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Why Parenting Styles Matter When Raising Children

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Laura Porter

The Four Parenting Styles

• Impact of Parenting Style

Advantages of Authoritative Parenting

Can you change your parenting style.

• Limitations and Criticism

Parenting styles are constructs used to describe the different strategies parents tend to utilize when raising children. These styles encompass parents' behaviors and attitudes and the emotional environment in which they raise their children.

Developmental psychologists have long been interested in how parents affect child development. However, finding actual cause-and-effect links between specific actions of parents and later behavior of children is very difficult.

Some children raised in dramatically different environments can later grow up to have remarkably similar personalities . Conversely, children who share a home and are raised in the same environment can grow up to have very different personalities.

Despite these challenges, researchers have posited that there are links between parenting styles and the effects these styles have on children. And some suggest these effects carry over into adult behavior.

In the 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study on more than 100 preschool-age children. Using naturalistic observation , parental interviews, and other research methods , she identified some important dimensions of parenting.

These dimensions include disciplinary strategies, warmth and nurturing, communication styles, and expectations of maturity and control. Based on these dimensions, Baumrind suggested that the majority of parents display one of three different parenting styles. Later research by Maccoby and Martin suggested adding a fourth parenting style. Each of these has different effects on children's behavior.

The four parenting styles that have been identify by Baumrind and other researchers are:

• The authoritarian parenting style
• The authoritative parenting style
• The permissive parenting style
• The uninvolved parenting style

What's Your Parenting Style?

This fast and free parenting styles quiz can help you analyze the methods you're using to parent your kids and whether or not it may be a good idea to learn some new parenting behaviors:

Authoritarian Parenting

In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment.

Authoritarian parents don't explain the reasoning behind these rules. If asked to explain, the parent might simply reply, "Because I said so."

Other common characteristics:

• While these parents have high demands, they are not very responsive to their children.
• They expect their children to behave exceptionally and not make errors, yet they provide little direction about what they should do or avoid in the future.
• Mistakes are punished, often quite harshly, yet their children are often left wondering exactly what they did wrong.

Baumrind says these parents "are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation." They are often described as domineering and dictatorial. Their approach is "spare the rod, spoil the child." They expect children to obey without question.

Effects of Authoritarian Parenting

Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to obedient and proficient children, but they rank lower in happiness, social competence, and  self-esteem . They may also be more likely to lie to avoid punishment.

Authoritative Parenting

Like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic.

Common characteristics of the authoritative parenting style:

• Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions.
• These parents expect a lot of their children, but they provide warmth, feedback, and adequate support.
• When children fail to meet expectations, these parents are more nurturing and forgiving than punishing.

According to Baumrind, authoritarive parents are good at setting standards and monitoring their children's behavior. Their disciplinary methods are assertive and supportive rather than intrusive, restrictive, or punitive.

For authoritative parents, the goal is to raise children who are socially responsible, cooperative, and self-regulated. The combination of expectation and support helps children of authoritative parents develop skills such as independence, self-control, and self-regulation. 

Effects of Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parenting styles tend to result in happy, capable, and successful children.

Permissive Parenting

Permissive parents , sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, make very few demands of their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control.​

• Other common characteristics of permissive parenting:
• Permissive parents prioritize being their child's friend rather than being a parent.
• They are warm and attentive but tend to set few rules, rarely enforce rules, and have few expectations.
• They allow their children to make their own decisions. 

According to Baumrind, permissive parents are responsive to their children but not demanding. Because they do not expect mature behavior from their children, kids may struggle to set limits for themselves. On the positive side, this can help kids become more self-sufficient and independent. On the downside, it can contribute to poor self-regulation.

Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than a parent.

Effects of Permissive Parenting

Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school.

Uninvolved Parenting

In addition to the three major styles introduced by Baumrind, psychologists Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin proposed a fourth style: uninvolved or neglectful parenting.

An uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness, and very little communication.

Other characteristics of the uninvolved parenting style:

• While these parents fulfill the child's basic needs, they are generally detached from their child's life.
• They might ensure that their kids are fed and have shelter but offer little to nothing in the way of guidance, structure, rules, or even support.
• These parents may seem indifferent, unresponsive, and dismissive.
• In some cases, these parents may reject or neglect the needs of their children. They may also be physically or emotionally abusive.

A 2019 study found that children raised by neglectful parents tend to struggle in school, experience more depression, have worse social relationships, have difficulty controlling their emotions, and experience more anxiety.

Effects of Uninvolved Parenting

Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem, and are less competent than their peers.

The Impact of Parenting Styles

Research suggests that parenting styles can have a range of effects on children. Some of the areas of a child's life that may be affected in the present and in the future include:

• Academics : Parenting styles can play a part in academic achievement and motivation.
• Mental health : Parenting styles can also influence children's mental well-being. Kids raised by authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved parents tend to experience more anxiety, depression, and other mental health problems.
• Self-esteem : Kids raised by parents with an authoritative style tend to have strong self-esteem than kids raised by parents with other styles,
• Social relationships : Parenting styles can impact how kids relate to other people. For example, kids raised by permissive parents are more likely to be bullied, while kids raised by authoritarian parents are more likely to bully others.
• Adult relationships : Researchers have also found that kids raised by strict, authoritarian parents may be more likely to experience emotional abuse in adult romantic relationships.

Because authoritative parents are more likely to be viewed as reasonable, fair, and just, their children are more likely to comply with their parents' requests. Also, because these parents provide rules as well as explanations for these rules, children are much more likely to internalize these lessons.

Rather than simply following the rules because they fear punishment (as they might with authoritarian parents), the children of authoritative parents are able to see why the rules exist, understand that they are fair and acceptable, and strive to follow these rules to meet their own internalized sense of what is right and wrong.

Mixing Parenting Styles

The parenting styles of individual parents also combine to create a unique blend in each family. For example, the mother may display an authoritative style, while the father favors a more permissive approach.

This can sometimes lead to mixed signals. To create a cohesive approach to parenting, parents must learn to cooperate and combine their unique parenting styles.

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If you notice that you tend to be more authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved, there are steps you can take to adopt a more authoritative parenting style. Strategies that may help include:

• Listen : Spending time listening to what your child has to say. Let them share their opinions, ideas, and worries with you. 
• Establish rules : Create a clear set of rules for your household and communicate your expectations to your child. In addition to telling your child what the rules are, be sure to explain why these rules exist.
• Consider your child's input : Authoritative parents set the rules but are also willing to listen to their child's feelings and consider them when making decisions.
• Be consistent : Enforce rules consistently, but be sure to provide consequences that are fair, proportionate, and educational. 

Developing a more authoritative parenting style takes time. With practice and consistent effort, however, you will find that your approach to parenting gradually shifts to a more supportive, involved approach that can lead to better developmental outcomes.

Limitations of Parenting Style Research

Links between parenting styles and behavior are based on correlational research , which is helpful for finding relationships between variables . However, such research cannot establish definitive cause-and-effect relationships.

While there is evidence that a particular parenting style is linked to a specific pattern of behavior, other variables, such as a child's temperament, can also play a significant role.

Children May Affect Their Parents' Styles

There is also evidence that a child's behavior can impact parenting styles. One study found that the parents of children who exhibited difficult behavior began to exhibit less parental control over time. Such results suggest that kids might misbehave not because their parents were too permissive but because the parents of difficult or aggressive children gave up on trying to control their kids.

Outcomes Vary

Some researchers have also noted that the correlations between parenting styles and behaviors are sometimes weak. In many cases, the expected child outcomes do not materialize. For example, parents with authoritative styles may have children who are defiant or who engage in delinquent behavior. Parents with permissive styles may have self-confident and academically successful children.

Cultural Factors Play a Role

Cultural factors also play a significant role in parenting styles and child outcomes. There isn't a universal style of parenting that is always best. For example, while authoritative parenting is linked to better results in European and American cultures, research has also found that this style is not linked to better school performance Black and Asian youth.

Parenting styles are associated with different child outcomes, and the authoritative style is generally linked to positive behaviors such as strong self-esteem and self-competence. However, other important factors, including culture, children's temperament, children's perceptions of parental treatment, and social influences, also play an important role in children's behavior.

A Word From Verywell

Understanding more about your own parenting style can help you explore different approaches to parenting your children. If you notice that you tend to have a more strict, indulgent, or dismissive approach, there are steps that you can take to become more involved and authoritative in how you relate to your children.

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Kuppens S, Ceulemans E. Parenting styles: A closer look at a well-known concept .  J Child Fam Stud . 2019;28(1):168-181. doi:10.1007/s10826-018-1242-x

Alizadeh Maralani F, Mirnasab M, Hashemi T. The predictive role of maternal parenting and stress on pupils' bullying involvement .  J Interpers Violence . 2019;34(17):3691-3710. doi:10.1177/0886260516672053

Beyarslan SD, Uzer T. Psychological control and indulgent parenting predict emotional-abuse victimization in romantic relationships . Curr Psychol . 2022;41(8):5532-5545. doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01072-w

Bi X, Yang Y, Li H, Wang M, Zhang W, Deater-deckard K. Parenting styles and parent-adolescent relationships: the mediating roles of behavioral autonomy and parental authority . Front Psychol . 2018;9:2187. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02187

Huh D, Tristan J, Wade E, Stice E. Does problem behavior elicit poor parenting?: A prospective study of adolescent girls .  J Adolesc Res . 2006;21(2):185-204. doi:10.1177/0743558405285462

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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What Is Your Parenting Style, and Why Does It Matter?

From authoritarian to authoritative, permissive to neglectful, we're breaking down different types of parenting styles. Which one do you practice? 

Authoritarian Parenting

Permissive parenting, authoritative parenting, neglectful or uninvolved parenting, sub-types of parenting styles.

Your parenting style can affect everything from your child's self-esteem to their academic success. It's important to ensure your parenting style supports healthy growth and development because the way you interact with your child—and how you discipline them— will influence them for the rest of their life. 

Researchers have identified four main types of parenting styles that take a unique approach to raising children:

• Authoritarian
• Authoritative

People often want to know which parenting style they're using, and which one is the best overall. The truth is that there's no one right way to parent, but the general parenting style that most experts, including the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), recommend is an authoritative approach.

Read on to learn the difference between these four major parenting styles, with information about popular subtypes like helicopter parenting, free-range parenting, tiger parenting, and more.

Baumrind's Four Parenting Styles

In the 1960s, developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind described three distinct parenting styles—authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive—based on parental demands and responsiveness to children. A fourth style, neglectful, was added later based on work by other researchers.

Do any of these statements sound like you?

• You believe kids should be seen and not heard.
• When it comes to rules, you believe it's "my way or the highway."
• You don't take your child's feelings into consideration.
• You've uttered the words "because I said so" when a child questions the reasons behind a rule.

If any of those ring true, you might be an authoritarian parent. The authoritarian style of parenting focuses on strict rules, obedience, and discipline. These parents have high expectations, and they don't hesitate to punish when children don't follow their guidelines.

Authoritarian parents take over the decision-making power, rarely giving children any input in the matter. Similar to an army drill sergeant, authoritarian parents are not nurturing, lenient, or communicable. They make the rules and enforce the consequences with little regard for a child's opinion.

How authoritarian parenting affects children

When raised by an authoritarian parent, children are often well-behaved at home, but they may rebel when with classmates or friends. Kids may also struggle with the following:

• Social skills
• Indecisiveness and trouble thinking on their own
• Low self-esteem
• Poor judge of character
• Anger management and resentfulness
• Hostility and aggression

Some research also indicates that children whose parents were authoritarian reported more substance use and higher instances of depression.

• You set rules but rarely enforce them.
• You don't give out consequences very often.
• You think your child will learn best with little interference from you.
• You let your children do what they want—even if it's drinking soda at every meal.

If those statements sound familiar, you might practice permissive parenting . Permissive parents are lenient, only stepping in when there's a serious problem. They're quite forgiving and they adopt an attitude of "kids will be kids." Oftentimes they act more like friends than authoritative figures.

Permissive parents cater to their children's needs without giving out much discipline . When they do use consequences, they may not stick. For example, they'll give privileges back if a child begs, or they may allow a child to get out of time-out early if they promise to be good. Permissive parents are the total opposite of strict.

How permissive parenting affects children

Since they have a high standing in the household, children of permissive parents are accustomed to getting whatever they want. They may exhibit more behavioral problems as they don't appreciate authority and rules.

Other downsides of the permissive parenting style can include:

• Lack of responsibility
• Difficulty with decision-making
• Impulsiveness and aggressiveness
• Lack of independence and personal responsibility
• Anxiety and depression
• Academic struggles

Kids who are parented permissively often act entitled, egocentric, and selfish. These children might also fail to put effort into school, work, or social endeavors since they don't have to put in any effort at home.

Additionally, kids raised by permissive parents are at a higher risk for health problems, like obesity , because permissive parents struggle to limit unhealthy food intake or promote regular exercise or healthy sleep habits. They're more likely to have dental cavities because permissive parents often don't enforce good habits, like ensuring a child brushes their teeth.

The "Gold Standard" Parenting Style

Experts consider authoritative parenting to be the most developmentally healthy and effective parenting style. Research has found kids who have authoritative parents are most likely to become confident, responsible adults who feel comfortable self-advocating and expressing their opinions and feelings.

• You put a lot of effort into creating and maintaining a positive relationship with your child.
• You explain the reasons behind your rules.
• You set limits, enforce rules, and give consequences, but also consider your child's feelings. 
• You use positive discipline strategies such as praise and rewards.

If those statements sound familiar, you might practice authoritative parenting , which is considered to be the "gold standard" parenting style. Authoritative parents provide their children with rules and boundaries, but they also give them the freedom to make decisions.

With an authoritative parenting style, parents validate their children's feelings while also making it clear that the adults are ultimately in charge. They invest time and energy into preventing behavior problems before they start. They also use positive discipline strategies , like praise and reward systems, to reinforce positive behavior.

Authoritative parents view mistakes as a learning experience, and they have clear expectations for their children. They're nurturing and warm, yet they instill the importance of responsibility and discipline.

How authoritative parenting affects children

Children raised with authoritative parenting tend to be happy, confident, and successful. They're also more likely to make sound decisions and evaluate safety risks on their own. Authoritative parenting is linked to academic achievement, heightened self-esteem, and resiliency.

Kids with authoritative parents tend to have the following positive outcomes:

• Close, nurturing relationships with parents
• Tendency to be responsible and respectful
• Ability to manage their aggression
• High degrees of self-esteem, self-confidence , and self-regulation
• More likely to be happy and successful
• Ability to clearly express their emotions

Kids who are parented authoritatively can be trusted to make the right decision on their own, and they often set high expectations for themselves. These children may also perform well academically and socially, and they're less likely to misuse drugs or alcohol.

Do any of these statements sound familiar?

• You don't ask your child about school or homework.
• You rarely know where your child is or who they're with.
• You don't spend much time with your child.
• You don't have many rules and expectations.

If those statements sound familiar, you might be an uninvolved or neglectful parent. Essentially, neglectful parents ignore their children, who receive little guidance, nurturing, and parental attention. They don't set rules or expectations, and they tend to have minimal knowledge about what their children are doing.

Uninvolved parents expect children to raise themselves. They don't devote much time or energy to meeting children's basic needs. At times, uninvolved parents lack knowledge about child development—or they may believe that their child will do better without their oversight.

Uninvolved parents may be neglectful but it's not always intentional. A parent with mental health issues or substance abuse problems, for example, may not be able to care for a child's physical or emotional needs consistently.

How uninvolved parenting affects children

Without any guidance, structure, or parental involvement, children of neglectful parents often act out. Research has found that kids with uninvolved parents have the worst outcomes, and they're more likely to experience the following:

• Substance use
• Rebelliousness
• Delinquency (vandalism, assault, rape, petty theft)
• Lower cognitive and emotional empathy
• Diminished self-esteem

Children of uninvolved parents might, for example, get in trouble at school or with the law. In addition, they might hesitate to form bonds with other people and exhibit depression. Academic performance and social competence often suffer.

Getty Images / Shaw Photography Co.

Of course, there are plenty of parenting style subtypes, including the following

Free-range parenting

Helicopter parenting, snowplow parenting, lighthouse parenting, attachment parenting, tiger parenting.

Free-range parents give their children the independence of being less supervised or unsupervised in public. For a long time, parents who practiced this style were considered neglectful, and many thought they endangered their kids.

But more recently (and after much debate) states like Utah passed laws in favor of the hands-off parenting style. Specifically, Utah changed the definition of neglect so it doesn't include certain independent childhood activities like walking to school and playing outside. Proponents say it can instill amazing qualities like self-sufficiency and resilience.

If you're an overprotective parent who feels the need to control most aspects of your child's life, you likely fit the bill of a helicopter parent . Helicopter parents constantly intervene in their kid's life, and they obsess about successes and failures.

The risk-assessing tendencies of helicopter parents are often driven by fear and anxiety. Parents who intervene in this way can hinder a child's ability to learn integral life skills, confidence, and self-sufficiency. Research by the American Psychological Association found that kids who experience helicopter parenting are less likely to be able to manage their emotions and behavior.

Snowplow parents (also known as lawnmower or bulldozer parents) are willing to drop everything to fulfill their child's wants and demands, no matter how small. They essentially "plow down" anything standing in their child's way.

These types of parents often have good intentions and don't want their children to experience struggle. However, their habits don't provide a foundation for long-term happiness, and they can worsen a child's anxiety about failure. An extreme example of snowplow parenting involves the college admissions scandal , where numerous high-profile celebrity parents were convicted of bribing colleges to admit their children.

One of the more balanced methods of parenting, the lighthouse approach was coined by pediatrician and author Kenneth Ginsburg, MD. In his book, Raising Kids to Thrive: Balancing Love With Expectations and Protection With Trust, Dr. Ginsburg writes: "We should be like lighthouses for our children. Stable beacons of light on the shoreline from which they can measure themselves against."

The lighthouse parenting style involves finding the perfect balance between loving, protecting, communicating, and nurturing your child. Parents seek to guide and support their children, much like a lighthouse does.

Attachment parenting involves a nurturing and hands-on approach. These parents think that putting a child's needs first leads to independence and emotional stability. Parents who follow this style value physical closeness, bed-sharing and co-sleeping, extended breastfeeding , positive discipline, and other attachment-based approaches to raising children.

A study by the American Academy of Pediatrics found an association between sensitive-responsive parenting and children’s language skills. Specifically, kids of parents with higher levels of responsiveness and warmth had more than two times better language skills than children whose parents were less responsive. On the other hand, this parenting style is demanding and can sometimes feel out of balance when parents are less flexible in their approach.

Often displaying rigid and harsh characteristics, tiger parents expect obedience and success. This term gained mainstream attention due to Amy Chua's book, Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mom , where she describes tiger parenting as an authoritarian method commonly used in Chinese culture.

Some research has found a correlation between tiger parenting and anxiety in children , possibly due to their parent's high demands and constant expectations for perfection.

Additional reporting by Amy Morin, LCSW  

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Types of Parenting Styles and Effects On Children .  StatPearls  [Internet]. Updated 2022.

Role of parenting styles in adolescent substance use: results from a Swedish longitudinal cohort study . BMJ Open.  2016.

Authoritarian parenting and youth depression: Results from a national study .  Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community.  2016.

Role of Parenting Style in Children’s Behavioral Problems through the Transition from Preschool to Elementary School According to Gender in Japan . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health . 2019.

Parenting Styles: A Closer Look at a Well-Known Concept .  J Child Fam Stud . 2019.

Consequences of parenting on adolescent outcomes .  Societies . 2014.

Psychosocial Consequences of Parenting . IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science . 2016.

Helicopter Parenting May Negatively Affect Children’s Emotional Well-Being, Behavior . American Psychological Association . 2018.

Investigations of College Admissions and Testing Bribery Scheme . United States Attorney's Office . Updated 2023.

Parenting Behavior and Child Language: A Meta-analysis . American Academy of Pediatrics . 2019.

The moderating effects of positive psychological strengths on the relationship between tiger parenting and child anxiety . Children and Youth Services Review . 2018.

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Citation Count

Exploring Parenting Styles Patterns and Children’s Socio-Emotional Skills

Ecology of the family as a context for human development: research perspectives, current patterns of parental authority., parenting style as context: an integrative model, the influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use, effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior, related papers (5), trending questions (3).

- Broad behavioral patterns to control and socialize children. - Set emotional context for parent-child relationships and child development.

- Parenting styles impact mental health, behavior, identity, academics, and more. - Influence varies based on children's, parents', and socioeconomic factors.

- Parenting styles impact mental health, behavior, academics, and social development. - Influenced by children's characteristics, parents' characteristics, and socioeconomic status.

Parenting Styles

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

It is a stereotype that, in therapy, all of a person’s problems will be blamed on their parents. That is not the case. But decades of psychological research have suggested that the approach to parenting generally followed by an individual’s mother and/or father can influence the way they approach relationships, challenges, and opportunities. That doesn’t mean that an adult can’t change, of course, especially once they understand what may be influencing their behavior. And parents who become aware of the pitfalls of their own style and how it may affect their kids can also change.

For more on dysfunctional parenting, click here .

On This Page

• What are the four major parenting styles?
• How can a parent’s style predict a child’s future relationships?
• How can mothers and fathers tell what their parenting style is?
• How can parents become more authoritative?
• What is supportive parenting?
• What is attachment parenting?
• How can mothers and fathers transition away from attachment parenting?

Research begun by developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind in the 1960s identified three main parenting styles —authoritarian, indulgent, and authoritative. Later studies added a fourth—neglectful. Every parent does not neatly fit into one of these four categories but they describe the approaches of many.

• An authoritarian parent seeks to maintain a high level of control over their children. They may set and adhere to a strict set of rules, and are more likely to support and take part in corporal punishment such as spanking. Children of highly authoritarian parents may struggle socially and may be likely to become authoritarian parents themselves.
• Neglectful parents (also known as uninvolved or disengaged) take on a limited parenting role. They may not spend as much time as other parents in conversation, play, or other activities, and may not bother to set many house rules. Some children of neglectful parents may resist rules outside of the home and struggle with self-control.
• Indulgent (or permissive) parents may be attentive and warm, but may not set many rules for their children. They may prioritize being their child’s friend over being their parent. Research suggests that the children of permissive parents may show higher levels of creativity but may also feel entitled, and be more interested in taking rather than giving in their own relationships.
• Authoritative parents follow what is widely understood as the preferred approach. Such parents are more pragmatic and flexible. They set clear boundaries but also encourage children’s independence within those limits. Discipline in such families may be more supportive than punitive, and as children get older, their independence increases. Children of authoritative parents may have more highly developed self-control and self-reliance.

Recent research suggests that, in some families, a parent’s style, especially as it relates to maintaining control over their children, could leave their kids vulnerable to emotional abuse from future partners, employers, and and others. Researchers found that people raised with a parent who maintained strict psychological control over them grew to be especially vulnerable to emotionally abusive partners. The effect appeared to be offset, though, by experiencing emotional warmth from the other parent. Research continues to explore the effect of differing parenting styles in the same family, and whether it matters if a mother or father is the authoritarian.

Much research of parenting styles has examined how the styles affect children as they grow up, and how negative effects could be tempered. But other studies have focused on helping parents become more self-aware and change their styles to develop healthier relationships with their kids . Some researchers have developed analytical scales in which parents indicate how they would respond to certain scenarios with an eye toward helping them shift, perhaps through therapy, to a more moderate approach.

In practical terms, most parents do not think of themselves as authoritarian, authoritative, or otherwise, and many mothers and fathers are self-aware enough to know that they may not be consistent with their kids at all times. Experts suggest that attention to some general guidelines can help parents develop a healthier style—for example, being consciously warm and loving toward children, setting age-appropriate limits, actively listening to children’s concerns, gently but firmly asking to be treated with respect, and “catching” kids being good , while making sure they know they’ve been seen and acknowledged.

Supportive parenting describes an approach to authoritative parenting in which mothers and fathers are conscious of how often they say no to children (as they often must, especially when kids are young) so that they can seek more opportunities to say yes to them in encouraging ways that help kids develop confidence and self-esteem. When children are mostly told what they cannot do, they can feel rejected by a parent, even a well-meaning one, with potentially negative emotional outcomes. Being consciously supportive and selfless with children can help them internalize belief in themselves.

Attachment parenting , a term coined by pediatrician William Sears, describes an approach to parenting in which mothers and fathers are physically and emotionally close to their children, especially at an early age, and is characterized in practice by extended periods of breastfeeding and co-sleeping. Sears referred to it as “what mothers and fathers would do instinctively if they were raising their baby on a desert island.” There is little evidence, however, that this approach leads to more positive psychological outcomes for children and many experts reject attachment parenting as unnecessarily demanding of parents and potentially creating conflict and division between new parents.

Parents who commit themselves to attachment parenting and have the time and temperament to maintain the approach throughout early childhood may then be faced with the challenge of weaning their children from the approach. These mothers and fathers may need to consciously practice “ detachment parenting ” so that children entering early adolescence can develop independence and healthy friendships, while resisting feeling rejected themselves as kids begin to resist a parent’s efforts to hold onto their previous level of connection.

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4 Types of Parenting Styles

Parenting styles are the practices, behaviors, and attitudes parents use when responding to or interacting with children. Parenting styles include how parents discipline, communicate, make decisions, and socialize children. The 4 types of parenting styles used in parenting styles psychology studies are authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved.

The first three parenting styles were identified by developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind at the University of California, Berkeley, in her 1967 study, “Child Care Practices Anteceding Three Patterns of Preschool Behavior.” The fourth parenting style, uninvolved or neglectful, was added by Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin at Stanford University in 1983. Maccoby and Martin also identified a conceptual structure combining different levels of demandingness and responsiveness to distinguish the 4 parenting styles in their 1983 book chapter “Socialization in the Context of the Family: Parent-Child Interaction” inside “Handbook of Child Psychology: Socialization, Personality and Social Development” (4th edition), edited by P.H. Mussen.

The 4 types of parenting styles classified by different levels of demandingness and responsiveness are commonly called the Baumrind parenting styles.

What is the Importance of understanding parenting styles for the development of children?  

The importance of understanding parenting styles lies in using this knowledge to achieve optimal developmental outcomes in children. Understanding parenting styles allows parents to make informed decisions when raising a child. Different parenting styles are associated with different outcomes in children’s self-esteem, academic performance, social competence, emotional regulation, relationships, and mental health. The parenting style framework allows parents to understand parent-child interactions, predict child outcomes, and avoid ineffective parenting. Parenting style issues can be prevented or intervened by policymakers who design programs and allocate resources to help parents.

Table of Contents

1. Authoritarian Parenting

Authoritarian parenting is not responsive but demanding. Authoritarian parenting involves high expectations of conformity and compliance with strict rules while offering little nurturing or sensitivity.

Authoritarian parents are highly controlling and intolerant of misbehavior. They use one-way communication without listening to children’s feedback. In authoritarian parenting, parents don’t explain their rules, relying on the phrase “because I said so.” They try to shape and control children’s behavior to align with an “absolute standard” of conduct. Punitive discipline with harsh punishment is used when children break any rules.

Authoritarian parents are cold and non-nurturing. They rarely show affection to their children. Authoritarian attitudes believe parents are the authority figures children should fear and navigate around. They equate children’s fear with respect.

The biggest advantage of authoritarian parenting is that parents often achieve immediate behavioral control in their presence, creating the illusion that their children are well-behaved overall. The biggest disadvantage of the authoritarian parenting style is that children often suffer mentally. Children with authoritarian parents tend to have lower self-esteem and life satisfaction , according to a 2007 study, “Maternal and Paternal Parenting Styles in Adolescents: Associations with Self-Esteem, Depression and Life-Satisfaction” published in the Journal of Child and Family Studies.

Effects of authoritarian parenting on children include the following.

• Low self-esteem and life satisfaction
• Anxiety and depressive symptoms
• Difficulty with emotional regulation
• Aggression and behavioral issues
• Less academic or work success

Coercive power-assertive practices of authoritarian parenting are why this parenting style is distinctively detrimental to children, according to Baumrind’s 2010 study, “Effects of Preschool Parents’ Power Assertive Patterns and Practices on Adolescent Development,” published in Science and Practice. Her research revealed that verbal hostility and psychological control were among the most damaging behaviors of authoritarian behaviors, leading to notable incompetence and maladjustment in adolescents.

2. Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parenting is responsive and demanding. Authoritative parenting sets clear expectations and boundaries. Authoritative parents explain the reason behind family rules. In the authoritative parenting style, parents encourage open communication and listen to children’s perspectives. Authoritative attitudes are warm, nurturing, and supportive. They offer praise to encourage prosocial behavior and positive discipline to teach values and foster independence.

The authoritative parenting style is considered the most effective parenting style by psychologists. The biggest advantage of authoritative parenting is that children have the best outcomes, including adjustment, performance, and mental health . The biggest disadvantage of authoritative parenting is that significant time and energy are needed for parents to be consistently responsive, set clear expectations, and engage in open communication.

Effects of authoritative parenting on children include the following.

• Higher self-esteem
• Academic success
• Adaptive emotional regulation
• Social skills and social competence
• Problem-solving and critical thinking skills

The authoritative parenting style impacts children’s well-being positively due to how parents assert the power to control children’s behavior, according to Baumrind’s 2012 study “Differentiating between Confrontive and Coercive Kinds of Parental Power-Assertive Disciplinary Practices”, published in Human Development. Although authoritative and authoritarian are both demanding, authoritative parents use confrontive power, while authoritarian parents use coercive power.

Confrontive power in authoritative parenting involves reasoning, negotiation, and outcome-oriented practices that regulate children’s behavior. However, coercive power in authoritarian parenting is arbitrary, peremptory, and aimed at retaining parents’ hierarchical status. In Baumrind’s study, she found that authoritative parents’ confrontive power assertion behavior was associated with competence and mental health in children.

3. Permissive Parenting

Permissive parenting is responsive but not demanding. Permissive parenting , or indulgent parenting, is a distinct parenting style that promotes an open and nurturing environment where children feel loved and are free to explore and express opinions. Permissive parents are warm, nurturing, and responsive. They have minimal expectations and few rules. Permissive parents are reluctant to punish when boundaries are crossed.

The biggest advantage of permissive parenting is that children have high self-confidence, according to a 1991 study, “Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families,” published in Child Development. The biggest disadvantage of permissive parenting is that children have lower self-control and are more prone to drug abuse.

Effects of permissive parenting on children include the following.

• Impulsivity and lack of self-discipline
• Poor decision-making
• Academic underachievement
• Behavioral problems
• Entitlement

Permissive attitudes are accepting, affirmative, and non-punitive toward their children’s impulses, actions, and desires, as found in Baumrind’s parenting styles research. A lack of parietal involvement is the parenting behavior that could lead to adolescent delinquency.

4. Uninvolved Parenting

Uninvolved parenting is unresponsive and non-demanding. Uninvolved parenting , or neglectful parenting, doesn’t respond to children’s needs. Uninvolved parents have minimal involvement in their children’s lives, providing little guidance, nurturing, or attention. Parents lack warmth, communication, and discipline. An uninvolved parenting style often results in the worst outcome in children compared to other parenting styles, as children experience a lack of emotional support, poor self-esteem, and difficulties in social and academic functioning.

The biggest advantage of uninvolved parenting is that this parenting practice requires little effort and allows parents to focus on their own needs. The biggest disadvantage is that children raised by uninvolved parents tend to have the worst outcomes, including psychological well-being, self-regulation, and achievement.

Effects of uninvolved parenting on children include the following.

• Low self-esteem
• Emotional detachment
• Mental health disorders
• Poor social skills

What is a Parenting Style?

Parenting style is the consistent set of strategies parents use to raise their children. Parenting style defines a global climate in the home and influences children’s development and well-being. 

The styles of parenting are categorized differently by different researchers, often into three, four, or five types. The construct most often used in psychology research is the four parenting styles created by Diana Baumrind at the University of California, Berkeley, and Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin at Stanford University. The 4 types of parenting styles are authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved parenting styles.

What is Parenting?

Parenting is the process of raising and nurturing children from infancy to adulthood. Parenting involves providing emotional, social, and physical support to ensure a child’s well-being and development. Parenting activities include teaching, disciplining, and caregiving.

What are the Factors Affecting Parenting Styles?

The 8 factors influencing parenting styles are family upbringing, parenting knowledge, cultural background, socio-economic status, personal characteristics, psychological factors, stress, goals, and expectations.

• Family Upbringing : The way a parent was brought up in their childhood affects their parenting styles, according to a 2015 study, “Parenting begets parenting: A neurobiological perspective on early adversity and the transmission of parenting styles across generations.” The study detailed how one generation’s parenting styles can be transmitted to the next generation neurobiologically through life experiences. For example, a child raised by harsh parenting, such as the authoritarian style, tends to use harsh parenting when they become parents.
• Parenting Knowledge : When parents lack information about child development, effective parenting practices, and family dynamics, they adopt familiar parenting styles. For most parents, this familiar style is the one they experienced during their upbringing. For example, parents raised by authoritarian parents may not realize that being firm and kind is possible. Their experience is limited to a firm and harsh parenting style, leaving them unaware of alternative approaches.
• Cultural Backgrounds : Parenting styles can be influenced by cultural backgrounds that share specific values, beliefs, customs, and practices. For example, in collectivist cultures emphasizing obedience and conformity, parents may adopt a more authoritarian parenting style.
• Socio-economic Status (SES) : Socio-economic status varies in income, education, occupation, and social status. SES can significantly affect parenting style by shaping the resources and opportunities available to families. For example, lower income levels may increase stress and limited resources, resulting in more authoritarian or neglectful parenting styles.
• Personal Characteristics : Individual personality traits, behaviors, and temperaments define a parent’s personal characteristics. These characteristics influence the parent’s actions and decisions. For example, agreeable parents are more supportive and are more likely to adopt an authoritative parenting style, according to a 2010 research, “Personality and parenting style in parents of adolescents”, published in the Journal of Adolescence.
• Psychological Factors : The mental and emotional states of parents and children are psychological factors that can influence parenting style. For example, parents with low self-efficacy tend to adopt a coercive or harsh authoritarian style to control their children, according to a 2022 study, “Impact of Parenting Style on Early Childhood Learning: Mediating Role of Parental Self-Efficacy.”
• Parenting Stress : Parental stress affects parenting style by impacting how parents interact with their children and manage daily challenges. For example, high-stress levels can lead to less patience, increased irritability, and inconsistent disciplinary practices. A stressed parent might react more harshly to minor misbehavior or struggle to provide the emotional support their child needs.
• Parental Goals and Expectations : Parental goals and expectations affect parenting style by guiding parents’ strategies and behaviors to nurture and discipline their children. For example, parents with high academic expectations may adopt a more authoritative or structured parenting style, emphasizing discipline and routine to ensure academic success.

What are the Impacts of Parenting Styles on Children?

Parenting styles impact children in the following 8 areas.

• Academics : Parenting style affects children’s school performance and overall learning through the level of support provided. For example, authoritative parents, who are supportive and set high expectations, tend to have children who achieve higher academically.
• Mental Health : Parenting style influences the mental well-being of children by creating an emotional climate at home. For example, nurturing authoritative parents raise kids with better mental health, while harsh authoritarian parents create a hostile environment, leading to anxiety in children.
• Self-Esteem : Parenting style shapes a child’s sense of self-worth and confidence through daily interactions. For example, warm and nurturing parents foster higher self-confidence in their children, whereas neglectful and uninvolved parents can cause children to feel unworthy of love, resulting in low self-esteem.
• Behavioral Outcomes : Parenting style affects children’s behavior through the standards set for conduct and the discipline and guidance provided. For example, permissive parenting may result in behavioral issues due to a lack of boundaries.
• Emotional Intelligence : Parenting style can influence a child’s ability to understand and manage emotions. For example, authoritative parenting enhances emotional intelligence by modeling and teaching empathy and emotional regulation.
• Parent-Child Relationships : Parenting style directly impacts the parent-child relationship. For example, authoritative parenting fosters strong, positive relationships through open communication and mutual respect, while authoritarian parenting can strain relationships due to fear and lack of trust.
• Social Skills : Different parenting styles affect children’s social skills by modeling human interactions and helping them develop emotional regulation. For example, permissive parenting may lead to difficulties in peer interactions due to a lack of discipline and regulation, whereas authoritative parenting promotes healthy social relationships by teaching social skills and empathy.
• Adult Relationships : Parenting style models interaction and communication with others, preparing children for adult relationships. For example, authoritarian parenting may result in difficulties due to poor conflict resolution skills, whereas adults raised by authoritative parents often form more stable and satisfying relationships.

Is the Authoritative Parenting Style Considered the Best Parenting Style in Child Psychology?

Yes, the authoritative parenting style is considered the best parenting style in child psychology. Authoritative parenting is consistently associated with the best outcomes in children’s outcomes, including social competence, academic achievement, mental health, physical health, behavior, and adjustment, according to a 2014 study, “Consequences of Parenting on Adolescent Outcomes,” conducted by Donna Hancock Hoskins at Bridgewater College and published in Societies.

What is the Unhealthiest Parenting Style for a Child?

The unhealthiest parenting style for a child is uninvolved parenting because this parenting style is linked to the worst outcomes, according to a 2019 study by the University of Valencia. The study, “Raising Children with Poor School Performance: Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-Term Consequences for Adolescent and Adult Development,” involving 2069 participants, found that children with neglectful parents had the worst short- and long-term outcomes in emotional well-being, self-competence, social competence, and empathy.

Can Two Parents Have Different Parenting Styles?

Yes, it is common for two parents to have different parenting styles. For example, a 2011 study titled “Maternal and paternal parenting styles: Unique and combined links to adolescent and early adult delinquency,” which involved 330 Dutch families, found that half of the families had parents with differing parenting styles.

Can a Parent Change their Parenting Style?

Yes, a parent can change their parenting style over time. This change may occur due to life experiences or gaining new information about effective parenting practices. Additionally, parents may adjust their parenting style as their children grow, recognizing that different ages require different approaches.

Is Mixing Parenting Style a Good Idea?

Whether mixing parenting styles is a good idea depends on the specific styles being combined. Multiple studies have shown that families with at least one authoritative parent have better outcomes than those without authoritative parents. Having two authoritative parents is optimal, while having two neglectful parents leads to the worst outcomes, according to the study “Maternal and Paternal Parenting Styles: Unique and Combined Links to Adolescent and Early Adult Delinquency.” Therefore, mixing parenting styles is beneficial only when one of the styles is authoritative, compared to families without any authoritative parenting.

Can Narcissistic Parenting Have a Negative Impact on Child Development?

Yes, narcissistic parenting can have a negative impact on child development because it harms the child’s self-worth, emotional stability, attachment style, and romantic relationships in adulthood. Narcissistic parents are emotionally and psychologically abusive. Narcissistic parents cause debilitating and long-lasting emotional scars in the child.

How does Parenting Style influence Child Development?

Parenting style influences child development by affecting children’s emotional development, mental well-being, and behavior. Authoritative parenting, characterized by warmth, responsiveness, and clear boundaries, promotes positive outcomes like strong self-esteem, academic achievement, and emotional regulation. Authoritarian parenting, with high demands and low responsiveness, can lead to anxiety, low self-esteem, behavioral issues, and difficulties with social relationships. Permissive parenting, marked by leniency and lack of structure, may result in impulsivity, poor decision-making skills, and difficulty following rules. Uninvolved parenting, with minimal interaction and guidance, can negatively impact a child’s self-worth, social skills, and academic performance. An authoritative parenting style that balances warmth, structure, and support nurtures optimal child development .

What are other Factors that Affect Child Growth and Development?

Other factors that affect child growth and development besides parenting style are genetics, attachment styles, and family dynamics. Here are seven examples of factors that affect child growth.

• Genetics : Genetics influence a child’s physical attributes, susceptibility to certain diseases, and potential for cognitive abilities. Genetics also affect a child’s temperament and interactions with the environment.
• Attachment Style : A secure attachment style fosters emotional stability and confidence, while an insecure attachment can lead to emotional and social difficulties.
• Family Dynamics : Positive family dynamics provide emotional support and stability, whereas negative dynamics can lead to stress and behavioral issues.
• Nutrition : Proper nutrition is crucial for physical growth, brain development, and overall health; malnutrition can lead to developmental delays and health problems.
• Socioeconomic status (SES) : Higher SES often provides better access to education, healthcare, and enrichment activities, whereas lower SES can limit these opportunities and increase stress.
• Environment : A stimulating and safe environment encourages exploration and learning, while a deprived or unsafe environment can hinder development.
• Culture : Cultural values and practices shape social behaviors, learning styles, and developmental expectations, influencing a child’s growth and development trajectory.

How Does Parenting Style Influence Attachment Style in Children?

Parenting style influences attachment styles in children by shaping their perceptions of themselves, the world, and their relationships. Through parenting practices and interactions, children form attachment styles reflecting their self-worth. Authoritative parents are warm, responsive, and supportive while setting clear boundaries and expectations. They foster open communication and encourage autonomy. Authoritative parenting style is associated with developing secure attachment in children. Authoritarian parenting prioritizes obedience over warmth and responsiveness, permissive parenting fails to establish clear expectations, and uninvolved parenting is physically or emotionally absent, leading to insecure attachment styles.

References for 4 Types of Parenting Styles

• Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior.  Genetic psychology monographs . https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1967-05780-001
• McCoby, E. E. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction.  Handbook of child psychology ,  4 , 1-101.
• Milevsky, A., Schlechter, M., Netter, S., & Keehn, D. (2007). Maternal and paternal parenting styles in adolescents: Associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction.  Journal of child and family studies ,  16 , 39-47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9066-5
• Baumrind, D., Larzelere, R. E., & Owens, E. B. (2010). Effects of preschool parents’ power assertive patterns and practices on adolescent development.  Parenting: Science and practice ,  10 (3), 157-201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190903290790
• Baumrind, D. (2012). Differentiating between confrontive and coercive kinds of parental power-assertive disciplinary practices.  Human Development ,  55 (2), 35-51. https://doi.org/10.1159/000337962
• Lamborn, S. D., Mounts, N. S., Steinberg, L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families.  Child development ,  62 (5), 1049-1065. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01588.x
• Boivin, M., Lomanowska, A., Hertzman, C., & Fleming, A. S. (2015). Parenting begets parenting: A neurobiological perspective on early adversity and the transmission of parenting styles across generations. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.09.029
• Huver, R. M., Otten, R., De Vries, H., & Engels, R. C. (2010). Personality and parenting style in parents of adolescents.  Journal of adolescence ,  33 (3), 395-402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.07.012
• Kong, C., & Yasmin, F. (2022). Impact of parenting style on early childhood learning: mediating role of parental self-efficacy.  Frontiers in Psychology ,  13 , 928629. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.928629
• Hancock Hoskins, D. (2014). Consequences of parenting on adolescent outcomes.  Societies ,  4 (3), 506-531. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc4030506
• Garcia, O. F., & Serra, E. (2019). Raising children with poor school performance: Parenting styles and short-and long-term consequences for adolescent and adult development.  International journal of environmental research and public health ,  16 (7), 1089. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16071089

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Parenting and Child Development: A Relational Health Perspective

A child’s development is embedded within a complex system of relationships. Among the many relationships that influence children’s growth and development, perhaps the most influential is the one that exists between parent and child. Recognition of the critical importance of early parent-child relationship quality for children’s socioemotional, cognitive, neurobiological, and health outcomes has contributed to a shift in efforts to identify relational determinants of child outcomes. Recent efforts to extend models of relational health to the field of child development highlight the role that parent, child, and contextual factors play in supporting the development and maintenance of healthy parent-child relationships. This review presents a parent-child relational health perspective on development, with an emphasis on socioemotional outcomes in early childhood, along with brief attention to obesity and eating behavior as a relationally informed health outcome. Also emphasized here is the parent–health care provider relationship as a context for supporting healthy outcomes within families as well as screening and intervention efforts to support optimal relational health within families, with the goal of improving mental and physical health within our communities.

‘Viewing development through the lens of relational health reflects recognition of the critical role that relationships play in children’s social, emotional, health, and cognitive outcomes.’

“In order to develop normally, a child requires progressively more complex joint activity with one or more adults who have an irrational emotional relationship with the child. Somebody’s got to be crazy about that kid. That’s number one. First, last and always.”—Urie Bronfenbrenner “If a community values its children it must cherish their parents.”—John Bowlby

Introduction

Bronfenbrenner recognized the critical importance of the emotional relationship between a child and an adult, whereas Bowlby’s observation underscores the responsibility of communities and practitioners in supporting healthy child development by supporting parents. The belief that we can support children directly, without supporting their parents, overlooks the complex system of relationships within which children develop. 1 Together, Bronfenbrenner and Bowlby remind us that to support healthy development, we must focus on the emotional quality of the relationships within which the child participates—as well as consider how the larger community supports those relationships.

Yet parenting is a broad topic and an exhaustive review is beyond the scope of any one article. Informed by the field of infant mental health with its explicit relational focus 2 and in an effort to contribute to our understanding of parenting as multiply determined, 3 we focus our discussion here on the construct of relational health as a tool for promoting socioemotional and physical health among young children. Relational health reflects a sense of “connectedness” with attuned others, including caregivers, family members, and other individuals within the community. 4 Such a focus is consistent with the field of lifestyle medicine—which considers the environment as a social determinant of health and well-being 5 —and research on health and social behavior, which highlights parents as significant influences on children’s health. 6 Viewing development through the lens of relational health reflects recognition of the critical role that relationships play in children’s social, emotional, health, and cognitive outcomes. 3 Accordingly, the revised Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood (DC-05) 7 considers how characteristics of the broader caregiving environment, such as coparenting quality and other close relationships, relate to developmental and mental health diagnoses. 2

Relational Health Within Primary Care: The Parent-Provider Relationship

We suggest that the parent-provider relationship provides a potentially valuable, although far less emphasized, context for promoting relational health. We present a review of the literature surrounding relational health science and encourage the health care provider to view their patients through the relational health lens. When considered from this angle, for children and their caregivers, the relationship is the patient. As health care providers endeavor to encourage healthy lifestyle choices in the families they serve, each decision a family makes—whether to the benefit or detriment—will occur in the context of their relationships. The health care provider must learn to consider and then acknowledge the family support relationships present in the exam room, the waiting room, and at home to best engage a family’s healthy choices. When caring for patients through this approach, the provider will consider the patient’s treatment choices in their realistic and relational context, rather than as compliant versus noncompliant. Moreover, by acknowledging the provider’s own relationship to the family, the provider can become a supportive member of the treatment decision team rather than an information broker, motivational interviewer, or reticent supplier of difficult-to-follow advice.

The relational health perspective considers the practitioner as a supportive (or unsupportive) “other” in navigating the sometimes difficult, uncertain, or fear-provoking experience of parenting a child from preconception through adulthood. An awareness of relational health in pediatric and adult medicine settings may increase positive outcomes in both parents and children through increased empathy. Specifically, during challenging situations, the practitioner should assess and address relationship quality rather than judging parenting or assigning sole credit or blame to either the parent or child. The focus lies in identifying strengths and opportunities in service to the relationship. 4

Relational Health Within Families: The Parent-Child Relationship

A relational health perspective on development embodies a family systems perspective as well, which recognizes the interconnectedness of individuals and relationships within families 8 and the bidirectional, transactional nature of relationships 9 ; parents affect children and children affect parents. 10 A relational health approach to understanding parent-child relationships emphasizes the dyadic connection between parent and child. Although a multitude of factors have been explored as correlates and predictors of parenting and child outcomes, we focus here on a subset of the factors that may influence relational health, with the goal of increasing practitioners’ understanding of relationship-focused approaches to health promotion within families.

Parent-Child Attachment Relationships: Parental Sensitivity and Reflective Functioning

One of the most influential relationship-focused frameworks for understanding development is attachment theory. An extensive literature describes the early parent-child attachment relationship as an enduring, emotional bond that enables children to explore the environment, 11 yet maintain the proximity and contact necessary for healthy development. Parent-infant attachment relationships, therefore, provide the earliest contexts for children’s relational health. Secure attachment balances developmentally appropriate exploration of the world with seeking closeness and comfort from the caregiver when distressed. Secure parent-child attachment relationships are associated with a range of positive social and emotional outcomes in children. 12 , 13 Conversely, disorganized attachment, a form of insecure attachment, is a risk factor for poorer developmental outcomes 14 and has been linked to disturbed caregiving behavior. 15 - 17 Efforts aimed at increasing security within these critical early relationships remain of interest to researchers and clinicians. 18 Interventions including Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC), 19 , 20 Circle of Security, 21 and Video Intervention for Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) 22 have been effective in promoting secure attachment and positive child outcomes (including fewer behavior problems) via creation of measurable, positive changes in parents’ sensitive and responsive behavior, a key factor in secure attachment. 23 , 24 Yet these interventions are not widely available to the public, thus limiting the ability of clinicians to offer them to their patients and families.

Perhaps the most effective mediator toward creating change in parental sensitivity and responsiveness is fostering growth in a parent’s reflective functioning (RF). RF reflects the extent to which a parent can consider the mental states (ie, thoughts, feelings, intentions) that may motivate the behavior of self and other. 25 This capacity can be described in terms of both self-focused RF and child-focused RF. 26 , 27 Interventions such as Minding the Baby 28 , 29 and Mothering from the Inside Out 30 , 31 appear effective in supporting healthy relational outcomes via a focus on growing RF. The concept of RF is also relevant for understanding how adults’ own early relational experiences may affect their parenting. 32

Recommendations for Providers

These 2 elements of parenting—sensitive, responsive caregiving and RF—support the formation of secure parent-child relationships. 24 We suggest that health care providers use thoughtful questioning that may support parental RF, as recently suggested and detailed by Ordway et al. 33 Health care providers can also demonstrate and model RF and help build this capacity in families via routine care and also in medically intensive environments. In environments such as the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), for example, barriers to parent-neonate relational health development are prominent because of parents coping with fears of infant death and infants experiencing frequent stressors. 34 - 39 Although NICU staff recognize the critical role they play in supporting early parent-child relational health and promoting positive socioemotional outcomes among infants born prematurely, 40 this role may come secondary to the provision of direct medical support to neonates. Professionals’ engagement in reflective practice, with its focus on awareness of the mental and feeling states of self and others, 41 may be one pathway toward promoting positive infant outcomes via the provision of greater psychological support to parents of premature and medically fragile newborns. Building reflective capacity among a range of health care providers may further strengthen the foundation of early relational health within families. 33

Mothering, Fathering, and Grandparenting

Although attachment perspectives historically have emphasized the mother-child relationship, attachment theory and research has been extended to a variety of other caregiver-child relationships, including father-child relationships. 42 - 44 A family systems perspective 8 on relational health suggests that to understand development, we must consider how mother-child and father-child relationships may independently or interactively contribute to developmental outcomes.

Rigorous recent research indicates that children benefit socially and emotionally when fathers are more involved in their lives. 45 Moreover, the benefits of father involvement hold for nonresident as well as resident fathers. 46 Yet fathers’ engagement in parenting is multiply determined, 47 and individual, family, and institutional-level factors may all play important roles in predicting paternal involvement. At an individual level, a father’s identity as a parent, 48 , 49 as well as a father’s attitudes and beliefs about his role in his child’s life, 50 , 51 matter for his engagement. At the family level, evidence highlights the quality of the father’s relationship with a child’s mother. For example, mothers are more likely to be gatekeepers within families, controlling fathers’ access to children as well as the quantity and quality of fathers’ interactions with their children. 52 , 53 At a policy level, compared with countries such as Sweden where paternal leave is supported, the lack of paid paternal leave within the United States may also present barriers to fathers’ involvement with their young children as well as erode fathers’ sense of efficacy in the parental role. 54

Above and beyond these individual, family, and policy variables, mothers’ and fathers’ parenting may differ and uniquely predict developmental outcomes. For example, mothers may be the primary providers of emotional security for children via the establishment of early parent-child attachment relationships, whereas for fathers, exploration of the world may be a primary emphasis in parenting. 55 Fathers’ more stimulating play style—often involving rough-and-tumble play—may promote positive outcomes in children, including developmentally appropriate risk taking and establishment of autonomy. 56 , 57 Mothers, by contrast, are more likely to engage in object-mediated teaching interactions as well as providing structure for their children. 58 However, though mothers and fathers may have interaction styles that differ, the fact remains that many children in the United States are raised in households headed by mothers and may experience wide variability in contact with their biological fathers. 59 This fact, coupled with increasing acceptance and prevalence of families headed by same-sex parents, cautions against a return to the belief that to develop optimally, children require both fathers and mothers (known as the “essential father” hypothesis). 60

We must also recognize that nonparental primary caregivers may play a central role in the care and raising of young children. For example, the increasing number of grandparent-headed households means that more grandparents—with their own sets of strengths and challenges—are making health and wellness decisions for children and may require a unique set of supports from health care providers. 61 Even when not primary caregivers, many grandparents—especially maternal grandmothers—report being involved and influential in their grandchildren’s lives. 62 In fact, involvement of maternal grandmothers with grandchildren may buffer young children from the risks to their development posed by difficult temperament and harsh parenting by mothers. 63 A wider relational health perspective suggests that grandparents (both custodial and noncustodial) be considered as potential sources of support in children’s health and well-being.

Shifting demographics suggest that fathers, nonparental caregivers, and grandparents play an active and involved role in the lives of children. As providers, recognition of the range of relationships in which the child is embedded is critical. Examining potential biases around who is most knowledgeable or best equipped to care for children may help providers approach each adult who is involved in the child’s life as a potential partner in health promotion. 64

Coparenting Relationships

The recognition that children develop within relationships between multiple caregivers, including mothers, fathers, grandparents, and others, makes it critical to also consider the health of the relationships among these adults (ie, coparents) who share responsibility for raising particular children. 65 , 66 Whereas constructs such as marital quality or marital satisfaction focus on the intimate partner relationship, the coparenting relationship, although related, is separate and distinct. Coparenting reflects a wider range of relationship structures and processes specific to parenting. 67 , 68 For example, coparenting relationships occur among a variety of individuals who share responsibility for parenting, whether romantically involved or not, 65 , 69 such as same-sex parents, adoptive parents, divorced or never married parents, and mothers and maternal grandmothers. 70

Consistent with a family systems perspective, 8 better coparenting relationship quality is associated with children’s positive social and emotional development over and above the effects of both romantic relationship quality between parents (if present) and mothers’ and fathers’ parenting. 71 Notably, coparenting relationship quality among same-sex parents shows similar associations with children’s socioemotional development. 72 If supportive, coparenting relationships may help caregivers, especially fathers, promote children’s positive socioemotional development, 73 but undermining or conflictual coparenting relationships may have a detrimental effect on child development. For instance, although grandmother involvement may benefit children, conflict between mothers and grandmothers can be detrimental to children’s socioemotional development. 63 , 74 Thus, prevention and intervention programs have been developed to support effective relationships between coparents. 75 , 76 For example, Feinberg’s Family Foundations program targets couples expecting their first child and focuses on building strong coparenting relationships across the transition to parenthood 77 , 78 —a critical foundation for parent-child relational health.

Coparenting research highlights the role of supportive versus undermining coparenting for children’s development. Often, the extent to which coparents support or undermine one another stems from whether they share the same views on parenting goals and practices and have a similar perspective on the child’s development. Thus, when interacting with patients, we suggest inquiring about the extent of agreement versus disagreement among the adults who make decisions regarding the child’s health and development. For example, the primary custodial parent may emphasize healthy food choices and regular physical activity, whereas the nonresidential coparent may provide markedly different choices during visitation periods. Alternatively, one parent may have concerns about a child’s language or motor development, whereas a grandparent may continually emphasize that the child is “just fine.” These discrepancies in perceptions of typical versus atypical development may delay or interfere with prevention efforts, medical diagnosis, and treatment. Disagreements among multiple caregivers may create stress and tension within families, and challenges with coparenting can be addressed through prevention and intervention programs.

Parental Characteristics That Contribute to Parenting and Relational Health

Psychosocial resources and mental health.

Belsky’s early model of parenting competence suggests that multiple factors affect parenting and child outcomes, with parents’ psychosocial resources playing a prominent role. 3 Individual differences between parents in their personality characteristics affect the quality of their parenting. 79 In particular, higher openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness, and lower neuroticism has been related to more optimal parenting cognitions, practices, and behaviors, including parental warmth and support for autonomy. 79 - 81

For parents with common mental health issues such as anxiety and depression, the experience of parenting may be especially challenging. Maternal depression has been linked consistently with more negative and disengaged parenting behavior and lower engagement in healthy feeding and sleep practices. 82 Less research has considered fathers’ mental health in relation to their parenting, 83 although there has been a recent increase in attention to fathers’ antenatal and postnatal depression, 84 and fathers who experience postpartum depression demonstrate lower levels of developmentally appropriate positive engagement with their infant children. 83 Anxiety disorders in fathers as well as mothers have been linked with more overinvolved parenting behavior that does not foster age-appropriate independence in children. 85

Although prevalence rates suggest the importance of considering parental anxiety and depression, other mental health disorders should be considered as well. For example, for mothers diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, higher levels of negative affectivity as well as lower rates of effortful control 86 and sensitivity, and support for child autonomy 87 have been reported. Less maternal sensitivity has also been reported among mothers with obsessive compulsive disorder. 88

Screening for parental mental health concerns from pregnancy (or from pregnancy planning) throughout the child’s development is consistent with a relational health approach. Beyond screening, health care providers can become aware of evidence-based treatments that may support healthy outcomes in children by supporting maternal mental health and parenting skills. 89 For example, the attachment-based, group intervention Mom Power, which emphasizes parenting, self-care, and engagement in treatment, holds promise for supporting positive outcomes for children by supporting maternal mental health and parenting competence. 90 With increased knowledge of evidence-based treatments for fathers’ mental health and parenting, we may be able to move beyond a focus on mothers to provide all parents with a stronger support system and resource base for effective parenting.

Parental Developmental History and Adverse Experiences in Childhood

According to Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting, a parent’s psychosocial resources stem from their developmental history. 3 The experience of adversity and toxic stress during development may affect brain architecture , 91 a term used to convey how early experiences help build the structural foundation for healthy brain development. Under conditions of sustained, persistent stress such as maltreatment or neglect, the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis may be affected, contributing to atypical diurnal patterns of cortisol and increased risk over the course of development. 92 As our understanding of the impact of toxic stress on children has grown, the focus on understanding patterns of intergenerational transmission of impaired parenting has grown as well. Experiences of adversity and toxic stress in one generation are linked to poorer parenting and developmental outcomes in the next generation. 93 Thus, improving the quality of the caregiving environment as early as possible may help improve stress responding in young children. 92

Foundational work on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) as predictors of physical, relational, and behavioral health has contributed to a growing understanding of the dose-response relation between experiences of adversity in early childhood (conceptualized as exposure to abuse and household dysfunction) and well-being in adulthood 94 as well as the experience of parenting. 95 Pregnant women reporting higher levels of ACEs in early childhood, for example, exhibit more hostile parenting toward their own infants; this pattern of hostile parenting then increases the child’s risk for poorer developmental outcomes. 96

In response to growing recognition of the impact of adversity and toxic stress within families, in 2012, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) released a policy statement recommending education for health professionals on ACEs along with 2-generational screening for ACEs within families. 97 , 98 By screening for parental and child ACEs, health providers may be able to provide referrals to trauma-informed therapeutic supports within the community that can help build or rebuild relational health.

Yet, in the face of adversity, the presence of individuals who are connected to the child, such as family members, can help mitigate its negative effects. 4 In addition to exploring multiple factors related to the experience of adversity, a relational health perspective suggests the importance of identifying and growing supportive connections. For example, the neurosequential model of therapeutics focuses on relational health and connectedness with others. 99 Results from recent work with this model highlight the importance of promoting the health, safety, and positivity of the parent-child relationship.

Although pediatric health care providers are aware of the impact of ACEs on parenting and developmental outcomes, additional research, education, and resources are necessary to support practitioners in identifying and addressing these impacts within families. 100 The limitations and potential cost-benefit analysis of screening for ACEs must also be considered because screening without provision of adequate referrals to evidence-based treatments may undermine the possible value of the screen. 101 Moreover, identification of appropriate screening tools for ACEs remains an important consideration. Focusing on the experiences of adversity as an ACE score that relates to poorer health outcomes may confuse correlation with causation; thus, to best inform policy and practice, factors such as timing of adversity, the overall pattern of stress, and the absence or availability of protective factors must be considered. 4 Yet through increased awareness of ACEs (both the parent’s and the child’s) as well as other psychosocial risk factors for impaired relational health, professionals can widen their lens of assessment when interacting with parents and children during medical visits.

Child Characteristics That Contribute to Parenting and Parent-Child Relational Health

Another set of key factors in the quality of parenting and parent-child relationships involves characteristics of the child. Recognizing the bidirectional nature of relationships between parents and children, Bornstein noted that “caregiving is a two-way street.” 102 Although early literature emphasized the parents’ impact on the child, a relational health approach to development suggests that we consider child contributions to parenting as well as to the overall parent-child relationship. Among a number of child characteristics that may affect parent-child relational health, research has focused on child temperament and age as well as children with special health care needs.

Temperament

Although early research on temperament emphasized the child’s inborn characteristics (eg, rhythmicity, mood) and temperament types such as easy, difficult, and slow to warm up, 103 our current understanding of temperament reflects the interplay between biological and environmental factors over the course of an individual’s development. 104 Definitions of temperament typically include individual differences in activity, emotionality, attention, and self-regulation. 104 However, particularly relevant to the experience of parenting is the temperamental characteristic of reactivity, defined as the extent to which the child is predisposed to experiencing strong negative and/or positive emotions, which may reflect the sensitivity of the nervous system to environmental stimuli. 105

Although difficult child temperament has long been viewed as a risk factor for poorer parent-child relational health, 106 more recent theory and research on the concept of differential susceptibility suggest that children with difficult or highly reactive temperaments may be more susceptible to both the negative and positive effects of the parenting environment. 105 , 107 For example, children with more difficult temperaments, reflecting higher levels of reactivity, may be particularly susceptible to the detrimental effects of negative parenting. 108 In contrast, for highly reactive children, the experience of more positive parenting is associated with fewer child behavior problems 109 and greater social competence. 110 Parenting intervention studies have further shown that more reactive children appear to benefit more from experimentally induced positive changes in parenting. 111 Thus, it is important for practitioners to shift their perspectives on “difficult” children from vulnerability to opportunity and support parents in adopting a similar view. Indeed, to the extent that the biological parents of a highly reactive child may share similar underlying genetic sensitivities, 112 these parents may be especially responsive to practitioners’ efforts, just as their children are particularly responsive to their parenting.

Because the demands and challenges of parenting change as a function of children’s age, parents must have opportunities to gain research-informed recommendations for supporting relational health with their children from birth throughout the life span. For example, within early childhood, toddlers’ and preschoolers’ growing autonomy and self-awareness creates new demands and opportunities for both parent and child. Thus, supporting parents in reflecting on the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs regarding their child’s increasing autonomy could be one strategy for supporting relational health as children move through the early childhood years. Moreover, the roles of various parenting practices for supporting children’s self-regulatory capabilities may differ across early childhood, with responsiveness most critical in infancy and other forms of support becoming more critical during the preschool years. 113 Research must, therefore, identify which practices are most relevant, at which age, 113 and for which outcome of interest. Doing so will help practitioners provide targeted support to families, based on parents’ concerns regarding their child’s particular social and emotional strengths and challenges.

Special Health Care Needs

Children with special health care needs represent a growing demographic, 114 and expert recommendations continue to promote early detection in primary care. 115 , 116 Just as providers should consider the parent factors contributing to relational health, the child’s contribution to parent-child relationships is paramount. Within the family context, a child with a developmental disability and/or special health care needs may require disproportionate resources and time compared with neurotypical siblings. 117 The child’s condition may translate into added health care costs and increased stress for parents along with decreased access to social support and leisure activities within the community. 118 , 119 For example, a systematic review of parenting stress in the face of chronic child illness indicated that among parents who were parenting a child with chronic illness, significantly higher levels of parenting stress were found; in turn, this stress was related to lower levels of psychological adjustment among parents and children. 120 Among parents of children with autism specture disorder (ASD), higher levels of parenting stress and psychological distress have also been reported. 121 , 122 These higher levels of parental stress and distress may, in turn, affect parental availability and sensitivity, thus affecting relational health.

In light of the evidence on child contributions to parenting and developmental outcomes, it seems important to consider the “what” and “how” of child contributions to relational health. Identifying the ways in which child characteristics influence and interact with parenting behaviors and relational health may provide practitioners with the tools and questions necessary to shift from a focus on the effects of parenting on children to also consider how parenting has been influenced by the child and how the overall health of the relationship has been shaped by both relational partners.

Contextual and Process Variables That May Affect Relational Health

Although the bidirectional nature of parent-child relationships underscores the importance of considering parent and child contributions to relational health, a family systems approach, coupled with a bioecological approach, suggests that the social and contextual contexts in which parent-child relationships are embedded should be considered as well.

Parent-Child Feeding Practices

The promising protective role of healthy parent-child relationships in the development of obesity 123 in early childhood is also evident, perhaps via links with more optimal self-regulation in young children. 124 , 125 For example, theoretical models 125 and research 126 on the development of appetite self-regulation and positive physical activity habits, 127 , 128 which are critical to weight-related health throughout the life span, highlight the important role of parenting. Parental behaviors such as permissiveness or indulgence have been associated with weight status and obesity in childhood. More specifically, allowing children too much freedom regarding food choices in society’s obesogenic food environment can increase children’s risk for obesity. 123 Similarly, unrestricted, unmonitored screen time has also been associated with unhealthy weight status. 129 Yet the question remains to what extent these cycles occur within families, whereby parents’ lack of control over their own food choices and screen time contribute to unhealthy weight status for their children and the unhealthy weight status of children contributes to parents’ continued struggles with their own food choices and activity levels. Thus, a family-level relational approach to understanding risks for obesity may be particularly advantageous.

Given that parents’ attitudes and beliefs can shape a range of parenting behaviors related to health and wellness, including feeding practices, exploring relational correlates and predictors of feeding practices beginning in infancy seems prudent. Parents’ feeding practices provide a unique window into parent-child relationship health, because from birth, feeding makes up a critical part of parents’ daily interactions with young children. Decisions regarding breastfeeding and/or bottle-feeding can cause considerable stress for parents. 130 And although children’s eating behavior emerges early and is relatively stable over time, eating is influenced more by external factors across development. 131

Mothers who use food to soothe their distressed infants or toddlers have reported lower parenting self-efficacy and higher child negativity. 132 Using food to soothe was also linked with higher weight status among children, particularly for children who were perceived as having more negative temperaments. 132 Among preschoolers, parents’ use of food for the purpose of emotion regulation was associated with children’s increased intake of sweets when not hungry, a pattern that may reflect the early origins of children’s emotional eating. 133

Eating behaviors and nutrition are important components of lifestyle medicine. In promoting healthy eating behavior and weight outcomes for children, health care professionals can consider how parents’ attitudes may shape their feeding practices—above and beyond a child’s weight status—and how dyadic and family-level interactions around food may support or undermine relational health. From birth, providers can recognize that decisions regarding feeding (eg, breast and/or formula; homemade meals versus fast food) may be multiply determined and best understood through a relational health lens, where parent and child factors are viewed as contributing to parenting practices, practices that may differ from recommended best practices for promoting child health outcomes.

The Household Environment: Family Chaos, Technology, and Social Media Use

The home environment represents an important context for parent-child relational health, including the quality of parenting as well as children’s well-being and health. 134 - 138 Recent research, focused on household chaos, has highlighted the role of disorder/disorganization 139 and instability/turbulence 140 for understanding parenting quality and family well-being. Lower levels of household chaos (evidenced by greater organization, stability, and predictability) are associated with higher-quality parenting behavior than home environments characterized as noisy, crowded, unpredictable, and disorganized. 138 Among preschoolers, recent evidence suggests that higher rates of household chaos are also associated with higher screen use. 141

In fact, parents’ and children’s increasing engagement with, and reliance on, technology and social media suggest the need for providers to consider technology and social media as interactive partners. For example, Facebook may provide new parents with an important source of social capital, 142 and parents report using the internet to gain information about pediatric health. 143 , 144 Yet parents (and grandparents) do not report universally positive effects of their technology use. For example, parents may experience a range of internal tensions surrounding their use of mobile technology, such as cognitive, emotional, and relationship tension. 145 Researchers are documenting how technology may interrupt the flow of interaction patterns between children and their parents—a concept known as technoference. 146 For example, higher levels of child internalizing and externalizing behavior problems have been reported by mothers who also reported higher levels of technoference in their interactions with their children. 146

Supporting parents in identifying, reducing, or coping with household chaos, as well as technoference, may be promising avenues for supporting relational health. Because the experience of chaos in the home environment often co-occurs with poverty 139 as well as parental mental health symptoms, 147 screening and intervention approaches aimed at identifying and addressing the multiple co-occurring factors that relate to family chaos may be warranted. Moreover, gauging the perceived impact of technology and social media use on parent-child relational health may be an important area of inquiry for health practitioners.

Cultural Context and Relational Health

Understanding relational health requires us to also consider the impact of race, ethnicity, and culture on parent-child relationships; accordingly, consideration of diversity has moved to the forefront of our current research and practice efforts. Although broad parenting goals are remarkably similar across diverse cultures, 102 the processes by which parents in varying cultural contexts seek to achieve these goals may differ. For example, some scholars have suggested that the concept of sensitivity, the primary determinant of secure attachment according to attachment theorists, may be biased toward more individualistic cultures because it is focused on meeting the child’s individual needs. 148 Moreover, the meaning of parenting constructs such as controlling behavior may vary across cultures. For example, Asian American parents may emphasize strict control of children as part of culturally embedded approaches to parenting, which are not equivalent to western notions of harsh/controlling parenting and do not appear to have negative effects on their children’s development. 149 , 150

These debates can support practitioners in reflecting on how their own beliefs about what is the “best” kind of parenting to promote relational health and positive child outcomes may be shaping their messaging for parents. For example, among immigrant families, attention to acculturation—the process of adapting to a new culture—rather than parenting behavior, per se, may provide a window into relational health. For example, acculturation may happen at different rates for children and parents, and greater discrepancies in the level of acculturation may contribute to increased parent-child conflict. 151

The roles of culture, race, and ethnicity in parenting practices are particularly apparent with respect to discipline practices. For example, higher rates of corporal punishment, including spanking, are generally reported by African American parents, in comparison to Hispanic or white parents, 152 although recent evidence suggests similar endorsement of spanking by African American and Hispanic mothers, along with longitudinal associations between endorsement of spanking and children’s later internalizing and externalizing behaviors. 153 Evidence continues to highlight the negative impact of corporal punishment on children 154 and the AAP’s 2018 statement on effective discipline emphasizes the need for positive alternatives to corporal punishment and spanking. 155 And, although many parents report spanking their young children, these same parents may also be looking for nonphysical, effective alternatives for guiding their children’s behavior. 156

Understanding how cultural beliefs and practices shape parents’ expectations and socialization goals may help us better define what relational health is, both within and across diverse families. Health care professionals can be a source of guidance and support for parents to choose discipline strategies that align with research and support parent-child relational health. When practitioners recognize the larger context in which parents’ discipline decisions are embedded, they may more readily identify the beliefs, histories, and socialization goals that underlie families’ discipline practices. Health providers can recognize parents’ concerns regarding children’s behavior and provide culturally responsive, research-informed, preventive recommendations for helping parents identify alternative strategies to the use of corporal punishment and physical discipline.

Reducing Risks to Relational Health: Screening and Referral

Given that the parent-child relationship is critical for healthy development, health providers must adopt a dyadic-level, family systemic, and culturally informed approach to screening, referring, and treating parent-child dyads to integrate research with practice. Equipping health professionals with knowledge of relational health may provide a solid foundation for supporting parent-child relational health from birth. For example, evidence from research with pediatric residents suggests that training in a parent-child relational framework was effective in supporting residents’ observational skills and knowledge of child development. 157

An emphasis on transactional associations within families further underscores the importance of screening and early intervention to support child and parental well-being and use of positive parenting practices. 10 Commonly used assessments in parent-child attachment research, such as the Strange Situation Procedure 158 Attachment Q-Set, 159 are labor-intensive and were not developed as clinically relevant screening tools. Moreover, even when insecurity in the parent-child relationship is suspected, access to attachment-based interventions (ie, VIPP-SD, ABC) may be extremely limited.

Whereas much of the research literature on early parent-child relationships (typically mother-child relationships) has focused on attachment, recent work highlights the dyadic-level construct of emotional connection for understanding early parent-child relational health. The development of the Welch Emotional Connection Screen (WECS) 160 reflects an effort to provide practitioners with a rapid and valid screening tool for parent-child relational health from birth to 5 years. The WECS considers the presence or absence of 4 mutual behaviors that may serve to promote and maintain emotional connection within a parent-child dyad: attraction, facial responsiveness, vocal responsiveness, and sensitivity/reciprocity. Based on the overall interaction, a score of EC+ (connected) or EC− (not connected) is assigned to the dyad.

The WECS developed out of work with the Family Nurture Intervention, which seeks to support the development of emotional connection and coregulation via the provision of calming sessions that focus on the sensory experiences of touch, vocal soothing, and skin-to-skin contact. 161 - 163 Results from an RCT study indicated that mothers and infants participating in the Family Nurture Intervention showed improvements in face-to-face dyadic interaction, including increased frequency and quality of mothers’ touch and for boys, infant’s vocal affect and gaze. 164

Emotional connection, as assessed by the WECS in infancy, has been associated with healthier autonomic responding among infants born prematurely 165 as well as with fewer internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in a full-term, longitudinal sample. 166 Thus, emerging evidence suggests that the WECS holds promise for screening, anticipatory guidance, and referral of early parent-child relationships that may benefit from support and intervention to promote healthy regulatory functioning and decrease risk for later child behavior problems. Efforts are under way to train a range of professionals—from pediatric residents to infant mental health practitioners and home visitors—to be reliable raters of parent-child relational health using the WECS.

In families with elevated risk for maltreatment, the automated self-report survey, the CARTS (Computerized Childhood Attachment and Relational Trauma Screen), reflects a relational approach to the assessment of trauma in childhood. 167 , 168 The CARTS considers what trauma occurred and assesses caregivers’ emotional availability, along with responses to the reported maltreatment. In contrast, the SEEK program (Safe Environment for Every Kid) focuses on risk factors related to child maltreatment, including parental depression, stress, and substance abuse. 168 , 169 Thus, the SEEK program may benefit pediatric primary care professionals through its focus on psychosocial stress within families, which if addressed early, may prevent child maltreatment.

Notably, SEEK embodies a relational health perspective by acknowledging the parent’s love for the child as a pathway to healthy outcomes for both parent and child as well as by acknowledging the relationships between health professionals and parents as protective factors for parents and children. 169 , 170 For example, part of the SEEK program is the SEEK Parent Questionnaire, which begins by empathetically validating the sometimes challenging everyday experience of being a parent while simultaneously offering support to parents dealing with concerning circumstances. SEEK also aims to support relational health through the REAP approach, which encourages health care providers to Reflect-Empathize-Assess-and Plan with parents.

Intervention approaches that incorporate mindfulness practices, such as the 9-week Mindful Parenting course tested in the Netherlands, also hold promise for supporting relational health within families. Mindful Parenting aims to increase awareness, decrease parental stress, and improve coparenting. 171 Both parents participating in the program and their children report reductions in internalizing/externalizing symptomology. The interpersonal focus of mindfulness-based interventions supports healthy parent-child relationships through increased awareness of parent-child interactions as well as positive changes in both child and parent functioning. 172

Summary and Conclusions

Beyond attachment theory, which emphasizes parental sensitivity and responsivity as a primary determinant of attachment security, a relational health science approach offers a wider lens for understanding how parent-child relationships may affect children’s development. A relational health approach recognizes both partners’ contributions to the establishment and maintenance of relational processes and highlights the potential value of the health care provider as a relational partner for parents and children. Our focus here was on socioemotional development; future work will consider how a relational health framework can be applied to a range of parent-child health decisions from vaccinations and sleep behaviors, to physical activity, and medication use.

Although we view primary care as a valuable context for supporting relational health, continued development and validation of screening tools for relational health that are suitable for clinical and applied contexts remain an important goal along with more widespread availability of effective interventions. Moreover, given the existing demands on health care providers, we recognize that a relational health perspective on development may create additional demands on providers. Perhaps a necessary first step is a shift in perspective, more than a shift in practice. By viewing the parent-child relationship as part of the “patient” and, therefore, part of health promotion, the long-term gains may be worth the initial investment.

By networking with community resources, health care providers can build a pipeline of referrals for parents as a component of pediatric and primary care. Offering parent-friendly pamphlets, information sheets, and face-to-face communication that reflects a relational health view on development may help parents see themselves as partners in relational health, rather than as the cause of their child’s mental health, behavioral, or developmental problems. Such negative attributions may contribute to feelings of shame and guilt—feelings that may undermine parenting self-efficacy and parents’ engagement in children’s wellness and treatment. The AAP’s recent call for pediatricians to partner with parents in supporting healthy outcomes through the sharing of information regarding child development and parenting 155 reflects the promise of a relational health approach.

Returning to the opening quote from Bowlby, we suggest that health care providers are in a strong position to serve children by valuing their parents and viewing child development through the lens of relational health. Perhaps by uncovering who that person is—the one who is “irrationally crazy” about the child, as Bronfenbrenner advised—professionals can help cultivate and reinforce that connection. And in its absence, we can seek to identify ways to build a web of relational health for the child and for the parent, a web that can support each partner in service to the relationship.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Ariana Shahinfar, Robert Ludwig, and Mark Lopez for feedback on an earlier version of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval: Not applicable, because this article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.

Informed Consent: Not applicable, because this article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.

Trial Registration: Not applicable, because this article does not contain any clinical trials.

Parenting Styles and Their Influence on Adulthood Essay

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Introduction

Parenting styles, the parenting styles’ influence on individual’s future life.

Parents can influence their children with the help of different specific practices, targeted at guiding, controlling, and socializing young generations. The parents’ attitudes to their kids create a specific emotional atmosphere, which is traditionally called a “parenting style”. It is generally thought that the way of treatment has a serious impact on the children’s future lives and development. The typology was first introduced by Diane Baumrind and identified four major types of parental behavior: authoritarian (or disciplinarian), authoritative, permissive (or indulgent), and uninvolved (or neglectful) (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018). There are numerous debates between experts about the pros and cons of each method of raising a child and its possible effect on the individual’s adulthood.

The Features of Authoritarian Parenting

Parenting styles are typically characterized by two dimensions: demandingness and responsiveness. Demandingness refers to “the extend parents control their children’s behavior or demand their maturity” (“4 Types of parenting styles and their effects,” 2021, para. 11). Responsiveness signifies “the degree parents are accepting and sensitive to their children’s emotional and developmental needs” ((“4 Types of parenting styles and their effects,” 2021, para. 12). The authoritarian type is characterized by high demandingness and low responsiveness, meaning that parents have high expectations of their kids’ achievements, giving them little response and care. This style implies indisputable obedience, with mothers and fathers applying it to “try to shape, control, and evaluate their children’s behavior based on the absolute set of standards” (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018, p. 169). The followers of this way demand obedience and use only one-way communication, making strict discipline their priority and often using severe punishments. According to Baumrind, these parents “are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation” (as cited in Cherry, 2020, para. 8). Kids in such families tend to feel insecure and have low self-esteem, show poor performance at school, develop aggressive behavior, and even have increased risks to suffer from depression.

The Features of Authoritative Parenting

The authoritative parenting type is characterized by high levels of demandingness and responsiveness, meaning that parents expect good achievements from their kids, showing warmth and care at the same time. This style is “warmer and more autonomy granting than controlling” (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018, p. 169). It is aimed at encouraging children to be responsible, understand the reasons for rules, and make their own decisions. The followers of this way always give explanations and reasons for their actions and decisions, teaching the young generation about values and morals. The disciplinary methods in use are negotiable and aimed at the result, establishing the purpose of regulating the behavior. Authoritative parents are always supportive and encourage the independence of their children, always promoting communication and negotiating all the problems. This style is also called democratic due to its basic features. According to Baumrind, these parents “monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s conduct…They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative” (Cherry, 2020, para. 11). In such families, children are usually happy, more independent, successful, and have good self-esteem, communication skills, and better mental health.

The Features of Permissive Parenting

Permissive parenting is characterized by low demandingness and high responsiveness, meaning that parents are always nurturing and warm, and reluctant to establish rules. In such families, children are not used to hearing the denial of their requests as their parents are afraid to hurt them. Baumrind says that the followers of this style “are more responsive than they are demanding. They are non-traditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation” (as cited in Cherry, 2020, para. 14). Typically, these parents become friends with their children, forgetting that their basic duty is to teach the young generation the principal rules of life. The kids in such families tend to have behavior and emotional problems and show worse performance in studying as they cannot follow rules, have little self-control, and have poor social skills.

The Features of Uninvolved Parenting

Uninvolved parenting is characterized by low levels of demandingness and responsiveness, meaning that children have little emotional support and no rules. Such parents are neglectful of their children’s needs and desires. This situation can occur in families with parents having alcohol or drug abuse, or those who have been neglected in their childhood. Kids in such households are usually more impulsive, have low self-esteem and poor communication skills, and tend to have serious mental or behavioral problems in their future life, including criminal issues. The uninvolved or neglectful parenting style is considered to be the worst as it can lead to serious problems in adulthood.

The Reasons Parenting Styles Influence

There have been numerous debates and research about the influence of each parental style on the future life of the person. The family context is regarded as essential because it helps to establish the link between childhood and the relationships of a person with their parents with future behavior and performance. For example, the research, held in 2019 in Spain and Portugal, has shown that this context “continues to play a fundamental role in young peoples’ development, even during the third decade of their lives” (Parra et al., 2019, para. 35). A study has shown that the most widespread parenting style is authoritarian, “being twice as common as the authoritative one” (Parra et al., 2019, para. 37). The family context remains meaningful during the whole life of the person as it is the background serving as a basis for all the future intentions. The atmosphere, in which an individual is being raised, has an impact on their future behavior, attitudes, academic and career achievements, and even health and mental problems.

The Impact on Behavior

Numerous studies showed the correlation of parenting styles with future behavior. According to the research held in 2018, “children of authoritarian parents demonstrated more negative (i.e., hyperactivity, conduct problems, emotional symptoms) and less positive (i.e., prosocial behavior) child outcomes compared to children whose parents belonged to another parenting style” (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018, p. 175). The study has demonstrated that the authoritarian ways of parenting lead to the poorest future behavior. The findings of the research have also proved that even children with neglectful parents had fewer problems than those from authoritarian families. Meanwhile, those with authoritative mothers and fathers showed the lowest levels of conduct problems. These results prove that there is a strong connection between the way of upbringing and future behavior patterns.

Parenting style has also been found influential for a future level of the individual’s independence. For example, one research has demonstrated that children in authoritative families “reported the lowest expectation for behavioral autonomy” (Bi et al., 2018, p. 10). This result may be explained by the fact they have already achieved a good level of independence due to their positive relations with their parents, who set a goal of socialization by respecting their children’s needs. In contrast to this style, adolescents from families with an authoritarian way of upbringing tend to seek more autonomy because it is not available to them due to strict control over their lives. Permissive and neglectful parents do not set rules, and children in these families tend to “experience high levels of independence before they can manage it themselves” (Bi et al., 2018, p. 10). This study proved that the behavior and, in particular, the level of independence directly depends on the parenting style, and the authoritative style showed the best results.

The Impact on Academic Achievements and Career

There are numerous types of research, proving that parenting styles influence the future academic achievements and career of the individual. For example, one of the studies examined 310 students and found “a positive and significant relationship between the firm and reassuring parenting style”, while the authoritarian way proved “a negative relationship with educational success and career path” (Zahedani, 2016, p. 132). The research has shown that parental involvement and support are key components for better achievements. It has also been found that successful students had parents with firm styles and those with authoritative methods of upbringing “had the least scores” (Zahedani, 2016, p. 133). Another study has found that parental involvement is also a critical factor influencing self-efficacy and self-discipline in the process of learning among adolescents (Theresya et al., 2018). According to this research, the permissive parenting style “has a significant negative effect on academic achievement”, while the authoritative one proved to have a positive impact on the children’s success (Theresya et al., 2018, p. 36). All of these studies demonstrate that the way of upbringing has a serious impact on the academic achievements and future success of grown-up children.

Moreover, the results of numerous types of research have shown that there is a strong correlation between the way of upbringing and future career achievements. For example, one of the studies has found that a firm parenting style leads to positive career development (Zahedani, 2016). The study proves the right interaction can be beneficial for the future career of an individual. According to another research, the authoritarian parenting style is also found to be the most useful due to the high level of parental control, encouraging children to be resilient and prepared for life challenges (Preston & Salim, 2019). Another research, held in 2018, highlighted that the achievements of grown-up children depend on the activities, which their parents chose for them (Viola & Daniel, 2018). According to this criterion, authoritative mothers and fathers have a positive influence on their children’s career development as they allow them to participate in numerous activities, motivating them to become more explorative and self-reliant. All of these studies prove that there is a strong impact of parenting styles on the future career achievements of children.

The Impact on the Psychological State

Numerous studies, held in different European countries, established finding the link between parenting styles and the mental state of grown-up children as their priority. For example, the research, conducted in Spain and Portugal, proved that there is a strong connection between these two notions. According to the results of their study, “the authoritative and permissive styles are those most closely associated with high levels of wellbeing, while children who perceive their parents as neglectful and authoritarian scored lowest in this variable” (Parra et al., 2019, para. 39). Another research has found that “there is a significant relationship between the dimensions (indifference abuse and over-controlling) of parenting style of mother and the dimensions (stress, anxiety, and depression) of mental health” (Jahan & Suri, 2016, p. 3). These outcomes highlight that warm relationships between parents and their children lead to a more stable psychological state in the future, decreasing the chances of such serious mental conditions as depression and anxiety.

However, other studies provide information that parenting styles are not the only key reason for the appearance of mental health problems in adulthood. According to one of the studies, such factors as poverty level and bullying have a more serious contribution to the problem (Rezvan & D’Souza, 2017). The research proves that there is a correlation between parenting styles and the risks of future mental issues; however, there are other reasons which may appear to be more relevant from this perspective.

The Role of Gender

There have been numerous debates and studies, concerning the influence of parenting styles on children of different genders, trying to understand who is more susceptible to this impact, boys or girls. According to the research held in Spain and Portugal, there are many similarities in the level of distress among males and females. The authoritarian type was found to be the most damaging to both genders, while “the permissive and authoritative styles were most closely related to wellbeing” (Parra et al., 2019, para. 44). On the contrary, the research held in China showed that “the relationships between parenting styles and cohesion were stronger for girls” (Bi et al., 2018, p. 11). According to the results of the study, it is connected with the fact that females are usually more sensitive and emotional. However, it also highlighted numerous similarities between the reactions of boys and girls, making the conclusion that parenting styles influence both genders.

Parenting style is an important concept, referring to the way parents treat their children. There are four major types: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful. There have been many types of research aimed at proving the influence of the atmosphere at home on various aspects of the future development of the child. Most of the studies have shown that the authoritative way of raising the young generation is the most beneficial. Kids in such families tend to have higher levels of self-esteem and independence, show better academic performance, demonstrate better social skills and good behavior, and have fewer chances to acquire such serious health conditions as depression and anxiety. On the contrary, multiple studies prove that the authoritarian style has more disadvantages as it makes children dependent on their parents due to a lower level of autonomy, and leads to behavior and mental problems in adulthood. In many aspects, this style is considered to be even worse than the neglectful type, which implies that parents do not take care of their children.

The studies have shown that each of the existing parenting styles, even the neglectful one, which is regarded to be the worst type due to the total ignorance of children’s needs, has its advantages and negative consequences. All of the studied works prove that the approach to parenting has a huge impact on the future life of children, including their behavior, relations with other people, achievements, and physical and mental health. A good parent needs to be considerate about their decisions when raising children and understand that all their actions influence their kids, determining their success and failures in adulthood.

Bi, X., Yang, Y., Li, H., Wang, M., Zhang, W, & Deater-Deckard, K. (2018). Parenting styles and parent-adolescent relationships: The mediating roles of behavioral autonomy and parental authority . Frontiers in Psychology, 9 (2187).

Cherry, K. (2020). Why parenting styles matter when raising children . Verywell Mind.

Jahan, A., & Suri, S. (2016). Parenting style in relation to mental health among female adolescents . Abnormal Behavior Psychology, 2 (125).

Kuppens, S., & Ceulemans E. (2018). Parenting styles: A closer look at a well-known concept. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28 (1), 168–181.

4 Types of parenting styles and their effects. (2021). Parenting for Brain.

Parra, A., Sánchez-Queija, I., del Carmen García-Mendoza, M., Coimbra, S., Oliveira, S.E., & Diez, M. (2019). Perceived parenting styles and adjustment during emerging adulthood: A cross-national perspective . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16 (15).

Preston, M., & Salim, R.M.A. (2019). Parenting style, proactive personality, and career decision self-efficacy among senior high school students. Humanitas Indonesian Psychological Journal, 16 (2), 116-128.

Rezvan, A., & D’Souza, L. (2017). Influence of parenting styles on the mental health of adolescents. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 6 (4), 667-673.

Theresya, J., Latifah, M., & Hernawati, N. (2018). The effect of parenting style, self-efficacy, and self-regulated learning on adolescents’ academic achievements. Journal of Child Development Studies, 3 (1), 28-43.

Viola, M., & Daniel, N. (2018). Influence of parenting styles on career development of youths with intellectual disabilities in selected skills training institutions in Zambia. International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education, 5 (12), 69-77.

Zahedani, Z.Z., Rezaee, R., Yazdani, Z., Bagheri, S., & Nabeiei, P. (2016). The influence of parenting style on academic achievement and career path. Journal of Advances in Medical Education & Professionalism, 4 (3), 130-134.

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Parenting Styles and Child Development

Parenting styles involve different approaches to raising children that directly or indirectly impact their development in various aspects. Developmental psychologists analyze multiple facets of growth, such as physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, emotional, and personality aspects. The study’s goal was to establish the positive and negative correlations between specific parenting styles and children’s behaviors while evaluating their overall influence on children. Moreover, the research aimed to discover effective parenting techniques for fostering children’s development.

Developmental psychologists have extensively researched the impact of parenting styles on child development. However, establishing a direct link between particular parental actions and their influence on children’s behavior is challenging. It is noteworthy that children from different backgrounds can display comparable personalities, whereas siblings brought up in the same household and environment may possess contrasting personalities.

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The correlation between parenting styles and behavior is the foundation of research on the topic, although it cannot establish a definitive cause. Nonetheless, researchers have discovered convincing connections between parenting styles and their impact on children. In my literature review, I will explore these links and the corresponding studies. One such study, conducted by Elizabeth Shall, ABA Taliban Manson, Abdullah Romania, and Manson Marine, specifically investigated the relationship between parenting style and children’s behavior problems.

The study included 681 students from levels 3, 4, and 5 in elementary school in Tehran. These students were selected from eight schools. Through cluster random sampling, the mothers of these students were identified. The sample consisted of 347 girls from four schools and 334 boys from four schools. The mothers were given a Children’s Behavioral Checklist (CB) Questionnaire and a Parent Authority Questionnaire (PAS). The purpose of the Parent Authority Questionnaire was to assess Blanding’s tatterdemalions, including Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive parenting styles.

The Children’s Behavioral Checklist includes forms for evaluating competence and emotional-behavioral issues. The research discovered a notable connection between the parenting style of mothers and behavioral problems in kids. In particular, children of authoritative mothers demonstrated a negative association with internalizing symptoms, while those with permissive mothers displayed a positive association.

In summary, the study found a strong correlation between Authoritarian mothers and both internalizing and externalizing behaviors in children. However, it is important to note that this research only focused on factors related to children misbehaving and did not consider other influential factors such as age, genetics, economics, peer pressure, parent’s income, society, and school. Furthermore, it should be mentioned that the study only included data from women and excluded men’s parenting styles.

It is important to recognize that the information obtained from parents’ questionnaires may not accurately reflect their families, potentially resulting in misleading or incorrect data. A study conducted by ?ender Fully and Sentences Wilma Hasty investigated how life satisfaction and parenting styles influence delinquent behaviors among high school students. The research included 881 students from grades 9-12 who attended twelve public high schools in Danna central province, with ages ranging between 14 and 19 years old.

In the second phase, a total of 502 students were categorized as having either a low or high level of delinquent behaviors. The breakdown by grade was as follows: 243 students from 9th grade, 87 students from 10th grade, 91 students from 11th grade, and 81 students from 12th grade.

Among the mothers of these identified students, there were a total of82 who were illiterate. In contrast, among the fathers, only seven were found to be illiterate.

Furthermore, it was determined that there were240 mothers and233 fathers who had completed primary school. In addition to this,98 mothers andfathers had finished middle school. Additionally,it was discovered that72 mothers and107 fathers had completed high school.Finally,a total of24mothers and48fathers had achieved university degrees.

In a study, researchers requested parents from different groups to fill out various questionnaires. These questionnaires included the Delinquency Scale (ADS), the Parenting Style Inventory (SSI), and the Multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (MESS). The ADS is utilized to identify actions that would be deemed criminal if carried out by an adolescent and have legal ramifications. The SSI consists of 26 items and assesses acceptance/involvement, strictness/supervision, and psychological autonomy.

The Multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (MESS) is a self-report instrument consisting of 40 items that assess satisfaction in five life domains: family, school, friends, self, and living environment. According to the researchers’ findings, variables related to “strictness/supervision”, “school”, “family”, and “self” are positively correlated with delinquency and play a significant role in explaining it. However, this conclusion is solely based on the positive test results from 76.3% of the sample groups, while disregarding the remaining 23.7%. Despite having large sample sizes, the diverse characteristics of parents within the “delinquent” group may potentially skew the data and lead to misleading outcomes. The study incorporated various questionnaires, which could complicate the data analysis process without necessarily yielding clearer results. Another study conducted by Jabbed Farad, Anis-LU-Huge, and Rica Muhammad Envied investigates how parenting styles can predict emotion regulation among adolescents.

The study included 194 adolescents aged 12-15, in grades 7th-9th, who attended private secondary schools. These students were requested to complete the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAS) and the Early Adolescents Temperament Questionnaire (EATS). The PAS assessed Banding’s tatterdemalions: Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive parenting styles. The EATS consisted of subsets such as attention shifting and focusing, inhibitory control, and activation control.

According to the study, permissive parenting styles from both mothers and fathers are strongly linked to inadequate emotional regulation. It is crucial to acknowledge that the sample size is limited as the data was gathered from a private school. Moreover, since the data solely reflects a private school, it may not accurately depict the entire population.

The study excluded children from single-parent households and instead concentrated on middle-class parents with moderate incomes. It is worth mentioning that certain children may have provided inaccurate responses to their questionnaires. Conducted by Tong Liana, Shanghais Rooky, Jigsaw Yuk, Tanana Mike, Mammary Khaki, Sawed Yukon, Sushi Yukon, and Name Toke, a Longitudinal study investigated the connection between the parenting style of working mothers and consistency in early childhood development.

A total of 504 participants, including both children and their mothers, were selected from 41 care facilities in Japan to participate in the study. The mothers supplied details about their parenting practices and the home environment, while service providers assessed the development of each child at the facilities. Child development was gauged using six main indicators: gross motor skills, fine motor skills, social competence, communication skills, vocabulary, and intelligence. Environmental stimulation was evaluated by considering human stimulation, avoidance of restriction, social stimulation, and support.

In 2004 and 2006, childcare professionals evaluated the developmental scales of each child. The study found a notable connection between Alden’s gross motor development and his mother’s parenting practices at the start of the study. This research included children of various ages but excluded those with mental disabilities. Its focus was specifically on examining the relationship between a working mother and her child, without considering the impact of a working father’s parenting style or influence on the child.

Furthermore, to achieve more insightful findings, it would be advantageous to extend the study beyond the initial 2-year period. A research conducted by Parasitic Sahara, Montmartre Mona, Houseboy Fatima, Submit Measuring, and En Salina investigated the impact of various types of parents on the academic performance of Iranian high school students aged 15 to 17. The study encompassed a total sample size of 546 participants with a breakdown of 249 males and 297 females. Data collection involved administering two questionnaires: the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAS) and a self-demographic report that included their current Grade Point Average.

The study discovered that there was no notable connection between academic performance and either parent practicing authoritative or authoritarian parenting. Nevertheless, the study did find a significant association between academic achievement and permissive parenting by the mother, as well as authoritative parenting by the father.

The study focused on individuals aged fifteen to seventeen, making it difficult to definitively establish if these correlations would be applicable to children in other age ranges. The dependability of the data relies on participants’ truthfulness, thus it cannot be considered as definitive proof. Multiple factors impact parental styles that influence children’s behavior. Although the specific links between parenting styles and behavior may still be unclear, correlation research has contributed to improving our understanding of the parental styles that generate these connections.

After conducting research, I have found that various parenting styles have both positive and negative associations with children’s behavior. It seems that being strict can effectively manage delinquency, while permissive parenting can address behavioral problems. Additionally, combining authoritative and permissive approaches to parenting may have academic benefits for children. Furthermore, the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAS) is widely used and respected in studies.

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Lieb, R., Wittchen, H., Höfler, M., Fuetsch, M., Stein, M. B., & Merikangas, K. R. (2000). Parental Psychopathology, Parenting Styles, and the Risk of Social Phobia in Offspring. Archives of General Psychiatry,57(9), 859. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.9.859 This study shows that high parental overprotection and rejection are closely related to an increase in social phobia rates of children. This qualitative

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After my husband died, I changed my parenting style. I let my kids swear, eat in front of the TV, and sleep in my bed.

• Holly Matthews, 39, became a single mom after losing her husband to cancer in 2017.
• The couple had always kept things structured regarding bringing up their daughters.
• Matthews practices a more relaxed style of parenting to help them deal with the death of their dad.

This as-told-to essay is based on a conversation with Holly Matthews. It has been edited for length and clarity.

When my husband Ross was alive, we were a family that observed schedules and had certain rules.

Our daughters, Brooke, now 13, and Texas, 11, followed routines. Many of them were set by Ross, who was autistic and liked things to be structured and more regimented.

We sat down every evening for a meal together. The girls had set bedtimes. They didn't come into our bedroom, which we kept as Mom and Dad's space.

I was comfortable with our style of parenting . It seemed to work well for everyone.

But, after Ross died of brain cancer in July 2017 at 32, I was forced to rethink it. Practically speaking, it was harder to maintain structure when only one person was enforcing it.

But it went deeper than that. I quickly realized that rigidity wouldn't give the girls enough time to process their feelings and emotions.

I'm OK with letting things go and dropping the ball

I didn't let them run wild or be disrespectful — but things changed. I became a more flexible parent. I've heard it called jellyfish parenting or "going with the flow." The best way to describe it is to be OK with dropping the ball.

Before Ross died, I always assumed we'd be strict about using devices at the table and going to places like McDonald's for chicken nuggets. I thought my kids would never swear at home.

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But, when you're dealing with heightened emotions caused by grief and loss, you have to pick your battles. If you're exhausted after going toe-to-toe for three hours solid, it's fine to let things go.

If sleeping in my bed when they've woken up during the night helped reassure them or eating in front of the TV was more relaxing, my girls could do it.

Brooke was particularly anxious after Ross died. She worried about losing me, too. She would make me justify anything I did in case it was too dangerous, whether going somewhere different or driving for a long distance. She'd get up in the night to check on me.

She was only 6 at the time, and Texas was 4. It was a lot for them to deal with. They're still dealing with it, and I want them to experience as little extra stress in their lives as possible.

I also let them off-load. One day, Texas came home from school and said she'd needed to tell a teacher that her dad had died. The teacher had said, "Oh, that's not very nice."

Texas was confused. I told her it's "not very nice" when you drop your ice cream or something like that. "It's fucking shit when your Dad is dead," I said.

So, I allowed them to swear when they were very young — at least at home. It was a tool because they needed to get their emotions out. At that age, swearing was such a shocking thing to them; it matched how they were feeling internally. It reflected their rage, loss, and sadness.

We still have boundaries in place

We'd listen to music when we were driving to school. One of our favorite songs was "Fuck You" by Lily Allen . We'd sing along. It felt liberating to shout the lyrics out loud.

Meanwhile, we're very direct as a family — we had to be. I've chosen absolute honesty. "There will never be any lies with me," I've told my daughters. "You can ask me any question you want, and I will tell you the truth." I never hide things from them, including my own emotions. I share my philosophy in my work as a self-development coach .

But it's not to say we don't have boundaries . The girls know there will be consequences if they over-step them. However, I have much more of an understanding of why some behaviors come up. If a child has been through something as traumatic as they have, trying to "teach them a lesson" isn't necessarily going to work.

I sometimes look back at my attitude to parenting before Ross died. It often came from a space of naive judgment, thinking I had to play by the rules or be considered lacking. But the reality is that you do the best you can.

Do you have a powerful story about your parenting style that you'd like to share with Business Insider? Please send details to [email protected] .

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