcards are pretty useful for revision, as well as making mind maps so that you’re able to visualise how everything is set out in the study design.
One issue students run into is that they’re able to define and give examples for metalanguage terms, however, they are unable to understand how it fits in in terms of the categories under each subsystem. For example, a student is able to remember what a metaphor is, but unable to recall that it fits under semantic patterning. Similarly, a student may know what a pause is, but not know if it’s part of prosodic features or discourse features. It’s important to know what all the categories are, because the short answer questions usually ask for you to identify features under a particular category. Therefore, spending time on just revising the definitions alone isn’t sufficient in learning metalanguage. You also need to be able to ensure that you can recall which category each term fits under.
For the essay, you’re required to use contemporary media examples as evidence (alongside stimulus material and linguist quotes). It’s really important for you to begin this process early so that you’re able to start using examples in essays as early as possible. For tips on how to find, analyse and store your examples, see our post on Building Essay Evidence Banks for English Language .
Having an awareness of Australia’s historical, political, and social context, will provide you with a more comprehensive perspective of the contemporary examples. So, if you don’t already do this, try to develop a habit of reading the news (The Conversation or The Guardian are a good place to start). Television programs like Q and A, The Drum, and Media Watch, will help you understand the Australian context, and often these programs will also discuss the roles of language, which directly links with what you're looking for as essay examples. It’s especially important to start early, and to build these skills over time, so that you are able to develop a holistic foundation.
Doing extra practice pieces is a really effective way to develop and refine your analytical skills. Make sure you receive feedback for all your work from your teacher or tutor, as it’s the only way you'll know if you’re going in the right direction.
If you’re short on time, even writing up AC or essay plans, or just doing 1 paragraph, is an effective way to revise.
Memorising several pages full of linguist quotes and contemporary examples may seem daunting at first, but once you begin using them in essays, they’ll become much easier to remember. Right from the beginning of yr12, make sure you set up a document to compile your linguist quotes and examples into subheadings. For example subheadings such as ‘cultural identity,’ ‘jargon,’ ‘hate speech,’ ‘free speech,’ or ‘Australian values’ will make it easier for you to navigate your notes when you're planning your essays.
If you start early, you’ll be able to remember everything bit by bit as you progress through the year, which is definitely easier than trying to remember the evidence the night before the assessment. Additionally, you’ll be ready with quotes and examples as soon as you begin essays in class, so you’ll be able to use your examples earlier, hence learn them earlier, and therefore be able to memorise your quotes and examples in advance. If you’re in year 12 and you’re nearing the end of the year and still struggling to memorise your examples and quotes, try using flashcards to remember your evidence. Make sure you’re doing a range of essays on different topics so that you’re able to apply and analyse your evidence.
It can be pretty disheartening to make the same mistakes repeatedly and continue to lose marks. So, compiling the mistakes that you make throughout the year in a separate notebook or document is a fantastic way to keep track of the key things you need to remember. You’ll also be less likely to repeat those mistakes.
Studying in groups for English Language is a highly effective way to refine your understanding of the content, and see different perspectives in the way certain ideas can be applied. Revising metalanguage and testing your friends on their knowledge can be a light and engaging way to ensure you and your friends are on the right track. Sharing the ways you and your group have approached a specific AC is also an effective way to learn about different approaches. Discussing essay topics is a useful way in refining your arguments, as you’ll be exposed to different opinions and be able to work on ensuring that your arguments are relevant and strong.
See How To Extend Yourself in VCE English Language for more tips!
Please refer to pages 9-10 for the Year 11 list, and 17-18 for the Year 12 list !
Language is fundamental to identity and consequently we draw on our linguistic repertoire to project different aspects of our identity according to context. Discuss this statement in the contemporary Australian context with reference to at least two subsystems in your response.
(This essay topic relates to Unit 4 - AoS1, ‘Language variation in Australian society.’)
Language plays a pivotal role in establishing and communicating various facets of identity. As such, individuals can alter their linguistic repertoire to establish in-group membership. Teenspeak is an effective mechanism in expressing teenage identity, but can also be used by the older generation to appeal to young people. Code switching between ethnolects and standard Australian English further illustrates how individuals can manipulate their linguistic choices to suit their environment, whilst simultaneously reflecting ethnic identity . Furthermore, jargon plays a critical role in establishing professional identity and signifying expertise or authority. Consequently, linguistic choices are capable of expressing diverse and multifaceted identities.
Teenspeak is capable of expressing identity and establishing in group membership amongst teenages, however it can also be used by those in the out-group to appeal to teenagers. Professor Pam Peters asserts that “Teenagers use language as a kind of identity badge that has the effect of excluding adults." Consequently, teenagers are able to establish exclusivity and in-group membership. Bakery owner Morgan Hipworth, who largely has a teenage following and is a teenager himself, employs teenspeak in a video recipe, where he responds to the question ‘Can you make a 10 layer cheese toastie?’ with ‘Bet, let’s go.’ Through using the teenspeak term ‘bet,’ Hipworth is able to relate and connect with his young audience while further asserting his identity as a teenager. This demonstrates how teenspeak can be effective in both establishing in-group membership, and expressing identity. Similarly, Youtuber Ashley Mescia’s extensive use of teenspeak initialisms in Instagram captions, such as ‘ootd’ for ‘outfit of the day,’ ‘grwm’ for ‘get ready with me,’ and ‘ngl’ for ‘not gonna lie,’ allows her to connect with her predominantly teenage following, thus allowing her to establish solidarity and in-group membership. This further indicates that teenspeak is an effective mechanism in expressing identity and building in-group membership. In contrast, teenspeak can also be used by older people in an effort to appeal to teenages. For example, in 2019, ABC’s Q and A host Tony Jones ended a promotional video for an opportunity for high-school students to appear on the panel with ‘It’s gonna be lit fam.’ This was done in an effort to appeal to younger people by exploiting the notion that it is often seen as cringeworthy when older people use teenspeak. Linguist Kate Burridge asserts that “older people using contemporary teen slang often sounds insincere and phoney,” and Jones was aware of this, however his purpose was to appeal to this to be able to further promote the video. Therefore, teenspeak is effective in both establishing in-group membership and expressing identity, and also appealing to the in-group and a member of the out-group.
1: australian english.
Although language change features more heavily in Units 1 & 2, it is still important to be aware of how language is changing in everyday lives to reflect social needs, attitudes and values. Consider the following:
There are several strategies you can use to your advantage to extend yourself in VCE English Language.
One simple way to expose yourself to more examples is to follow news pages on social media so that you can see regular updates about current affairs. Have a read through of point 7: Year 12 Essay Topic Categories in our Ultimate Guide to English Language so that you can understand what types of examples you should be keeping an eye out for.
Right from the start of the school year, make sure you set up a system to keep track of your examples. You could do this by setting up a document with headings (such as ‘free speech’, ‘egalitarianism’, ‘ political correctness ’, ‘double-speak’, ‘ethnolects’ and ‘ Australian identity ’) and adding examples to this document throughout the year as you find them. For more information about the potential headings you could use, have a look at the dot points in the VCE English Language Study Design from page 17 onwards.
I’d also highly recommend checking out Building Essay Evidence Banks for English Language as it teaches you a great table method for storing and analysing your examples.
The advantage of creating an example/evidence bank of some sort is that if you start looking for examples right at the start of the year, you’ll have more time to analyse and memorise them. Additionally, you’ll also be able to use them far earlier in your essays, which means that the quotes and examples you select will become much easier to remember for the final exam.
Having a basic understanding of Australian history, politics and social issues is highly beneficial for enhancing your analytical skills for English Language. This is essential in developing strong contentions for your essays. Some key issues that would be worth having some background information on include the following:
Look into the following:
Having an awareness of key events and social issues in Australia, an understanding of the groups that make up Australia, and exposing yourself to a diverse set of media is really important in developing your essay writing skills. It does take time, but what will ultimately happen is that your discussions in your essays will be much more insightful and demonstrate a well thought out argument.
When writing essays, try your best to apply your critical thinking skills . Identify the assumptions you’re making when you present a certain point, and try to develop arguments against your position so that you can better understand why you have chosen your side. Developing a holistic and detailed contention is far better than just picking one side out of simplicity, as it allows you to demonstrate consideration and analysis of a range of factors that affect a certain issue. Use your evidence (contemporary examples, linguist quotes and stimulus material) to develop your points, and position yourself to be mindful of any biases you may have by continuously asking yourself what has influenced your way of thinking. Above all, try to discuss your essay prompts with your peers, as this will provide you with different perspectives and help you strengthen your own point.
Consistently revising metalanguage is crucial for doing well in English Language. Throughout Year 12, consistently revising metalanguage will be your responsibility. It is likely that you’ll be spending a greater proportion of class time in learning content, and writing practice pieces. Therefore, it’s really important to figure out a way that works best for you in being able to frequently revise metalanguage. Flashcards are useful for revision on the go, as well as making mind maps so that you’re able to visualise how everything is set out in the study design.
One issue students run into when it comes to learning metalanguage is that they’re able to define and give examples for metalanguage terms, however, they are unable to understand how those terms fit into the categories under each subsystem. For example, a student is able to remember what a metaphor is, but unable to recall that it fits under semantic patterning. Similarly, a student may know what a pause is, but not know if it’s part of prosodic features or discourse features.
It’s important to know what all the categories are because the short answer questions usually ask you to identify features under a particular category (e.g. you’d be asked to talk about semantic patterning, not metaphor or pun). Therefore, spending time on just revising the definitions alone isn’t sufficient in learning metalanguage. You also need to be able to ensure that you can recall which category each term fits under. Refer to the study design (pages 17-18) , for a list of categories you need to remember; these include:
When you talk about a certain variety of English, say for example ethnolects or teen speak, rather than just providing a lexical example or translation, try to find a contemporary example of the term being used in the media, online or by a prominent individual. For example, rather than saying:
‘The lexeme ‘bet’ is an example of teen speak which allows young people to establish solidarity ’,
you could say:
‘ Bakery owner Morgan Hipworth, who largely has a teenage following and is a young person himself, employs teenspeak in a video recipe, where he responds to the question “Can you make a 10 layer cheese toastie?” with “Bet, let’s go. ”’
This will provide you with a better opportunity to talk about in-groups and identity, rather than just defining and identifying an example as part of a particular variety. In doing so, you’re better able to address the roles of different linguistic examples in a contextualised and detailed manner.
In Building Essay Evidence Banks for English Language you’ll see that a short analysis for each of your examples (the ones you are collecting throughout the year) is encouraged, but, you could take things one step further - add on an extra column and combine your analysis and example in a practice sentence. Head to the blog to learn more about building evidence banks .
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Proofed has an international clientele. The documents we check are written for British, American and Australian academic audiences. As a result, our proofreaders must be able to edit documents in line with British, American and Australian English usage rules. This guide will outline some of the key differences between these English dialects to aid proofreaders as they work with different types of English.
Keep in mind that the rules below are simply guidelines and there will be exceptions in many cases. If you are unsure about how a particular word should be spelled, remember to check online for regional variations.
Here, we look at some of the primary differences between British, American and Australian spelling.
British English features many words with ‘-our’ spellings, usually at the end of a word (e.g. col our , behavi our , flav our , fav our ite, neighb our , lab our ). American English drops the ‘u’ from these words and uses an ‘-or’ ending. The American spelling of the above British examples would, therefore, be ‘col or ’, ‘behavi or ’, ‘flav or ’, ‘fav or ite’, ‘neighb or ’ and ‘lab or ’. Australian English generally follows British conventions, but there is one exception: the Australian political party known as The Labor Party uses the US spelling of ‘lab our ’. The British spelling is standard in all other contexts in Australian English.
With words drawn from French, like ‘theat re ’ or ‘cent re ’, British and Australian English place the ‘r’ before the ‘e’ (N.B. this does not apply to Germanic words like ‘anger’ or ‘mother’).
American English uses ‘-er’ in these words (e.g. cent er and theat er ). There are exceptions to this rule, such as modern French loanwords like ‘oeuvre’, but it will apply in most cases.
In most cases, British English uses ‘s’ in the suffix -ise/-ize, so this is Proofed’s preferred approach. The same applies to Australian English.
American English uses the ‘z’ spelling in all cases (e.g. familiar ize , recogn ize ).
However, there are certain words that are always spelled with an “s” regardless of region. For example, words like ‘advert ise ’ and ‘exerc ise ’ are spelled with an ‘s’ in American English.
British and Australian English always use ‘-yse’ for words such as ‘anal yse ’ and ‘paral yse ’, while American English uses ‘-yze’ in the same words (e.g. anal yze , paral yze ) . This distinction is much stricter than the -ise/-ize one above.
There are some regional differences between words with a soft ‘c’ in them (i.e. a ‘c’ that makes an ‘s’ sound). This usually occurs when a word ends with ‘-ce’ or ‘-se’. The words ‘offen ce ’ and ‘defen ce ’, for example, are spelled with a ‘c’ in British and Australian English, but they take an ‘s’ in American English (i.e. offen se and defen se ).
Despite this difference, the adjectival forms of these words are always spelled with an ‘s’ in all regional dialects (e.g. offen s ive, defen s ive).
The other main words to look out for are ‘practi ce /practi se ’ and ‘licen ce /licen se ’.
In British and Australian English, the ‘c’ spellings of these words are nouns and the ‘s’ spellings are verbs. But American English uses ‘practi ce ’ (with a ‘c’) and ‘licen se ’ (with an ‘s’) for both the noun and verb forms of these words.
Keep in mind, though, that this doesn’t apply to other words where there is a noun–verb distinction (e.g. ‘advi se ’ is a verb in all regional dialects, while the noun form is ‘advi ce ’).
With words such as ‘dial ogue ’ or ‘catal ogue ’, British and Australian English favour an ‘-ogue’ ending. In American English, simplified ‘-og’ endings are more common (e.g. dial og , catal og ).
There are exceptions here, though. For example, ‘analog ’ is the standard Australian spelling when used as an adjective (but ‘anal ogue ’ is still standard as a noun). In addition, ‘dial og ’ is a fairly common spelling in computing in all regions (e.g. when referring to a ‘dial og box’).
In British English, some words are spelled with an ‘oe’ or an ‘ae’ in the middle (e.g. encyclop ae dia, man oe uvre). In American English, the spellings of these words are usually simplified by dropping the ‘a’ or ‘o’ in favour of just an ‘e’ (e.g. encyclop e dia, man e uver).
Australian English typically follows the British spelling, but it is more accepting of American variations (e.g.‘encyclop e dia’ is more common than the British version in Australia).
As ever, though, there are exceptions to the above. For instance, ‘ ae sthetics’ and ‘arch ae ology’ are both standard in American English (although ‘ e sthetics’ and ‘arch e ology’ are accepted as variant spellings). So make sure to check if you’re unsure about a term.
When adding the suffix ‘-able’ to words that end in an ‘e’, there is some variation between regions regarding whether they drop the final ‘e’ from the word.
In British and Australian English, for example, the final ‘e’ is usually kept in ‘lik eable ’ and ‘siz eable ’, while ‘lik able ’ and ‘siz able ’ are more common in American English.
However, although dropping the ‘e’ is more common in American English, this does vary. ‘Chang eable ’ and ‘not able ’, for instance, are standard spellings in all regional dialects.
In British and Australian English, when adding a vowel suffix to a word that ends in ‘l’ after a single vowel, we usually double the final letter (this is a variation on the standard ‘ doubling up ’ rule). This is not the case in American English.
In addition to the above, there are some instances where British, American and Australian English simply spell words differently. In British and Australian English, for example, the spelling ‘aluminium’ is standard. But in American English, the second ‘i’ is dropped and the word is spelled ‘aluminum’.
Among similar simplified spellings in American English, we find ‘check’ (i.e. ‘cheque’ in British and Australian English), ‘jewelry’ (i.e. ‘jewellery’), ‘gray’ (i.e. ‘grey’) and ‘plow’ (i.e. ‘plough’).
There is no simple rule for spotting these individual spelling differences, so the key is to check any word you’re unsure about.
Keep a special eye out for the word ‘program’. This is the standard spelling in American and Australian English in all contexts. However, ‘program’ is only used for computing in British English. In all other contexts, such as when referring to a TV show, ‘programme’ is correct.
Many resources devoted to the differences between British, American and Australian vocabulary focus on everyday language and slang. These are undeniably important in day-to-day speech (e.g. Brits and Americans mean something different when they talk about ‘pants’, and many Australians refer to the afternoon as the ‘arvo’).
But as an academic proofreader, these terms are unlikely to occur in the documents you proofread. Since academic writing is meant to be formal, you would usually remove, edit or note informal language if you spot it in an essay (regardless of regional differences). Most academic language is technical, and regional variation is rarer with technical terms.
If you are proofreading a non-academic document, you are more likely to come across unfamiliar regional words (e.g. the use of ‘period’ in American English instead of ‘full stop’, or ‘rutabaga’ instead of ‘swede’). British and Australian English are usually quite similar other than slang, but American English can seem quite different in places. If you come across an unfamiliar term, make sure to check it is correct for the selected dialect of the document you are proofreading. If not, suggest an alternative the client could use.
For further guidance on vocabulary, please see the resources in Section 2 of this guide.
The grammar of British, American, and Australian English is largely the same. However, there are a few minor differences, and it is worth familiarising yourself with these so that you know what to look for. In all of the cases below, Australian English is the same as British English, so we will focus on British and American English.
In British English, collective nouns (i.e. words that refer to a group or collection) can be treated as either plural or singular. Both of the following, for example, would be fine:
The collective noun here is ‘team’. In the first example, it is treated as singular, so it is followed by a singular noun (i.e. ‘is’) and a singular pronoun (i.e. ‘it’). In the second, a plural verb (i.e. ‘are’) and pronoun (i.e. ‘they’) are used instead.
In American English, collective nouns are almost always treated as singular, and only the first example above would be correct. The only exception is when the members of a group are acting as individuals rather than working together. The sentence ‘The team are fighting with one another’, for instance, would be correct in all dialects because ‘fighting with one another’ implies the team members are acting as individuals.
In British English, the verb ‘have’ is often used with an object noun that describes an action. For example, a British writer might say, ‘I am going to have a nap’.
In American English, the verb ‘take’ is used in the same way. Consequently, an American writer might say, ‘I am going to take a nap’ instead of ‘have a nap’.
This distinction is less strict than it used to be, but it is still worth keeping an eye out for it.
British and American English differ in their use of some prepositions. Examples include:
These are not major differences, but using the right preposition in the right place can help preserve the written voice in a document.
In addition, there are some minor differences in how British and American English use the definite article (i.e. ‘the’). In British English, for example, we sometimes drop the article before ‘hospital’ (e.g. ‘She is in hospital’), whereas it would typically be included in American English (e.g. ‘She is in the hospital’). On the other hand, American English is more likely to omit the definite article in dates (e.g. ‘June 1st’ rather than ‘ the 1st of June’).
In situations where British English uses the present perfect tense (i.e. when a past event has consequences in the present), American English is more likely to use the simple past tense:
A few verbs have different simple past tense and past participle forms in British and American English. For instance:
As you can see, the differences here are minimal. In addition, many of the American forms are gaining acceptance in British English. The main one to look out for is ‘gotten’:
Sticking to ‘gotten’ in cases like this will ensure the writing sounds more American.
Most punctuation rules apply for all English dialects, but there are a few issues you might want to watch out for while proofreading. We’ll focus again on British and American English, since Australian English follows the same conventions as British English in all of these cases.
American English differs from British English quite significantly when it comes to quotations.
British English typically uses single quotes for quotations, and then uses double quotes for quoted text within a quote. In addition, British English only puts punctuation inside a closing quote mark if it is part of the original sentence:
White (2007, p.43) writes that ‘ economic systems are, as many have claimed, an “ inevitable by-product ” of civilization ’ , although he does not expand on this further.
The US method reverses the quotation marks, and all full stops and commas are placed within closing quote marks regardless of whether the punctuation was there in the original:
White (2007, p.43) writes that “ economic systems are, as many have claimed, an ‘ inevitable by-product ’ of civilization, ” although he does not expand on this further.
There are a few differences between British and American English when punctuating abbreviations. The first is that American English sometimes (although not always) puts full stops between each letter in an initialism:
The U . S . A. has all the best punctuation!
This is much less common in British English, so you may want to edit acronyms and initialisms accordingly.
The second difference is related to punctuation at the end of abbreviations. In British English, abbreviations that end in the same letter as the full word are not punctuated (other abbreviations are):
Mr Humphries is visiting on Wed. 21st to fix your punctuation.
In American English, however, it is standard to punctuate all abbreviations of this kind:
Mr. Humphries is visiting on Wed. 21st to fix your punctuation.
Although this is largely a matter of stylistic preference, American English is more likely to use commas after the terms ‘e.g.’ and ‘i.e.’ than British English:
Finally, we have times and dates to consider. Although not strictly an issue of punctuation, it is important to remember that the British and American date formats differ.
British English orders dates day/month/year: e.g. 21/04/1986
American English orders dates month/day/year: e.g. 04/21/1986
With times, the main regional difference is that British English traditionally uses a full stop between the hour and the minutes (e.g. 12.30), while American English uses a colon (e.g. 12:30). However, this rule is not commonly followed in modern writing, so the most important thing is consistency.
This section provides links to other useful resources online.
1. A summary of common British and American spelling differences:
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/spelling/british-and-spelling
2. A list of words spelled differently in British and American English:
http://www.tysto.com/uk-us-spelling-list.html
3. A summary of differences between American and Australian English:
http://www.onlinewritingtraining.com.au/2015/02/23/writeaussie-australian-american-spelling-differences/
4. A summary of British and American grammar differences:
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/types-of-english-formal-informal-etc/british-and- american-english
5. Differences between British and American Punctuation: http://www.thepunctuationguide.com/british-versus-american-style.html
1. British vs. American vocabulary differences:
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/usage/british-and-american-terms
2. A comparison between British and Australian English:
https://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words/british_australian_english.htm
1. The Cambridge Dictionary: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/
2. The Oxford Dictionary: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/
3. Collins Dictionary: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/
4. The Oxford English Dictionary (subscription only): http://www.oed.com/
5. Webster’s Dictionary: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dictionary
6. The Macquarie Dictionary (Australian English; subscription only): https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/
1. The MHRA Style Guide (British English): http://www.mhra.org.uk/style
2. The Elements of Style, 1s t Edition (American English): http://www.bartleby.com/141/
3. The Cambridge Guide to Australian English Usage [PDF]: https://eslebooklibrary.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/australianenglishusage.pdf
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Home » Knowledge Bank » Essays » Essay Series: ‘An Ode to my Australian Ide…
This essay is part of a series commissioned by the Australia-Indonesia Centre, with leading writers and commentators from Indonesia and Australia each looking closely at their own society, cultures and political situations. Membaca versi Bahasa Indonesia
As a child growing up in Iran in the late 1980s, the dubbed and censored version of Skippy the Bush Kangaroo, about Sonny the freckled faced, fair skinned, blue eyed, handsome boy and his family living in the bush, summed up my understanding of Australia and Australian identity.
To me, back then, everyone in Australia must have looked like Sonny. Growing up in a country where national identity is determined exclusively by birth, never in my wildest dreams could I have imagined someone whose parents were not born in Iran, and who did not speak Farsi, coming into my country, living there and then legally becoming ‘Iranian.’ Nor, could I imagine that I, a dark haired, olive skinned Iranian girl, could one day be considered equally as Australian as Sonny and his family.
It has taken almost a third of my life spent living in Australia to consider myself Australian. And even then, I am still occasionally surprised by that fact.
“I wanted to understand what had crossed my mind in that moment that made me so abrasively deny my Australian identity.”
The most recent shock of this kind came, when I was approached to write this essay. When Jemma, the series editor, and I met for the first time, she told me she was working on putting together a collection of essays about Australian and Indonesian identities and invited me to contribute. For a few minutes, I was confused until I realised, ‘oh maybe she means for me to write as an Australian author’ Then, without thinking I blurted out ‘but I am not Australian.’ As soon as those words came out of my mouth, Jemma slapped the table and said, ‘But, yes, you are.’
So, I decided then that this would be the very topic that I would explore in the essay. I wanted to understand what had crossed my mind in that moment that made me so abrasively deny my Australian identity. And what does it even mean to be Australian anyway?
When I moved to Australia in the mid-2000s, for the first few years, most of the encounters I had with people, in any setting outside of the Iranian and the other migrant communities, always involved an inquisitiveness about where I came from. When I explained that I was from Iran the line of questioning was almost always directed in such a way that there was an underlying assumption that I had left my homeland out of desperation because life there was not good enough, especially for women. Even though I explained that my path to Australia was a unique one, which began with my father’s career as an expat banker from Iran, despite my resistance the questions inevitably led me to admit that yes, life there is not the greatest.
But this undertone, this assumption that every person who has moved to Australia has done so because life in their own country was not good enough, always bothered me.
There is no denying that many people are forced to escape their country because they face violence and their lives are seriously threatened. There is also no denying that life in Australia is easier than many places in the world. Here, one worries less about health and medical services, education, and access to other services and goods that might be hard to find in other countries. It is true that Australia offers these advantages and many migrants will choose to come here to enjoy this so-called ‘good life’. What bothers me, however, is that this assumption overlooks the many other beautiful aspects of a culture and a country left behind, whether it be by choice or by necessity, in which Australia (or any country that one chooses to migrate to) does not even come close to offering.
Having access to the best services on demand, endless shopping malls with all the brands, and sterile rules that limit your sense of adventure, does not always translate to living a good life. Living a good life is sometimes found in eating familiar street foods made without permits by a man with unwashed hands. It may mean having cousins and family who you can call and hang out with spontaneously on a Sunday afternoon; it may even be found in the frustrating encounters with your lazy banker, baker, grocer, or the grumpy taxi driver who challenges your patience. It may mean having books in your own language at your disposal without having to go the ‘ethnic’ shop; or even being able to haggle your way out of a ticket with the police because the rules are bendable. It is about feeling connected to a deeply understood and rooted culture which brings with it a sense of happiness, satisfaction and familiarity.
Living the ‘good life’ does not always come down to impeccable services and social order, or even jobs and education, and other external things that we, in a capitalist and materialistic society have come to value so highly. As many migrants can attest, these things lose their shine too quickly. After five-years living in a new country, having found a good job, bought a good car and having grown comfortable within the security offered here, migrants often begin to feel there is something missing. That missing something is the other aspects that make up a good life; these are things we cannot transfer to Australia. We can try to replicate them, at most. But it will never be the same.
For me, facing the challenge of finding my place and identity in Australia, the struggle has always been to stand on my ground. Whilst admitting that yes, there are bad things in every society from which people run away, it should not give anyone the right to devalue the rich aspects of another country and culture. Because despite it all, there is always something good there too.
So it is that over the years, I became even more defensive and protective of my Iranian identity and intent on showing the good sides of my culture. That is why in Australia it became a habit to say, ‘I’m from Iran’ and be ready with a justification path of why life there is not as bad as people think it is. Being Australian, or even declaring that I am Australian instead of Iranian, never even crossed my mind.
“…to the woman at the spa in Indonesia who asked for proof of my identity, my Australian-ness is somewhat dubious”
That is, until I became a ‘legal’ Australian citizen. Now, I had a legal bond to this country. I could choose to participate in a system that allowed me freedoms, to take part in a democratic process to alter things I did not like in it.
This new tie is highlighted even more when I travel overseas, where I find myself wanting to own up to my Australian identity; although this was rarely a success. To the Indian and Thai hotel receptionists, or to the woman at the spa in Indonesia who asked for proof of my identity, my Australian-ness is somewhat dubious. Just as I had grown up in a country where race and national identity are very clearly aligned and so defined, I understood that for them comprehending that a brown girl could be Australian, was not so easy. My response, somewhat unwittingly, was again to explain that I am originally from Iran. Whilst I was familiar of course with this line of questioning about my identity, what was different on these occasions was that there were no smirks and no judgements as to why I left the country of my birth. In fact it was the opposite. Aside from the legal document that allowed me a relatively greater level of freedom of travel, what fascinated them was why I would choose to consider myself Australian, when I was from a country as beautiful and culturally rich as Iran.
Back home in Melbourne, despite my Australian citizenship papers and passport, I am still asked by strangers about my ‘true’ identity. I continue to be defensive about it, and indeed deny my Australian identity.
But why is this the case? Reflecting on this, I sense that there has also been a fear factor at play. As I look back on myself over the years, I realise that I have, to a small degree, become an ‘Australian’, in a sense that goes beyond the legal status. Though I have not watched a single footy match yet, or managed to embrace the meat pie, I have picked up enough parts of the vernacular culture and language to be considered Australian by many who come from elsewhere. I surely do enjoy brunch of avocado smash with fetta, an acquired taste for many new to this land, and I use the word ‘reckon’ enough to be picked out as Australian by an American. I am sure there are many other things that I am not even aware of that would identify me as Australian by those who are not from here. Given these undeniable Australian elements that have become now part of what I am, I think what scares me, even more than owning up my Australian identity, perhaps, is the fear of it overtaking my Iranian one.
But how do I balance the two, while owning one and not losing the other?
Upon reflection, perhaps there is another approach, which involves remembering and embracing the fact that ‘being Australian’, unlike ‘being Iranian’, is not a limited privilege of birth right. Except for the indigenous Australians, the first peoples of this land, everyone else who claims to be Australian is essentially a migrant of one kind or another, some having landed here earlier than others. After all, this model of multiculturalism – although it has changed shape and colour over the decades – constitutes the identity of the modern Australian nation state. We, who live here all know this by now. Nonetheless, sometimes the kinds of comments and social interactions that we encounter, makes us doubt that we belong.
However, what I am discovering is that truly embracing Australia’s multi-cultural nature makes it easier to claim and own up to a more fully integrated Australian identity. This means accepting that Sonny and his family, who may have arrived a few generations sooner from somewhere in Europe, are no more Australian – in the legal sense of the matter – than myself, an Iranian girl who arrived more recently.
Instead of limiting representations and understandings of what it means to be Australian it is important to accept and embrace the variety and diversity that comes with the fabric of this multicultural nation. This means accepting that there is not only one way to ‘be’ Australian.
The process of writing this essay has been cathartic. Through contemplation on the way in which I perceive my own identity and on how gracefully many members of this society embrace the multiplicity and hybridity of Australia, I have also come to learn that this must be the way. Instead of shying away or fearing that I am not Australian enough, or even fearing that if I am Australian then I may lose my Iranianness, I feel lucky that I can carry both at once. How I manage to balance this personally, and how some members of Australian society may respond to it, though, is something with which I am still grappling.
Sanaz Fotouhi is an Iranian-Australian writer, filmmaker and academic. She holds a PhD in English Literature from the University of New South Wales. She is interested in diasporic and migrant narratives. Her book The Literature of the Iranian Diaspora: Meaning and Identity since the Islamic Revolution was published in March 2015 (I.B. Tauris). Sanaz is one of the founding members of the Persian Film Festival in Australia, and the co-producer of the multi-award winning documentary Love Marriage in Kabul . Sanaz is currently the Assistant Executive Director of the Asia Pacific Writers and Translators, (www.apwriters.com).
Essay series: ‘eighteen years later’ by eliza vitri handayani.
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Readers reflect on the country’s many different accents.
By Yan Zhuang
The Australia Letter is a weekly newsletter from our Australia bureau. Sign up to get it by email.
Last week, I wrote about whether an Asian-Australian accent existed and asked for your thoughts on how the Australian accent is changing. Dozens of readers wrote in about their experiences navigating regional, cultural and ethnic Australian accents, observing that the way we speak is becoming more homogenized, and to correct my own Australian linguistic error — yes, you’re right, we throw prawns, not shrimp, on the barbie.
Thank you to everyone who shared their thoughts. Here is a sampling of the responses we received.
I live in regional Western Australia, but I went to university at the University of New South Wales in Sydney about 30 year ago. I found that I had to adjust my accent for people to understand me. I studied a course called “Wool and Pastoral Science.” When I said “wool” I found many people thought I was saying “ool” and I had to make an effort to pronounce the “w.” I was told that in Western Australia we have implosive consonants, and in N.S.W. the consonants are explosive. The same thing happened when I said I come from “Kojonup.” Most people thought I said “Kojonu.”
I went to a private all-girls school in Perth, and my accent probably reflected that. But, I have also noticed, like you say, that accents are not as diverse now as they were when I was a teenager. The kids learn expressions from social media. Much of the mainstream media is national rather than state-based. I wonder if my kids would have the same issues?
— Rachael Plowman
As an Australian of Indian ethnicity, I loved this article.
My view is that with our children, they will have a stronger Australian accent than we do, as their ears were never “trained” to pick up the sounds from our mother tongues. This is not always a good thing — I grimace every time I hear my kids pronounce an Indian person’s name (or food dish) like an ocker.
— Kesh Anand
There are still some differences in the Aussie accent between states and between city and country, but the broader Australian accents seem to be disappearing and becoming more homogenized.
An Australian accent is still quite distinctive and discernible when heard overseas away from Australia. We still shorten our words and use “ie” at the end of some words, e.g. sickie (taking sick leave from work), breakie (breakfast). But the real Australian slang is vanishing.
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There is no set model for an essay, but the English for Uni website presents one popular way to do it. The following example is based around a 1000 word discussion essay. ... SA 5005 AUSTRALIA. Street address. North Terrace campus The University of Adelaide SA 5005 AUSTRALIA. Contact. T +61 8 8313 4721
The ASG has distilled the best practical advice on the most common style issues in an easy-to-use but definitive guide. Plain English Foundation's Australian Style Guide™ is the definitive online resource for Australian writers and editors. Find out the answers to your style questions. It's free!
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Take notes from your readings. Write an essay plan and organise your ideas. Write a first draft to include your introduction, body and conclusion. Set the draft aside for a day or two, then re-read and make changes. Get some feedback - ask a friend/parent/colleague to read it. Edit and redraft your essay. Complete or finalise your references ...
Sometimes shortened to "AuE" or "en-AU," Australian English is a set of English dialects spoken and written in Australia. It has been recognized as a distinct dialect since the early 19 th century, by which time it had diverged from the British English spoken by the first colonists. The country in question.
2. Body paragraph 1. There is information in quotation marks. There is an indented long quote in this paragraph. The last sentence gives the answer to the essay question. Information from the same person is used twice. The second sentence is the thesis statement (i.e. position the writer will take). 3. Body paragraph 2.
The body of your essay is where you clearly state and elaborate on the arguments, points or ideas that back up your claim. The number of paragraphs in the body of your essay will depend on how many individual points you need to make to develop your argument and, of course, the required word count. The general structure of a body paragraph is:
Begin with what you are ready to write—a plan, a few sentences or bullet points. Start with the body and work paragraph by paragraph. Write the introduction and conclusion after the body. Once you know what your essay is about, then write the introduction and conclusion. Use 'signpost' words in your writing.
These pages provide strategies you can use to help refine, structure and present your position and argument throughout a written essay. The principles of persuasive writing presented here apply to most forms of academic writing and can be adapted to all disciplines. At university, you will come across many different kinds of essay questions.
Explore the intricacies of Australian English with a comprehensive essay guide from TSFX.
In Australian English, the serial comma is not used. This means that usually in a list no comma is placed before 'and'; for example: This essay will investigate the roles of the Parliament, the Ministers and the Judiciary. In American English, this would be: This essay will investigate the roles of the Parliament, the Ministers, and the ...
English is the main language. Australians are known for their friendly and laid-back nature. Economy. Australia has a strong economy, with sectors like mining, agriculture, and tourism playing key roles. ... 500 Words Essay on Australia Introduction. Australia, also known as "the land Down Under," is a country known for its rich cultural ...
Australian English first developed when British and Irish settlers migrated to Australia during the late 1700s, so was influenced by a range of British and Irish regional dialects. Australian English often uses long vowel sounds, meaning they are pronounced for a long duration. Australian English typically follows most British English grammar ...
7. Year 12 Essay Topic Categories 1: Australian English. Australian English differs from other national varieties - this theme looks at what makes Australian English unique and the factors that have contributed to its development over time. You can learn more by checking out our blog post on Australian Cultural Values
2 Pages • Essays / Projects • Year: Pre-2021. A high scoring response to the prompt "Australian English is a reflection both of where we have come from as a nation, and where we hope to go.". Written for a SAC in English Language. This document is 30 Exchange Credits. Add to Cart.
The Australian language that is recognized today developed from the British English language in the early 1800's. Overtime as the country grew and developed, so did its language. The country formed its own, separate form of English that is distinguishable by its unique accent and different pronunciations of words and phrases.
In British and Australian English, when adding a vowel suffix to a word that ends in 'l' after a single vowel, we usually double the final letter ... edit or note informal language if you spot it in an essay (regardless of regional differences). Most academic language is technical, and regional variation is rarer with technical terms.
This essay is part of a series commissioned by the Australia-Indonesia Centre, with leading writers and commentators from Indonesia and Australia each looking closely at their own society, cultures and political situations. Membaca versi Bahasa Indonesia. As a child growing up in Iran in the late 1980s, the dubbed and censored version of Skippy ...
Pages: Download. 1. Australian English (AusE, AuE, AusEng, en-AU) is the name given to the group of dialects spoken in Australia that form a major variety of the English language. Australian English began to diverge from British English soon after the foundation of the Colony of New South Wales in 1788. The history of Australian English starts ...
An Australian accent is still quite distinctive and discernible when heard overseas away from Australia. We still shorten our words and use "ie" at the end of some words, e.g. sickie (taking ...
Structure Strands, sub-strands and threads The Australian Curriculum: English Foundation to Year 10 is organised into three interrelated strands that support students' growing understanding and use of Standard Australian English (English). Each strand interacts with and enriches the other strands in creative and flexible ways, the fabric of the curriculum being strengthened by the threads ...
4 Found helpful • 2 Pages • Essays / Projects • Year: Pre-2021. A high scoring response to the prompt "Some varieties of Australian English are considered more prestigious than others."