natural disasters essay in sanskrit

पर्यावरणम् | Environment Essay in Sanskrit

“स्वल्यं तथायुर्बहुवश्च विनाः”

कलियुगे मानवाः दीर्घजीविनो न भवन्ति । केचित् व्याधिपीडिताः, केचित् क्षुधा ताडिताः, केचित् दरिद्रता दूषिताः, केचित् पर्यावरण-भक्षिताः जनाः अल्पायुषाः भवन्ति प्रतिदिनम् यमलोकम् प्रयान्ति च । तेषु अन्येषु च कारणेषु प्रदूषितम पर्यावरणम् अत्यधिकम् जीवन घातकम् वर्तते । अनेन मानव-शरीरे शनैः-शनैः विषारोपणम् क्रियते । अन्ते च अंगहीनो भूत्वा, अन्धो भूत्वा हृद्-रोगी भूत्वा च मृत्योः शरणम् गच्छति । ।

प्रकृति; अस्माकम् संरक्षिका अस्ति । अभ्रंकषाः पर्वताः, मर्यादिताः गम्भीराः सागराः, सघनानि वनानि, सोत्पलानि सरांसि, नर्तनपरा: नराः, अस्माकम् जविन-वृक्षम् सम्वर्धयन्ति । हर्षिताः तरः प्रसन्ना लतः वायोः विकारान् स्वयम् पिबन्ति अस्मभ्यम् स्वास्थ्य प्रदम् वायुमण्डलम् प्रयच्छन्ति । वृक्षाः नाना प्रकाराणि फलानि, पुष्पाणि च दत्त्वा अस्मान् बहु उपकुर्वन्ति । वातावरणस्य वायोश्च परिशोधनम् कुर्वन्ति । वनानि एवं पर्यावरणस्य सन्तुलनम् स्थापयन्ति ।।

साम्प्रतम् वयम् प्रकृतेः दूरातूदूरतः जातः । को कथा वनानाम्, इदानीम्। तु पत्राणि, पुष्पाणि, फलानि अपि न दृश्यन्ते । वनानि छिन्द्यन्ते, फलाच्छादितानि उद्यानानि उच्छिद्य नवानि भवनानि, नगराणि, फैक्ट्री इति नामधेयानि यन्त्रागाराणि निर्मीयन्ते । नगराणि महानगराणि जातानि । कृषियोग्यानि क्षेत्राणि विनष्टीकृत्य हट्टानि विनिर्मीयन्ते ।।

भौतिकवादी युगे इदानीम् ‘डीजल’ पैट्रोल इत्यादि नामकैः तैलैः चालितानि यानानि, राजमार्गान् धूम्रमयान् कुर्वन् इतस्तत: धावन्ति गगने । वायुयानानि उड्डीयन्ते तेषु निर्गता घुमशिखाऽपि घातका एव । विभिन्नेषु उद्योग-संस्थानेषु यन्त्राणि अहर्निशं धूमायन्ति वायुमण्डलम् । अधुना तु स्वास्थ्य हानिकर वायु प्रदूषणम् प्रतिक्षणम् वर्धते एव ।।

पर्वतानाम् शिलाखण्डानि विदार्य वनानि विच्छिद्य राजमार्गाणि विनिमयन्ते । तेषु गिरि मागेषु दीघनि यानानि धावन्ति । नाना प्रकाराणाम् अखाणाम् परीक्षणैः समुद्रस्य वातावरणम् अपि प्रदूष्यते । पर्वतानाम् वनसंरक्षणे चिपको आन्दोलनस्य जनकः श्री सुन्दरलाल बहुगुणा महोदयः भूरि-भूरि प्रशंसनीयः येन स्वकीये आन्दोलने समागतानि कष्टानि अविगणय्य पर्वतीयानि वनानि, वृक्षाणि च संरक्षितानि ।।

यथा प्रदूषण-विस्तारकाणि यन्त्राणि यानानि च परिवर्धन्ते तथा प्रदूषण-परिशोधन साधनानि न वर्धन्ते । धन-लाभाय वनानि छिन्यन्ते । मनोरंजनाय

Also Read: Essay on Durga Puja Essay on Environment Essay on Ganga River Essay on Himalaya Mountain Essay on Ideal Citizen Essay on Mahabharata

2 thoughts on “पर्यावरणम् | Environment Essay in Sanskrit”

Essay but many words are very tough words

ok. Will try to post another copy of this essay in simpler words. 🙂

सुनामी पर संस्कृत निबंध - Sanskrit Essay on Tsunami

इतिहास:, त्सुनामी तरंगाणां विशेषता, त्सुनामी विपत्तय:.

very usefull

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World Environment Day in Sanskrit

June 4, 2023

Sanskrit and its literature have always respected and celebrated the environment. Take this Shloka from Atharvaveda as an example; it establishes a sacred connection between mother nature and us (humans), setting a very deep precedent for how we should be treating our fellow earthlings. Happy Environment Day to you!

संरक्षेद्दूषितो न स्याल्लोकः मानवजीवनम्।

माता भूमिः पुत्रोऽहं पृथिव्याः।

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शैले शैले न माणिक्यं मौतिकं न गजे गजे । साधवो नहि सर्वत्र चन्दनं न वने वने ॥

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Profile of a Natural Disaster in Ancient Sanskrit Literature

Published in Ind. J. of History of Science, 39,1, (2004) pp.11-49. INSA, N.Delhi

R. N. Iyengar Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering (e.mail: [email protected] ; [email protected] ) Indian Institute of Science Bangalore 560012

Abstract Prabhāsa-kşetra-māhātmya, which forms a part of Skānda Purāņa, contains interesting information about ancient natural disasters affecting the Kutch-Mt.Abu region of India. In this paper, selected readings of the Sanskrit text are presented with brief translations. A comparison with similar information contained in Mahābhārata, Rāmāyaņa and Ŗgveda is also presented to interpret the Purāņic text in a possible historical perspective. It is inferred that the above texts taken together, have references to brightening of a star in the Pleiades cluster and also to ground impact due to falling objects, presumably fragments of an asteroid.

Key words Skānda Purāņa, Ancient natural disasters, Pleiades, Ground impact, northwest India.

1 Profile of a Natural Disaster in Ancient Sanskrit Literature

R. N. Iyengar Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Science Bangalore 560012

Introduction Sanskrit literature of ancient and medieval India is rich in information related to earth sciences. Books referred as Sthala-purāņa or Kşetra-māhātmya offer details of places that have been of historical and religious importance. It is observed that the contents of these writings cannot be taken as accurate descriptions of the region or locale considered. However, they may provide information that would be of interest to scientists, engineers and archaeologists. While searching for leads on earthquakes and disasters in ancient India, the present author came across the Prabhāsa-khaņda (Prabhāsa module) of Skānda-purāņa. This forms the last part of the Purāņa as available in the South Indian versions. This part of the purāņa actually contains four books, namely, Prabhāsa-kşetra- māhātmya, Vastrāpatha-kşetra-māhātmya, Arbuda-khaņda and Dvārakā-māhātmya. Here, the interest is mainly in the first book, which itself is in two parts. Prabhāsa-kşetra- māhātmya (abbreviated as PK) is implied to be concerned with the region around Prabhāsa. Gujarat region is well known to be seismically active and hence susceptible to earthquakes and tsunamis (sea waves due to earthquakes) along the coast. What is found in PK is an astounding narration of a phenomenon, which can only be interpreted as a somewhat fanciful description of a natural disaster that should have visited the Gujarat region in the remote past. An equally interesting event described is the burning of river Sarasvatī, which obviously is an ancient version of how the once bountiful river dried up leading to disastrous consequences. The approach in the present paper is as follows. First, PK is reviewed in detail. This is followed by brief reviews of Mahābhārata (MB), Rāmāyaņa and Ŗgveda, to see how far the events of PK can be matched with the corresponding events of earlier texts. Prabhāsa in popular parlance is currently identified with the famous pilgrim center Somanātha (20.9oN 70.5o E) on the west coast of the Sourashtra region. However, the present study indicates that the original Prabhāsa was not with Somanātha, but was probably located around (23.5oN 71.5o E), nearer to the Kutch region. Further, a natural event that finds mention consistently in several texts is conjectured to be a nova or brightening of a star in the star cluster of Kŗttikā (Pleiades).

Skanda-purāņa The Purāņa literature in Sanskrit is voluminous describing what is popularly taken to be mythology linked with Hindu religious practices. Historically Purāņas are enumerated as eighteen in number. It would appear that all the Purāņas have evolved from a smaller nucleus to their present size. Skānda-purāņa as available now is the largest of the eighteen Purāņas with slightly more than 84,000 verses. In line with other Purāņas, Skānda is also attributed to the authorship of Kŗşņa Dvaipāyana or Veda-Vyāsa, the legendary composer of Mahābhrata. However, even a casual reading of the text presently available point out that much material should have been added by different

2 authors at different times. It is known that the Nepalese version of Skānda-purāņa does not contain Prabhāsa-khaņđa1. Hence, PK can be treated as an independent traditional text, in Sanskrit. Alberuni who accompanied Mahamud of Ghazni (10-11 cent. AD) in the plunder of Somanatha describes the place in his book on India2. He also enumerates all the Puranas including Skānda. PK contains description of consecration of a deity at Somanātha in puraņic style, but does not even remotely refer to a foreign invasion. Thus, the composition of PK may be assigned to a period earlier than at least ninth century AD. The style of PK is simple but old fashioned. It is in the form of a conversation between the divine couple Śiva and Pārvatī. Several other personages are brought in to narrate a story that is at times inconsistent, and lacking in a sense of chronology, but nevertheless amply describing a natural disaster of monumental proportions. The narration is in tune with the ancient practice of personifying natural forces and dramatizing the phenomenon. A typical example of this approach from Mahābhārata may be cited here. Balarāma, elder brother of Kŗşņa does not take part in the epic war. Instead, he goes on a pilgrimage along the course of river Sarasvatī. In his northward journey, he comes to a certain place and wonders why the west flowing river should have suddenly turned eastwards. The reason stated in the text is that when some sages on the eastern part of the land performed a sacrifice, Sarasvatī (personified as a goddess) flowed eastward to fulfill the wishes of her devoted sages, who liked to bathe in the holy river. Such a mythological modeling is a distinct possibility for a natural structure, since we see that river Śatadru (literally one who flows in hundred ways) presently called Sutlej, exhibits a steep eastward bend near Ropar (30oN, 76oE). With this type of model in the background, a realistic reading of PK, shorn of all religious interpretations, is presented here. The Sanskrit text followed is the one brought out in Kannada script by the Mysore Palace3. This edition also contains a near literal Kannada translation, which is not free from errors. In the present rendering of the purāņa, the original Sanskrit text is followed closely. All the text specifically needed for the present discussion is reproduced here as per the above edition. A working translation that is not literal, but which highlights the implied meaning, is provided below the text.

Prabhāsa Region The description of the Prabhāsa region starts in the fourth chapter of the first part of PK, in the form of a conversation between Śiva and Pārvatī. tasya pramāņam vakşyāmi sarva-sīmā-samanvitam | kşetram tu trividham proktam tatte vakşyāmyanukramāt || kşetram pīţham garbhagŗham prabhāsasya prakīrtate | yathākramam phalam tasya koti-kotiguņam smŗtam || kşetram tu prathamam proktam tacca dvādaśa-yojanam | pancayojana-mānena kşetra-pīţham prakīrtitam || garbhagŗhañca gavyūtih karņikā sā mama priyā | kşetra-sīmām pravakşyāmi sŗņu devi yathākramam || āyāma-vyāsatascaiva ādi-madhyānta-samsthitam | pūrve taptodaka-svāmī paścime mādhavah smŗtaħ || dakşiņe sāgaraħ tdvat bhadrā nadyuttare matā | evam sīmā-samāyuktam kşetram dvādaśa-yojanam ||

3 etat prābhāsikam kşetram sarva-pātaka-nāśanam | tanmadhye pīţhikā prokta pañca-yojana-vistŗtā || nyankumatyāpareņaiva vajriņyāħ pūrvatastathā | māheśvaryā dakşiņataħ samudrasyottarastathā || āyama-vyāsataścaiva pañca-yojana-vistaram | pīţham etat samākhyātham atho garbha-gŗham sŗņu || dakşiņottarto yāvat samudrāt kauraveśvarī | pūrva-paścimato yāvat gomukhācca āśvamedhikam || (4.11-4.20)

Prabhāsa is divided into three parts namely, Kşetra (region), Pīţha (podium or seat) and Garbha-gŗha (sanctum sanctorum). The Kşetra is bounded in the east by Taptodaka, in the west by Mādhava, in the north by river Bhadrā and in the south by the ocean. The extent of the Kşetra is twelve yojanas. In the centre of the Kşetra is the Pitha, five yojanas in both length and breadth. This is to the west of river Nyañkumati, to the east of river Vajriņī, to the north of the sea and to the south of river Maheśvari. The Garbha Gŗha is inside the Pīţha. Its extent is from the sea in the south to Kauraveśvari in the north; to the east is Gomukha and to the west is āśvamedhika.

Taptodaka or Tapta-toya is identifiable as the hot water spring at (21.10 N 71.050 E) as per the maps of Geological Survey of India4. Yojana is a length measure approximately equal to six miles or 9.6 kilometers5. The text proceeds in a fashion, which combines geographical information with several religious symbols supposedly well known to the readers or listeners of the Purāņa. A close link of the place with one or more fires of marine origin is conspicuous from the beginning.

yosau kālāgni-rudrastu procyate veda-vādibhiħ | soyam bhairava-nāmnā tu prabhāse sam-vyavasthitaħ || agninā yatra taptam tu divyābdhānām caturyugam | megha-vāhana-kalpe tu tatra liņgam babhūva ha || agni-mīđheti vedokta-prabhāvaħ sura-sundarī | kālāgni-rudra-nāmā ca devaih sarvaih udāhŗtam || agni-iśāneti deveśi nāma-tritayam ucyate | (4.68, 4.71-73)

One, who is called Kālāgni-rudra, by those following the Vedas, is in Prabhāsa by the name Bhairava. When Agni (Fire) burnt continuously for a length of four yugas in the Indra Kalpa a linga came into existence there. This linga has three names, Agnimīđha, Kālāgni-rudra and Agni-īśāna.

The word linga means symbol that can signify gender. Thus, in popular parlance, it refers to phallus of Śiva. Reference to Veda, is perhaps for the famous Rudra Sūkta of Yajurveda. In the seventh chapter, the location of Prabhāsa is again repeated with some further information on the position of the linga. The location of the linga is surmised to be at the center of the garbha-gŗha explained previously.

4 vāruņīm diśam āśritya sāgarasya ca sannidhau | kŗtasmarasya parato dhanvantara-śata-traye || lingam mahā-prabhāvan tu svayam-bhūtam vyavasthitam | tatra sannihito devaħ śankaraħ parameśvaraħ || etasmin antare devi someśasya samīpataħ | caturdaśe vibhāge tu dhanuşam ca śata-dvayam || samantān-maņđalākāram karņikā sā mama priyā | (7.65-7.68)

Towards the west, near the sea at a distance of 300 bows (1bow~ 2 meters) due west of Kŗtasmara mount, the great self-created linga exists. There stays Lord Śiva. In between, near to Somanātha (linga) there is a 200-bow diameter circular opening (karņika) with fourteen divisions.

The fiery origin of the linga is indicated by the nomenclature tejolinga (ch. 7.58) and later in chapter eight in the statements, tacca lingam purā kalpe sapta-pātāla bhedhakam | kathitam koti-sūryasya pralayānala-sannibham || tena kālāgni-rudreti proktam someśvaraħ purā | (8.28-8.29)

That Someśvara linga in the previous epochs had broken out from the depth of the earth, it was bright like one crore suns and was burning like the fire during the dissolution of the world (Pralaya). Hence, Someśvara is referred to as Kālāgni-rudra.

In the eleventh chapter, there is a simple but clear description of the boundaries of the Indian subcontinent. Some of these statements are similar to what appears in books such as the Bŗhat-Samhita of Varāha Mihira (5-6 cent AD)6. dakşiņāparato yasya pūrveņa ca mahodadhiħ | himavān uttareņāsya kārmukasya yathā guņaħ || tadetat bhāratam varşam sarva-bījam varānane | eşa kūrmo maya khyāto bhārate bhagavāniha | tasya naiŗta pāde tu saurāşţra iti viśrutaħ | tasya yo navamo bhāgaħ sāgarsya ca sannidhau | prabhāsa iti vikhyāto mama devi priyaħ sadā || (11. 13-14, 28, 37-38)

The landmass enclosed by the great sea in the south, west and east and by the Himālayās in the shape of a bowstring in the north, is Bhārata-varşa. Bhārata is equated with a tortoise (Vişņu as Kūrma). In the southwest direction of this landmass is Saurāşţra. The ninth part of this, near the ocean is called Prabhāsa.

Here, the text once again gives the dimensions of the Prabhāsa region as previously. This chapter is very long but surprisingly, neither Somanātha nor the hot springs are mentioned. Next, the text develops a connection between Sun and Prabhāsa, viśvakarmā tu anujñātaħ śāka-dvīpe vivasvatā|

5 bhūmim āropya tattejaħ śātanāya upacakrame || bhramatā khalu deveśi sacandra-graha-tārakam | adhogatim mahābhāge babhuvākşiptam-ākulam || vikşipta-salilāħ sarve babhūvuśca tathā nadāħ | vyabhidyanta tathā śailāħ śīrņa-sānu-nibandhanāħ || (11.141, 143, 145)

Viśvakarma placed the heat of Sun on earth, in a place called saka-dvipa and filed him. The spinning of Sun displaced the moon and the planets. The oceans got disturbed and the mountains broke down.

This is perhaps a speculation on the part of PK about creation, in tune with what a Purāņa is supposed to contain. The interesting point is that the text says a part of Sun fell at Prabhāsa. The text also identifies that out of the first fifteen parts of Sun, the discuss of Vişņu, the trident of Śiva, the spear of Skanda, the weapons of all the gods and demons were formed. (11.195-205). This is an allusion to the celestial origin of some of the later religious symbols. The text is not clear on whether Śāka-dvipa is same as Prabhāsa. However, a definite connection between the two places is mentioned in Chapter 13.

śāka-dvīpe mahādevi bhramişţasya tadā raveħ | varşāņām tu śatam sāgram takşyamāņe vibhāvasau || yadādya-bhāgajam tejaħ tat prabhāse apatat priye | pātitam tatra tat tejah sthalākāram vyajāyata || (13.5,6)

While at Śaka-dvīpa, Viśvakarma worked on Sun, for hundred years reducing his heat. The first part, which fell at Prabhāsa took the shape of the land.

There is a speculation on when this incident could have taken place. There is also a description of how large an area of the region was covered with dust, produced by the event. A sample of such description is yadā svārocişo devi dvitīyo abhūt manuħ purā | tasmin kāle avatīrņo’ sau devastatra divākaraħ || etasminnantare devi sauram tejaħ prasarpitam | tena pāvitryam ānītam kşetram dvādaśa-yojanam || sūrya-dakşiņa-naiŗtye pātāla-vivaram priye | mandehā rākşasā yatra tathā śālakatańkatāħ || sūryasya tejasā dagdhāħ pātālam agaman purā | kalau tad dvāramevāsti na pātala-gatiħ priye || (13.11, 17, 32, 33)

Sun descended at the time of Svārocişa Manu (~1665 million years B.P). The dust created by Sun’s energy spread for five yojanas, from Maheśvari River in the north. In the east-west direction, it spread for five yojanas, from Nyańkumathi River to Kŗtasmara mount. The light spread much farther. The region acquired sanctity for twelve yojanas by this light. Near that place of Sun, in the southwest direction, there is a deep opening in the ground. This is where in ancient times the demons Mandehā and Śālakatankata,

6 went underground being burnt by Sun. Now in Kaliyuga, this opening can only be seen, but it is not possible to go underground there.

The necessity of invoking such long periods of several million years is not explained. Both the above episodes are perhaps reminiscences of a meteorite impact. The underground opening is described in Chapter 16 further in twenty-seven verses.

pātāla-vivarasyāpi māhātmyam şŗņu sāmpratam | pūrva-pŗşţam mahādevi brahmaņā viśvakarmaņā || tamobhave samutpanne jātāħ tatraiva rākşasāħ | sūryasya dveşiņaħ sarve hi asańkhyātāħ mahābalāħ || te tu dŗşţvā mahātmānam samudyantam divākaram | te dhūmra-pramukhāħ sarve jahasuh sūryamañjasā || nipetuħ ambara-bhraşţāħ kşīņa-puņyā iva grahāħ | rākşasaiħ veşţito dhūmraħ nipatan śuśubhe ambarāt || ardha-pakvam yathā tāla-phalam kapibhirāvŗtam | yadŗcchaya nipetuste yantra-muktā yathopalāħ || tato vāyu-vaśāt bhraşţāħ bhitvā bhūmim rasātalam | jagmuħ te kşetramāsādya prabhāsam varavarņinī || (16.1-3, 16.10-12)

When Viśvakarma produced dark matter, several demons that were enemies of Sun came into existence. Dhūmra (smoky) and other such demons laughed at the rising Sun and made fun of him. Then Sun looked at them angrily and the demons tumbled down to earth like planets devoid of their merits. Dhūmra, encircled by other demons shone, while falling from the sky, like a half-ripe palm fruit surrounded by monkeys. They all fell down like stones released by chance from a machine and carried by wind reached Prabhāsa and broke the earth to go underground.

yatra cārkasthalao devaħ sarvasiddhi-pradāyakaħ | tat-sānnidhya-stitham devi pātāla-vivaram mahat || anyāni kotiśaħ santi tāni luptāni bhāmini | kŗtasmarāt samārabhya yāvad-arka-sthalo raviħ || iti sańkşepataħ proktam arkasthala-mahodayam | rākşasāņām ca sampātāt abhūcca vivaram yathā || evam tu prakaţam tatra dŗśyate adyāpi bhāminī | śrī-mukham nāma tat dvāram rakşyate mātŗbhiħ priye || (16.13,14; 21,22)

The big underground opening is near Arkasthala. From Kŗtasmara upto Arkasthala there were innumerable other holes in the ground. Now those are all closed. The birth of Arkasthala (Sun-land) has been briefly explained along with the underground openings caused due to the impact (sampātāt) of the demons. Only one opening by name Śrī-mukha, protected by Sunandā is visible now, whereas others have vanished.

The above text is clearly a description of one or more heavenly objects hitting the then seacoast or the ground near Prabhāsa. The comparison given, the name of the demon as smoky (Dhūmra) and the explanation that the demons fell from the sky like stones

7 indicates this to be a wide spread phenomenon. The story of the descent of Sun, in the 13th chapter and the above ground impact due to stones may be memories of ancient disasters, which were carried by different groups of people in different ways, by personifying the natural forces and their effects. The text next explains how the place got another name Somanātha (Moon's master). This story appears to be purely imaginary lacking in physical significance and hence not presented here. However, Alberuni reports a justification, which is reasonable7. From the 29th chapter onwards there are instructions to visitors on what they have to see and do at Prabhāsa. Further PK presents a story linked with the receding of the sea and the resulting calamity. Briefly the text is,

varaħ śāpaśca tasyāyam purā datto yathā dvijaiħ | evam śaptaħ samudrastaiħ brāhmaņaiħ varavarņinī | tato varşa-sahasram tu hyaspŗśyaħ sambabhūva ha || (29.25, 58)

This sea has been both cursed and blessed by Brāhmaņās. Being cursed by them, this sea remained untouchable for thousand years.

The reason for the curse is described in a lengthy story (Ch.29.32-58) that once the Brahmanas went to the sea, desperately seeking food. They were given sumptuous food in the form of rice but fish-meat was concealed inside. The Brāhmaņās felt cheated, since by eating prohibited food they lost their powers of going with Devas and Gandharvas in the sky. The story goes further that, at the intercession of devas and Brahma, the local Brāhmaņās agreed to retract the curse and make the sea fit for bathing. This story obviously refers to a famine or failure of crops forcing people to resort to seafood on large scale. There is also a reference to recession of the sea for a long time followed by a rise in the sea level. This phenomenon was connected with vāđavāgni as it is said,

tasya madhye mahāsāram vāđavam yatra vai mukham | śrī-someśāt dakşiņato dhanvantara-śatāvadhi | uttarāt mānasāt pūrvam yāvadeva kŗtasmaram || (29.96,97)

In the centre of this (Agni-tīrtha) situated to the south of Someśvara, to the east of Mānasa (lake) and upto Kŗtasmara mount is the 100 bow-wide face of Vādava.

The sequence of events starting with a meteoritic impact, receding of the sea, the learned among the community, under compulsion to eat fish, and the marine fire that is equated with kālāgni-rudra (angry fire of Time) of the vedas indicate a wide spread calamity. There is no description of what may be considered a volcanic eruption. However, the text refers to (vāđavāgni) a fire in the form of a horse without thighs, linked with River Sarasvatī. This starts in chapter 32, with the story of sage Dadhīci living on the banks of Candrabhāga (presently Chenab) river. The sage sacrifices himself so that Indra and other gods could get their armaments made from his bones. Pippalāda, son of Dadhīci learns about this from his mother and does penance so that he could take revenge on the gods for whose sake his father had to die. From his left thigh comes Aurva or Vāđavāgni, that is, a fire with the face of a horse without thighs. Vāđava is ordered by Pippalāda to eat away the gods one by one. However, Vişņu intervenes on behalf of the gods to

8 convince Vāđava that he should first consume water, since water was the first to be created among the gods. Vāđava agrees to this but says he will go to the ocean only by holding the hand of a maiden. Vişņu asks Gańgā and other rivers to carry the fire to the ocean. They express their inability since the fire is too terrible to be carried by them. Finally, River Sarasvatī agrees to carry the fire with the permission of her father Brahma (Creator) after a lengthy conversation between them. The gist of their discussion is, Sarasvati is advised to stay underground, and is asked to turn east and show up whenever she feels tired. All such places would be declared holy and fit to be recognized as tīrthas. This chapter also describes briefly the course of the river.

himavantam girim prāpya plakşāttatra vinirgatā | avatīrņā dharā-pŗşţhe matsya-kacchapa-sankulā || puņya-toya-vahā devi stūyamānā dvi-jātibhiħ | vāđavam vahnim ādāya hayavegena nihsŗtā || bhitvā vegāt dharā-pŗşţham pravişţāstha mahītalam | yadā yadā abhavacchrāntā dahyate vāđavāgnina || tadā tadā martya-loke yāti pratyakşatām nadī | tatastu jāyate prācī santaptā vāđavena tu | tato vai yāni tīrthāni kīrtitāni purātanaiħ || khādirāmodam āsādya tatra sā vīkşya sāgaram | gantum pravŗttā tam vahnim ādāya sura-sundarī || nirūđha-bhāram ātmānam devādeśāt vicintya sā | prahŗşţā sumanastasmāt pravŗttā dakşiņāmukhī || (33.41,43-45, 47-48)

Having reached Himālaya she started from Plakşa and descended to the earth with fish and tortoise. Even as the Brāhmaņas were praising her, she carried Vāđavāgni, and flowed with the speed of a horse. Whenever she got tired due to the burning, she broke open the ground and came up. At such places, she turned eastwards and as told by the ancients those places became Tīrthas (holy waters or lakes). When she arrived at Khādirāmoda (grove of khādira or acacia catechu trees) and saw the sea, she felt happy that she is carrying a burden as ordered by God. Being contented, she started flowing southwards.

Khādiramoda, perhaps refers to the region around the present day Khadir island (23.87oN,70.25 oE) in Kutch. At this stage, PK describes that Sarasvati divided into five streams called, Hariņī, Vajriņī, Nyańku, Kapilā and Sarasvatī, which have been associated with Prabhāsa in an earlier Chapter. Further, Sarasvati approaches a mountain by name Kŗtasmara. Here follows a poetic description of the mountain with its flora and fauna. The hill is peronified as the king of mountains who first woos; but after being rejected, forces Sarasvati to marry him. To this Sarasvati responds,

yadi mām tvam pariņaye rudantīm ekakām tathā | gŗhāņa vāđavam haste yāvat snānam karomyaham || evamukte sa jagrāha tam nagendropavarjitam | kŗtasmaraħ tat-samsparśāt kşaņāt bhasmatvam āgataħ || tataħ prabhŗti te tasya pāşāņā mŗdutām gatāħ |

9 gŗha-deva-kulārthāya gŗhyante śilpibiħ saha || dagdhvā kŗtasmaram devi punarādāya vāđavam | samudrasya samīpe sā sthitā hŗşţa-tanūruhā || (33.88-91)

‘If you like to marry me, one who is weeping and alone, then hold this fire in your hand till I bathe’. As soon as Kŗtasmara held the fire, he was reduced to ashes. From then onwards, the stones of that mount became soft and artisans started using them for building temples and houses. After burning Kŗtasmara hill, Sarasvatī carried Vāđava further to the sea.

The description of the spout through which the river supposedly vanished eventually is also figuratively described. Vāđava being pleased with Sarasvatī, asks her to seek a boon from him. She in turn thinks of Vişņu for a suggestion. tatastena hŗdisthena proktā devī sarasvatī | prārthanīyo varo bhadre sūcī-vaktratvam ādarāt || tatastvabhihito devyā yadi me tvam varapradaħ | tataħ sūcī-mukho bhūtvā tvam pibāpo mahābala || evam uktena tat tena sūcī-vedha-samam kŗtam | ghaţikā-pūraņam yadvat papau tad-vadanam jalam || (33.99-101)

Then, she was advised by Vişņu, staying in her heart, “Dear Sarasvati, ask him to become needle faced”. Accordingly, as per her request, Vāđava acquired a funnel like neck as in an hour-clock, to drink water.

The next chapter of PK is called Sarasvati-avatāra-mahimā-varņanam, which, means description of the purpose of the avatāra (descent) of Sarasvati. The vāđavāgni episode with some more details is again repeated. tam samarpya tataħ tasmin nadī bhūtvā sarasvatī | pravişţā sāgaram devī nāradeśvara-mārgataħ || tatoSbdhim sampravişţā sā pañca-srotā mahānadī | svarūpeņaiva sā puņyā punaħ puņyatamāSbhavat || prabhāsa-kşetra-samparkāt samudrasya ca sańgamāt | sāgaroSpi samāsādya sarasvatyāstu vāđavam | nirdhano dhanamiva prāpyaScintayat kva kşipāmyaham || sa tenaiva karasthena dīpyamānena sāgaraħ | vahninā śikharasthena bhāti merurivāSparaħ || tasyocchvasānilodbhūtam tat-toyam sāgarādbahiħ | nirmaryādeva yuvatiħ itaścetaśca dhāvati || atha kāle gate devi śuşyatyambu śanaiħ śanaiħ | (34.15-19, 26,27)

Then having offered (vāđavāgni) to the sea, Sarasvati as a river entered the ocean through Nāradeśvara. The river, dividing itself into five, flowed into the ocean. She who was already holy became the holiest, due to her contact with Prabhāsa and the ocean. The ocean having got vāđavāgni from Sarasvati, like a pauper getting money, did not

10 know where to keep him. With fire in his hand, the ocean lit up like another Mt.Meru with fire at its peak. Due to the gases emanating from the sea (ucchvāsa-anila- udbhūtam), the waters overflowed and traveled in all directions, like a maiden without discipline. After some time, the waters slowly started drying up.

In this chapter it is mentioned, that after the fire started burning, initially the sea exceeded in its boundaries but later the coast started receding. The text goes on to say that, at the request of the sea, the waters were restored, after some time. This is similar to the statement in a previous place, that the sea at Prabhāsa once receded and once exceeded its boundary. In the next chapter, again the path taken by Sarasvati in her travel is delineated in a poetic language.

evam uktā tadā tena brahmaņā ca sarasvatī | himavantam girim prāpya pippalādāśramāt tadā || udbhūtā sā tadā devī adhastāt vŗkşa-mūlataħ | tasmāt sthānāt tato devī pratīcyābhimukham yayau | antardhānena sā prāptā kedāram hima-madhyagam || tat-samplavya gireh śŗńgam kedārasya puraħ sthitā | tenāgninā karasthena dahyamānā sarasvatī || bhūmim vidārya tasyāsdhaħ pravişţā gaja-gāminī | tad-antardhāna-mārgeņa pravŗttā paścimāmukhī || pāpa-bhūmim atikramya bhūmim bhitvā vinirgatā| tatra kūpaħ samabhavannāmnā gāndharva-sańjñitaħ || tasmāt kūpāt punardŗśyā sā babhūva mahānadī | matiħ smŗtiħ tathā prajñā medhā buddhiħ girā dharā || upāsikāħ sarasvatyāħ şađetāħ prasthitāstadā | punaħ pravŗttā sā tasmāt udbhedāt paścimā-mukhī || bhūtīśvaram samāyātā siddho yatra mahāmuniħ | bhūtīśvare samīpastham tatra prāptā manoramām || tasya dakşiņa-dik-samsthām rudra-kotyupalakşitām | śrīkaņţha-deśam vikhyātam gatā sarvauşadhi-yutam || tasmāt puņyatamāt deśāt śrīkaņţhātmā manasvinī | samprāptā vahninā sārdham kurukşetram sarasvatī || punaħ tasmāt kurukşetrāt virāţa-nagarasya sā | samudbhūtā samīpasthā antardhānāt manoramā || gopāyano giriryatra tatra sā punarudgatā || gopāyitā keśavena yatra te pāņđu-nandanāħ | kurvantaħ svāni karmāņi na kaiścit upalakşitāħ || tatra kuņđe sthitā devī mahā-pātaka-nāśinī | punar-gopāyanāt devī kşetram praptāSti-śobhanam || kharjūrī-vanam āpannā nandā-nāmnīti tatra sā | sarasvatī punaħ tasmāt vanāt kharjūra-sańjñitāt || meru-pādam samāsādya mārkaņđāśramam āgatā | yatra mārkaņđakam tīrtham meru-pāde samāśritam || sarasvatī punaħ tasmāt arbudāraņyam āśritā | gatā vaţa-vanam ramyam mārkaņđeyāśramāt śubhāt ||

11 tapastaptam purā yatra vasişţhena samāśritāt | tasmāt vaţa-vanāt puņyāt udumbara-vanam gatā || meru-pāde ca tatraiva taņđiħ yatra atapat tapaħ | udumbara-vanāt tasmāt punardevī sarasvatī || antardhānena śikharam anyat prāptā mahānadī || meru-pādam tu sumahat-sura-siddha-nişevitam | bhinnańjana-cayākāram golāngūlam iti smŗtam || sthānam mano-ramam tasmāt udgatā sā sumadhyamā | vamśa-stambhāt suvipulā pravŗttā dakşiņā-mukhī || tatrodgama-vaţaħ tasyāħ tat-samākhyo vyavasthitaħ | tataħ prabhŗti sā devī suprabhām prakaţā sthitā || antardhānam parityajya prāņinām anukampayā | tasyāħ taţeşu ramyeşu santi tīrthāni kotiśaħ || teşu tīrtheşu sarveşu dharma-hetū sarasvatī | rudrāSvatāra-mārgeSmin pravaram prathamam smŗtam || tarattaranga-nāmāđhyam kāka-tīrtham mahā-prabham | tatra tīrtham punstvanyat tīrtham dhāreśvaram smŗtam || dhāreśvarāt punaħscānyat gangodbhedamiti smŗtam | sārasvatam tathā gāngam yatraikam samsthitam jalam || (35.21-47)

Sarasvati sprang up near the roots of a tree, in the hermitage of Pippalāda, in Himalayas. From there, she started towards west and went underground. She reached the Kedāra Mountain in Himalayas, wetted its peaks and stayed in fron. When the fire burnt her, she broke the earth and went westwards underground. She crossed the sinful land and broke the earth to come out from a well (kūpaħ) called, Gāndharva. Then she became a big river with six tributaries Mati, Smŗti, Prajñā, Medhā, Buddhi and Giridharā. From this place, she again flowed west. Then, having reached Bhutīśvara, the place of sage Siddha, she went nearby south to Śrīkaņţha-deśa, which is famous for its medicinal plants and minerals. From Śrīkaņţha-deśa, she reached Kurukşetra along with Aurva. From here, she traveled and went underground near Virāţa-nagarī and came up at Gopāyana hills. From Gopāyana Lake, she reached Kharjūrī-vana (forest of date-palms). From here, she was known by the name Nandā. She reached the hermitage of Mārkaņđeya, where Mārkaņđa Lake is located on the slopes of Meru hills. From the hermitage of Mārkaņđeya she came to Arbudāraņya where previously Vasişţha had done penance. From the banyan tree at this place, she went to the udumbura (country fig; ficus glomerata) forest of sage Taņđī in the same Meru hills. From the udumbara forest, she went underneath to reach a dark peak called Golāngula at the foot of the hills. From this place, she started flowing, with a size thicker than a bamboo stick, southwards. This place became famous as Udgamavaţa. From here, she remained above ground and flowed clearly, with several holy places on her banks. Among the various tīrthas (holy waters) the foremost is Kāka tīrtha also known as Tarattaranga. Then, there is another placed called Dhāreśvara. After Dhāreśvara is the tīrtha called Gangodbhava. Here the waters of Gangā and Sarasvati mingle together. After this is Puņđarīka tirtha.

Some of the places mentioned above can be identified. Śrikaņţha-deśa8 is the region around Sthāņeśvar (29o58’N, 76o48’E). Arbudāraņya is the region around, Mt.Abu

12 (24.75oN, 72.25oE). Kharjūrīvana, Tarattaranga and Dhāreśvar can be identified as Khajuria (24.5oN, 72.25oE); Taranga hills (23.5oN, 72.6oE) and Dharewada (24oN, 72.4oE) respectively. In this fashion several more places through which Sarasvati is supposed to have flown, are named. Places where the flow could have changed its direction are indicated. For example at Siddheśvara, (Sidhapur 23.9oN, 72.3oE), Sarasvati flowing westward to reach the western ocean, turned eastwards. At this place is Brahma tīrtha, also called Siddhavata. Similarly, Sarasvati flowed eastwards at Prācīneśvar. There are considerable inconsistencies in the narration and there are differences between this chapter and what was stated in the previous chapters. For example, it was said previously that Sarasvati divided into five branches near Prabhāsa. However, here this happens at a place called Gangā-sangama after Vālakhilya tīrtha. Places such as Vaţeśvar, Maņđīśvar and Dvāravati, which may be identifiable (?), find mention. A few more verses are quoted here.

dakşiņām diśamāsthāya punaħ paścānmukhī tadā | sarasvatī mahādevi vađavānala-dhāriņī || taduttare taţe tīrtham ekadvāramiti smŗtam | tasmāt tīrthāt punaħścānyat tīrtham yatra guheśvaraħ || guheśvarāt nātidūre vaţeśvaramiti smŗtam | divyam sarasvatī-tīre vyāsenārādhitam purā || āmardakī nadī yatra sarasvatyā sahaikatām | sangameśvara-nāmeti tatra lingam pratişţhitam || muņđīśvareti ca tathā prasiddhim agamat kşitau | muņđīśvara-samīpastham sarasvatyām mahodayam || nāmnā yat prāngmukham tīrtham sarasvatyāħ taţe sthitam | māņđavyeśvara-nāmnā vai yatreśaħ sampratişţhitaħ || pīlukarņika-sańjñām tu tīrthamanyat punaħstataħ | sarasvatī-tīra-gatam ŗşiņā sevitam mahat || tasmādanyat sarasvatyām tīrtham dvāravatī smŗtam | tīrthānām pravaram devi yatra sannihito hariħ || tatastasya samīpastham tīrtham govatsa sańjñitam | govatsāt naiŗte-bhāge dŗśyate loha-yaşţikā || tatastasmāt mahātīrthāt bālakrīđanakī yathā | anulomya vilomyena dakşiņena uttareņa ca || rullam prāpya punardevī samudbhutā manoramā | rullam nāma puram yatra sŗşţam devena śambhunā || (35.67-81)

Sarasvati the carrier of vāđavāgni, went south and then turned west. On her northern bank is Ekadvāra tīrtha. Guheśvara and Vaţeśvara, worshipped by sage Vyāsa, come after this. This is the place where a river by name Āmardaki merged with Sarasvati. This place is famous on earth as Muņđīśvara. Near this place is the east facing Mahodaya tīrtha. Similarly on the banks of Sarasvati is Pīlukarņika where there was a settlement of sages. After this place, is Dvāravati where Vişņu is present. Near this is Govatsa. To the southwest of this place a metal column is visible. From here onwards Sarasvati along with her tributaries started flowing back and forth, South and North, as

13 she liked, like a playful child. Then Sarasvati reached the city of Rulla, founded by Śambhu (Śiva) himself.

Further to the above, the progress of the river as per the text is confusing, but eventually she divides herself into five branches, burns Kŗtasmara mount and deposits the fire Aurva in the salt sea (verse 35.94). The first part of PK consists of 125 chapters. After the 35th chapter referred above the text drifts into the details of a large number of holy places in and around Prabhāsa.

Second Part The second part contains the remaining 240 Chapters, some long and some short with two or three verses. Here and there, some interesting information is available. What is significant is that distances between various places along with specific directions are provided. A folkloric picture of a natural disaster with a famine, perhaps related to a meteorite impact and/or drying up of Sarasvati river is further elaborated. Thus, we find in Chapter 129, titled Akşamāleśvara-māhātmya-varņanam; kadācit samanuprāpte durbhikşaħ kāla-paryayāt | ŗşayaśca mahādevi kşudhākrāntā vicetasaħ || sarve cānnam parīpsanto gatāħ cāņđāla-veśmani | jñātvānna-sangraham tasya prārthayāñcakruħ antyajam || bho bho antyaja mahābuddhe rakşāsmān anna-dānataħ | prāņa-sandeham āpannān kŗśāngān kşutprapīđitān || (129.5-7)

Once due to vagaries of time (weather), there was a severe famine and the sages became so desperate for food, they went to the house of a candala who had a store of food and begged him. “Hey! Kindly give us, (emaciated with hunger), food and protect us from death ”.

Here ensues a conversation between the sages and a cāņđāla. The sages defend their action of begging food from a low caste person as an emergency measure to protect their lives, and hence not objectionable. They cite examples of sage Bhāradwāja eating beef, Viśvāmitra and Vāmadeva accepting dog’s meat, when otherwise they would have died. Finally, the cāņđāla agrees to give food for one year, provided the best among them consents to marry his daughter. The sages are embarrassed, but agree to the condition as being reasonable. Thus, the best among the sages, Vasişţha marries Akşamālā the pious daughter of that cāņđāla, who later by her spiritual powers distinguished herself as Arundhatī. Among the various geographical references, there is mention of a dry river citrāpatha near prabhāsa, which can be seen, only in the rainy season. A lake called brahma-kuņđa, rich in chemicals, is described near this river;

ete rasāśca vividhāħ dŗśyante tatra sarvadā | rajatam kşipyate tatra suvarņamiva jāyate || pratyakşameva tatraiva rasāyanam anuttamam | paśyanti mānavaħ devi kautukam tatkşaņādbhutam || rasam hi paramam divyam tatrastham ca kalauyuge |

14 siddham siddharasam pumsām vyādhīnām kşayakārakam || (135.35-37)

Various chemicals are present in that lake. Silver thrown into the lake becomes like gold. People look at this as a miracle. There are special chemicals (mercuric compounds?) which, cure men of their diseases.

Chapter 187 enumerates five Prabhāsas namely: i) Prabhāsa; ii) Vŗddha Prabhāsa; iii) Jala Prabhāsa; iv) Kŗtasmara Prabhāsa and v) Bhairava Prabhāsa. Even though a question is raised about how five Prabhāsas came into existence, no reasons are provided. On the contrary, the story of the linga (symbol or phallus) of Śiva falling on earth is described.

tatastatpatitam lingam tatkşaņāt śankarasya ca | tasmin prapatite bhūmau prakampata vasundharā || kşubhitaħ sāgarāħ sarve maryādām vijahustadā | śīrņāni giri-śŗngāni trastāħ sarve divaukasāħ || (187.22-23)

As soon as the linga of Śankara fell down, the earth shook. The oceans got disturbed and crossed their boundaries. Peaks of mountains broke down and gods trembled with fear.

In chapter 198, the linga is cited as the reason for the five Prabhāsas, mentioned above.

atha kāle ca kasminścid vajriņāScchāditam priye | indreņāgatya vasudhām bhayenāgatya sundari || ūşma tadudbhavo devi nirgacchan avarodhitaħ | daśa-koti pravistīrņam jvālāgram linga-rūpa-dhŗk|| prabhāsa-kşetram āsthāya bhitvā āvirbhavam āsthitam| dhūma-sanghaiħ sametastu vyāpayāmāsa tajjagat || tataħ sura-gaņāħ sarve ŗşayo veda-pāragāħ | astuvan vividhaiħ sūktaiħ vedoktaiħ śaśi-śekharam || samharasva sura-śreşţha tejaħ svam dahanātmakam | na yāvat pralayam yāti tāvadrakşa sureśvara || evam ābhāşamāņeşu tridiveşu sureśvari | tattejah pañcadhāvişţam vyāpyāśeşam jagat-trayam || pañca-prabhāsa-rūpeņa bhitvā tatra vasundharām | yena mārgeņa nişkrāntam tanmārge ca mahanmahaħ || tatra taiħ sthāpitam dvāram supradeśe aśmajam priye | vihite atha ca randhreSsmin dhumo nāśamupeyivān || (198.4-7; 9-12)

Once, Indra covered the linga with his vajra weapon. Due to this, the heat (ūşma) produced by the fire got blocked. A flame in the shape of a linga broke open the ground at Prabhāsa and spread all around, with clouds of smoke. Then all the gods and sages praised Śiva with vedic hymns. “Great Lord, take back your energy in the form of fire, and protect the world from dissolution”. Then the fire broke the earth at the five Prabhāsas and receded through the same opening. The smoke subsided after the holes were covered with stone slabs.

15 This story again is that of an object falling from the sky and the resultant widespread fire. The text further drifts into descriptions of various lingas in and around Prabhāsa, their names and days auspicious for worshipping them. A description, unconnected with other parts of the text, is that of river Ŗşi-toya. This is supposedly near the hot spring, which forms the eastern boundary of Somanātha region. Ŗşi-toya is said to be flowing east and merging with the sea. On the bank of this river a city called Unnata (presently Una?), is described as being an ancient settlement of Brāhmaņas. So far in PK natural phenomena, which could have lead to catastrophes were described, but nothing about loss of life. In the 346th chapter, there is reference to large-scale loss of life associated most probably with a sea wave or a tsunami. This is the story of the Kālakeya demons hiding in the ocean and sage Agastya eventually drinking the waters to dry up the ocean.

kālakeya iti khyātāħ trailokyoccheda-kārakāħ | hata-śeşāħ-samudrānte pravişţāħ bhaya-vihvalāħ || tataste mantrayāmāsuħ pīđyante devatāħ katham | hanyantām dharmiņo yeStra vidyante dharaņī-tale || atha te samayam kŗtvā rātrau nişkramya sāgarāt | nirjaghnuħ tāpasān tatra yajña-dāna-ratān priye || prabhāse tu mahādevi tatra dvādaśa-yojane | vasişţhasyāśrame tatra mahaŗşīņām mahātmanām || bhakşitāni sahasrāņi pañca-sapta ca tāpasān | śatāni pañca raibhyasya viśvāmitrasya şođaśa || cyavanasya ca saptaiva jābālerdviśatam muneħ | vālakhilyāśrame puņye şaţ-śatāni durātmabhiħ || nihsvādhyāya-vaşaţkāram bhūtalam samapadyata | (346.4,8-12,16)

Kālakeya demons being afraid (of Vişņu) hid in the sea. They chalked out a plan to hurt the gods by killing pious people on earth. Finding an opportunity in the night to come out of the sea, they killed those in the Prabhāsa region, for an extent of twelve yojanas. In Vasişţha-āśrama, twelve thousand persons were eaten away. In Raibhya’s place five hundred, in the hermitage of Viśvāmitra sixteen hundred, in Cyavana’s place seven hundred, in Jābala-āśrama two hundred and in Vālakhilya-āśrama six hundred people died. Due to this catastrophe, earth became devoid of Vedic learning and practices.

Prabhāsa and Sarasvati of PK The above description of the text of PK provides what is purported to be the genesis, including a brief geography of Prabhāsa region of Saurāşţra. It has to be borne in mind that in ancient times the connotation Saurāşţra included the present day Kutch region also. The text narrates five natural phenomena, namely, (a) falling of celestial objects and their intrusion into earth, (b) receding of the sea coast, (c) swelling of the sea leading to wide spread loss of life, (d) a terrestrial fire attributed as the cause of drying of River Sarasvati, (e) a severe famine. It is not that the text cogently describes any of the above in a systematic fashion. Nevertheless, a reader of PK will be able to surmise that a textual tradition exists to the effect, the northwestern part of India, suffered a great natural disaster. It may be speculated that, this should have been the reason for migration of population out of this region. About the description of the places, if we take Prabhāsa

16 of PK as the place, with the same name (identified with Somanātha) today, some locations such as the tapta-toya hot springs and an east flowing river are in order. However, when it comes to the path of Sarasvati, its link with Somanātha is riddled with contradictions. The path described in Ch. 35.21-47, is reasonably consistent upto present day Rann of Kutch. How the river could have reached, Somanātha (20.9oN 70.5o E) is not explainable from the contents of the text. One has to only speculate that perhaps Sarasvati had a branch reaching Somanātha, not delineated by PK for some unknown reasons. The statement of Alberuni that a river by name Sarasuti was flowing at Somanātha may lend some support to this assumption2. Recently geologists have also speculated on the possibility of the Himālayan Sarasvati reaching the present day Somanātha alias Prabhāsa9. On the contrary, the conflicting contents of PK might imply that river Sarasvati reached the sea only in Rann of Kutch. The text of PK contains lengthy chapters, which describe only Prabhāsa. There are also chapters, which mix up Prabhāsa with Soma (moon), Someśa, Someśvara and Somanātha in a rather confusing manner so much so these appear to be later interpolations into an earlier text. A corollary to this would be that the ancient Prabhāsa should have been somewhere along the Gulf of Kutch. Due to severe natural disasters, emigrating people might have founded another town of the same name, along the southwestern coast of present day Saurāşţra, and named a near by river notionally as Sarasvati. Another possibility is that of an existing holy place being renamed as Prabhāsa. This issue will be discussed in detail later. As far as the chronology is concerned, PK is of no help, notwithstanding the postulation of a long time span for creation, interms of yuga, kalpa, manvantara and parārdha, which is a clear anticipation of the modern day geological time scale. The apparent confusion about the time sequence and about the location of Prabhāsa indicates that PK was not composed in a single period. It is plausible the disaster was so cataclysmic; it led to a long discontinuity and divergence in the cultural traditions of the society. PK, as it is now, perhaps represents a collection of diverse traditions and opinions, in a single place to preserve them to posterity, without attempting to resolve the contradictions. The descriptions of weather change, famine, a falling celestial object, wide spread haze, emanation of gases, and sea waves can not be brushed aside easily as the inventions of the priestly class of ancient India to keep the ignorant masses under their sway. On the other hand, the occurrence of these natural events finds support in the still ancient epic literature. The great epics Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaņa contain anecdotes identifiable as rare natural phenomena and in some cases as disasters. Vedic literature starting with Ŗgveda, the earliest literary composition of India, also contain references to celestial phenomena and disasters related to ground impact. It is possible PK recounts some older incidents, in a different way. Hence a brief review of such incidents, even if they sound strange and mythological would help in understanding PK better.

Mahābhārata10 In the 66th chapter of Ādi Parvan, there appears a description of creation with personification of celestial objects. For example, Moon is supposed to have twentyseven wives, who are ‘eyes of Time’ (kālasya nayane) and ‘associates of stars’ (nakşatra- yoginyah, v. 17). In a similar tenor it is stated agneh putraħ kumārastu śrīmān śaravaņālayaħ|

17 kŗttikābhyupapatteśca kārtikeya iti smŗtaħ| tvāşţrī tu savituħ bhāryā vađavā-rūpa-dhāriņī| asūyata mahābhāgā sā antarikşe aśvināvubhau|| (ādi. p. 66. 24-25,36)

Kumāra, son of Fire is located in Śaravaņa (forest of Śara grass). Due to his birth in Kŗttikas (Pleiades), he is remembered as Kārtikeya. Tvāşţrī (daughter of Creator) wife of Sun, having taken the form of a fiery horse-head (vađavā), gave birth, in the sky, to (the twins) Aśvins.

The above verses appear in all the editions of MB. Actually two celestial events are indicated here. The first is associated clearly with kŗttikas or Pleiades, whereas the second is an object in the form of a horse-head out of which Aśvins were born. The word Vađavā does not occur in Ŗgveda. It appears in Vedic literature, in Āśvalāyana Gŗhya Sūtra, as a proper name. The popular meaning of this word in later Sanskrit, is pit-fire, marine-fire11. Its connection with a horse-face, (or a horse without thighs), is attributed to the Vedas, for, it is said in MB tatastam krodha-sańjātam aurvoSgnim varuņālaye| utsasarja sa caivāpa upayunkte mahodadhau|| mahat haya-śiro bhūtvā yattad vedavido viduħ| tamagnim udgiran vaktrāt pibatyāpo mahodadhau|| (ādi.p.180.21-22)

Then Aurva discharged the fire in the ocean. He having become a big horse-head, as known to those learned in the Vedas, spews fire from his mouth and drinks water in the ocean.

Thus, this form of terrestrial fire called vāđava (same as badabā) has had a celestial teleconnection, from very early times. In araņya parvan, while describing places of interest (tīrtha-yātrā), in Chapter 82, a visit to badabā is mentioned after Kashmir and river Vitastā. This is not same as the fire of PK, supposed to be the cause of drying up of river Sarasvati. Interestingly we have historical evidence that in Kashmir people used to celebrate a periodical festival where food was cooked on a natural fire12. Another interesting statement in MB is, tato gaccheta dharmajño himavat-sutam arbudam| pŗthivyām yatra vaicchidram pūrvam āsīt yudhisthira|| (ara.p. 82.55)

Then, one should go to Arbuda (mountain), son of Himavān, where in the past an opening was in the earth. This is a clear reference to a crater or opening near Mt.Abu. Ptolemy13 knew about this in second century AD. A deep pit at Vasişţhāśrama, which is traditionally identified to be near Mt.Abu, is mentioned in PK also. After a few more verses, we read about Vinaśana, the place where Sarasvati supposedly flowed underground, by the side of Meru-hills (ara.p. 82.111). In MB there is no emphatic narration of a fire linked with the vanishing of Sarasvati. On the other hand, in Araņya-parvan, several chapters are devoted to the description of Agni (Fire) in his various aspects. The story of Skanda as the son of a

18 strange fire (Adbhutāgni) is narrated in detail. Here a selection of such description is presented.

eşa raudrasya sanghāto mahān yuktaśca tejasā| somasya vahni-sūryābhyām adbhutoSyam samāgamaħ|| samāhūto hutavahaħ soSdbhutah sūryamaņđalāt|| vinihsŗtya yayau vahniħ vāgyato vidhivat prabhuħ| (ara.p. 223.19,28 )

When Sun and Moon were together (on amāvāsya), there was a terrific impact along with a light. This meeting of Moon with fire and Sun was a strange phenomenon. A strange fire emanated from Sun and traveled as told by Brahma (Creator).

The narration personifies a celestial fire (light) with the name Adbhuta (literally strange). In continuation of the above, it is narrated that Adbhuta desired the wives of Seven Sages (Saptaŗşi i.e. Ursa Major). There is an ancient myth cited in Śatapatha Brāhmaņa, that Kŗttikās were denoted as wives of Saptaŗşis. Thus in this story a strange fire is associated with Pleiades. However, Svāhā (a daughter of Dakşa) approaches Adbhuta in disguise, to collect his energy and to land on earth in the form of a bird Suparņī. MB presents this as a historical event to have occurred much before its own period. If believed, the birth of Kārtikeya would indicate an exploding or a brightening star. It is said that, Skanda grew bigger day by day for five days.

dvitīyāyām abhivyaktaħ tŗtīyāyām śiśuŗbabhau| anga-pratyanga sambhūtaħ caturthyām abhavad guhaħ|| lohitābhreņa mahatā samvŗtaħ saha vidyutā| lohitābhre sumahati bhāti sūrya ivoditaħ|| tāvātapantau samprekşya sabāloSrka-sama-dyutiħ| dvābhyām bhujābhyām ākāśam bāhuśo abhijaghānaħ|| krīđan bhāti mahāsenaħ trīn lokān vadanaiħ piban| parvatāgre aprameyātmā raśmimān udaye yathā | sa paśyan vividhān bhāvān cakāra ninadam punaħ| tasya tam ninadam śrutvā apatan bahudhā janāħ|| sa tadā vimalā śaktiħ kşiptā tena mahātmanā| bibheda śikharam ghoram śvetasya tarasā gireħ|| tataħ pravyathitā bhumiħ vyśīryata samantataħ|| athainam abhajallokāħ skandam śuklasya pañcamīm|| (ara.p.224.20,24,26,28,30,37,38,40) He manifested on the second day, became a child on the third and acquired his limbs on the fourth day…He is covered with a huge metallic glow and lightning. He shines in the reddish sky like the rising sun…. That boy, equivalent to Sun in his light, hit the sky several times with his two hands. Mahāsena, playing as though drinking the three worlds with his mouth, shines at the top of the mountain like Sun in the morning. He made a loud sound, hearing which large number of people fell down…. Then, that spear projected by him, broke the peak of White Mountain. The tormented earth broke in many places…then, people worshipped him as Skanda, who fell down on the fifth day of the bright fortnight.

Even though the narration indicates that the celestial event was followed with disastrous effects on earth, difficulty in separating myth from reality is apparent. There are different versions of the same episode available in MB, giving a feeling that the celestial and terrestrial events might have been mixed up in popular imagination. It is further said in the epic that a war broke out between gods and demons. This may be an allusion to falling objects, which were perhaps thought to be originating from the region around Pleiades. The anecdote is continued in the next chapter indicating change in weather. tasmin jāte mahāsatve mahāsene mahābale| samutthasthuħ mahotpātāh ghora-rupāħ pŗthagvidhāħ|| strī-pumsoħ viparītañca tathā dvandvāni yāni ca| graha-diptādi śankham ca rarāsā ca mahī bhŗśam|| nivasanti vane ye tu tasmin caitrarathe janāħ| te bruvanneşa soSnarthaħ pāvakenāhito mahān|| apare gāruđīm āhuħ tvayānarthoyam āhŗtaħ| (ara.p. 225.1-5)

While the strong Mahāsena was born, there were great disasters of different kinds. Opposition between men and women and similar inversion of dual phenomenon occurred. Planets blazed and earth groaned strongly. People living near that Caitraratha forest, said that all these bad happenings were brought about by Fire. Others, blamed Gāruđī for the calamities.

The above verses are interesting, in that there were people who thought differently about the same event. The socalled inversion of dual phenomena (this verse does not find a place in the critical edition from Pune) has been interpreted to mean ‘summer became winter and winter became summer’, by later commentators. This also hints at the possibility of the flying Gāruđī or Suparņī to be a meteorite impacting the ground leading to calamities. The place Caitraratha is traditionally identified as the region, in the upper reaches of Sarasvati River, towards Himalayas. The event, whenever it might have occurred, should have been of great import to the various groups of people populating the country. We find the same basic episode, described in different ways in later chapters also. In chapter 230, Skanda is described as son of Rudra and

“Rudra, embraced his son and released him. As Skanda was released, a big disaster took place and this suddenly stunned the gods. The sky and stars burnt and the universe was paralysed…. Skanda (or Mahāsena) came burning with anger like Sun. Mahāsena released the spear (śakti). That spear removed the head of demon Mahişa. The fallen head created a passage sixteen yojanas long, but being obstructed by the falling mountain, remained unpassable. However, now the people of Uttara-kuru, travel through that path easily.” (ara.p. 230. 59,60,93,96-99)

Again, we come across the episode of Kārtikeya in Śalya parvan, during the travelogue of Balarāma along the course of Sarasvati. The story is similar to what was described above, with minor differences. Here, Kārtikeya is said to have split into four parts, called Skanda, Śākha, Viśākha, and Naigameya (Sal.p. 45.39-40). As per the description in this

20 parvan, the last part namely, fiery Naigameya arrived in Gangā. This notation Naigameya (one related to Nigama or Veda) is indicative of a connection of this episode with Vedas, which will be discussed later. Once again a battle between Kārtikeya and a demon, this time called, Bāņa is narrated. During this fight, Kārtikeya is described as breaking Mt.Krauñca, with the spear given by Fire (Śal.p. 47.84). In Śalya-parvan itself, the story of sage Sārasvata and a severe famine, which affected the region around River Sarasvati find mention. atha kāle vyatikrānte mahatyati bhayańkare| anāvŗşţiħ anuprāptā rājan dvādaśa vārşikī| tasyām dvādaśa-vārşikyām anāvŗşţyām mahaŗşayaħ| vŗtyartham pradravan rājan kşudhārtāħ sarvato diśam|| (śal.p. 52.37-38)

After some time, a severe drought occurred for a period of twelve years. In that drought great sages affected by hunger, searching for sustenance, went in all directions.

This famine is described in detail again in Śānti-parvan, chapter 139. Here a few verses are quoted to highlight the realistic tone of the text. Bhīşma is supposed to tell Yuđħişţhira, atrāpi udāharantīmām itihāsam purātanam| viśvāmitrasya samvādam cāņđālasya ca pakkaņe|| tretā-dvāparayoħ sandhau tadā deva-vidhi-kramāt| anāvŗşţiħ abhūt ghorā loke dvādaśa-vārşikī|| prajānām ati-vŗddhānām yugānte samupasthite| tretā-vimokşa samaye dvāpara-pratipādane|| na vavarşa sahasrākşaħ pratilomoSbhavat guruħ| jagāma dakşinam mārgam somo vyāvŗtta-lakşaņaħ|| sarāmsi saritāścaiva kupāħ prasravņāni ca| hata-tvişo na lakşyante nisargāt daiva-kāritāt|| upa-śuşka-jala-sthāyā vinivŗtta sabhā prapā| nivŗtta-yajña-svādhyāyā nirvaşaţkāra-mańgalā|| ucchinna-kŗşi-gorakşa nivŗtta-vipaņāpaņā| nivŗtta-yūpa-sambhārā vipraņaşţa-mahotsavā|| asthi-sañcaya-sańkirņā mahābhūta-ravākulā| śūnya-bhūyişţha-nagarā dagdha-grāma-niveśanā|| (śān.p. 141.12-20)

Even now, people cite the ancient historical discourse of Viśvāmitra in the settlement of the Cāņđāla. At the junction of Tretāyuga and Dvāparayuga, a twelve year long drought occurred. There was no rainfall and Jupiter was retrograde. Moon went south being eclipsed. Lakes, rivers, wells and springs with no water were not seen due to nature’s wrath. Reservoirs dried up, assemblies (of people) dissolved, and scholarly studies, sacrifices and celebrations were withdrawn. Agriculture, diary, and commerce were given up. Empty cities and burnt down villages filled with the cries of goblins, became collecting places of bones.

21 The picture presented is that of a horrible famine. As per the text, sage Viśvāmitra stole dog meat during this famine, unable to bear the pangs of hunger. In the same book after a few more chapters, Nakula is supposed to ask Bhīşma about the importance of ‘sword’. Here again a celestial event connected with Pleiades is described.

candramā vimala-vyoma yathābhyudita-tārakam| vikiryāgnim tathā-bhūtam utthitam śrūyate tadā|| tasmin utpata-māne ca pracacāla vasundharā| mahormi-kalitāvartaħ cukşubhe sa mahodadhiħ|| cacāra vividhān mārgān mahābala parākramaħ| vidhunvan asim ākāśe tathā yuddha cikīrşayā|| kŗttikāħ tasya nakşatram aseħ agniśca daivatam| rohiņīm gotram āsthāpya rudraś ca guru-sattamaħ|| (śān.p. 160.37,40,52,82)

When the sky was clear with moon and stars, it is said that Asi (sword) arose, emitting fire. As it arose, the earth shook and the oceans got disturbed. Displaying the sword in the sky, being intent on a battle, (Rudra) moved in various directions. For Asi, Kŗttikā is the birth star; Agni (fire) is the god; Rohiņī (Aldebaran) is the clan and Rudra is the teacher.

This myth is again that of a celestial object, since it is said that Brahmā (Creator) assured the gods and sages that he had intentionally created this Asi, which means sword or spear. The sword is given to Rudra the deity of constellation Ardrā (Orion) to fight the demons. The further verses indicate that a metallic object eventually landed on earth, leading to earthquakes and disturbances in the oceans. Names of twenty-eight kings, who were recipients of the original sword in succession, are listed, starting from Manu the first king. This list ends with Kŗpa, the teacher of Pāņđavas and Kauravas. The above myths of Mahābhārata are all similar in indicating that a long time before the MB period, a strange fire was observed in the sky. It may be surmised that, this event could have been variously interpreted by different groups of people. As MB passed through many bards and copyists, differing traditions of Kārtikeya, might have found their place in the epic. In any case, a celestial light or object (nova) associated with Pleiades, should have given rise to all further imaginative descriptions. It is probable that this was followed (not necessarily immediately) by a meteor, thought to be originating from a near by region (Taurus) of the sky, hitting a populated part of the country leading to a famine.

Rāmāyaņa14 The legend of Kārtikeya mentioned in Bāla-kāņđa (Ch.36.16-19) can be recognized as a celestial phenomenon, even though it is not as dramatic as in MB. There is reference to River Sarasvati and River Ganga as flowing next to each other in Ayodhyā-kāņđa (Ch.71). However, in Yuddha-kāņđa (Ch.22), the desertification of the land of Ābhiras in the northwestern part of India is attributed to Rāma’s anger against the southern sea.

Vedic Literature Fire or Agni is a prominent god in the Vedas. He is not same as Sun, even though, similarities are present. He is connected with heaven and earth in a unique way. In

22 interpreting the word arati, which is used only with reference to Agni, twentyone relations have been identified between Agni on one side and heaven and earth on the other side15. All of these highlight presence of Agni as a bright light in the sky, in a physical sense also. The available Vedic literature, comprising of Samhitas, Brahmanas, Upanişads and subsidiary texts is too vast for a brief review. The attempt here is only to point out a few hymns of Ŗgveda addressed to Agni, meanings of which have close resemblance to the type of celestial phenomena under discussion. We read in the first book of Ŗgveda16 “Tvaşţār's ten daughters, vigilant and youthful, produced this Infant borne to sundry quarters”. “Three several places of his birth they honour, in mid-air, in the heaven, and in the water”. “Who of you knows this secret One? The Infant by his own nature hath brought forth his Mothers”. “Like Savitar his arms with might he stretches; awful, he strives grasping the world's two borders. He forces out from all a brilliant vesture, yea, from his Mothers draws he forth new raiment”. (I.95.2,3,4,7)

“The beloved (Agni), strong, rich in food, rests in the brilliant (sun); secondly, in the seven auspicious mothers.” “Then also entered he the Mothers, and in them pure and uninjured he increased in magnitude.” (I. 141.2;5)

In the second book, hymn (II.2.2) says Agni shines day and night. He also increases in size, for; “Him have they set in his own dwelling, in the vault, like the Moon waxing, fulgent, in the realm of air.” (II.2.4)

In the ninth and tenth books, Agni is the child of Seven Sisters, by which the star group Pleiades is meant. Moreover, he could be seen along with the sun.

“The Sisters Seven, the Mothers, stand around the Babe, the noble, new-born Infant,..” (IX. 86.36) “High hath the Mighty risen before the dawning, and come to us with light from out the darkness. Fair-shapen Agni with white-shining splendour hath filled at birth all human habitations.” (X.1.1) “He shines, all-knowing, with his lofty splendour: chasing black Night he comes with white-rayed Morning.” (X.3.1) “When he surpassed with his splendour the Dark and the White, bringing forth the woman born of the great father and holding firm the ray, raised high, of the sun, the brilliant one (Agni) shines with the bright ones of Heaven” (X.3.2) 15 “He, calling loudly to the Seven red Sisters, hath, skilled in sweet drink, brought them to be looked on. He, born of old, in middle air hath halted, and sought and found the covering robe of Pusan”. (X.5.5) Reference to a fiery celestial object falling on earth is also found in the tenth book.

Divyā ańgārī iriņe nyuptāħ śītāħ santo hŗdayam nirdahanti/ (X.34.9)

23 This means,‘heavenly charcoals having ploughed into iriņa, burn the heart’, where iriņa should refer to a locality and not ‘dice-board’ as interpreted by Griffith16 and a few others. The real meaning of the word iriņa, is of considerable interest and will be discussed later. In the seventh book, attributed to the authorship of Vasişţha(s), indications of calamities, fire spread and falling objects are found. A few verses from the translation of Velankar17are as follows.

“Out of fear for you, the dark-skinned tribes went away helter-skelter, abandoning their posessions, when, O Vaisvanara, you blazed forth, shining for Puru and battering the forts (of his enemies) O Agni.” (VII. 5.3) “O Indra and Soma, do hurl down from the heaven; do you strike down in the abyss the voracious demons, with your never aging (weapons), which are heated with fire, which kill with stones and which are destructive by their heat.” (VII.104.5) The above verse from the famed raksoghna hymn can be interpreted as a description of meteorites falling on earth, similar to the demons Dhūmra and others of PK going underground. There are verses that hint at difficulties faced due to Varuņa (god of Oceans or Waters). “And when I had gone within his presence, I considered Varuņa’s face to be that of Agni (through anger). May the sovereign ruler take me to see the great wonder, namely, what the sun and the darkness are in the rocky caves.” (VII.88.2) “May I not go to the house of clay, O king Varuņa;……,have mercy” “When I go forth, bursting as it were like a fully inflated skin-bag,…..have mercy.” “Thirst has attacked your singer, while yet he stands in the midst of waters;….have mercy” (VII.89.1,2,4)

Indication of a famine is indirect, as when Vāmadeva says, “In deep distress I cooked a dog's intestines. Among the Gods I found not one to comfort.” (IV.18.13)16

Another reference to a famine, in the Vedic literature, appears in Chāndogya Upanişad (I.10.1), when the Kurus were destroyed, hit by a shower of stones and Uşasti Cākrāyaņa ate food in the village of elephant catchers (ibhya-grāma). Kosambi18, discussing the above two texts, interprets “….the Brahmin could take soiled food from the lowest caste only in times of unutterable famine.”

Discussion The main purpose of the present work has been to review Prabhāsa-khaņđa of Skānda- purāņa. To understand the historical background with which PK might have been composed it became necessary to review the epics, particularly Mahābhārata. This in turn necessitated a brief review of Ŗgveda, for clues on observation of natural phenomena in ancient India. It may be appropriate to mention here that there is clear evidence in Ŗgveda for sage Atri having observed a total solar eclipse (V.40.5). It is easily seen from the verses cited previously, that the birth of Agni in Ŗgveda to the seven red sisters, should be same as the birth of Kārtikeya to Kŗttikas in MB. Both the texts indicate that the object in the sky was comparable to the sun in brilliance. In Ŗgveda, it is said that the object waxed like the moon; while, as per MB it increased in its brilliance for five days.

24 Thus, there is a strong case for identifying the phenomenon as an explosion or brightening of a star. The memory of this event perhaps was waning by the time PK was composed, since in PK there is only an unconnected statement to the effect that a demon was born in Pleiades (…samutpannaħ kŗttikāsu niśācaraħ// 20.45). Eventhough there are references to falling objects and weapons from the heavens in Ŗgveda, they are not as categorical as in MB and PK. In MB, the birth of Kārtikeya is almost immediately followed by his falling on earth as Skanda. PK denotes the heavenly objects falling on earth, as demons hit by Sun. Such differences would only go to indicate that some important events have been variously interpreted and merging traditions in course of time have brought up still newer myths. Hence, the texts taken together indicate a meteorite hitting the earth at an unknown time, which perhaps caused considerable destruction in the country. Vedas as is well known, promote a way of life with fire as the vehicle of worship. We read in Atharvaņa Veda15, pramuñcanto bhuvanasya reto gātum dhatta yajamānāya devaħ| upākŗtam sāsamānam yad asthāt priyam devānām api etu pāthaħ|| (2.34.2)

“Do ye, releasing the seed of being, (bhuvanasya reto), show the way to the sacrificer O gods: what, brought here and immolated, stood up, living, let it go to the own abode of the gods.” This hymn may mean that, what fell down from the heavens was interpreted, at least by some, to be the essence of the universe. Vedic sacrifices (yajña) originated in analogy with cosmic phenomena (e.g. Fire Altar as Prajāpati and as Year), a few of which atleast were celestial happenings. After observing a nova and a falling meteorite, it was perhaps natural for the esoterically minded followers of the Veda to hail Agni as the messenger from the heavens. However, others (āgamikas) perhaps physicalized the falling object as reta (semen) or lińga (phallus) or śakti (power) of Rudra and took the phenomenon to herald the arrival (āgama) of his son, Kumāra. Nevertheless, all the texts are unanimous in indicating serious distress in the society due to a famine. The texts also strongly hint that this should have been due to ground impact caused by the heavenly object. Interestingly, PK attributes the famine and distress more to the recession and swelling of the sea.

Place of Occurrence On the question of the place and time of occurrence of the events, none of the texts provides any direct information. We can nevertheless surmise that the disasters should have taken place broadly in the northwestern part of the country, with particular reference to the border regions between Rajasthan and Gujarat, including Kutch. PK starts with Prabhāsa on Sourastra coast, but describes more accurately, the course taken by river Sarasvati from Himalayas through Sthāņeśvar, Kurukşetra and Arbudāraņya, ending up in Rann of Kutch. PK refers to Prabhāsa as the best among the holy places in the desert (ūşara-kşetra). Its naming of five Prabhāsa, including one called Vŗddha (old) Prabhāsa, but failing to give their locations, adds to the suspicion that Sarasvati in ancient times, did not reach the present day Somanātha. This is not to say that there was no Prabhāsa, but only it was in some other place, probably in Rann of Kutch. This region even as it is now, fits in with the description in PK of a dried up sea. PK mentions of a lake containing rasa or mercury near Prabhāsa (Ch.135.35-37) cited already. Kardama Mountain, which is

25 said to contain cinnabar as per Rasārņavakalpa19, has been identified as being near Siddhapura (240N, 72.50E) by Murthy20 a geologist from Geological Survey of India. Another curious information as per the official Survey of India map of Gujarat is of interest here. A place called Mūla Dvāraka (original Dvāraka) exists along the west coast, below Somanātha. B.C.Law21 in his book, Historical Geography of Ancient India informs that Kŗşņa’s Dvāravatī was originally situated near the mountain Girnar, but in later times, it has been recognized as Dvārakā on the seashore on the extreme west coast of Kathiawad. This means that the present day Dvārakā was not considered the original Dvārakā by many people. What could be the reason for this? A careful reading of MB text helps one to conclude that Prabhāsa and Dvārakā should have been close to each other. Hence, identification and integration of the destroyed ancient Prabhāsa emotionally with Somanātha, might have lead to the naming of a near by place as Mūla Dvārakā. Thus, PK has internal evidences to show that the disastrous events were not along the present day Sourastra coast, but in the Kutch-Mahesana region. Rāmāyaņa indicates that the land of Ābhīras became a desert. MB puts the place of vanishing of River Sarasvati near the land of Ābhīras. As per MB, Ābhīras attacked Arjuna on his way back from Dvārakā, after the passing away of Kŗşņa. Kosambi22 with his incisive approach to MB text cites this as an evidence to argue that Kŗşņa’s Dvārakā could not have been at its currently assigned location. PK does not contradict this inference, since Sarasvati is said to have passed through Dvāravatī, before reaching Prabhāsa. In the tenth book of Ŗgveda, the stray verse about heavenly charcoals ploughing through Iriņa is intriguing. The word Iriņa is phonetically connected with Riņ or Raņ (of Kutch), which would mean this was the place where some fiery objects should have fallen. This word occurs in Śatapatha Brāhmaņa (V.2.3.2), where it is interpreted as a self produced hollow or cleft, the residence of deity Niŗti who presides over destruction25. Periplus of the Erithrean Sea23, which is an ancient account of a voyage along the coast of India, refers to the Gulf of Kutch as Eirinon, which can be recognized as the Iriņa of Ŗgveda. This conclusion is also supported by what Ptolemy had to say about the geography of India13. It is known that Ptolemy collected his information from travellers and from contemporary Indian sources. Thus, place names and locations currently forgotten, but remembered by the ancient society, are found on his map of India. The important among these for our discussion are Sarbana, Ordabari and Theophila. Sarbana is undoubtedly Śaravaņa in Sanskrit, celebrated as the place of birth of Kārtikeya. As per McCrindle “…the position of Xodrake and the other places in the list must be sought for in the neighbourhood of Raņ of Kachh. Xodrake and Sarbana have not been identified, but Yule doubtingly places the latter on the Sambhar lake.” Further, Orbadarou is identified with Arbuda or Mt.Abu. The identification of Theophila meaning ‘dear to God’ in Greek has not been possible, because, this is the translation or explanation of a Sanskrit name. There is no mention of Prabhāsa or Dvāravatī in the list, but arguably, either of them have a claim to be called Theophila. PK, mentions Vasişţhāśrama, which is traditionally near Mt.Abu, as being near Prabhāsa. The crater near this place mentioned in the arbuda-khaņđa of PK, should be same as the one mentioned by MB to be in Arbuda. Ptolemy refers to Mt.Abu by two names Apokopa alias punishment-of-gods. The former name in Greek means primarily ‘what has been cut off’. As per McCrindle13 “ It (Mt.Abu) was mentioned by Megasthanes in a passage which has been preserved by Pliny who calls it Mons Capitalia i.e. the ‘Mount of capital Punishment’ a name which has an obvious relation to the by-

26 name which Ptolemy gives it, the punishment of the gods.” This interpretation, fits in with the description in PK and MB about breaking of mountains and destruction of Vasişţha’s settlement near Prabhāsa. We find some interesting references to this part of the country, in the travels of the Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang, who visited India during 629-645 AD. He does not mention either Prabhāsa or Somanātha. However, Thomas Watters24 the translator of the Chinese account informs; “The narrative in the Records proceeds to relate that from Bharukhachcha the pilgrim went nort-west above 2000 li to the Mo-la-po country…..It was situated on the south-east side of the Mo-ha river…..About 20 li north-west from the capital was the brahmin’s town, and beside it the Pit of Descent; the torrents of summer and autumn never fill the latter, and its side was a small tope. The pilgrim then gives the local legend of the proud blasphemous brahmin of the town who went down alive into hell at the spot where the Pit appeared.” We see here again clearly reminisences of a pit through which a celestial object (demon) went underground near Prabhāsa as per PK. The country, which the Chinese traveller visited, has been identified as a kingdom of Western India lying between Broach, Kutch, Valabhi and Anandapura24. It is known that during the seventh century AD in this area, which overlaps with the present day Mahesana district of Gujarat, Buddhism was flourishing. Thus, it was natural for Yuan Chwang to refer to the legend in a way supportive of Buddhism. The place with which his Brahmin’s town can be identified is Brahman-wada (23.60N, 720E) west of Mahesana. Thus, all the ancient literature reviewed so far points to the region around (23.50N, 71.50E) as the scene of the natural disasters described in PK and hence as also the likely location of the ancient Prabhāsa Kşetra, where River Sarasvati joined the sea.

Time of Occurrence From the texts cited it is impossible to fix up any kind of dating for the celestial phenomenon of Agni (fire) in Kŗttikās, or for ground impact due to falling objects. An indirect approach has to be adopted to address this question. It is well recognized that Vedic rituals are codified in the Brāhmaņa literature composed after the Samhitas. Hence, it would be most appropriate to ask the question, whether the fact of observing fire in Kŗttikās as inferred from Ŗgveda, finds support in the later texts. Śatapatha Brāhmaņa, provides evidence that the Agnyādhāna ritual was based on such an observation. The relevant verses as translated by Eggeling25 are as follows.

“He may set up the two fires under the Krttikas; for they, the Krttikas are doubtless Agni’s asterism, so that if he sets up his fires under Agni’s asterism, (he will bring about) a correspondence (between his fires and the asterism): for this reason he may set up his fires under the Krttikas.” (II.1.2 .1)

“Moreover, the other lunar asterisms (consist of) one, two, three or four (stars), so that the Krttikas are the most numerous (of asterisms): hence he thereby obtains an abundance. For this reason he may set up his fires under the Krttikas.” (II.1.2 .2) “And again, they do not move away from the eastern quarter, whilst the other asterisms do move from the eastern quarter. Thus his (two fires) are established in the eastern quarter: for this reason he may set up his fires under the Krttikas.” (II.1.2 .3)

27 “On the other hand (it is argued) why he should not set up the fires under the Krttikas. Originally, namely, the latter were the wives of the Bears (rksa); for the seven Rsis were in former times called the Rksas (bears). They were however, precluded from intercourse (with their husbands), for the latter, the seven Rsis, rise in the north, and they (the Krttikas) in the east. Now it is a misfortune for one to be precluded from intercourse (with his wife): he should therefore not set up his fires under the Krttikas, lest he should thereby be precluded from intercourse.” (II.1.2. 4)

“But he may neverthless set up (his fire under the Krttikas); for Agni doubtless is their mate, and it is with Agni that they have intercourse; for this reason he may set up (the fire under the Krttikas)” (II.1.2 .5)

The first of the above is a clear enunciation of a celestial model for the ritual under consideration. There is an assertion that there is fire in Pleiades, which should have been based on an accepted fact or traditional knowledge. If a doubt prevails, in line with popular belief that this might be an imaginary or mystical statement, it is removed in the fourth verse. This is significant in that a critic questions the basis of the model, on which the starting of the ritual was being proposed. What he points out, as a weakness in the model, is the lack of physical nearness between U.Major and Pleiades. In answer to this, the fifth verse confirms the presence of Fire in Kŗttikās in an intimate physical sense, implying this to be sufficient reason for the validity of the proposal. Even though, other asterisms were permitted for the ritual the pride of place was for Kŗttikās only. The second verse, establishes that the Seven Sisters of Ŗgveda Samhita were infact the star cluster Kŗttikā that arose in the east. The third verse is a statement considered helpful in fixing a time epoch for the observation of Pleiades rising in the east. S.B.Dikshit26 a renowned Sanskrit scholar of 19th century, by astronomical calculations, found that such a perfect eastern position for Pleiades would have been observable in India around 3000 BC. More recently, N.Achar27 has demonstrated using modern planetarium softwares that the stated position fits in accurately for 2926 BC. The most conservative interpretation of Kŗttikā being in the east would refer to its heliacal rising at the vernal equinox. Parpola28 in his monograph on deciphering of the Indus script, observes that Kŗittikā was exactly at the equinoctial point c. 2240 BC, and that it was the star nearest to the equinoctial point during 2720-1760 BC. In any case, the physical observation of a blaze in Kŗttikā, as described in Ŗgveda, should have been earlier than the Agnyādhāna ritual and the composition of Śatapatha Brāhmaņa text. This would put the probable time-period of observation of the nova to c. 2500-3000 BC or even earlier. There is again no clue to when the ground impact and fire due to a falling object might have taken place. The tenth book of Ŗgveda, where the falling of a fiery object finds mention, is generally considered a relatively late composition. Moreover, the books of Ŗgveda are organized along family lines with an unknown chronological order. Hence, considerable time might have elapsed between the above two events, eventhough no definitive conclusion is possible. MB mentions the two events as though they were historical and consecutive. Thus, the ground impact including the crater near Mt.Abu should have been much before the central theme of MB. Unfortunately, the date of MB has remained undecided. Recently, the present author29 has shown that, the eclipses and planetary positions mentioned in MB are compatible with the epoch 1443-1493 BC. This would indicate that the impact should

28 have occurred prior to this period, in a broad time window of a few centuries. If we take the statement in Śānti Parvan of MB that twentyeight persons were in posession of Asi as a historical statement and assign, on an average, twentyfive years of posession to each person then it follows this event could have occurred in 1800-2200 BC. A more precise estimation of the date, based on the above literature alone, appears not possible. About River Sarasvati PK gives a plausible course of flow. This matches reasonably well, with what modern geologists have surmised as the possible flow route30. The river should have started from Himalayas and flown through Kurukşetra, with several tributaries. A tributary (Mandakini?) originating in the Aravalis should have joined the river downhill of Mt.Abu. Severe ground upheavals, reasons for which included a meteorite impact, should have caused Sarasvati to slowly dry up and eventually vanish near Vinaśana of MB. The tributary from Mt.Abu continues to flow, known by the name Sarasvati, in the official Survey of India map of the State of Gujarat.

Summary and Conclusion Prabhāsa-khaņđa, traditionally considered as a part of Skānda-purāņa contains interesting information about natural disasters, which should have affected the northwestern part of India in the remote past. Eventhough, the narration is mythological in format, the contents are such that the narrated events should have actually taken place and the memory passed on from generation to generation in the form of folk stories and anecdotes. All the incidents mentioned in PK find place in one form or other in MB and to some extent in Ŗgveda. However, there are considerable differences in the details and hence these texts perhaps represent different traditions. The observation of Fire in Kŗittikā finds mention in Ŗgveda, Śatapatha Brāhmaņa, MB and PK. The first two, properly belonging to Vedic literature do not propound this as the birth of a god or a divine being with form, whereas both Rāmāyaņa and MB refer to this event as the birth of Kārtikeya, who is a popular deity of the Hindu pantheon. The description in MB is vivid and detailed. From the way the event is described, it is conjectured that this should have been an observation of brightening of a star (nova) in the cluster of Pleiades. Astrophysicists may be in a position to evaluate the veracity of the observation of this event in scientific terms. PK cursorily refers to this event, but dwells more on the ground openings caused due to impact of falling objects. Perhaps these were meteorite impacts, which caused considerable direct destruction and in addition generated sea waves. MB supports the story of impact and in one place goes to the extent of informing that a metallic object landed on earth. The implication is that this was the sword (Vel or Sakti) of Kārtikeya, who is known by the names Velāyudha and Śaktidhara. All the texts are unanimous that subsequently there was a severe famine leading to prolonged misery in the society. The place of occurrence of the impact and related phenomenon should have been in the Kutch-Mt.Abu region. There are evidences in Ŗgveda, MB, and PK to this effect. It follows that the present day Prabhāsa, popularly identified with Somanātha, was not the original site of ancient Prabhāsa. Archaeological investigations at the ancient site, near (23.50N, 71.50E), should lead to interesting new information.

29 Acknowledgements The work reported here is supported by the Indian National Academy of Engineering, N.Delhi, under its Indian Engineering Heritage (Civil) study group activity. Thanks are due to Sri M.K.Raina of Lalla-Ded trust, Thane for sending extracts of Reference 12. Discussions with Dr.S.Ananthakrishnana of GMRT, Pune were useful.

Notes and References

1. H.Bakker. Personal Communication. Also see http://www.theol.rug.nl/~bakker/

2. E.C.Schau , “Alberuni’s India” vols. I and II, Munshiram Manoharlal Pub. Pvt.Ltd., N.Delhi, 1992. Vol.I; Chapter XXV: “The river Sarsati falls into the sea at the distance of a bowshot east of Somanath.”

3. Skānda-purāņam; Prabhāsa-khaņđa, in three volumes. Sanskrit Text with Kannada translation by Pt.M.Subrahmanya Sastri, Sri Jayachamarajendra grantha-ratna-mala, No.14, Publ.Palace of Mysore. 1958.

4.Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its Environs, Publ. by Geological Survey of India, Calcutta, 2000.

5.Kalhana, “Rajatarangini”, in three volumes translated into English, M.A.Stein 1900, reprint Motilal Banarsidas, N.Delhi, 1989.

6.Varāha-mihira, “Bŗhat-Samhita”, in two volumes translated into English by M.R.Bhat, Motilal Banarsidas, N. Delhi, 1981.

7.E.C.Schau, “Alberuni’s India” vols. I and II, Munshiram Manoharlal Pub. Pvt.Ltd., N.Delhi, 1992. Vol.II, Chapter LVIII: “It is the flow and ebb to which Somanath owes its name.(i.e. master of the moon); for the stone(or linga) of Somanath was originally erected on the coast, a little less than three miles west of the mouth of the river Sarsuti,…..Each time when the moon rises and sets, the water of the ocean rises in the flood so as to cover the place in question. When, then, the moon reaches the meridian of noon and midnight, the water recedes in the ebb, and the place becomes again visible. Thus, the moon was perpetually occupied in serving the idol and bathing it. Therefore, the place was considered sacred to the moon. The fortress which contained the idol and its treasures was not ancient, but was built only about a hundred years ago.”

8.Harşacarita of Bāņa (7th Cent AD) mentions Śrīkaņţha-janapada which contains Sthāņīśvara. Kuru- jāngala is considered to be same as Śrīkaņţha-deśa.

9. J.N.Malik, S.S.Merh and V.Sridhar, in “Vedic Sarasvati, Evolutionary History of a Lost River of Northwestern India”, (ed) B.P.Radhakrishna and S.S.Merh, Geological Society of India, Bangalore, Memoir 42, 2002. pp 163-174. However, it has to be noted that these authors have equated Prabhasa with Somanatha, without any critical evaluation.

10. Mahabharata. Various editions are available. Here mainly the Critical Edition of BORI Pune, available at the web site http://home.dongguk.edu/user/india/text/e-mbh.html has been used.

11.Amara Kośa: Śucirappittamaurvastu vāđavo vađavānalaħ|| (I.1.56)

12. W.R.Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir, Kashmir Kitab Ghar, Jammu-Tawi. Chapter III: “Soiyam is a tract of land situated in the village of Nichhama, Machipura. The soil became heated in 1875, and for thirteen months the heat was so great that the Hindus who flocked to see the miracle were enabled to cook their food over the burning ground. The soil has been burnt to a hard red brick, in which are perfect impressions of leaves. Some thirty-six years before 1875 the soil became hot, but the phenomenon only lasted for two months. The people believe that the occurrence is a Karan, that is, an abnormal display of the powers of nature manifested at certain fixed periods. And they are quite certain that Soiyam will again

30 boil up in the year 1911. Dr.W.king, the director of Geological Survey of India,…..remarks ‘it must not be forgotten,….that there are reported in the Kashmir region of hidden seams of tertiary coal having taken fire and produced the burnt appearance of outcrop described above’.”

13. J.W.McCrindle, “Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy” Munshiram Manoharlal Pub.Pvt.Ltd., N.Delhi, 2000.

14 Srimad-Valmiki-Ramayanam, Sanskrit text brought out by a tea m of scholars,

15.A.Venkatasubbiah, “Vedic Studies” Vol.I, Surabhi and Co., Mysore 1932.

16.R.T.Griffith, The Rigveda English Translation, Available at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/

17. H.D.Velankar, “Rgveda Mandala VII” Text, translation and notes, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1963.

18.D.D. Kosambi, Combined Methods in Indology, Indo-Iranian J., vol. 6, 1963. Available in Collected papers edited by B.Chattopadhyaya, Oxford Univ. Press, N.Delhi 2002.

19.M.Roy and B.V.Subbarayappa, “Rasārņavakalpa” Ind. Natl.Science Academy, N.Delhi, 1976.

20. S.R.N. Murthy, An Occurrence of Cinnabar in Rasarnavakalpa, Ind. J. of Hist. of Science, 14 (2), 1978, 83-86.

21. B.C.Law, Historical Geography of Ancient India, Oriental Reprint, Indian edition, 1982.

22.D.D.Kosambi, The Historical Krishna, The Times of India Annual 1965. Available in Collected papers edited by B.Chattopadhyaya, Oxford Univ. Press, N.Delhi 2002

23. W.H.Schoff, “ The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century” Available at web site http://www.und.ac.za/und/classics/india/periplus.htm

24. T.Watters, “On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India”, Vols I and II, Munshiram Manoharlal Pub. Pvt.Ltd., N.Delhi, 1996.

25.T.Eggeling “The Satapatha Brahmana” English translation in 3 volumes, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1963.

26.S.B.Dikshit “Bharatiya Jyotisa Sastra” Govt. of India Press, Calcutta,1969.

27. B.N.Narahari Achar, “On the Astronomical Basis of the date of Satapatha Brahmana”, Ind. J of History of Science, 35(1), 2000, 1-19.

28. A.Parpola “Deciphering the Indus Script” Cambridge Univ.Press, Cambridge, 1994.

29.R.N.Iyengar, “Internal Consistency of Eclipses and Planetary Positions in Mahābhārata”, Ind.J.of Hist.of Science, INSA, June 2003.

30.K.S.Valdiya, “Saraswati, the River that Disappeared”, Univ. Press, Hyderabad, 2002.

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Ryan Woodland

Co-continuous bi-polymer composites with carbon nanotubes (CNT) were prepared and mono-filaments were produced at different draw ratios. The monofilaments were composed by polypropylene (PP) blended with polycaprolactone (PCL) and CNT. The PP/(PCL+4%CNT), mixed at a 50:50 ratio, formed a co-continuous structure, with the CNT localized in the PCL phase and an overall CNT composition of 2% wt. The application of these monofilaments as sensors requires that they present (i) electrical conductivity and (ii) adequate mechanical properties. For the first requirement to be met there must be co-continuity of the two polymer phases in the monofilament, and the CNT must form a conductive network inside its host phase. The monofilaments obtained were characterized in terms of electrical resistivity and tensile properties. The blend morphology was analysed by electron microscopy. Materials and compounding: Filament drawing of bi-polymer composites: Scanning electron microscopy of monofilament c...

Darron Lamkin

Trans(c)réation

Marie-Reine MOUTON

Quand il choisit, en 1983, d'adapter le roman The Dead Zone (1979) de Stephen King, David Cronenberg ne se doute pas qu'il va peiner à aboutir à un scénario qui soit satisfaisant. Il lui faut alors faire appel à plusieurs scénaristes : c'est Jeffrey Boam qui retient son attention. Privé de la première phase du travail d'adaptation-l'écriture du scénario-, il ne reste à David Cronenberg qu'à croire à l'image pour parvenir à révéler sur écran son adaptation du roman de King. Cet article entend revenir sur les conditions de création du film Dead Zone en réfléchissant le geste d'adaptation selon deux modalités : l'écriture du scenario et sa mise en images.

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Review article, the representation of earthquakes in hindu religion: a literature review to improve educational communications in nepal.

Institute of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Geosciences and Environment, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

In Nepal, after every large earthquake, local people appear to be motivated to get better prepared for future earthquakes. However, their motivation vanishes before effective preparation, mainly due to the lack of earthquake education in their community. Promoting up-to-date scientific knowledge to a society living under high earthquake hazard is important and contributes to reduce the related risk. The dissemination of information in Nepal lags far behind modern seismological knowledge, and part of the local population still believes in religious explanations and stories about earthquakes. We run an educational program in Nepal to make people better aware of earthquakes and to improve their preparedness through obligatory school education, but the dichotomy between scientific and religious visions of earthquakes remains a challenge. For more efficient acceptance of earthquake preparatory advices, it is important to better perceive the religious narration of earthquakes and to include these in the educational communications. Thereby, we reviewed the main sources of Hindu literature and gathered relevant and interesting explanations on earthquake evidences and causes. The primary religious interpretations of earthquakes in different Hindu texts are related to the Gods and their actions, and some sources also include physical descriptions of earthquakes related situations or processes. We found that most of the stories, causes and explanations of earthquake do not match with the concepts of modern science, yet there are exceptions such as a historically old advice to leave buildings during the shaking. The collected findings are important not only from a religious literature review perspective, but also and mainly to develop an inclusive and more efficient strategy to communicate about earthquake related topics in the classroom as well as with the public in Nepal.

Introduction

To develop natural hazard and disaster communication strategies in any community, it is important to understand the contexts of intercultural interactions and communication ( Mumby, 1988 ; Deetz, 1996 ). Communication research is strongly based on experience and hence should not only be relevant to everyday life but also facilitate the success of everyday intercultural encounters ( Ribeau, 1997 ). Since intercultural communication is complex, knowledge transfer from one culture (e.g. science) to another culture (e.g. religion) must consider the social context. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate cultural variations and their impacts on communication effectiveness ( Leonard et al., 2009 ).

The focus of culture is on structure and of communication is on process ( Birdwhistell, 2010 ). At the same time, the two are strongly related and influence each other ( Hall and Hall, 1959 ), mainly through social interactions of individuals. When knowledge is to be transferred from one cultural context to another, it is necessary to think in terms of communication processes adapted to both parties, and to make an effort to sensitively resolve differences ( Ablonczy-Mihalyka, 2015 ). In the educational environment, using different and efficient communication channels between the learner and the curriculum is important ( Kelly and Westerman, 2016 ), especially if physical presence is hindered as in the COVID-19 context (e.g., Kelly and Westerman, 2020 ; Brown, 2021 ). We entered a challenging situation of intercultural communication in frame of a Seismology-at-school program in a religious environment, and here explore the undertaken pathways for more efficient cultural exchange between science and religion, and more efficient communication with the community members.

The oldest living major religion in the world is believed to be Hinduism (e.g., Klostermaier, 2007 ), with roots, traditions and customs dating back to possibly more than 5,000 years ( Kak, 2000 ). Hinduism has originated on the Indian subcontinent and about 1 billion followers including population from India and Nepal currently place Hindu as the third-largest religion after Christianity and Islam.

One of the key thoughts of Hindu people is trust in Soul, Heaven, and Hell. What they assume is that people’s current and past actions and thoughts would determine their current life and future condition for living in this world or/and after death. In another word, the Hindus fully believe in a supernatural agency where the vice of humanity causes disasters and the virtue of humanity causes happiness ( Oldham, 1899 ).

In the Hindu pantheon, 33 types of God are recognized, which, in some regions, is considered to be 330 million Gods. While the three main Hindu lords are known as Brahma ( as the creator), Vishnu ( as the preserver ) , and Shiva ( as the destroyer and re-creator ) , there are also other prominent deities, such as Durga representing female energy, Lakshmi (for wealth), Kali (worshipped during the Diwali festival), Saraswati (for learning and knowledge), Swasthani (for miraculously granting wishes), etc. Kali is the fearful and ferocious form of the mother goddess Durga and also worshipped during Diwali to seek the help of the goddess in destroying evil. Most of the other deities are either related to them or represent different forms of these deities. In Hindu literature, the evil forces are represented by the Rakshasas (the demons), who are in constant battle with the Gods.

People who follow the Hindu religion believe that natural entities are also Gods. Children in the family are brought up to follow the customs and ethics of their parents, society, but are encouraged to decide for themselves which Gods and Goddesses suit them. Since ancient times, there is tradition for people to acquire a certain education, they have at least a Guru , a spiritual director who teaches them what they need to know and what they should follow. However, because of this diversity, it cannot happen that everyone knows the same things and the knowledge cannot be taught in the same way.

The above-mentioned sources and cultural frame are critical to be kept in mind when planning educational activities in Hindu communities. In late 2017, we have initiated an educational program in Nepal to make people better aware of earthquakes and to improve their preparedness through obligatory school education ( Subedi et al., 2020a ). Nepal is situated just above the active boundary where the Indian plate goes down beneath the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau (e.g. Subedi et al., 2018 ) at an average rate of ∼2 cm/year, causing earthquakes. Geoscience research has shown that devastating earthquakes occurred in the area throughout history, and also that the region is sufficiently stressed to host a great (magnitude Mw ≥ 8) earthquake (e.g., Stevens and Avouac, 2015 ). The associated seismic risk – the level of expected damage – is high in Nepal, and it is estimated that casualties from a future major earthquake could possibly exceed 100,000 ( Bilham, 2019 ).

Since modern seismological information has not reached the majority of people in Nepal (and probably in neighboring countries either), part of the local population still believes religious explanations and stories about earthquakes which already exist in the community. In frame of our educational program that currently involves 30 schools and reaches thousands of students, the dichotomy between scientific and religious visions of earthquakes is a challenge. In an initial survey among students, less than two-thirds indicated the scientific reason for earthquakes ( Subedi et al., 2020b ). Two surveys were conducted in the Central Nepal and we have carefully analyzed the results assuming the fact that earthquake knowledge depends on several factors, for example, social status, family background, etc. In addition, earthquake information levels depend on the education levels, and this varies between rural and urban areas; that’s why we account for geographical distribution while collecting the answers for surveys.

After careful preparation of the local teachers who educate the students, 2 yr later this ratio increased to 84%. However, from our field experience of communicating with local people of different age, social status, depth of religious belief, region of origin and culture, we realized that it remains crucial to explain not only the scientific reasons but also to collect and discuss religious aspects of earthquakes with the locals. This will help to facilitate a more equilibrated dialogue and for better acceptance of preparatory advices for future earthquakes. This is why we undertook the current study, to know the original text, context, and application of religious narration of earthquakes in different sources of Hindu literature.

In our best knowledge, the information available in Hindu writings on the explanation of earth-shaking is not comprehensively summarized in English. The educational program run in Nepal provides a good opportunity to attempt to consolidate ideas regarding the description of earthquakes in the Hindu literature by compiling information documented in different stories, which ultimately help to develop a better strategy for earthquake hazard and risk communication in Nepal.

Approach and Sources

Our primary approach was reading original sources and, wherever necessary, asking for professional translations of texts from Sanskrit. The texts were read in Nepali language by the first author of this study, and all texts can be found in bookshops. The exact versions of books that served as the basis of this study are described in the references. Subsequently, for sections identified as related to physical explanations of earthquakes, we compared the findings with concepts of modern seismology based on our experience of research, teaching, geophysical reference books and scientific literature.

To search the explanation of earthquakes, their cause and evidence if any mentions exist, we first read two major Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata thoroughly.

An important book of Hindu tradition in terms of both literature and philosophy is Bhagwat Gita (literally meaning “the song of the Lord”), the text of which we also browsed and found some interesting explanations about the creation of the world. In Hindu literature, the possibly heaviest books, explaining the history of the Universe from creation to destruction as well as the genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and deities, are Puranas . They are written in the form of a dialogue and are composed of 400,000 words. To read all sequences of Puranas is beyond the scope of this work, however we scanned the text for a section of Puranas where our subject of interest is described, Agni Puranas .

We also select books that cover the broad range of topics and include explanations of earthquakes with details, such as Brihat Samhita and Adbhuta Sagara . We also browsed the Rig Veda for earthquake related stories.

We also review a book that is widely followed by Nepali women, called Swasthani Brata Katha , a Hindu tale narrated within the community every day for a month (the month of Magh , spanning approximately from mid-January to mid-February in each year).

The choice of text sources already reflects selective coding as we were principally interested in descriptions of earthquakes and related phenomena. On these sources, open coding was applied by browsing the full texts, so the selected chapters or paragraphs can be analyzed in more detail. Finally, to categorize our findings, we applied axial coding to re-group text of similar content and context – this choice is reflected in our work below. Wherever necessary, repeated reading or new translations of important text sections have been performed to clarify the content in the context of our analysis.

Finally, we have also asked relevant advice from nationally influential spiritual speakers who usually explain Hindu religion for the community.

Brief Summary of Books

Mahabharata.

The story written in Mahabharata probably around 200 BC is about the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kurukshetra War (ca. 900 BC) and the fates of the Pandava Princes and the Kaurava , their successors ( Penna, 1989 ). The Pandava refers to the five brothers namely, Yudhishthira , Bhim , Arjun , Nakul and Sahadeva , who are the main characters in the epic Mahabharata . They were the sons of Pandu , the king of Hastinapur and his two wives Kunti and Madri . The five brothers shared a wife, Draupadi . The Pandava waged war against their cousins Kaurava ( Duryodhana and his brothers); Pandava won the war. In Mahabharata , Danava are described as powerful superhuman with good or bad qualities, and Danava battle constantly with the Gods. Although it is unlikely that any single person wrote the poem, its authorship is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa ( Vyasa, 1883 ; Roy, 1958 ). In Mahabharata and Brihat Samhita , it is mentioned that animal shows abnormal behavior before the earthquake, but does it relate with science or not is ongoing debate at least in the Neapli communities.

The poem is an ancient Sanskrit epic which follows Prince Ram ’s quest to rescue his beloved wife Sita from the clutches of Ravana with the help of an army of monkeys. It is traditionally attributed to the authorship of the sage Valmiki and dated to around 500–100 BCE ( Vatsyayan, 2004 ). The Ramayana is widely considered to be the first Nepali epic and is translated in the Nepali language by a Nepali poet, Bhanubhakta Acharya ( Gyawali, 1997 ).

Bhagwat Gita

A set of questions asked by Lord Arjun about many human ethical dilemmas, philosophical issues, and life’s choices, answered by Lord Krishna right before the start of the climactic Kurukshetra War, is documented in Bhagwat Gita ( Wilkins, 2008 ). The Bhagwat Gita was written about 5,000 yr ago ( Satpathy and Muniapan, 2008 ), but it still reads absolutely new, fresh and relevant in today’s time for Hindu people.

A vast genre of Hindu literature, Puranas are primarily composed in Sanskrit and they are about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends, and other conventional knowledge. The first version of Puranas was likely to been composed between 300 and 1000 CE ( Collins, 1988 ) and there are 18 great and 18 minor Puranas composed by 400,000 words ( Chandra, 2017 ). Furthermore, in Agni Puranas , there is a dedicated chapter, chapter 263, in which different types of natural phenomena and measures of peace are described ( Chaturvedi, 2002 ).

Swasthani Brata Katha

It is a series of stories mostly focused on Lord Shiva and described by Lord Kumar , the elder son of Shiva and Parvati , to Agastya Muni (a saint person). Swasthani is the Hindu Goddess who is very blessing to all her devotees and she always fulfills wishes of all those who adore her with a pure heart and full devotion ( Birkenholtz, 2010 ; Shree Swasthani Brata Katha, 2020 ). It starts on the full moon day at the beginning of the month of Magh (ca. January or February) and continues as a series of 31 chapters for 31 days until the next full moon. When Agastya Muni wanted to know how this universe was formed, Kumar tells him the story. Since Swasthani Brata Katha is currently popular in Nepal and Hindu women strongly follow it, it is important to review this story as well. As presented in the story, some place’s name matches with present geographical locations in Nepal. For example, in the text, the Sali River is famous and widely described, and it is believed that having a ritual bath in Sali River may remove all the sins and bad activities; in the same time, there is a Sali River and Swasthani Temple near the Kathmandu Valley ( Figure 1B ).

FIGURE 1 . Showing the power of the God Shiva and Goddess Swasthani. (A) An illustration showing God Shiva while creating two Gods, Mahankali and Veerbhadra , by plucking two of his hairs, throwing them on the ground and making the earth to tremble (Swasthani, 2020: 69). (B) A picture of Nepali women at the Goddess Swasthani temple in Kathmandu waiting for worship (photo credit: Nakarmi, 2019 ).

Brihat Samhita and Adbhuta Sagara

These two books Brihat Samhita (origins at ca. 400–600 CE) and Adbhuta Sagara (900–1100 CE) are encyclopedic texts, including descriptions of earthquake phenomena with detailed information (Lyengar, 1999). These two sources have been briefly mentioned in the analysis of Iyengar (1999) , however his work focused more on earthquake effects and we here decided to work directly from the original sources.

Findings and Results

God controls the nature and natural phenomena.

Earlier studies show that Hindu people have a great faith on the Gita philosophy (e.g., Dahal, 2019 ). In chapter 9 of Bhagwat Gita , the science of sciences and the mystery of mysteries about the Earth, its creation, and its destruction is presented. According to Krishna , the world is an indication of the energy of the supreme personality of Godhead. The universe belongs to Krishna by his divine energy which is difficult to overcome and all-natural phenomena including disasters are controlled by him. Also, nature produces all things movable and immovable in the world, under his guidelines. There is a personality who wields the power of Nature under Lord Shiva ’s protection on behalf of Krishna . So “Mother Nature” is correct and refers to Durga . Then, Durga has many responsibilities which include control of the Sun, Moon, rains, winds, oceans, earthquakes, fire, and everything else that happens in the world. All the phenomena happening in this world are under the interest of Lord Krishna . The root cause for the creation of Nature and its destruction through ailments or natural disturbances like earthquakes or hurricanes or tsunamis would be upon the interest of Lord Krishna. Thus, Krishna told very clearly, God is responsible for the creation, sustenance, and destruction of this universe ( Prabhupada and Swami, 1972 ). So, it is the God only who is doing all the phenomena in this world. Hence, he is responsible for everything happening on this Earth. This is the explanation of Nature and its creation according to Bhagwat Gita ( Figure 2 ).

FIGURE 2 . Description of Nature and its phenomena in Bhagwat Gita in Sanskrit and English (from Prabhupada and Swami, 1972 ).

Earthquake Mentions and Evidences

Some evidences for earth tremble are described in Ramayana . When Ram was on the way to Ayodhya , there were bad omens for though the birds in the air indicated approaching trouble, the animals on the lands were promised a happy consummation; a great storm broke out, trees were uprooted, the earth was shaking and clouds of dust went up and hid the Sun and there was all-enveloping darkness. The reason for this strange phenomenon was Parashuram (the sworn enemy of Kshatriyas and an avatar of the God Vishnu , with a bow on one shoulder and a battle-ax on the other, and with an arrow shining like lightning in his hand). Parashuram made the shaking of the earth to show his power when he met Ram and started to get angry and took the form of deadly fire ( Figure 3 ).

FIGURE 3 . Evidences of earth (Earth) shaking found in Ramayana ( Gyawali, 1997 ). Red rectangles refer to texts where exactly the word “Earth tremble” or “earth shaking” or “earthquake” is written (A – F) . There are a few further evidences of earth shaking which we don’t include in this figure but which have similar explanation.

As explained in the Ramayana , Vali (the king of Kishkindha ) was blessed with the ability to obtain half the strength of his opponent. To become the next King, there was a battle between Vali and his younger brother Sugriva . At the time, Ram was supporting Sugriva and shot an arrow to Vali and hit his head, then Vali has fallen on the ground by making the earth shake.

The earth tremble has been observed at the time of Ravana ’s birth. The main story of Ramayana is the war between Ram and Ravana as Ravana had captured Sita , the wife of Ram for a long time. As Ram was going to Ravana ’s palace, he didn’t see the sea and called the sea ( Sagar ) to ask the way, he didn’t see the sea and got angry. The earth has started to shake while looking at the angry Ram . In addition, a powerful monkey working for Ram ( Hanuman ) in Ramayana , was searching for Sita along with Ram and his brother Lakshmana , and he went to Ravana ’s palace. The Rakshasas quaked and sent the news about the presence of a monkey in the palace to Ravana . The earth also quaked when Hanuman gave warning to Ravana for fighting with Ram . The earth was shaking during the war between Ram and Ravana, for example when Ram was getting angry with Ravana , when Ram applied divine arrow and got ready to attack Ravana , etc. ( Figure 3 ).

In Mahabharata , some unusual natural occurrences are illustrated, including the signature of earthquakes. The process of churning of the ocean ( Samundra Manthan ) is described well; originally, Samundra Manthan churning is the process of making butter from milk. The churning continued to thousand years. The force of the churning was so great that the mountain began to sink and to shake. During this action, there was a rotation of mountain causing shaking of all living things in the mountains. This is a good example of earth shaking described in Mahabharata (p.13).

The action of falling trees on the ground and the ground being washed away are often presented in different incidents. In general, the Earth is reported to be shaking by different activities during fights between Gods and Danava . The earth has shaken when Bhim (a God holding an energy equivalent to a thousand of elephants in his body) and Jatasura (a Rakshasa ) fight each-other (p. 150, 225), when Bhim beats Jeemut (p. 356), when Suyodhan felt to the ground hit by the Bhim ’s main weapon (p. 949), when Danava ’s headless trunk fell upon the ground (p. 142). It is written that the earth has shaken while Arjun showing martial arts to his elder brother Yudhishthira (p. 229); when Arjun fell in his chariot (p. 1166), when he moves on for fight (p. 350), when his chariot sounds harsh voice (p. 376), and when Arjun and Karan blow the conch shell in anger (p. 432, 814).

Thousands of Pandava ’s soldiers are said to have been the cause of Earth tremble as they left for battle (p. 406). On the first day of the battle between the Pandava and the Kaurava , the Earth has shaken as the Lord and their armies advanced to fight (p. 686). Again, the violent sound of the army on both sides make earth tremble (p. 641). Weapons fired from both sides during the Mahabharata war have been described as flames in the sky and ground shaking (p. 973) ( Vyasa, 1883 ). When a Danava (Asuras) lying covered with sands, wakes up and begins to breathe, then the whole Earth with her mountains, forests and woods begins to tremble. And his breath raised up clouds of sands, and shrouded the very Sun, and for seven days continually the earth tremble all over, and sparks and flames of fire mixed with smoke spread far around (p. 196) (Roy, 2011).

Some people believe that the festival of Diwali originated from the event of Samudra Manthan. When Goddess Kali killed a terrible demon, she began to jump and dance with joy at her victory, a massive earthquake occurrence and Lord Shiva coming to the rescue of human beings before things became worse are reported. An important and scientifically the most intriguing earthquake mention in Mahabharata is that people did know about the earthquake’s approach from the animal’s behavior preceding an earthquake ( Vyasa, 1883 ).

The Swasthani Brata Katha is mainly about Lord Shiva and his wives. At the time of the story, monster Tripurashur was hurting Gods and princes, and Lord Shiva agreed to kill him when he learned about this. The earth and sky have been reported to shake when Shiva sat in the specially designed carriage for the war. There was a more than 10,000 yr-long war with Tripurashur and by looking at the suitable time, Shiva set a divine arrow to hit him, which caused to earth to shake along with additional consequences like fire, flooding, etc. As per Swasthani Brata Katha , Lord Shiva had married Sati even though Sati ’ s father was not happy with that marriage. Once, Sati ’ s father had organized one of the grandest and greatest Yagna (worship). All the Gods and kings from all across the world were invited to attend except Shiva and Sati . Sati was surprised to see that there was no seat for Lord Shiva and her father further humiliated her husband, which led her to commit suicide by jumping in the fire of the Yagna . In the deep sorrow of Sati ’s death, Lord Shiva plucked two hairs from his matted locks and has thrown them on the ground, where two Gods, Mahankali and Veerbhadra were created to take his revenge on Sati ’s father, Dakshya Prajapati , because he was responsible for the self-immolation of Sati . While creating Veerbhadra , it is documented that the earth was shaking ( Figure 4 ).

FIGURE 4 . Evidences of earth shaking found in Swasthani Brata Katha (2020). Red rectangles is drawn to highlight the exact text where the word “earth tremble” or “earth shaking” or “earthquake” is written.

Since Veerbhadra and Mahankali were created to destroy Sati ’s father, they were very strong and with extra power received from Lord Shiva . Shiva was angry and he ordered Veerbhadra to kill Dakshya Prajapati . When they were ready to move, the Earth couldn’t balance the weight of ferocious Veerbhadra and started to shake again. Along with the earth-shaking, there were waves in the sea and all living bodies were scared ( Figure 1A ).

Rig Veda explains that earthquakes happened when mountains flew over lands and then came to rest with a thud. Mostly, earthquakes have been explained as a consequence of the power of Rakshasa (devil) or power of the Gods ( Wilson, 1997 ).

Brihat Samhita

The 32nd chapter of Brihat Samhita focuses on the signs of earthquakes and their correlation with cosmic and planetary influences, underground water and undersea activities, unusual cloud formations, and the abnormal behavior of animals.

In Brihat Samhita , four types of earthquakes that can caused by four Gods have been described in detail. It is written that the Gods of wind, fire, heaven ( Indra ) and water will henceforth shake respectively to indicate the future good or bad condition of the world.

The precursory symptoms of an “earthquake of wind” are: the sky will be filled with dust and smoke; violent winds will shake the trees and the rays of the sun will appear dim. The result of this earthquake shows as: the crops will perish; the earth will become dry; forests will suffer; medicinal plants will be destroyed.

Early indications for an “earthquake of fire” are: the sky will be filled with the light of falling meteors and the appearance of a divine event into the sunset, and fire and wind will rage over the land. The consequences of such earthquakes are: the clouds will be destroyed; tanks and lakes will become dry.

Clouds like so many moving mountains (earthquake clouds), roaring, attended by lightning and black as the horn of a buffalo, as the bee and the black cobra, and yielding an abundance of rain are prior signs of an “earthquake of heaven.” Men of high caste and of high families, rulers and commanders of armies will perish because of its occurrence.

The preceding events for an “earthquake of water” are persons working at the sea or in rivers perishing; there will be excessive rain and rulers will cease to be hostile.

The effects assigned to earthquakes will occur within six months and a weighty lightning in two months. The earthquake brings the destruction of prominent kings if there is another earthquake on the 3rd, 4th, 7th day or at the end of the month, in 2 or in 6 wk. In an earthquake of wind, the shock will be felt at a distance of 1,600 miles; in one of fire, 880 miles; in one of water, 1,440 miles, and in one of heaven, 1,280 miles. This shows that an “earthquake of wind” is stronger compared to the others ( Shastri and Bhat, 1947 ).

Adbhuta Sagara

As referred to above, this book includes several different information on earthquakes and their causes. A first mention refers to God Vishnu , who shook the earth as he was yawning (possibly to go to bed to sleep). A second mention refers to elephants: when they breathe strongly, the earth shakes. Yet a third explanation for earthquakes is found in this source, referring to four different snake ( Naag ). According to Kashyap , there were four Naags who hold the Earth with the interest and permission of the God Vishnu , and when they get tired or one of them is weaker than the others, the Earth will be shaking. Another interesting story explaining earthquakes refers to flying mountains, and when God Indra cuts the arms of the mountains they stop moving. Another explanation is that the Earth is situated just above the sea, and mountains and forests are above the Earth; when sea creatures moves, the earth shakes. Garga says that earth tremors were due to the interaction of two strong winds which produced fire; this eventually impacted the oceans and shook the earth. Finally, falling different creations of Gods from the sky will also produce earthquakes according to the Surya. The Adbhuta Sagara also reports different earthquake effects, however those are not part of the focus of this article ( Vallala, 1905 ).

In Puranas , some pieces of evidence have been found for earthquakes. During the birth time of Tarakasur , the world was affected by unpromising events like earthquakes, cyclones, etc. Also, when Siddhas and Charanas had provided a magnificent chariot to Indra so that Indra could fight with the demons, Indra was dashed against the ground with a great thump as a result of which the earth was shaken violently.

The way to get away from the different problems is given in chapter 263 of Agni Puranas . Every problem in the universe can be categorized in one of the following three types: money, space (the area outside the Earth’s atmosphere) and earth (ground). The problem of earthquakes is categorized in the earth related disaster type of problem. As earthquakes are defined as a problem, a solution to this problem is also written clearly. To do the earthquake Shanti, the worship must be performed by the people. If there is rain within a week of the earthquake, it is written that there will be no effect to the people afterward due to the earthquake, however, if there is no rain within a week and no worship has been performed by the people, then earthquakes could still be harmful for the people and the nation.

Summary of Findings

An overview of findings from primary sources are presented in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 . Summary of earthquake mentions in different phrases found in the researched sources.

While many ancient Hindu texts contain references to earthquakes, most of these are myths about this natural phenomenon related to other significant stories involving various Gods. However, Brihat Samhita and Adbhuta Sagara are two texts which contain some technical information on earthquakes comparable with modern concepts. In this section, we discuss the key information on earthquakes reported in the Hindu literature that have some direct, often physical explanation of the process.

As an example, comparable to natural science concepts, the answer to the question “Who had created the Earth” can be found in Bhagwat Gita . It is clearly written that the creation and the destruction of the Earth are possible by Gods. In addition, all-natural phenomena happening in this world are controlled by God. While these are similarly explained by some of the other religions as well, the comparison to concepts taught in science class is straightforward. For earthquake related topics, it is less so, simply because the process is less or not at all taught in middle or high school, especially in Nepal.

Causes of Earthquakes

There are several reasons mentioned as the cause of an earthquake in Hindu literature. An earthquake is typically presented as a result of the action of Gods, however, the name of the God is distinct in different stories. The opinion of Kashyap is that earthquakes are due to the movement of sea creatures. Garga has the view that it is due to the sigh of elephants carrying the Earth, resting for a time from their labor which is written in Adbhuta Sagara . According to Vasishta , the interaction of two strong winds which eventually impact the oceans and shake the earth. The fourth opinion for the cause of the earthquake is that earthquakes can occur due to chance or unseen forces ( see also in Iyengar, 1999 ).

The common explanation in Adbhuta Sagara and Brihat Samhita is that earthquakes were caused by flying mountains as they were frequently falling on the earth. With the request of the Earth, the God Indra cut the wings of the mountains and it is believed that the earth became stable. This is also explained in the Rig Veda . In earthquake science, the movement of mountains is documented as a consequence of plate tectonics but this is a result of earthquakes and not their cause.

In Brihat Samhita , Wind, Fire, Water, and Heaven are described in detail to cause the earth to shake. The cause of the earthquake is described also in Puranas . Accordingly, a strong Rakshasa called Dhundhu was alive under the sand and was so strong that even the Gods had been unable to kill. Dhundhu exhaled his breath once every year and this raises a massive cloud of sand and dust. The sun remained shrouded in dust and there were earthquakes as a result of his exhalation for an entire week. While among the four Elements listed above only Water seems to have a direct effect on earthquakes in modern science, this description of effects shows that the ancient Rishis and scholars had fairly realistic knowledge about the origin and consequences of earthquakes. For example, dust clouds from earthquake-triggered landslides have been reported to persist for several days in Switzerland in 1946.

Most Hindu people (including the first author) heard a tale in their childhood from grandfather or grandmother that the Earth is kept on the heads Sheshnaag , a giant snake with several heads, and that an earthquake occurs when Sheshnaag moves his heads. A part of this information is available in Mahabharata , Vedas , and Puranas literature.

In the Aadi Parva part of the Mahabharata , a dialogue between Brahman (the creator God in Hinduism) and Sheshnaag is presented. According to this, Brahman asked to Sheshnaag to carry properly and well this Earth so unsteady with her mountains and forests, her seas and towns and retreats, so that she (the Earth) may be steady. Following this request, Sheshnaag agreed to hold the Earth steady. In the meantime, Lord Ananta (king of Sheshnaag ), of great prowess, came out to the sea to alone support the world at the command of Brahman (Adi parva, part 36).

In another part in Mahabharata , there is an explanation of the condition of the Earth, its origin, destruction and cataclysm. Lord Vishnu creates air, fire, land and water and sits in the water and carries the Earth on his head as Sheshnaag (p. 1085) ( Figure 5B ).

FIGURE 5 . The Earth is held by a Sheshnaag. (A) Explanation found in Purana in Sanskrit ( Dwivedi, 2001 ). (B) Explanation found in Mahabharata in Nepali ( Vyasa, 1883 ). (C) Schematic drawing of a seven-headed Sheshnaag supporting the Earth as explained in the text written in (A) and (B) (image modified after Sandeep, 2019 ).

A similar interpretation is also found in the Puranas : the whole Earth, which is kept on the head of the famous Sheshnaag named Ananta, seems like a grain of mustard. In the meantime, Dev (God) also sits on the head of Sheshnaag holding eleven military arrays. Sheshnaag has a speciality compared to other snakes: a jewel on its head ( Dwivedi, 2001 , Figure 5A ). Therefore, when Sheshnaag moves his head, there is an earthquake (schematic drawing: Figure 5C ). Knowing this information seems senseless in the first instance but it has a deep symbolic meaning like most of the stories mentioned in the Puranas , Vedas , and other Hindu scriptures. However, the occurrence of an earthquake based on the activities of Sheshnaag.

The most common belief for the cause of earthquakes in the Nepali communities is the change of arms of a Fish that carries the Earth. However, despite intense search, we could not find any document to support this oral tradition. Since Sheshnaag is described to live in the sea, the Fish and Sheshnaag could have been confused and might be presented in a similar frame, though with a different explanation. It is possible that in the past Sheshnaag was symbolically represented as the Fish, which would be the easiest way to make the descriptions and the story understandable.

There are different causes for earthquakes according to science, which we briefly discuss here. As explained by modern seismology, in most cases, the cause of an earthquake is plate tectonics and mechanical stress changes in Earth’s crust; therefore, most natural earthquakes happen along or near existing fault lines ( Hetényi et al., 2018 ). However, there are also some earthquakes triggered by human activity that may occur far from the edges of tectonic plates. Recently, more than 700 sites for induced (human activity triggered) earthquakes have identified around the globe over the past 150 yr ( Wilson et al., 2017 ). The most commonly reported human activities proposed to have induced earthquakes are by fluid injection during hydraulic fracturing ( Clarke et al., 2014 ; Eaton et al., 2018 ), conventional oil production ( Willacy et al., 2018 ), and groundwater extraction ( González et al., 2012 ).

What to do During an Earthquake

Some stories described in Hindu literature has shown actions that was followed by the God during the earthquake. For example, in the Puranas , when the wife of sage Shamik found the earth was shaking violently, she requested her husband to carry their son outside the hermitage so that he remains unharmed and said: “ The astrologers say that whatever is kept outside the home during an earthquake becomes stable .” Sage Shamik followed her instructions and after the shaking of the earth had subsided, Shamik went outside and their son was fine ( The Puranas, 2002 ). Going out of the house (if one is on the ground floor) and keeping away from buildings during an earthquake is also the modern advice given to people living in high earthquake hazard areas. Therefore, this story reported in the Puranas is a very nice illustration how practical, useful knowledge was already acquired in ancient times and reported in Hindu texts.

Building earthquake-resistant constructions alone is not enough for earthquake risk reduction, as the way people behave during an earthquake plays a very important role in minimizing casualties and corresponding losses.

In Nepal, eyewitness reported that children playing in the garden while the 2015 Gorkha earthquake occurred went into the house aiming to hide under the table (pers. comm.). It means that Nepali children assume “Hide under the Table” is the rule in case of an earthquake regardless where they are. However, this is incorrect, as there are very few earthquake-resistant houses in Nepal and staying outside is clearly safer. This is also referred to by the religious explanation, possibly reflecting old wisdom of the communities.

Earthquake Prediction and Astrological Views

A number of foreshadowing for earthquakes including earthquake clouds are described in Brihat Samhita . Such behavior of clouds before the earthquake is studied also in modern science. In an example observed in Japan, while a common cloud was reported to move continuously, another cloud near the earthquake epicenter stayed stationary ( Gup and Xie, 2007 ), although no causality (cause-to-consequence relation) was established.

Both Mahabharata and Brihat Samhita mention unusual behavior of animals before or during earthquakes. Such observations are still made in modern times, too, however they have proven to be unreliable signals in predict or signaling earthquakes. In many cases, earthquakes occurred without any warning sign from animals, and animals can behave strangely in times without earthquakes.

According to the Garga Samhita , traces of earthquakes are related to the Ketu (the descending lunar node in Hindu astrology) or dark spots on the Sun. Most of the earthquakes are felt either early in the morning or evening, although exceptions are also possible. It is also claimed that an earthquake may occur when a number of superior planets are in conjunction or in the same declinations or latitude. This is claimed to be verified by the case of the January 15, 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake, when seven planets have been reported to be located in the sign of Capricorn ( Raman, 2007 ). The likelihood of earthquakes is higher during the full moon, particularly after midnight, and that is when the magnitude 6.2 Latur (India) earthquake occurred on September 30, 1993. It is noted that Earth is sensitive to the Sun’s rhythms. Earthquakes may occur due to disturbances in the Earth’s field force, which are brought about by incessant planetary motions ( Raman, 2007 ).

According to Hindu sources ( Raman, 2007 ), the planets deviate from their natural orbit when a solar eclipse or lunar eclipse occurs, and in such cases, there are higher chances of an earthquake to occur. Some examples of earthquake predictions are illustrated in the literature. As an example, on February 8, 2000 the 14th Dalai Lama, the main Buddhist religious leader, has announced India will face a devastating earthquake before February 2001 ( Hogendoorn, 2014 ), which came to be true with the magnitude M w 7.7 earthquake on January 26, 2001, in Gujarat.

On the basis of astrology, many sources and people have predicted earthquakes publicly but it is not clearly mentioned whether these predictions were considered as reliable pre-information ( Dwivedi, 2001 ) or not. Modern seismology considered these problems based on statistical analyses, and concluded that there is no clear link between planetary motions and earthquakes: while it is possible the minor stress changes in the Earth’s lithosphere from tides may help trigger already impending earthquakes, it is very unlikely that planetary effects directly cause seismic events that would not happen naturally within geologically short timescales (e.g. Heimisson and Avouac, 2020 ).

Implications for Education and Communication

In the above research interesting information on earthquakes, their religious and historical contexts as well as physical causes have been gathered from Hindu literature, which are of direct use for teaching earthquake related topics at school. Our Seismology at school in Nepal program ( Subedi et al., 2020a ) is currently running in 30 schools in Central Nepal, and the program has already received very positive feedback showing that educational activities implemented at schools are effective in raising the awareness levels of children, promoting broader social learning in the community, and improving the adaptive capacities and preparedness for future earthquakes ( Subedi et al., 2020b ). One of the next objectives of the program is to reach more remote parts of the country, where earthquake education is not available at all, and where it is likely that traditional or religious beliefs are more widespread than in semi-urban areas or larger villages. Hence, especially in these rural regions, but also in more developed parts of the country, it is important for our program and involved school teachers to create a dialogue with local people who strongly believe in Hindu sources. Such a dialogue is more efficient if both parties are aware of enough information about earthquakes in Hindu literature. The interest here is not to oppose religious beliefs but to convey people the message what science gathered on earthquakes, their causes and consequences, and, especially, what are the good ways to improve local people’s preparedness. Such dialogues will not only enhance our earthquake communication skills with devout people, but will also open new opportunities to collect local, religious or even animistic beliefs and legends related to earthquakes.

We plan to implement the findings of this study in our future earthquake risk communication strategy in Nepal, and it can also be useful in other Hindu communities for example in India. The aim is not to convert people from Hinduism to other beliefs, but to provide an established base of comparison with scientific knowledge: whatever people think of earthquake causes afterwards, the level and quality of preparation is the main goal to reach for communities living under high earthquake hazard. The material will be available for educational trainings for teachers to enable them to continue to teach earthquake related topics to students, in a free and open access way through the educational program’s website ( www.seismoschoolnp.org ). We hope that the information reviewed in this study will be helpful for earthquake education in schools and so that the journey for earthquake preparation will be facilitated for the entire community.

Conclusions

The review of the main sources of Hindu literature for earthquake related text parts reveals many stories and explanations for the shaking of Earth in different stories throughout history. Some stories show the earth-shaking phenomena were described as long as 5,000 yr ago, which is long on the human memory timescale but still short on the geological timescale of 50 million years of Himalayan collision. At least five physically imagined causes of earthquakes are worth reporting here, ranging from flying mountains to the interest of a God to hold the Earth; yet none of these fit the modern seismological picture. At least one relevant and still valid practical advice could be found in ancient sources, namely that one should stay outside buildings during an earthquake. This makes sense also at present, especially if one is on the ground floor of a building that is not earthquake proof, which is often the case in Nepal (N.B.: if one is on a higher floor, it is better to hide under a strong table or doorframe). A few information on scientifically hot topics such as earthquake prediction were found, and explanations are presented either by the God’s statement or by observing some visible natural movements; however modern seismology provides no support for such predictions.

The baseline conclusion is that in the Hindu religious context, God creates the Earth and only God is responsible to create and destroy the Earth. The power of Gods has been found to be described as the cause of earth tremble or shaking in many occasions. Hence, it is expected that part of the population in Nepal still has religious concepts to explain earthquake phenomena. Our educational seismology project aims to bring modern ideas to the Nepali population at risk, yet conveying such information goes better in form of dialogue (rather than top-down teaching), for which it is very important to know the religious views on earthquake related questions. We conclude that although stories, causes, and explanations of earth-shaking mentioned in Hindu literature mostly do not match with the theory of modern science, the collected findings are important to develop a more efficient and appropriate strategy to communicate about earthquake related topics in the classroom as well as with the public. This has to consider the prior beliefs of students and their families, and, more generally, the cultural – here mainly religious – context of the group to receive knowledge from a scientific background.

Author Contributions

All texts in Nepali and Sanskrit are compiled and translated in English by SS and verified by GH. Both authors discussed the results, and contributed to the final manuscript equally.

The authors acknowledge the support of the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant number PP00P2_187199).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We greatly acknowledge the Institute of Earth Sciences and the Faculty of Geosciences and Environment at the University of Lausanne. We are very thankful to Pundit Dinbhandhu Pokhrel for a long discussion about Hindu texts and earthquakes. Thanks to Narayani Dekvkota (Saraswati Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University), Narayan Paudel (Myagdi Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University), Shreedhar Dhakal for their assistance in Sanskrit Translation. We are particularly thankful to all teachers and students from the Nepali schools for their enthusiastic participation in the Seismology at School in Nepal program. We don’t want to forget the contribution of many authors who wrote or/and translate Hindu literature in different languages.

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Prabhupada, A. B. S., and Swami, B. (1972). Bhagavad-Gita as it Is with the Original Sanskrit Text, Roman Transliteration, English Equivalents, Translation, and Elaborate Purports . Los Angeles, CA: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust .

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Subedi, S., Hetényi, G., Denton, P., and Sauron, A. (2020a). Seismology at School in Nepal: A Program for Educational and Citizen Seismology through a Low-Cost Seismic Network. Front. Earth Sci. 8, 73. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00073

Subedi, S., Hetényi, G., and Shackleton, R. (2020b). Impact of an Educational Program on Earthquake Awareness and Preparedness in Nepal. Geosci. Commun. 3 (2), 279–290. doi:10.5194/gc-3-279-2020

Subedi, S., Hetényi, G., Vergne, J., Bollinger, L., Lyon‐Caen, H., Farra, V, et al. (2018). Imaging the Moho and the Main Himalayan Thrust in Western Nepal with Receiver Functions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45 (24), 13222–13230. doi:10.1029/2018gl080911

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Vyasa, K-D. (1883). The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa Originally Published between 1883 and 1896. (Calcutta: Bharata Press ). Available at: https://www.dwarkadheeshvastu.com/Epic-Mahabharat-Sampoorna-18-Parva-Nepali.aspx (Accessed February 6, 2021).

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Keywords: earthquake, Hindu, religion, communication, Nepal

Citation: Subedi S and Hetényi G (2021) The Representation of Earthquakes in Hindu Religion: A Literature Review to Improve Educational Communications in Nepal. Front. Commun. 6:668086. doi: 10.3389/fcomm.2021.668086

Received: 15 February 2021; Accepted: 14 June 2021; Published: 16 July 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Subedi and Hetényi. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Shiba Subedi, [email protected]

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Natural Disasters Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on natural disasters.

A Natural disaster is an unforeseen occurrence of an event that causes harm to society. There are many Natural disasters that damage the environment and the people living in it. Some of them are earthquakes , cyclones, floods, Tsunami , landslides, volcanic eruption, and avalanches. Spatial extent measures the degree or severity of the disaster.

Levels of Disaster

The severity or degree of damage can be further divided into three categories:

Small Scale Disasters: Small scale disasters are those that extend from 50 Kms. to 100 Kms. So this kind of disasters does not cause much damage.

Medium-scale disasters: Medium Scale disasters extend from 100 Kms to 500 Kms. These cause more damage than a small scale disaster. Moreover, they can cause greater damage if they occur in colonial states.

Large Scale Disasters: These disasters cover an area of more than 1000 Kms. These cause the most severe damage to the environment. Furthermore, these disasters can even take over a country if the degree is high. For instance, the wiping out of the dinosaurs was because of a large scale natural disaster.

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Types of Disasters

Causes: These can cause of releasing of the energy. This release is from the core of the earth. Furthermore, the release of energy causes seismic waves. Rupturing of geological faults causes earthquakes. But other events like volcanic eruptions, landslides mine blasts can also cause it.

Landslides: Landslides is the moving of big boulders of rocks or debris down a slope. As a result, landslides occur on mountains and hilly areas. Moreover, landslides can cause destruction to man-made things in many ways.

Causes: Gravitational pull, volcanic eruptions , earthquakes can cause landslides. Moreover, soil erosion due to deforestation is also a cause of landslides.

Avalanches: Avalanches are like landslides. But instead of rocks thousand tons of snow falls down the slope. Moreover, this causes extreme damage to anything that comes in its way. People who live in snowy mountains always have fear of it.

Causes: Avalanches takes places when there is a large accumulation of snow on the mountains. Moreover, they can also occur from earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Furthermore, the chances of surviving an avalanche are very less. This is because people die of hypothermia in it.

Tsunami: Tsunami is the production of very high waves in oceans and seas. Moreover, the displacement of the ground causes these high waves. A tsunami can cause floods if it occurs near shores. A Tsunami can consist of multiple waves. Moreover, these waves have a high current. Therefore it can reach coastlines within minutes. The main threat of a tsunami is if a person sees a Tsunami he cannot outrun it.

Causes: Tsunami is unlike normal eaves that occur due to the wind. But Tsunami is waves that occur by ground displacement. Thus earthquakes are the main causes of Tsunamis.

FAQs on Essay on natural disaster

Q1.What are natural disasters?

A1. Natural Disasters are unforeseen events that cause damage to the environment and the people.

Q2.Name some Natural disasters.

A2. Some Natural Disasters are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, Landslides, floods, Tsunami, avalanches. Natural disasters can cause great damage to human society. But preventive measures can be taken to reduce the damage from these disasters.

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Natural Disasters Essay

Natural disasters are not in the control of human beings. Like many other countries, India is also plagued with many natural disasters because of its geographical location and environment. In the past few decades, the temperature in the Indian subcontinent has risen. A natural calamity is called a disaster when it affects people or property on a large scale. Here are a few sample essays on the topic ‘Natural Disasters’.

100 Words Essay On Natural Disasters

Humans have been subjected to the impact of natural disasters for as long as they have been on Earth. Disasters, unfortunately, are happening all the time. Most of the Natural Disasters we see are caused by natural forces. Therefore, they are almost impossible to prevent from happening. Natural disasters like floods, drought, landslides, earthquakes, and cyclones frequently occur all throughout the world. Often, natural disasters leave mass effects and it can take years to control the damage. However, the negative effects and damages caused by these natural disasters can be reduced significantly if proper warning systems or policies are used.

200 Words Essay On Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are mostly naturally occurring events that greatly damage human lives and assets. Every year, many lives are lost due to natural disasters across the globe. Many people are left with no home or property. They suffer endlessly. Some natural disasters are floods, landslides, cyclones, hurricanes, drought, wildfires. This problem becomes far more severe when a natural disaster occurs in a densely populated place. Unfortunately, most natural disasters are unpreventable from happening. We can only forecast these events and take necessary measures to mitigate the loss.

India is one of the most vulnerable countries to natural disasters because of its unique geological position. Every year India witnesses nearly five cyclones of various intensities. Droughts in summer and mild to strong earthquakes are frequently experienced in many northern parts of India near the Himalayas. In India, wildfires are caused in the forest area during the autumn and summer seasons. Our country is also witnessing dramatic climate changes and massive global warming due to pollution and greenhouse gases. Due to this, natural disasters are becoming more frequent than before.

Coping Up With Natural Disasters

Most natural disasters are out of our control and can occur randomly. All we can do, however, is take necessary precautions as soon as we are able to predict when the disaster is going to take place. Global Warming is an important reason for all these things. Therefore, we must protect and preserve our natural environment. It is essential to warn people of upcoming disasters. A mandatory evacuation should be carried out if necessary. After the disaster, people should be provided financial help to recover from damages and losses from the disaster.

500 Words Essay On Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are events that occur due to either biological activity or human-made activity. Human lives and property are affected for a long time after it occurs. The number of cases is increasing worldwide every day. It is because of the over-exploitation of natural resources by mankind. India suffers significantly from natural disasters due to its vulnerable geographical location. Due to this, our country still needs a proper disaster management unit.

Types Of Natural Disasters

Different kinds of Natural Disasters in India occur very often and have major effects on people’s lives.

Earthquake | An earthquake is a natural event when the Earth's tectonic plates suddenly shift and cause the ground to shake. This shaking can damage buildings and other structures, as well as loss of life. Earthquakes can happen at any time and can strike without warning, making them a frightening and unpredictable phenomenon.

Cyclone | A cyclone is a type of storm characterised by a low-pressure centre and strong winds that spiral inward and upward. Cyclones are also typhoons or hurricanes, depending on the region in which they occur. Cyclones form over warm ocean waters and typically move toward land, where they can cause widespread damage and destruction. They are often accompanied by heavy rainfall and can spawn tornadoes. The destructive power of a cyclone comes from its strong winds, which can reach speeds of over 150 miles per hour. These winds can uproot trees, damage buildings, and create storm surges, large waves that can flood coastal areas.

Wildfire | A wildfire is a large, uncontrolled fire that occurs in a natural habitat, such as a forest, grassland, or prairie. Wildfires can happen due to various factors, including lightning, human activity, and extreme weather conditions. When a wildfire occurs, it can spread quickly, consuming everything in its path. Wildfires can have many adverse effects on the environment and people. For example, they can destroy homes and other buildings and critical infrastructures, such as roads and bridges. They can also cause air pollution and respiratory issues for people living in the area.

Human Activities And Natural Disasters

Human activities can contribute to the occurrence and severity of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and wildfires. For example, activities like deforestation, urbanisation, and climate change can increase the likelihood and impact of these events.

Deforestation, which removes vegetation from an area, can increase the risk of natural disasters. Trees and other vegetation hold the upper layer of soil in place, which prevents erosion and landslides. When these plants are removed, the ground becomes more vulnerable to being swept away by heavy rainfall or other natural forces.

Urbanisation, or the growth of cities and towns, can also contribute to natural disasters. As more and more people move into urban areas, the risk of earthquakes, wildfires, and other natural disasters increases. For example, the construction of buildings and other structures can alter the natural landscape, making it more susceptible to damage from earthquakes and other events.

Climate change, the long-term warming of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, can also increase the likelihood and severity of natural disasters. Higher temperatures can lead to more often intense heat waves, droughts, and wildfires. Rising sea levels can cause more severe flooding, particularly in coastal areas.

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Natural disasters in Kerala Essay in Malayalam കേരളത്തിലെ പ്രകൃതിക്ഷോഭങ്ങൾ ഉപന്യാസം

Natural disasters in Kerala Essay in Malayalam കേരളത്തിലെ പ്രകൃതിക്ഷോഭങ്ങൾ ഉപന്യാസം Natural disasters in Kerala Essay in Malayalam Langu...

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संस्कृत निबन्ध चन्द्रिका: Collection of Sanskrit Essays
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Environment Essay in Sanskrit language
Natural Disasters Essays
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Essay Writing on Natural Disasters in English & Urdu
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Essay on Solar system in Sanskrit language ll Sourmandal par Sanskrit nibandh
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पर्यावरणम्
पर्यावरणम् | Environment Essay in Sanskrit "स्वल्यं तथायुर्बहुवश्च विनाः ...
सुनामी पर संस्कृत निबंध
The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history, with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean. ... Sanskrit Essay on Tsunami. ... Lakes are bodies of water, either fresh or saline, in natural depressions on the surface of the earth. As we know, the geological ...
PDF Profile of a Natural Disaster in Ancient Sanskrit Literature
Profile of a Natural Disaster in Ancient Sanskrit Literature R. N. Iyengar Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Science Bangalore 560012 Introduction Sanskrit literature of ancient and medieval India is rich in information related to earth sciences. Books referred as Sthala-purāņa or Kşetra-māhātmya offer details of places
PDF Environment: Sanskrit literature and Bhartr̥hari's Śatakatrayam: A
Abstract. Nature is crashing today due to the perversion of men and men made machines. Mega fauna has lost their natural power of development along with the destruction of nature. Awareness of the environment can be seen in Sanskrit literature. In ancient times, the people and nature of India lived as one. In the Vedic literature, the worship ...
PDF Disaster Management in Sanskrit Literature: A Study from
Disaster Management in Sanskrit Literature: A ... Natural disaster happens from natural process of the world. Cloud bursting and heavy raining, earth quakes, floods, hurricanes, land sliding, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis etc. are the examples of natural disasters and by these sudden events we see huge losses of lives and properties. ...
World Environment Day in Sanskrit
June 4, 2023. Sanskrit and its literature have always respected and celebrated the environment. Take this Shloka from Atharvaveda as an example; it establishes a sacred connection between mother nature and us (humans), setting a very deep precedent for how we should be treating our fellow earthlings. Happy Environment Day to you!
Profile of a Natural Disaster in Ancient Sanskrit Literature
It is inferred that the above texts taken together, have references to brightening of a star in the Pleiades cluster and also to ground impact due to falling objects, presumably fragments of an asteroid. Prabhāsa-ksetra-māhātmya, which forms a part of Skānda Purāņa, contains interesting information about ancient natural disasters affecting the Kutch-Mt.Abu region of India. In this paper ...
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS IN CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
A mere list of literary varieties that constitutes Sanskrit Language and Literature is mind-boggling. Environmental pollution is one of the serious problems that confront the world. The contribution of Sanskrit towards the protection of environment is tremendous. The world constitutes five elements, Earth, Water, Air, Fire and sky.
Profile of a Natural Disaster in Ancient Sanskrit Literature
Abstract Prabhāsa-kşetra-māhātmya, which forms a part of Skānda Purāņa, contains interesting information about ancient natural disasters affecting the Kutch-Mt.Abu region of India. In this paper, selected readings of the Sanskrit text are presented with brief translations.
PDF PROFILE OF A NATURAL DISASTER IN ANCIENT SANSKRIT LITERATURE
title: profile of a natural disaster in ancient sanskrit literature created date: 4/16/2005 7:44:57 pm
PROFILE OF A NATURAL DISASTER IN ANCIENT SANSKRIT LITERATURE
PROFILE OF A NATURAL DISASTER IN ANCIENT SANSKRIT LITERATURE
Frontiers
To develop natural hazard and disaster communication strategies ... The poem is an ancient Sanskrit epic which follows Prince Ram's quest to rescue his beloved wife Sita from ... S. A. (1997). "How I Came to Know 'in Self Realization There Is truth," in Our Voices: Essays in Ethnicity, Culture, and Communication. 2nd Edn, Editors ...
natural disasters essay in sanskrit
This disaster is divided in two types. One is. Natural disaster and another is man... The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history, with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries... Contextual translation of "essay on natural disaster in sanskrit language" into Hindi.
प्राकृतिक आपदा
प्राकृतिक आपदा. प्राकृतिक आपदा एक प्राकृतिक जोखिम (natural hazard) का परिणाम है जैसे की ज्वालामुखी विस्फोट (volcanic eruption), भूकंप जो कि मानव ...
Free Essays on Essay In Sanskrit On Natural Disaster
Essays on Essay In Sanskrit On Natural Disaster for students to reference for free. Use our essays to help you with your writing 1 - 60.
Natural Disasters Essay for Students & Children
500+ Words Essay on Natural Disasters. A Natural disaster is an unforeseen occurrence of an event that causes harm to society. There are many Natural disasters that damage the environment and the people living in it. Some of them are earthquakes, cyclones, floods, Tsunami, landslides, volcanic eruption, and avalanches.Spatial extent measures the degree or severity of the disaster.
Environmental and natural disasters essay in sanskrit
Find an answer to your question Environmental and natural disasters essay in sanskrit. vwayg vwayg 24.01.2021 India Languages Secondary School answered • expert verified Environmental and natural disasters essay in sanskrit See answers Advertisement Advertisement Brainly User Brainly User
Essay on Natural Disasters: Top 12 Essays
Essay on Natural Disaster # 12. Major Initiatives taken by Government of India: Natural disasters have become a recurring phenomenon in the recent past. In the last twenty years or so three million people have been killed as a result of such events. There is a need to focus and develop a plan that would focus on disaster management planning for ...
Natural Disasters Essay
Natural disasters like floods, drought, landslides, earthquakes, and cyclones frequently occur all throughout the world. Often, natural disasters leave mass effects and it can take years to control the damage. However, the negative effects and damages caused by these natural disasters can be reduced significantly if proper warning systems or ...
Natural disasters in Kerala Essay in Malayalam കേരളത്തിലെ
Natural disasters in Kerala Essay in Malayalam Language: ഇന്ത്യയിലെ ചെറിയ സംസ്ഥാനങ്ങളിലൊന്നാണ് ...
Free Essays on Floods In Sanskrit
Civil War: a Brick Wall In Decolonization. Josh Braakmsa 060472 Major exploitation of third world countries' resources, such as Sierra Leone's, is a known fact... Save Paper. Essays on Floods In Sanskrit for students to reference for free. Use our essays to help you with your writing 1 - 60.
Essays on Essay On Natural Disaster In Sanskrit Language
Essay On Natural Disaster In Sanskrit Language. There are tons of free term papers and essays on Essay On Natural Disaster In Sanskrit Language on CyberEssays.com. We also have a wide variety of research papers and book reports available to you for free. You can browse our collection of term papers or use our search engine .
Natural Disasters Essay in English: For Students & Teachers
When the rigour force rages on mankind, it is known as a natural disaster. A natural disaster is nothing but terrible damage caused by natural forces. It is an unforeseen occurrence that will affect the environment and the organisms in it. The aftermath of natural disasters is mostly worse, though it depends on their severity.