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How to Write a Research Paper: Parts of the Paper

• Choosing Your Topic
• Citation & Style Guides This link opens in a new window
• Critical Thinking
• Evaluating Information
• Parts of the Paper
• Writing Tips from UNC-Chapel Hill
• Librarian Contact

Parts of the Research Paper Papers should have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Your introductory paragraph should grab the reader's attention, state your main idea, and indicate how you will support it. The body of the paper should expand on what you have stated in the introduction. Finally, the conclusion restates the paper's thesis and should explain what you have learned, giving a wrap up of your main ideas.

1. The Title The title should be specific and indicate the theme of the research and what ideas it addresses. Use keywords that help explain your paper's topic to the reader. Try to avoid abbreviations and jargon. Think about keywords that people would use to search for your paper and include them in your title.

2. The Abstract The abstract is used by readers to get a quick overview of your paper. Typically, they are about 200 words in length (120 words minimum to  250 words maximum). The abstract should introduce the topic and thesis, and should provide a general statement about what you have found in your research. The abstract allows you to mention each major aspect of your topic and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Because it is a summary of the entire research paper, it is often written last. 

3. The Introduction The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and explain the focus of the research. You will introduce your overview of the topic,  your main points of information, and why this subject is important. You can introduce the current understanding and background information about the topic. Toward the end of the introduction, you add your thesis statement, and explain how you will provide information to support your research questions. This provides the purpose and focus for the rest of the paper.

4. Thesis Statement Most papers will have a thesis statement or main idea and supporting facts/ideas/arguments. State your main idea (something of interest or something to be proven or argued for or against) as your thesis statement, and then provide your supporting facts and arguments. A thesis statement is a declarative sentence that asserts the position a paper will be taking. It also points toward the paper's development. This statement should be both specific and arguable. Generally, the thesis statement will be placed at the end of the first paragraph of your paper. The remainder of your paper will support this thesis.

Students often learn to write a thesis as a first step in the writing process, but often, after research, a writer's viewpoint may change. Therefore a thesis statement may be one of the final steps in writing. 

Examples of Thesis Statements from Purdue OWL

5. The Literature Review The purpose of the literature review is to describe past important research and how it specifically relates to the research thesis. It should be a synthesis of the previous literature and the new idea being researched. The review should examine the major theories related to the topic to date and their contributors. It should include all relevant findings from credible sources, such as academic books and peer-reviewed journal articles. You will want  to:

• Explain how the literature helps the researcher understand the topic.
• Try to show connections and any disparities between the literature.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.

More about writing a literature review. . .

6. The Discussion ​The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe what you have learned from your research. Make the reader understand why your topic is important. The discussion should always demonstrate what you have learned from your readings (and viewings) and how that learning has made the topic evolve, especially from the short description of main points in the introduction.Explain any new understanding or insights you have had after reading your articles and/or books. Paragraphs should use transitioning sentences to develop how one paragraph idea leads to the next. The discussion will always connect to the introduction, your thesis statement, and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction. You want to: 

• Demonstrate critical thinking, not just reporting back facts that you gathered.
• If possible, tell how the topic has evolved over the past and give it's implications for the future.
• Fully explain your main ideas with supporting information.
• Explain why your thesis is correct giving arguments to counter points.

7. The Conclusion A concluding paragraph is a brief summary of your main ideas and restates the paper's main thesis, giving the reader the sense that the stated goal of the paper has been accomplished. What have you learned by doing this research that you didn't know before? What conclusions have you drawn? You may also want to suggest further areas of study, improvement of research possibilities, etc. to demonstrate your critical thinking regarding your research.

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Dissertation Structure & Layout 101: How to structure your dissertation, thesis or research project.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) Reviewed By: David Phair (PhD) | July 2019

So, you’ve got a decent understanding of what a dissertation is , you’ve chosen your topic and hopefully you’ve received approval for your research proposal . Awesome! Now its time to start the actual dissertation or thesis writing journey.

To craft a high-quality document, the very first thing you need to understand is dissertation structure . In this post, we’ll walk you through the generic dissertation structure and layout, step by step. We’ll start with the big picture, and then zoom into each chapter to briefly discuss the core contents. If you’re just starting out on your research journey, you should start with this post, which covers the big-picture process of how to write a dissertation or thesis .

*The Caveat *

In this post, we’ll be discussing a traditional dissertation/thesis structure and layout, which is generally used for social science research across universities, whether in the US, UK, Europe or Australia. However, some universities may have small variations on this structure (extra chapters, merged chapters, slightly different ordering, etc).

So, always check with your university if they have a prescribed structure or layout that they expect you to work with. If not, it’s safe to assume the structure we’ll discuss here is suitable. And even if they do have a prescribed structure, you’ll still get value from this post as we’ll explain the core contents of each section.  

Overview: S tructuring a dissertation or thesis

• Acknowledgements page
• Abstract (or executive summary)
• Table of contents , list of figures and tables
• Chapter 1: Introduction
• Chapter 2: Literature review
• Chapter 3: Methodology
• Chapter 4: Results
• Chapter 5: Discussion
• Chapter 6: Conclusion
• Reference list

As I mentioned, some universities will have slight variations on this structure. For example, they want an additional “personal reflection chapter”, or they might prefer the results and discussion chapter to be merged into one. Regardless, the overarching flow will always be the same, as this flow reflects the research process , which we discussed here – i.e.:

• The introduction chapter presents the core research question and aims .
• The literature review chapter assesses what the current research says about this question.
• The methodology, results and discussion chapters go about undertaking new research about this question.
• The conclusion chapter (attempts to) answer the core research question .

In other words, the dissertation structure and layout reflect the research process of asking a well-defined question(s), investigating, and then answering the question – see below.

To restate that – the structure and layout of a dissertation reflect the flow of the overall research process . This is essential to understand, as each chapter will make a lot more sense if you “get” this concept. If you’re not familiar with the research process, read this post before going further.

Right. Now that we’ve covered the big picture, let’s dive a little deeper into the details of each section and chapter. Oh and by the way, you can also grab our free dissertation/thesis template here to help speed things up.

The title page of your dissertation is the very first impression the marker will get of your work, so it pays to invest some time thinking about your title. But what makes for a good title? A strong title needs to be 3 things:

• Succinct (not overly lengthy or verbose)
• Specific (not vague or ambiguous)
• Representative of the research you’re undertaking (clearly linked to your research questions)

Typically, a good title includes mention of the following:

• The broader area of the research (i.e. the overarching topic)
• The specific focus of your research (i.e. your specific context)
• Indication of research design (e.g. quantitative , qualitative , or  mixed methods ).

For example:

A quantitative investigation [research design] into the antecedents of organisational trust [broader area] in the UK retail forex trading market [specific context/area of focus].

Again, some universities may have specific requirements regarding the format and structure of the title, so it’s worth double-checking expectations with your institution (if there’s no mention in the brief or study material).

Acknowledgements

This page provides you with an opportunity to say thank you to those who helped you along your research journey. Generally, it’s optional (and won’t count towards your marks), but it is academic best practice to include this.

So, who do you say thanks to? Well, there’s no prescribed requirements, but it’s common to mention the following people:

• Your dissertation supervisor or committee.
• Any professors, lecturers or academics that helped you understand the topic or methodologies.
• Any tutors, mentors or advisors.
• Your family and friends, especially spouse (for adult learners studying part-time).

There’s no need for lengthy rambling. Just state who you’re thankful to and for what (e.g. thank you to my supervisor, John Doe, for his endless patience and attentiveness) – be sincere. In terms of length, you should keep this to a page or less.

Abstract or executive summary

The dissertation abstract (or executive summary for some degrees) serves to provide the first-time reader (and marker or moderator) with a big-picture view of your research project. It should give them an understanding of the key insights and findings from the research, without them needing to read the rest of the report – in other words, it should be able to stand alone .

For it to stand alone, your abstract should cover the following key points (at a minimum):

• Your research questions and aims – what key question(s) did your research aim to answer?
• Your methodology – how did you go about investigating the topic and finding answers to your research question(s)?
• Your findings – following your own research, what did do you discover?
• Your conclusions – based on your findings, what conclusions did you draw? What answers did you find to your research question(s)?

So, in much the same way the dissertation structure mimics the research process, your abstract or executive summary should reflect the research process, from the initial stage of asking the original question to the final stage of answering that question.

In practical terms, it’s a good idea to write this section up last , once all your core chapters are complete. Otherwise, you’ll end up writing and rewriting this section multiple times (just wasting time). For a step by step guide on how to write a strong executive summary, check out this post .

Need a helping hand?

Table of contents

This section is straightforward. You’ll typically present your table of contents (TOC) first, followed by the two lists – figures and tables. I recommend that you use Microsoft Word’s automatic table of contents generator to generate your TOC. If you’re not familiar with this functionality, the video below explains it simply:

If you find that your table of contents is overly lengthy, consider removing one level of depth. Oftentimes, this can be done without detracting from the usefulness of the TOC.

Right, now that the “admin” sections are out of the way, its time to move on to your core chapters. These chapters are the heart of your dissertation and are where you’ll earn the marks. The first chapter is the introduction chapter – as you would expect, this is the time to introduce your research…

It’s important to understand that even though you’ve provided an overview of your research in your abstract, your introduction needs to be written as if the reader has not read that (remember, the abstract is essentially a standalone document). So, your introduction chapter needs to start from the very beginning, and should address the following questions:

• What will you be investigating (in plain-language, big picture-level)?
• Why is that worth investigating? How is it important to academia or business? How is it sufficiently original?
• What are your research aims and research question(s)? Note that the research questions can sometimes be presented at the end of the literature review (next chapter).
• What is the scope of your study? In other words, what will and won’t you cover ?
• How will you approach your research? In other words, what methodology will you adopt?
• How will you structure your dissertation? What are the core chapters and what will you do in each of them?

These are just the bare basic requirements for your intro chapter. Some universities will want additional bells and whistles in the intro chapter, so be sure to carefully read your brief or consult your research supervisor.

If done right, your introduction chapter will set a clear direction for the rest of your dissertation. Specifically, it will make it clear to the reader (and marker) exactly what you’ll be investigating, why that’s important, and how you’ll be going about the investigation. Conversely, if your introduction chapter leaves a first-time reader wondering what exactly you’ll be researching, you’ve still got some work to do.

Now that you’ve set a clear direction with your introduction chapter, the next step is the literature review . In this section, you will analyse the existing research (typically academic journal articles and high-quality industry publications), with a view to understanding the following questions:

• What does the literature currently say about the topic you’re investigating?
• Is the literature lacking or well established? Is it divided or in disagreement?
• How does your research fit into the bigger picture?
• How does your research contribute something original?
• How does the methodology of previous studies help you develop your own?

Depending on the nature of your study, you may also present a conceptual framework towards the end of your literature review, which you will then test in your actual research.

Again, some universities will want you to focus on some of these areas more than others, some will have additional or fewer requirements, and so on. Therefore, as always, its important to review your brief and/or discuss with your supervisor, so that you know exactly what’s expected of your literature review chapter.

Now that you’ve investigated the current state of knowledge in your literature review chapter and are familiar with the existing key theories, models and frameworks, its time to design your own research. Enter the methodology chapter – the most “science-ey” of the chapters…

In this chapter, you need to address two critical questions:

• Exactly HOW will you carry out your research (i.e. what is your intended research design)?
• Exactly WHY have you chosen to do things this way (i.e. how do you justify your design)?

Remember, the dissertation part of your degree is first and foremost about developing and demonstrating research skills . Therefore, the markers want to see that you know which methods to use, can clearly articulate why you’ve chosen then, and know how to deploy them effectively.

Importantly, this chapter requires detail – don’t hold back on the specifics. State exactly what you’ll be doing, with who, when, for how long, etc. Moreover, for every design choice you make, make sure you justify it.

In practice, you will likely end up coming back to this chapter once you’ve undertaken all your data collection and analysis, and revise it based on changes you made during the analysis phase. This is perfectly fine. Its natural for you to add an additional analysis technique, scrap an old one, etc based on where your data lead you. Of course, I’m talking about small changes here – not a fundamental switch from qualitative to quantitative, which will likely send your supervisor in a spin!

You’ve now collected your data and undertaken your analysis, whether qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. In this chapter, you’ll present the raw results of your analysis . For example, in the case of a quant study, you’ll present the demographic data, descriptive statistics, inferential statistics , etc.

Typically, Chapter 4 is simply a presentation and description of the data, not a discussion of the meaning of the data. In other words, it’s descriptive, rather than analytical – the meaning is discussed in Chapter 5. However, some universities will want you to combine chapters 4 and 5, so that you both present and interpret the meaning of the data at the same time. Check with your institution what their preference is.

Now that you’ve presented the data analysis results, its time to interpret and analyse them. In other words, its time to discuss what they mean, especially in relation to your research question(s).

What you discuss here will depend largely on your chosen methodology. For example, if you’ve gone the quantitative route, you might discuss the relationships between variables . If you’ve gone the qualitative route, you might discuss key themes and the meanings thereof. It all depends on what your research design choices were.

Most importantly, you need to discuss your results in relation to your research questions and aims, as well as the existing literature. What do the results tell you about your research questions? Are they aligned with the existing research or at odds? If so, why might this be? Dig deep into your findings and explain what the findings suggest, in plain English.

The final chapter – you’ve made it! Now that you’ve discussed your interpretation of the results, its time to bring it back to the beginning with the conclusion chapter . In other words, its time to (attempt to) answer your original research question s (from way back in chapter 1). Clearly state what your conclusions are in terms of your research questions. This might feel a bit repetitive, as you would have touched on this in the previous chapter, but its important to bring the discussion full circle and explicitly state your answer(s) to the research question(s).

Next, you’ll typically discuss the implications of your findings? In other words, you’ve answered your research questions – but what does this mean for the real world (or even for academia)? What should now be done differently, given the new insight you’ve generated?

Lastly, you should discuss the limitations of your research, as well as what this means for future research in the area. No study is perfect, especially not a Masters-level. Discuss the shortcomings of your research. Perhaps your methodology was limited, perhaps your sample size was small or not representative, etc, etc. Don’t be afraid to critique your work – the markers want to see that you can identify the limitations of your work. This is a strength, not a weakness. Be brutal!

This marks the end of your core chapters – woohoo! From here on out, it’s pretty smooth sailing.

The reference list is straightforward. It should contain a list of all resources cited in your dissertation, in the required format, e.g. APA , Harvard, etc.

It’s essential that you use reference management software for your dissertation. Do NOT try handle your referencing manually – its far too error prone. On a reference list of multiple pages, you’re going to make mistake. To this end, I suggest considering either Mendeley or Zotero. Both are free and provide a very straightforward interface to ensure that your referencing is 100% on point. I’ve included a simple how-to video for the Mendeley software (my personal favourite) below:

Some universities may ask you to include a bibliography, as opposed to a reference list. These two things are not the same . A bibliography is similar to a reference list, except that it also includes resources which informed your thinking but were not directly cited in your dissertation. So, double-check your brief and make sure you use the right one.

The very last piece of the puzzle is the appendix or set of appendices. This is where you’ll include any supporting data and evidence. Importantly, supporting is the keyword here.

Your appendices should provide additional “nice to know”, depth-adding information, which is not critical to the core analysis. Appendices should not be used as a way to cut down word count (see this post which covers how to reduce word count ). In other words, don’t place content that is critical to the core analysis here, just to save word count. You will not earn marks on any content in the appendices, so don’t try to play the system!

Time to recap…

And there you have it – the traditional dissertation structure and layout, from A-Z. To recap, the core structure for a dissertation or thesis is (typically) as follows:

• Acknowledgments page

Most importantly, the core chapters should reflect the research process (asking, investigating and answering your research question). Moreover, the research question(s) should form the golden thread throughout your dissertation structure. Everything should revolve around the research questions, and as you’ve seen, they should form both the start point (i.e. introduction chapter) and the endpoint (i.e. conclusion chapter).

I hope this post has provided you with clarity about the traditional dissertation/thesis structure and layout. If you have any questions or comments, please leave a comment below, or feel free to get in touch with us. Also, be sure to check out the rest of the  Grad Coach Blog .

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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36 Comments

many thanks i found it very useful

Glad to hear that, Arun. Good luck writing your dissertation.

Such clear practical logical advice. I very much needed to read this to keep me focused in stead of fretting.. Perfect now ready to start my research!

what about scientific fields like computer or engineering thesis what is the difference in the structure? thank you very much

Thanks so much this helped me a lot!

Very helpful and accessible. What I like most is how practical the advice is along with helpful tools/ links.

Thanks Ade!

Thank you so much sir.. It was really helpful..

You’re welcome!

Hi! How many words maximum should contain the abstract?

Thank you so much 😊 Find this at the right moment

You’re most welcome. Good luck with your dissertation.

best ever benefit i got on right time thank you

Many times Clarity and vision of destination of dissertation is what makes the difference between good ,average and great researchers the same way a great automobile driver is fast with clarity of address and Clear weather conditions .

I guess Great researcher = great ideas + knowledge + great and fast data collection and modeling + great writing + high clarity on all these

You have given immense clarity from start to end.

Morning. Where will I write the definitions of what I’m referring to in my report?

Thank you so much Derek, I was almost lost! Thanks a tonnnn! Have a great day!

Thanks ! so concise and valuable

This was very helpful. Clear and concise. I know exactly what to do now.

Thank you for allowing me to go through briefly. I hope to find time to continue.

Really useful to me. Thanks a thousand times

Very interesting! It will definitely set me and many more for success. highly recommended.

Thank you soo much sir, for the opportunity to express my skills

Usefull, thanks a lot. Really clear

Very nice and easy to understand. Thank you .

That was incredibly useful. Thanks Grad Coach Crew!

My stress level just dropped at least 15 points after watching this. Just starting my thesis for my grad program and I feel a lot more capable now! Thanks for such a clear and helpful video, Emma and the GradCoach team!

Do we need to mention the number of words the dissertation contains in the main document?

It depends on your university’s requirements, so it would be best to check with them 🙂

Such a helpful post to help me get started with structuring my masters dissertation, thank you!

Great video; I appreciate that helpful information

It is so necessary or avital course

This blog is very informative for my research. Thank you

Doctoral students are required to fill out the National Research Council’s Survey of Earned Doctorates

wow this is an amazing gain in my life

This is so good

How can i arrange my specific objectives in my dissertation?

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Research Guide

Chapter 5 sections of a paper.

Now that you have identified your research question, have compiled the data you need, and have a clear argument and roadmap, it is time for you to write. In this Module, I will briefly explain how to develop different sections of your research paper. I devote a different chapter to the empirical section. Please take into account that these are guidelines to follow in the different section, but you need to adapt them to the specific context of your paper.

5.1 The Abstract

The abstract of a research paper contains the most critical aspects of the paper: your research question, the context (country/population/subjects and period) analyzed, the findings, and the main conclusion. You have about 250 characters to attract the attention of the readers. Many times (in fact, most of the time), readers will only read the abstract. You need to “sell” your argument and entice them to continue reading. Thus, abstracts require good and direct writing. Use journalistic style. Go straight to the point.

There are two ways in which an abstract can start:

By introducing what motivates the research question. This is relevant when some context may be needed. When there is ‘something superior’ motivating your project. Use this strategy with care, as you may confuse the reader who may have a hard time understanding your research question.

By introducing your research question. This is the best way to attract the attention of your readers, as they can understand the main objective of the paper from the beginning. When the question is clear and straightforward this is the best method to follow.

Regardless of the path you follow, make sure that the abstract only includes short sentences written in active voice and present tense. Remember: Readers are very impatient. They will only skim the papers. You should make it simple for readers to find all the necessary information.

5.2 The Introduction

The introduction represents the most important section of your research paper. Whereas your title and abstract guide the readers towards the paper, the introduction should convince them to stay and read the rest of it. This section represents your opportunity to state your research question and link it to the bigger issue (why does your research matter?), how will you respond it (your empirical methods and the theory behind), your findings, and your contribution to the literature on that issue.

I reviewed the “Introduction Formulas” guidelines by Keith Head , David Evans and Jessica B. Hoel and compiled their ideas in this document, based on what my I have seen is used in papers in political economy, and development economics.

This is not a set of rules, as papers may differ depending on the methods and specific characteristics of the field, but it can work as a guideline. An important takeaway is that the introduction will be the section that deserves most of the attention in your paper. You can write it first, but you need to go back to it as you make progress in the rest of teh paper. Keith Head puts it excellent by saying that this exercise (going back and forth) is mostly useful to remind you what are you doing in the paper and why.

5.2.1 Outline

What are the sections generally included in well-written introductions? According to the analysis of what different authors suggest, a well-written introduction includes the following sections:

• Hook: Motivation, puzzle. (1-2 paragraphs)
• Research Question: What is the paper doing? (1 paragraph)
• Antecedents: (optional) How your paper is linked to the bigger issue. Theory. (1-2 paragraphs)
• Empirical approach: Method X, country Y, dataset Z. (1-2 paragraphs)
• Detailed results: Don’t make the readers wait. (2-3 paragraphs)
• Mechanisms, robustness and limitations: (optional) Your results are valid and important (1 paragraph)
• Value added: Why is your paper important? How is it contributing to the field? (1-3 paragraphs)
• Roadmap A convention (1 paragraph)

Now, let’s describe the different sections with more detail.

5.2.1.1 1. The Hook

Your first paragraph(s) should attract the attention of the readers, showing them why your research topic is important. Some attributes here are:

• Big issue, specific angle: This is the big problem, here is this aspect of the problem (that your research tackles)
• Big puzzle: There is no single explanation of the problem (you will address that)
• Major policy implemented: Here is the issue and the policy implemented (you will test if if worked)
• Controversial debate: some argue X, others argue Y

5.2.1.2 2. Research Question

After the issue has been introduced, you need to clearly state your research question; tell the reader what does the paper researches. Some words that may work here are:

• I (We) focus on
• This paper asks whether
• In this paper,
• Given the gaps in knoweldge, this paper
• This paper investigates

5.2.1.3 3. Antecedents (Optional section)

I included this section as optional as it is not always included, but it may help to center the paper in the literature on the field.

However, an important warning needs to be placed here. Remember that the introduction is limited and you need to use it to highlight your work and not someone else’s. So, when the section is included, it is important to:

• Avoid discussing paper that are not part of the larger narrative that surrounds your work
• Use it to notice the gaps that exist in the current literature and that your paper is covering

In this section, you may also want to include a description of theoretical framework of your paper and/or a short description of a story example that frames your work.

5.2.1.4 4. Empirical Approach

One of the most important sections of the paper, particularly if you are trying to infer causality. Here, you need to explain how you are going to answer the research question you introduced earlier. This section of the introduction needs to be succint but clear and indicate your methodology, case selection, and the data used.

5.2.1.5 5. Overview of the Results

Let’s be honest. A large proportion of the readers will not go over the whole article. Readers need to understand what you’re doing, how and what did you obtain in the (brief) time they will allocate to read your paper (some eager readers may go back to some sections of the paper). So, you want to introduce your results early on (another reason you may want to go back to the introduction multiple times). Highlight the results that are more interesting and link them to the context.

According to David Evans , some authors prefer to alternate between the introduction of one of the empirical strategies, to those results, and then they introduce another empirical strategy and the results. This strategy may be useful if different empirical methodologies are used.

5.2.1.6 6. Mechanisms, Robustness and Limitations (Optional Section)

If you have some ideas about what drives your results (the mechanisms involved), you may want to indicate that here. Some of the current critiques towards economics (and probably social sciences in general) has been the strong focus on establishing causation, with little regard to the context surrounding this (if you want to hear more, there is this thread from Dani Rodrick ). Agency matters and if the paper can say something about this (sometimes this goes beyond our research), you should indicate it in the introduction.

You may also want to briefly indicate how your results are valid after trying different specifications or sources of data (this is called Robustness checks). But you also want to be honest about the limitations of your research. But here, do not diminish the importance of your project. After you indicate the limitations, finish the paragraph restating the importance of your findings.

5.2.1.7 7. Value Added

A very important section in the introduction, these paragraphs help readers (and reviewers) to show why is your work important. What are the specific contributions of your paper?

This section is different from section 3 in that it points out the detailed additions you are making to the field with your research. Both sections can be connected if that fits your paper, but it is quite important that you keep the focus on the contributions of your paper, even if you discuss some literature connected to it, but always with the focus of showing what your paper adds. References (literature review) should come after in the paper.

5.2.1.8 8. Roadmap

A convention for the papers, this section needs to be kept short and outline the organization of the paper. To make it more useful, you can highlight some details that might be important in certain sections. But you want to keep this section succint (most readers skip this paragraph altogether).

5.2.2 In summary

The introduction of your paper will play a huge role in defining the future of your paper. Do not waste this opportunity and use it as well as your North Star guiding your path throughout the rest of the paper.

5.3 Context (Literature Review)

Do you need a literature review section?

5.4 Conclusion

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An Introduction to Qualitative Research

Student resources, part 1 (chapters 1 – 5): foundations of qualitative research.

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Home » Research Paper Introduction – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Introduction – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Introduction

Research paper introduction is the first section of a research paper that provides an overview of the study, its purpose, and the research question (s) or hypothesis (es) being investigated. It typically includes background information about the topic, a review of previous research in the field, and a statement of the research objectives. The introduction is intended to provide the reader with a clear understanding of the research problem, why it is important, and how the study will contribute to existing knowledge in the field. It also sets the tone for the rest of the paper and helps to establish the author’s credibility and expertise on the subject.

How to Write Research Paper Introduction

Writing an introduction for a research paper can be challenging because it sets the tone for the entire paper. Here are some steps to follow to help you write an effective research paper introduction:

• Start with a hook : Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing statement, a question, or a surprising fact that will make the reader interested in reading further.
• Provide background information: After the hook, provide background information on the topic. This information should give the reader a general idea of what the topic is about and why it is important.
• State the research problem: Clearly state the research problem or question that the paper addresses. This should be done in a concise and straightforward manner.
• State the research objectives: After stating the research problem, clearly state the research objectives. This will give the reader an idea of what the paper aims to achieve.
• Provide a brief overview of the paper: At the end of the introduction, provide a brief overview of the paper. This should include a summary of the main points that will be discussed in the paper.
• Revise and refine: Finally, revise and refine your introduction to ensure that it is clear, concise, and engaging.

Structure of Research Paper Introduction

The following is a typical structure for a research paper introduction:

• Background Information: This section provides an overview of the topic of the research paper, including relevant background information and any previous research that has been done on the topic. It helps to give the reader a sense of the context for the study.
• Problem Statement: This section identifies the specific problem or issue that the research paper is addressing. It should be clear and concise, and it should articulate the gap in knowledge that the study aims to fill.
• Research Question/Hypothesis : This section states the research question or hypothesis that the study aims to answer. It should be specific and focused, and it should clearly connect to the problem statement.
• Significance of the Study: This section explains why the research is important and what the potential implications of the study are. It should highlight the contribution that the research makes to the field.
• Methodology: This section describes the research methods that were used to conduct the study. It should be detailed enough to allow the reader to understand how the study was conducted and to evaluate the validity of the results.
• Organization of the Paper : This section provides a brief overview of the structure of the research paper. It should give the reader a sense of what to expect in each section of the paper.

Research Paper Introduction Examples

Research Paper Introduction Examples could be:

Example 1: In recent years, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) has become increasingly prevalent in various industries, including healthcare. AI algorithms are being developed to assist with medical diagnoses, treatment recommendations, and patient monitoring. However, as the use of AI in healthcare grows, ethical concerns regarding privacy, bias, and accountability have emerged. This paper aims to explore the ethical implications of AI in healthcare and propose recommendations for addressing these concerns.

Example 2: Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing our planet today. The increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has resulted in rising temperatures, changing weather patterns, and other environmental impacts. In this paper, we will review the scientific evidence on climate change, discuss the potential consequences of inaction, and propose solutions for mitigating its effects.

Example 3: The rise of social media has transformed the way we communicate and interact with each other. While social media platforms offer many benefits, including increased connectivity and access to information, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will examine the impact of social media on mental health, privacy, and democracy, and propose solutions for addressing these issues.

Example 4: The use of renewable energy sources has become increasingly important in the face of climate change and environmental degradation. While renewable energy technologies offer many benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions and energy independence, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will assess the current state of renewable energy technology, discuss the economic and political barriers to its adoption, and propose solutions for promoting the widespread use of renewable energy.

Purpose of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper serves several important purposes, including:

• Providing context: The introduction should give readers a general understanding of the topic, including its background, significance, and relevance to the field.
• Presenting the research question or problem: The introduction should clearly state the research question or problem that the paper aims to address. This helps readers understand the purpose of the study and what the author hopes to accomplish.
• Reviewing the literature: The introduction should summarize the current state of knowledge on the topic, highlighting the gaps and limitations in existing research. This shows readers why the study is important and necessary.
• Outlining the scope and objectives of the study: The introduction should describe the scope and objectives of the study, including what aspects of the topic will be covered, what data will be collected, and what methods will be used.
• Previewing the main findings and conclusions : The introduction should provide a brief overview of the main findings and conclusions that the study will present. This helps readers anticipate what they can expect to learn from the paper.

When to Write Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper is typically written after the research has been conducted and the data has been analyzed. This is because the introduction should provide an overview of the research problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions or hypotheses that will be investigated.

Once you have a clear understanding of the research problem and the questions that you want to explore, you can begin to write the introduction. It’s important to keep in mind that the introduction should be written in a way that engages the reader and provides a clear rationale for the study. It should also provide context for the research by reviewing relevant literature and explaining how the study fits into the larger field of research.

Advantages of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper has several advantages, including:

• Establishing the purpose of the research: The introduction provides an overview of the research problem, question, or hypothesis, and the objectives of the study. This helps to clarify the purpose of the research and provide a roadmap for the reader to follow.
• Providing background information: The introduction also provides background information on the topic, including a review of relevant literature and research. This helps the reader understand the context of the study and how it fits into the broader field of research.
• Demonstrating the significance of the research: The introduction also explains why the research is important and relevant. This helps the reader understand the value of the study and why it is worth reading.
• Setting expectations: The introduction sets the tone for the rest of the paper and prepares the reader for what is to come. This helps the reader understand what to expect and how to approach the paper.
• Grabbing the reader’s attention: A well-written introduction can grab the reader’s attention and make them interested in reading further. This is important because it can help to keep the reader engaged and motivated to read the rest of the paper.
• Creating a strong first impression: The introduction is the first part of the research paper that the reader will see, and it can create a strong first impression. A well-written introduction can make the reader more likely to take the research seriously and view it as credible.
• Establishing the author’s credibility: The introduction can also establish the author’s credibility as a researcher. By providing a clear and thorough overview of the research problem and relevant literature, the author can demonstrate their expertise and knowledge in the field.
• Providing a structure for the paper: The introduction can also provide a structure for the rest of the paper. By outlining the main sections and sub-sections of the paper, the introduction can help the reader navigate the paper and find the information they are looking for.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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CHAPTER 1-5 FINAL THESIS (2)

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Buck O’Neil/North Florida Chapter meeting recap – 5/1/2024

Members and guests of the Buck O’Neil/North Florida Chapter gathered on May 1, 2024, at The Blu Halo in Tallahassee, Florida, for their monthly meeting. In attendance were:

• Matt Keelean, President
• Rene Watters, Communications Co-Director
• Brent Kallestad, Communications Co-Director
• Rick Swain, Treasurer
• Kent Putnam, Secretary
• Frank Alarcon
• Franklin Billingslea
• Jim Crosby (guest of Brent Kallestad)
• John Nogowski
• Chuck Rosciam

President Keelean called the meeting to order at approximately 6:10 PM.  Brent introduced his guest Jim Crosby, a fixture on the local sports scene.  His resume includes sports reporter, radio play-by-play broadcaster, and author of several books. 

Chuck reviewed the current standings for both the FAMU Rattlers and the FSU Seminoles baseball teams in their respective conferences.  He followed that up with an early look at the Chapter’s MLB prediction contest and who’s doing well and who isn’t.  But we all agreed it’s early yet.

Kent offered a “puzzler” where he gave clues to how Wayne Garrett (Kent’s HS classmate) answered when asked which pitcher he least liked to face during his MLB career.  Jim Turner correctly guessed Juan Marichal and won the prize, a signed Wayne Garrett baseball card.

John Nogowski and President Keelean talked about their evening in attendance at a FAMU home baseball game.  Diana Kampert and Jeff Lickson were also among the Chapter’s contingent at the game.

Next up was show and tell with members sharing artifacts from their collections and the stories that went with them.  Items included tickets and program from the first Marlins game (Jim Wolf), Brooks Robinson signed ball (Brent), balls signed by Johnny Bench and Pudge Rodriguez (Chuck), an original copy of the first baseball novel (Frank) and signed photos of Willie Mays and Al Rosen (also Frank).

The final order of business was a round table talk about our all time favorite players.  The list looks like this:

• Chuck: Frank “Pig” House
• Jim Crosby: Dale Murphy
• Brent: Willie Mays
• Renee: Hank Aaron
• John Nogowski: Carl Yastrzemski and John F. Nogowski
• Jim Turner: Graig Nettles, Don Mattingly, Jamey Carroll
• Frank: Willie Mays
• Kent: Ken Boyer
• Rick: Norm Cash
• Jim Wolf: Mickey Mantle
• Franklin: Mickey Mantle, Bryce Harper
• Matt: Roberto Clemente, Kirby Puckett

Next month’s meeting will be held on June 5.

There being no further business, the meeting was adjourned at 8 PM. 

Respectfully submitted,

Kent Putnam Chapter Secretary

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 8.5.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Characteristic Changes of the Stance-Phase Plantar Pressure Curve When Walking Uphill and Downhill: Cross-Sectional Study

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Christian Wolff 1 , MSc   ; 
• Patrick Steinheimer 2 , MSc   ; 
• Elke Warmerdam 3 , MSc, PhD   ; 
• Tim Dahmen 1 , MSc, PhD   ; 
• Philipp Slusallek 1 , MSc, PhD   ; 
• Christian Schlinkmann 1 , MSc   ; 
• Fei Chen 1 , MSc   ; 
• Marcel Orth 2 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Tim Pohlemann 2 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Bergita Ganse 2, 3 , MD, PhD  

1 German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence (DFKI), Saarbrücken, Germany

2 Department of Trauma, Hand and Reconstructive Surgery, Departments and Institutes of Surgery, Saarland University, Homburg/Saar, Germany

3 Innovative Implant Development (Fracture Healing), Departments and Institutes of Surgery, Saarland University, Homburg/Saar, Germany

Corresponding Author:

Bergita Ganse, MD, PhD

Innovative Implant Development (Fracture Healing)

Departments and Institutes of Surgery

Saarland University

Kirrberger Straße 1

Building 57

Homburg/Saar, 66421

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Background: Monitoring of gait patterns by insoles is popular to study behavior and activity in the daily life of people and throughout the rehabilitation process of patients. Live data analyses may improve personalized prevention and treatment regimens, as well as rehabilitation. The M-shaped plantar pressure curve during the stance phase is mainly defined by the loading and unloading slope, 2 maxima, 1 minimum, as well as the force during defined periods. When monitoring gait continuously, walking uphill or downhill could affect this curve in characteristic ways.

Objective: For walking on a slope, typical changes in the stance phase curve measured by insoles were hypothesized.

Methods: In total, 40 healthy participants of both sexes were fitted with individually calibrated insoles with 16 pressure sensors each and a recording frequency of 100 Hz. Participants walked on a treadmill at 4 km/h for 1 minute in each of the following slopes: −20%, −15%, −10%, −5%, 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. Raw data were exported for analyses. A custom-developed data platform was used for data processing and parameter calculation, including step detection, data transformation, and normalization for time by natural cubic spline interpolation and force (proportion of body weight). To identify the time-axis positions of the desired maxima and minimum among the available extremum candidates in each step, a Gaussian filter was applied (σ=3, kernel size 7). Inconclusive extremum candidates were further processed by screening for time plausibility, maximum or minimum pool filtering, and monotony. Several parameters that describe the curve trajectory were computed for each step. The normal distribution of data was tested by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests.

Results: Data were normally distributed. An analysis of variance with the gait parameters as dependent and slope as independent variables revealed significant changes related to the slope for the following parameters of the stance phase curve: the mean force during loading and unloading, the 2 maxima and the minimum, as well as the loading and unloading slope (all P <.001). A simultaneous increase in the loading slope, the first maximum and the mean loading force combined with a decrease in the mean unloading force, the second maximum, and the unloading slope is characteristic for downhill walking. The opposite represents uphill walking. The minimum had its peak at horizontal walking and values dropped when walking uphill and downhill alike. It is therefore not a suitable parameter to distinguish between uphill and downhill walking.

Conclusions: While patient-related factors, such as anthropometrics, injury, or disease shape the stance phase curve on a longer-term scale, walking on slopes leads to temporary and characteristic short-term changes in the curve trajectory.

Introduction

Long-term monitoring of gait patterns and plantar-pressure distributions via insoles are increasingly popular ways to study behavior and activity in the field and in the everyday lives of people and patients, including healing, personalized prevention, and treatment or disease progression [ 1 - 3 ]. In recent years, the usability of instrumented insoles for gait analyses has increased. Several technical issues could be resolved, including calibration, hysteresis and drift, durability, usability, limited energy supply and battery life, data storage capacity, and the restriction to low sample frequencies associated with higher error rates, that is, when force peaks are missed [ 3 - 5 ]. The usability of instrumented insoles is currently still limited by difficulties in data analysis. Advanced algorithms and tools are needed and currently developed to be able to draw meaningful conclusions from such insole gait data [ 6 , 7 ]. When analyzing long-term field data and developing smart health care innovations, automated data annotation is desirable to determine and quantify the activities a person has conducted. Ideally, the activity type can be determined algorithmically from the plantar pressure data alone.

Characteristic gait changes have been reported for walking on slopes, such as changes in the contribution of the ankle joint to leg work [ 8 ]. In addition, uphill walking on a treadmill increases hip and knee flexion angles during the stance phase, as well as the forward tilt of the thorax [ 9 ]. Furthermore, a decrease in dorsiflexion was observed during downhill walking at initial contact, in midstance, and during the second half of the swing phase [ 9 ]. During uphill walking with increasing inclination, more positive joint work was identified for the ankle and hip joint, while negative joint work increased during downhill walking [ 10 ]. Older individuals were shown to have a disproportionate recruitment of hip muscles and smaller increases in activity of the medial gastrocnemius muscle with steeper uphill slopes than younger adults, resulting in difficulty walking on steep slopes [ 11 ].

The M-shaped curve of ground reaction forces or plantar pressure during the stance phase is mainly defined by the loading and unloading slope, 2 maxima, 1 minimum, as well as the force during defined periods [ 12 ]. When monitoring gait continuously via insoles, walking uphill or downhill on a slope could affect the gait cycle curve in characteristic ways. If these typical changes were known, one could correct for such confounders when analyzing insole data. We hypothesized that walking on a slope generates typical changes in the plantar pressure stance phase curve that vary between uphill and downhill walking.

Study Design

This study is part of the project Smart Implants 2.0—Weight-bearing and Gait Observation for Early Monitoring of Fracture Healing and Individualized Therapy after Trauma, funded by the Werner Siemens Foundation. It was registered in the German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00025108).

Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of Saarland Medical Board (Ärztekammer des Saarlandes, 30/21).

Data Collection

Inclusion criteria were the ability to walk on a treadmill, and aged 18 years and older. Exclusion criteria were aged under 18 years, use of walking aids, inability to give consent, pregnancy, immobility, and previous injury of the lower legs or pelvis. The aim was to collect data from healthy volunteers.

The healthy participants of both sexes (none of them identified as diverse) were fitted with individually calibrated OpenGO insoles (Moticon GmbH) with 16 pressure sensors in each insole to be used in regular running shoes. Calibration to the individual body weight was conducted using the Moticon OpenGO app by letting the participants walk and shift their body weight in a standardized way. The insole size was selected to fit the individual participant’s shoe size. Measurements were conducted with a recording frequency of 100 Hz in the record mode of the device. Raw data were exported for analyses. The participants walked on a treadmill at 4 km/h (Mercury, HP Cosmos) for 1 minute while insole data were collected with 3-minute breaks for recovery. Recordings were obtained for slopes of −20%, −15%, −10%, −5%, 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. The participants were asked to walk for 1 minute straight, and recording was only commenced when the walking was already in progress to avoid bias by including altered steps upon gait initiation.

Data Processing

The pressure readings of the force sensors in the insole device yield a weighted sum as a total vertical ground reaction force reading. To compute the force, every summand is weighted by its sensor area and a respective scaling factor accounting for the sensor’s surrounding area, as well as gaps between sensors that depend on the insole size. This process is conducted by the Moticon software as an automated processing step before file export. Insole data were exported as described previously [ 13 , 14 ]. A custom-developed data platform was then used for further processing and parameter calculation, in which step detection was conducted as follows. The stance phases were identified and extracted from the time series data by considering any activity with consecutive force readings above 30 N. A tolerance of up to 3 missing values was implemented to account for possible recording issues. Any activity with a duration of less than 300 milliseconds or more than 2000 milliseconds was discarded. Both the force and time axes were normalized. Force readings were transformed from Newton to a proportion of the body weight of the respective participant. Of note, as plantar pressure was measured instead of weight, due to acceleration, values regularly exceeded the body weight for peak load-bearing instances. Normalizing the time axis was more complex, as the lack of a fixed cadence resulted in varying step lengths and thus differing numbers of true measurement points for each step. Therefore, a natural cubic spline interpolation was conducted on the original raw data. Based on the resulting curve for each stance phase, 100 equidistant samples were taken, resulting in an interpolated force measurement point for every 1% of the overall stance phase length. This approach accounted for the lower recording frequency and higher sensor noise inherent to the insoles when compared with other gait measuring devices, such as sensor-equipped treadmills or force plates. Parameters that describe the trajectory of the stance phase curve are usually based on or derived from the characteristic local extrema, that is, the first and second force peak and the local minimum in-between force peaks. These maxima and the minimum are used as parameters themselves to describe the curve trajectory [ 13 ]. Sensor jitter may lead to the existence of multiple ambiguous candidates for the named extrema. As a solution to this, a Gaussian filter was applied to the original raw data in a repetition of the normalization process. The applied filtering strategy (σ=3, kernel size 7) was chosen to prioritize the elimination of extrema ambiguity at the expense of signal precision. This can result in overcorrection in areas with higher signal volatility, mostly at the start and end of the stance phase. Hence, to avoid loss of high-frequency detail, the filtered and normalized curve was not used for parameter analysis, but only to determine unambiguous time-axis positions (indices) for the extremum candidates. These indices were then reapplied to the nonfiltered, normalized data to identify the corresponding plantar pressure measurement closest to the original raw data. In case the use of the filtered data still led to inconclusive extremum candidates, the following additional detection strategies were applied in the named order: (1) time plausibility: extremum candidates occurring within the first or last 10 indices (first/last 10% of overall time span) were eliminated; (2) maximum or minimum-pool filtering: should multiple extremum candidates occur within a pool size of 5 indices (equals to 5% of overall time span), the candidate with the highest or lowest force value was chosen; (3) monotony-check: in case of multiple remaining extremum candidates, candidates where the curve did not display a strict monotonous decrease or increase in both directions within 5 indices each were eliminated; and (4) monotony grace: in case the monotony check had eliminated too many candidates (less than 2 maximum candidates or less than 1 minimum candidate remaining), the eliminated candidates were reinstated in descending order of their highest achieved monotony distance until the target number of candidates was reached.

After applying these strategies, every stance activity that remained with an irregular amount of unambiguous extremum candidates was removed from the data set. In total, 585 load-bearing events were excluded as not fitting the strict parameter definitions.

For each participant, across the minute of walking all stance phase curves were extracted. The parameters illustrated in Figure 1 were calculated for each stance phase and used to analyze changes in the trajectory of the stance phase curve. To do so, data from both feet were pooled. The curve is mainly described by 2 maxima and a minimum in between the maxima, Fz2 (the first maximum), Fz3 (the minimum), and Fz4 (the second maximum). The mean force over the entire stance phase is referred to as Fmean stance . The mean force between the start of the loading phase and Fz2 is Fmean load . The mean force between Fz2 and Fz4 is Fmean mid . The mean force between Fz4 and the end of the unloading phase is Fmean unload . All these parameters have the unit percent body weight. In addition, the loading and unloading slope have the units percent body weight or percent stance phase duration. The loading slope was computed as the slope of the line defined by the start of the loading phase and the first force reading equal to or higher than 80% of Fz2. The unloading slope was calculated as the slope of the line defined by the first force reading in the unloading phase below 80% of Fz4 and the end of the stance phase event.

Statistical Analyses

Statistical tests were executed with SPSS Statistics (version 29; IBM Corp). Significance was defined as P <.05. The normal distribution of data was tested by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests. A linear regression analysis of variance was conducted for each of the gait parameters as the dependent variable, with the slope (−20% to 20%) as the independent variable. Mean values and SD are reported. Linear regression slopes are reported for comparability and to allow for correction, even though for some of the parameters other but differing regression types yielded higher R 2 values. The sample size of 40 was an estimate based on what is common in the field, and taking into account the aim to measure a very diverse group of volunteers. An a priori sample size calculation was not conducted due to a lack of comparable data.

Measurements were taken from 40 healthy participants (19 women and 21 men) with an average age of 43.90 (SD 17.30, range 18-87) years. Participant characteristics are summarized in Table 1 . Data were successfully recorded for all of the participants and slope levels, resulting in a complete data set ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ).

Data were normally distributed. Figure 2 visualizes the differences between the analyzed slope values on the stance phase curve. Figure 3 shows the normalized changes in the analyzed parameters with the slope of the treadmill. The analysis of variance revealed significant changes with the slope for Fmean load , Fmean unload , Fz2, Fz3, Fz4, loading and unloading slope (all P <.001). There was no significant correlation of the slope with Fmean stance ( P =.98) and Fmean mid ( P =.13). Other than the other parameters with significant changes related to slope, Fz3 had its peak at horizontal walking and values dropped when walking uphill and downhill alike. Thus, a simultaneous and short-term increase in loading slope and Fmean load combined with a decrease in Fmean unload , Fz2, Fz4, and the unloading slope indicates downhill walking, while the opposite indicates uphill walking. Fz3 is not a suitable parameter to distinguish between uphill and downhill walking, as its value decreases both when walking uphill as well as downhill. Mean values and the SD of the analyzed parameters for each treadmill slope level in absolute values are displayed in Table 2 . Table 3 indicates the linear regression slopes and R 2 -values for each of the curves shown in Figure 3 .

a Fmean stance : the mean force over the entire stance phase.

b Fmean load : the mean force between the start of the loading phase and Fz2.

c Fmean mid : the mean force between Fz2 and Fz4.

d Fmean unload : the mean force between Fz4 and the end of the unloading phase.

e Fz2: the first maximum.

f Fz3: the minimum.

g Fz4: the second maximum.

Principal Results

This study identified characteristic changes when walking with an uphill or downhill slope in insole plantar pressure data of healthy participants. The most pronounced changes with treadmill slope were found in the loading slope of the curve. A typical combination of changes in several parameters was reported that defines uphill and downhill walking and may be used for annotation and correction when analyzing such data. These changes in the trajectory of the force curve with different surface slopes relative to the force vector of Earth’s gravity are related to changes in plantar load distribution. When walking downhill, Fz2 was found to be higher compared to when walking uphill, which is caused by the more pronounced force transfer through the heel of the foot, followed by a lower second maximum due to the even lower surface at push-off.

While patient-related factors, such as curve characteristics related to body size, muscle power, degenerative disease, etc, would remain constant throughout an insole measurement, fatigue-related changes [ 15 ] may increasingly appear and then stay toward the later stages of a recording of a walking bout. Additionally, age, body height, body weight, BMI, and handgrip strength were shown to cause characteristic changes in the plantar pressure force curve, that would usually only change on a long-term scale [ 16 ]. In contrast, as shown in the present data set, walking on slopes leads to temporary and characteristic changes in specific properties of the stance-phase curve. Changes over time in the identified parameters should thus be considered and correctly interpreted when studying long-term field gait data collected via insoles. To analyze the healing process, that is, after an injury, slow changes in parameters would be expected, and a trend toward what is considered normal over several weeks [ 17 ]. Short-term changes over minutes or hours would thus not be explainable by the healing progress and should have a different cause. In addition, the asymmetry between the legs should slowly decrease throughout healing [ 18 ]. When walking on a slope, asymmetry could also be affected, if the injury causes increasing problems such as pain when walking uphill or downhill. It is also recommendable to identify the characteristics of walking with walking aids, such as crutches, to be able to classify the nature of the observed changes and the treatment stage better.

Limitations

Effects of walking speed were not analyzed in this study, even though it is known that lower extremity joint loading is affected by varying step length and cadence during graded uphill and downhill walking [ 19 ]. These parameters, however, do not seem to be necessary to successfully annotate gait data obtained by insoles. For participant or patient convenience, it would be desirable if insoles did not need to be combined with further devices or wearables. The present data suggest that at least the identification of walking on slopes does not require further sensors. It is also known that kinematic, kinetic, and electromyographic parameters differ between treadmill walking and overground gait, while spatiotemporal, kinematic, kinetic, electromyographic, and energy consumption outcome measures are largely comparable [ 20 ]. Another limitation of this study is that the parameters analyzed here can only be used when a regular gait curve is present. If this is not the case, other methods need to be applied, that is, machine learning for step detection and segmentation or the analysis of further parameters, possibly slopes and averages, or differences between individual sensors [ 21 ]. Differences between the 16 sensors embedded in each insole were not analyzed in this study and could be assessed in the future, for example, to distinguish between ground types (gravel, sand, etc). Another limitation is that the present characteristic changes that were assessed in healthy participants may differ for patients with gait disorders, depending on their disease or injury type. It will therefore be important to collect longitudinal data on different slopes from patients with defined diseases and injuries throughout the healing process or throughout different disease stages. These studies would serve to identify if the reported findings are valid also for patients, and for which patient groups this is true.

Use of Wearables in Patients

The insole technology and present data may be valuable in real-world settings when investigating changes in mechanical properties during walking, that is, in occupational health research, sport and exercise science, for urban planning, and to plan inclusive architecture. For instance, the global average slope of urban areas is about 3.70° [ 22 ]. Wearables such as pressure insoles are increasingly used to study gait and movement, as well as for fall detection, fall classification, and fall risk assessment in the daily life of patients, and furthermore for lifestyle and health monitoring [ 1 , 3 , 23 - 27 ]. Long-term monitoring, especially if combined with additional sensors, may produce large amounts of data that require advanced strategies for analyses. Apart from regression statistics, among the options is the use of machine learning algorithms trained with annotated data for pattern recognition [ 24 , 26 ]. For longer-term monitoring of patients, it would be desirable if such algorithms were trained to identify various key activities of daily life that might indicate the level of healing progress. For example, when a patient with a tibial fracture is capable of cycling again, this is likely an indication for advances in the healing process. It would also be of interest to identify risky behavior, possibly leading to excessive forces, and to warn the patient by giving, for example, an audible or haptic warning signal. To guarantee meaningful data interpretation, machine learning may be combined with conventional regression-based analyses, such as the ones proposed in this paper to best tackle data complexity. Furthermore, prediction algorithms could be implemented for falls and diseases that enable more refined individual recommendations. Ideally, such interventions would be based on live data analyses. Limitations in the computing power of small wearable devices can increasingly be mitigated by both algorithmic optimization techniques in machine learning, such as dimensionality reduction, reservoir computing, and network pruning, as well as hardware innovations [ 27 , 28 ]. In the near future, such advances will likely allow real-time feedback based on data from various sources combined [ 29 , 30 ]. Alternatively, extracting decision-making systems (symbolic artificial intelligence), such as threshold-based methods, might offer an immediate route to real-time feedback.

Sensors in Orthoses and Implants

Apart from insoles, very similar data might be collected from mechanical sensors embedded in orthoses [ 31 ] or implants [ 32 ]. Potentially, walking on a slope in these recordings changes the data in similar ways as described here. It would be highly desirable if patients did not need to use separate wearables such as insoles anymore, but if orthoses and implants had sensors embedded, not only to monitor healing progress but also to identify healing problems or complications and the need for surgical revision [ 33 ]. If similar load data could be collected by sensors in artificial hip or knee joints, or potentially even by plates or nails that stabilize bone fractures, recovery regimen could be monitored continuously and advice given on time [ 34 ]. Alarms could go off if forces exceeded certain thresholds or if live pattern analyses revealed unfavorable patterns known to be associated with exceeding forces or problems. As these developments seem to have a high potential with regard to rehabilitation and postoperative treatment, data analyses of insole data should be further studied and ideally, details such as algorithms and characteristics should be published to enable for the further development and widespread application of the named interventions.

Conclusions

Characteristic changes in the plantar-pressure stance phase curve were identified, which reflect uphill and downhill walking. Automated annotation and continuous analyses of gait data via wearables could enable improved rehabilitation and feedback systems for prevention and treatment. A combination of traditional regression statistics embedded in heuristics combined with artificial intelligence methods may yield the best results.

Acknowledgments

The Werner Siemens Foundation (project Smart Implants 2.0) funded this work. The authors would like to acknowledge the help of Aynur Gökten and Jacqueline Orth during the measurements, as well as the help of Lisa-Marie Jost in designing Figure 1 .

Authors' Contributions

CW contributed to the data processing platform, data analysis, methods, and Figure 2 . P Steinheimer conducted the measurements. BG contributed to the idea; ran the statistical analyses; interpreted the data; made the tables; and drafted, submitted, and revised this paper. TD, CS, and FC took part in the data platform implementation. EW, TD, P Slusallek, CS, FC, MO, and TP helped with data interpretation. All authors have contributed to this paper’s drafting and revision, and read and approved the submitted version of this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

TP is President and Board Member of the AO-Foundation, Switzerland, and Extended Board Member of the German Society of Orthopedic Trauma Surgery (DGU), the German Society of Orthopedic Surgery and Traumatology (DGOU), and the German Society of Surgery (DGCH). TP is also the speaker of the Medical Advisory Board of the German Ministry of Defence. The other authors do not have a conflict of interest.

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Abbreviations

Edited by G Eysenbach, T Leung; submitted 24.01.23; peer-reviewed by M Kraus, S Okita; comments to author 21.12.23; revised version received 11.01.24; accepted 17.02.24; published 08.05.24.

©Christian Wolff, Patrick Steinheimer, Elke Warmerdam, Tim Dahmen, Philipp Slusallek, Christian Schlinkmann, Fei Chen, Marcel Orth, Tim Pohlemann, Bergita Ganse. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 08.05.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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