hypothesis in a thesis

The Real Differences Between Thesis and Hypothesis (With table)

A thesis and a hypothesis are two very different things, but they are often confused with one another. In this blog post, we will explain the differences between these two terms, and help you understand when to use which one in a research project.

As a whole, the main difference between a thesis and a hypothesis is that a thesis is an assertion that can be proven or disproven, while a hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. 

We probably need to expand a bit on this topic to make things clearer for you, let’s start with definitions and examples.

Definitions

A thesis is a statement or theory that is put forward as a premise to be maintained or proved. A thesis statement is usually one sentence, and it states your position on the topic at hand.

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The best way to understand the slight difference between those terms, is to give you an example for each of them.

If your hypothesis is correct, then further research should be able to confirm it. However, if your hypothesis is incorrect, research will disprove it. Either way, a hypothesis is an important part of the scientific process.

The word “hypothesis” comes from the Greek words “hupo,” meaning “under”, and “thesis” that we just explained.

Argumentation vs idea

A thesis is usually the result of extensive research and contemplation, and seeks to prove a point or theory.

A hypothesis is only a statement that need to be tested by observation or experimentation.

5 mains differences between thesis and hypothesis

Thesis and hypothesis are different in several ways, here are the 5 keys differences between those terms:

So, in short, a thesis is an argument, while a hypothesis is a prediction. A thesis is more detailed and longer than a hypothesis, and it is based on research. Finally, a thesis must be proven, while a hypothesis does not need to be proven.

Is there a difference between a thesis and a claim?

Is a hypothesis a prediction, what’s the difference between thesis and dissertation.

A thesis is usually shorter and more focused than a dissertation, and it is typically achieved in order to earn a bachelor’s degree. A dissertation is usually longer and more comprehensive, and it is typically completed in order to earn a master’s or doctorate degree.

What is a good thesis statement?

I am very curious and I love to learn about all types of subjects. Thanks to my experience on the web, I share my discoveries with you on this site :)

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What Is A Research (Scientific) Hypothesis? A plain-language explainer + examples

By:  Derek Jansen (MBA)  | Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2020

If you’re new to the world of research, or it’s your first time writing a dissertation or thesis, you’re probably noticing that the words “research hypothesis” and “scientific hypothesis” are used quite a bit, and you’re wondering what they mean in a research context .

“Hypothesis” is one of those words that people use loosely, thinking they understand what it means. However, it has a very specific meaning within academic research. So, it’s important to understand the exact meaning before you start hypothesizing. 

Research Hypothesis 101

• What is a hypothesis ?
• What is a research hypothesis (scientific hypothesis)?
• Requirements for a research hypothesis
• Definition of a research hypothesis
• The null hypothesis

What is a hypothesis?

Let’s start with the general definition of a hypothesis (not a research hypothesis or scientific hypothesis), according to the Cambridge Dictionary:

Hypothesis: an idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but has not yet been proved.

In other words, it’s a statement that provides an explanation for why or how something works, based on facts (or some reasonable assumptions), but that has not yet been specifically tested . For example, a hypothesis might look something like this:

Hypothesis: sleep impacts academic performance.

This statement predicts that academic performance will be influenced by the amount and/or quality of sleep a student engages in – sounds reasonable, right? It’s based on reasonable assumptions , underpinned by what we currently know about sleep and health (from the existing literature). So, loosely speaking, we could call it a hypothesis, at least by the dictionary definition.

But that’s not good enough…

Unfortunately, that’s not quite sophisticated enough to describe a research hypothesis (also sometimes called a scientific hypothesis), and it wouldn’t be acceptable in a dissertation, thesis or research paper . In the world of academic research, a statement needs a few more criteria to constitute a true research hypothesis .

What is a research hypothesis?

A research hypothesis (also called a scientific hypothesis) is a statement about the expected outcome of a study (for example, a dissertation or thesis). To constitute a quality hypothesis, the statement needs to have three attributes – specificity , clarity and testability .

Let’s take a look at these more closely.

Need a helping hand?

Hypothesis Essential #1: Specificity & Clarity

A good research hypothesis needs to be extremely clear and articulate about both what’ s being assessed (who or what variables are involved ) and the expected outcome (for example, a difference between groups, a relationship between variables, etc.).

Let’s stick with our sleepy students example and look at how this statement could be more specific and clear.

Hypothesis: Students who sleep at least 8 hours per night will, on average, achieve higher grades in standardised tests than students who sleep less than 8 hours a night.

As you can see, the statement is very specific as it identifies the variables involved (sleep hours and test grades), the parties involved (two groups of students), as well as the predicted relationship type (a positive relationship). There’s no ambiguity or uncertainty about who or what is involved in the statement, and the expected outcome is clear.

Contrast that to the original hypothesis we looked at – “Sleep impacts academic performance” – and you can see the difference. “Sleep” and “academic performance” are both comparatively vague , and there’s no indication of what the expected relationship direction is (more sleep or less sleep). As you can see, specificity and clarity are key.

Hypothesis Essential #2: Testability (Provability)

A statement must be testable to qualify as a research hypothesis. In other words, there needs to be a way to prove (or disprove) the statement. If it’s not testable, it’s not a hypothesis – simple as that.

For example, consider the hypothesis we mentioned earlier:

Hypothesis: Students who sleep at least 8 hours per night will, on average, achieve higher grades in standardised tests than students who sleep less than 8 hours a night.  

We could test this statement by undertaking a quantitative study involving two groups of students, one that gets 8 or more hours of sleep per night for a fixed period, and one that gets less. We could then compare the standardised test results for both groups to see if there’s a statistically significant difference. 

Again, if you compare this to the original hypothesis we looked at – “Sleep impacts academic performance” – you can see that it would be quite difficult to test that statement, primarily because it isn’t specific enough. How much sleep? By who? What type of academic performance?

So, remember the mantra – if you can’t test it, it’s not a hypothesis 🙂

Defining A Research Hypothesis

You’re still with us? Great! Let’s recap and pin down a clear definition of a hypothesis.

A research hypothesis (or scientific hypothesis) is a statement about an expected relationship between variables, or explanation of an occurrence, that is clear, specific and testable.

So, when you write up hypotheses for your dissertation or thesis, make sure that they meet all these criteria. If you do, you’ll not only have rock-solid hypotheses but you’ll also ensure a clear focus for your entire research project.

What about the null hypothesis?

You may have also heard the terms null hypothesis , alternative hypothesis, or H-zero thrown around. At a simple level, the null hypothesis is the counter-proposal to the original hypothesis.

For example, if the hypothesis predicts that there is a relationship between two variables (for example, sleep and academic performance), the null hypothesis would predict that there is no relationship between those variables.

At a more technical level, the null hypothesis proposes that no statistical significance exists in a set of given observations and that any differences are due to chance alone.

And there you have it – hypotheses in a nutshell. 

If you have any questions, be sure to leave a comment below and we’ll do our best to help you. If you need hands-on help developing and testing your hypotheses, consider our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the research journey.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

17 Comments

Very useful information. I benefit more from getting more information in this regard.

Very great insight,educative and informative. Please give meet deep critics on many research data of public international Law like human rights, environment, natural resources, law of the sea etc

In a book I read a distinction is made between null, research, and alternative hypothesis. As far as I understand, alternative and research hypotheses are the same. Can you please elaborate? Best Afshin

This is a self explanatory, easy going site. I will recommend this to my friends and colleagues.

Very good definition. How can I cite your definition in my thesis? Thank you. Is nul hypothesis compulsory in a research?

It’s a counter-proposal to be proven as a rejection

Please what is the difference between alternate hypothesis and research hypothesis?

It is a very good explanation. However, it limits hypotheses to statistically tasteable ideas. What about for qualitative researches or other researches that involve quantitative data that don’t need statistical tests?

In qualitative research, one typically uses propositions, not hypotheses.

could you please elaborate it more

I’ve benefited greatly from these notes, thank you.

This is very helpful

well articulated ideas are presented here, thank you for being reliable sources of information

Excellent. Thanks for being clear and sound about the research methodology and hypothesis (quantitative research)

I have only a simple question regarding the null hypothesis. – Is the null hypothesis (Ho) known as the reversible hypothesis of the alternative hypothesis (H1? – How to test it in academic research?

this is very important note help me much more

Hi” best wishes to you and your very nice blog” 

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How Do You Write an Hypothesis? Detailed Explanation and Examples

Writing a hypothesis is a fundamental step in the scientific research process. It serves as a tentative explanation or prediction that can be tested through experimentation and observation. A well-crafted hypothesis provides a clear direction for research and helps in drawing meaningful conclusions. This article will guide you through the process of writing a hypothesis, including understanding its concept, formulating it, and avoiding common pitfalls, with illustrative examples from various fields of study.

Key Takeaways

• A hypothesis is a testable and falsifiable statement that predicts an outcome based on certain conditions.
• There are different types of hypotheses, including null, alternative, and directional hypotheses, each serving a specific purpose in research.
• Formulating a hypothesis involves identifying research questions, conducting preliminary research, and crafting a clear and precise statement.
• A strong hypothesis is characterized by its testability, clarity, precision, and relevance to the research objectives.
• Common pitfalls in hypothesis writing include vague statements, overly complex hypotheses, and lack of testability.

Understanding the Concept of a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a foundational element in scientific research, serving as a preliminary statement that proposes a potential relationship between variables. It is essential for guiding the direction of your study and providing a basis for data collection and analysis.

Steps to Formulate a Hypothesis

Identifying research questions.

The first step in formulating a hypothesis is to identify your research question . This involves observing the subject matter and recognizing patterns or relationships between variables. Crafting a clear, testable, and grounded hypothesis is essential for research success. By pinpointing the exact question you aim to answer, you lay the foundation for a focused and effective hypothesis.

Conducting Preliminary Research

Once you have your research question, the next step is to conduct preliminary research. This involves gathering as much information as possible about the topic. Evaluate these observations to identify potential causes and effects related to your research question. This stage helps you understand the existing knowledge and gaps, which is crucial for developing a well-informed hypothesis.

Formulating the Hypothesis Statement

After conducting preliminary research, you can begin formulating your hypothesis statement. This statement should clearly define the variables involved and the expected relationship between them. Ensure that your hypothesis is specific, testable, and falsifiable. A well-crafted hypothesis not only guides your research but also provides a clear direction for your experimental design and data collection methods.

Characteristics of a Strong Hypothesis

A strong hypothesis is essential for guiding your research and ensuring that your study is both meaningful and scientifically valid. Here are the key characteristics that define a robust hypothesis:

Testability and Falsifiability

A strong hypothesis must be testable, meaning you can design experiments to verify or refute it. Falsifiability is equally important; there should be a possibility to collect data that could disprove the hypothesis. This ensures that your hypothesis is grounded in empirical research rather than mere speculation.

Clarity and Precision

Your hypothesis should be clear and precise, leaving no room for ambiguity. This clarity helps in designing experiments and interpreting results. A well-defined hypothesis often begins with a specific research question and is articulated in simple, straightforward language.

Relevance to Research Objectives

A strong hypothesis is directly related to your research objectives. It should address the core question of your study and be aligned with the goals you aim to achieve. This relevance ensures that your hypothesis is not just an isolated statement but a crucial part of your overall research framework.

Common Pitfalls in Hypothesis Writing

When crafting a hypothesis, it's crucial to avoid common mistakes that can undermine your research. Vague statements are a frequent issue; they lack the specificity needed to be testable. For instance, saying "exercise improves health" is too broad. Instead, specify the type of exercise and the health outcome you are measuring.

Overly complex hypotheses can also be problematic. A hypothesis should be straightforward and focused. If it includes too many variables or conditions, it becomes difficult to test and analyze. Simplify your hypothesis to ensure clarity and feasibility.

Another major pitfall is the lack of testability. A hypothesis must be testable through empirical methods. If you cannot design an experiment or collect data to support or refute your hypothesis, it is not scientifically valid. Ensure your hypothesis can be tested with the resources and methods available to you.

Examples of Well-Written Hypotheses

In this section, you will explore various examples of well-crafted hypotheses across different fields of study. Understanding these examples will help you grasp the nuances of formulating a strong hypothesis.

Hypotheses in Natural Sciences

A well-written hypothesis in the natural sciences is both specific and testable. For instance, consider the hypothesis: "If plants are exposed to higher levels of sunlight, then their growth rate will increase." This statement clearly defines the variables and the expected relationship between them, making it a robust hypothesis for experimental testing.

Hypotheses in Social Sciences

In the social sciences, hypotheses often address complex human behaviors and societal trends. An example of a good hypothesis in this field is: "Individuals who participate in regular physical activity are more likely to report higher levels of mental well-being." This hypothesis is specific, testable, and relevant to the research objectives, providing a clear direction for the study.

Hypotheses in Applied Research

Applied research focuses on practical problem-solving. A strong hypothesis in this area might be: "Implementing a new software system will reduce the time required to complete administrative tasks by 20%." This hypothesis is not only testable but also directly applicable to real-world scenarios, making it highly valuable for applied research.

By examining these examples, you can better understand how to construct hypotheses that are clear, precise, and aligned with your research goals.

Testing and Refining Your Hypothesis

Designing experiments.

Before you dive into any experiment, you first formulate what you think will happen. This is where your hypothesis comes into play. A hypothesis in experimental design is essentially a testable prediction. Ensure that your hypothesis has clear and relevant variables, identifies the relationship between its variables, and is specific and testable. Designing a robust experiment involves controlling the independent variable and observing the dependent variable to validate or refute your hypothesis.

Data Collection Methods

Once your experiment is designed, the next step is to collect data. This involves choosing appropriate methods to gather data that will support or refute your hypothesis. Whether you use surveys, observations, or experiments, the key is to ensure that your data collection methods are reliable and valid. Remember, the priority of any scientific research is the conclusion, so collect data meticulously.

Analyzing Results and Making Adjustments

After data collection, the next step is to analyze the results. This involves statistical analysis to determine whether the data supports your hypothesis. If the data does not support your hypothesis, do not worry. This is a normal part of the scientific method. You may need to refine your hypothesis based on the findings. Use the results to identify weaknesses in your hypothesis and revise it if necessary. This iterative process helps in honing a more accurate and testable hypothesis.

The Importance of Hypotheses in Academic Writing

In academic writing, hypotheses serve as foundational elements that guide the direction and structure of your research. A well-formulated hypothesis not only provides a clear focus for your study but also helps in organizing your research methods and analysis. This is crucial for ensuring that your research remains coherent and targeted.

Guiding Research Direction

A hypothesis plays an important role in the scientific method by helping to create an appropriate experimental design. By establishing a specific, testable statement, you can streamline your research process and avoid unnecessary detours. This focused approach is essential for producing meaningful and reliable results.

Facilitating Critical Thinking

Formulating a hypothesis requires you to engage in critical thinking and problem-solving. This process helps you to clarify your research questions and objectives, making your study more robust and intellectually rigorous. It also encourages you to consider various outcomes and their implications, thereby enhancing the depth of your analysis.

Enhancing Academic Rigor

A well-constructed hypothesis adds a layer of academic rigor to your work. It demonstrates that you have a clear understanding of the theoretical framework and existing literature related to your topic. This not only strengthens your argument but also makes your research more credible and persuasive. In essence, a strong hypothesis is a testament to the quality and seriousness of your academic endeavor.

In academic writing, hypotheses play a crucial role in guiding research and providing a clear focus for your study. They help in formulating research questions and determining the direction of your investigation. If you're struggling with your thesis and need a structured approach, our Thesis Action Plan is here to help. Visit our website to claim your special offer now and overcome the challenges of thesis writing with ease.

In conclusion, writing a hypothesis is a fundamental step in the scientific research process that requires careful consideration and a structured approach. By observing the subject, identifying variables, and formulating a clear and testable statement, researchers can lay a solid foundation for their experiments. A well-crafted hypothesis not only guides the research but also provides a framework for analyzing results and drawing meaningful conclusions. As demonstrated in this article, understanding the components and steps involved in hypothesis writing is crucial for academic success and contributes significantly to the advancement of knowledge in various fields. By following the detailed explanations and examples provided, students and researchers can enhance their ability to construct effective hypotheses, thereby improving the quality and impact of their scientific inquiries.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a statement that predicts the outcome of a scientific study. It is an educated guess based on prior knowledge and observations.

Why is a hypothesis important in scientific research?

A hypothesis provides a focused direction for research. It helps researchers make predictions that can be tested through experiments and observations, thereby advancing scientific knowledge.

What are the types of hypotheses?

There are several types of hypotheses, including null hypotheses, alternative hypotheses, directional hypotheses, and non-directional hypotheses. Each serves a different purpose in research.

How do you formulate a hypothesis?

Formulating a hypothesis involves identifying a research question, conducting preliminary research, and then crafting a clear and testable statement that predicts an outcome.

What makes a hypothesis strong?

A strong hypothesis is testable, falsifiable, clear, precise, and relevant to the research objectives. It should be specific enough to be tested but broad enough to cover the scope of the research.

What are common pitfalls in writing a hypothesis?

Common pitfalls include making vague statements, creating overly complex hypotheses, and failing to ensure that the hypothesis is testable.

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The Craft of Writing a Strong Hypothesis

Table of Contents

Writing a hypothesis is one of the essential elements of a scientific research paper. It needs to be to the point, clearly communicating what your research is trying to accomplish. A blurry, drawn-out, or complexly-structured hypothesis can confuse your readers. Or worse, the editor and peer reviewers.

A captivating hypothesis is not too intricate. This blog will take you through the process so that, by the end of it, you have a better idea of how to convey your research paper's intent in just one sentence.

What is a Hypothesis?

The first step in your scientific endeavor, a hypothesis, is a strong, concise statement that forms the basis of your research. It is not the same as a thesis statement , which is a brief summary of your research paper .

The sole purpose of a hypothesis is to predict your paper's findings, data, and conclusion. It comes from a place of curiosity and intuition . When you write a hypothesis, you're essentially making an educated guess based on scientific prejudices and evidence, which is further proven or disproven through the scientific method.

The reason for undertaking research is to observe a specific phenomenon. A hypothesis, therefore, lays out what the said phenomenon is. And it does so through two variables, an independent and dependent variable.

The independent variable is the cause behind the observation, while the dependent variable is the effect of the cause. A good example of this is “mixing red and blue forms purple.” In this hypothesis, mixing red and blue is the independent variable as you're combining the two colors at your own will. The formation of purple is the dependent variable as, in this case, it is conditional to the independent variable.

Different Types of Hypotheses‌

Types of hypotheses

Some would stand by the notion that there are only two types of hypotheses: a Null hypothesis and an Alternative hypothesis. While that may have some truth to it, it would be better to fully distinguish the most common forms as these terms come up so often, which might leave you out of context.

Apart from Null and Alternative, there are Complex, Simple, Directional, Non-Directional, Statistical, and Associative and casual hypotheses. They don't necessarily have to be exclusive, as one hypothesis can tick many boxes, but knowing the distinctions between them will make it easier for you to construct your own.

1. Null hypothesis

A null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two variables. Denoted by H 0 , it is a negative statement like “Attending physiotherapy sessions does not affect athletes' on-field performance.” Here, the author claims physiotherapy sessions have no effect on on-field performances. Even if there is, it's only a coincidence.

2. Alternative hypothesis

Considered to be the opposite of a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis is donated as H1 or Ha. It explicitly states that the dependent variable affects the independent variable. A good  alternative hypothesis example is “Attending physiotherapy sessions improves athletes' on-field performance.” or “Water evaporates at 100 °C. ” The alternative hypothesis further branches into directional and non-directional.

• Directional hypothesis: A hypothesis that states the result would be either positive or negative is called directional hypothesis. It accompanies H1 with either the ‘<' or ‘>' sign.
• Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis only claims an effect on the dependent variable. It does not clarify whether the result would be positive or negative. The sign for a non-directional hypothesis is ‘≠.'

3. Simple hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, “Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is dependent on the independent variable, smoking.

4. Complex hypothesis

In contrast to a simple hypothesis, a complex hypothesis implies the relationship between multiple independent and dependent variables. For instance, “Individuals who eat more fruits tend to have higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.” The independent variable is eating more fruits, while the dependent variables are higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.

5. Associative and casual hypothesis

Associative and casual hypotheses don't exhibit how many variables there will be. They define the relationship between the variables. In an associative hypothesis, changing any one variable, dependent or independent, affects others. In a casual hypothesis, the independent variable directly affects the dependent.

6. Empirical hypothesis

Also referred to as the working hypothesis, an empirical hypothesis claims a theory's validation via experiments and observation. This way, the statement appears justifiable and different from a wild guess.

Say, the hypothesis is “Women who take iron tablets face a lesser risk of anemia than those who take vitamin B12.” This is an example of an empirical hypothesis where the researcher  the statement after assessing a group of women who take iron tablets and charting the findings.

7. Statistical hypothesis

The point of a statistical hypothesis is to test an already existing hypothesis by studying a population sample. Hypothesis like “44% of the Indian population belong in the age group of 22-27.” leverage evidence to prove or disprove a particular statement.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

Writing a hypothesis is essential as it can make or break your research for you. That includes your chances of getting published in a journal. So when you're designing one, keep an eye out for these pointers:

• A research hypothesis has to be simple yet clear to look justifiable enough.
• It has to be testable — your research would be rendered pointless if too far-fetched into reality or limited by technology.
• It has to be precise about the results —what you are trying to do and achieve through it should come out in your hypothesis.
• A research hypothesis should be self-explanatory, leaving no doubt in the reader's mind.
• If you are developing a relational hypothesis, you need to include the variables and establish an appropriate relationship among them.
• A hypothesis must keep and reflect the scope for further investigations and experiments.

Separating a Hypothesis from a Prediction

Outside of academia, hypothesis and prediction are often used interchangeably. In research writing, this is not only confusing but also incorrect. And although a hypothesis and prediction are guesses at their core, there are many differences between them.

A hypothesis is an educated guess or even a testable prediction validated through research. It aims to analyze the gathered evidence and facts to define a relationship between variables and put forth a logical explanation behind the nature of events.

Predictions are assumptions or expected outcomes made without any backing evidence. They are more fictionally inclined regardless of where they originate from.

For this reason, a hypothesis holds much more weight than a prediction. It sticks to the scientific method rather than pure guesswork. "Planets revolve around the Sun." is an example of a hypothesis as it is previous knowledge and observed trends. Additionally, we can test it through the scientific method.

Whereas "COVID-19 will be eradicated by 2030." is a prediction. Even though it results from past trends, we can't prove or disprove it. So, the only way this gets validated is to wait and watch if COVID-19 cases end by 2030.

Finally, How to Write a Hypothesis

Quick tips on writing a hypothesis

1.  Be clear about your research question

A hypothesis should instantly address the research question or the problem statement. To do so, you need to ask a question. Understand the constraints of your undertaken research topic and then formulate a simple and topic-centric problem. Only after that can you develop a hypothesis and further test for evidence.

2. Carry out a recce

Once you have your research's foundation laid out, it would be best to conduct preliminary research. Go through previous theories, academic papers, data, and experiments before you start curating your research hypothesis. It will give you an idea of your hypothesis's viability or originality.

Making use of references from relevant research papers helps draft a good research hypothesis. SciSpace Discover offers a repository of over 270 million research papers to browse through and gain a deeper understanding of related studies on a particular topic. Additionally, you can use SciSpace Copilot , your AI research assistant, for reading any lengthy research paper and getting a more summarized context of it. A hypothesis can be formed after evaluating many such summarized research papers. Copilot also offers explanations for theories and equations, explains paper in simplified version, allows you to highlight any text in the paper or clip math equations and tables and provides a deeper, clear understanding of what is being said. This can improve the hypothesis by helping you identify potential research gaps.

3. Create a 3-dimensional hypothesis

Variables are an essential part of any reasonable hypothesis. So, identify your independent and dependent variable(s) and form a correlation between them. The ideal way to do this is to write the hypothetical assumption in the ‘if-then' form. If you use this form, make sure that you state the predefined relationship between the variables.

In another way, you can choose to present your hypothesis as a comparison between two variables. Here, you must specify the difference you expect to observe in the results.

4. Write the first draft

Now that everything is in place, it's time to write your hypothesis. For starters, create the first draft. In this version, write what you expect to find from your research.

Clearly separate your independent and dependent variables and the link between them. Don't fixate on syntax at this stage. The goal is to ensure your hypothesis addresses the issue.

5. Proof your hypothesis

After preparing the first draft of your hypothesis, you need to inspect it thoroughly. It should tick all the boxes, like being concise, straightforward, relevant, and accurate. Your final hypothesis has to be well-structured as well.

Research projects are an exciting and crucial part of being a scholar. And once you have your research question, you need a great hypothesis to begin conducting research. Thus, knowing how to write a hypothesis is very important.

Now that you have a firmer grasp on what a good hypothesis constitutes, the different kinds there are, and what process to follow, you will find it much easier to write your hypothesis, which ultimately helps your research.

Now it's easier than ever to streamline your research workflow with SciSpace Discover . Its integrated, comprehensive end-to-end platform for research allows scholars to easily discover, write and publish their research and fosters collaboration.

It includes everything you need, including a repository of over 270 million research papers across disciplines, SEO-optimized summaries and public profiles to show your expertise and experience.

If you found these tips on writing a research hypothesis useful, head over to our blog on Statistical Hypothesis Testing to learn about the top researchers, papers, and institutions in this domain.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. what is the definition of hypothesis.

According to the Oxford dictionary, a hypothesis is defined as “An idea or explanation of something that is based on a few known facts, but that has not yet been proved to be true or correct”.

2. What is an example of hypothesis?

The hypothesis is a statement that proposes a relationship between two or more variables. An example: "If we increase the number of new users who join our platform by 25%, then we will see an increase in revenue."

3. What is an example of null hypothesis?

A null hypothesis is a statement that there is no relationship between two variables. The null hypothesis is written as H0. The null hypothesis states that there is no effect. For example, if you're studying whether or not a particular type of exercise increases strength, your null hypothesis will be "there is no difference in strength between people who exercise and people who don't."

4. What are the types of research?

• Fundamental research

• Applied research

• Qualitative research

• Quantitative research

• Mixed research

• Exploratory research

• Longitudinal research

• Cross-sectional research

• Field research

• Laboratory research

• Fixed research

• Flexible research

• Action research

• Policy research

• Classification research

• Comparative research

• Causal research

• Inductive research

• Deductive research

5. How to write a hypothesis?

• Your hypothesis should be able to predict the relationship and outcome.

• Avoid wordiness by keeping it simple and brief.

• Your hypothesis should contain observable and testable outcomes.

• Your hypothesis should be relevant to the research question.

6. What are the 2 types of hypothesis?

• Null hypotheses are used to test the claim that "there is no difference between two groups of data".

• Alternative hypotheses test the claim that "there is a difference between two data groups".

7. Difference between research question and research hypothesis?

A research question is a broad, open-ended question you will try to answer through your research. A hypothesis is a statement based on prior research or theory that you expect to be true due to your study. Example - Research question: What are the factors that influence the adoption of the new technology? Research hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between age, education and income level with the adoption of the new technology.

8. What is plural for hypothesis?

The plural of hypothesis is hypotheses. Here's an example of how it would be used in a statement, "Numerous well-considered hypotheses are presented in this part, and they are supported by tables and figures that are well-illustrated."

9. What is the red queen hypothesis?

The red queen hypothesis in evolutionary biology states that species must constantly evolve to avoid extinction because if they don't, they will be outcompeted by other species that are evolving. Leigh Van Valen first proposed it in 1973; since then, it has been tested and substantiated many times.

10. Who is known as the father of null hypothesis?

The father of the null hypothesis is Sir Ronald Fisher. He published a paper in 1925 that introduced the concept of null hypothesis testing, and he was also the first to use the term itself.

11. When to reject null hypothesis?

You need to find a significant difference between your two populations to reject the null hypothesis. You can determine that by running statistical tests such as an independent sample t-test or a dependent sample t-test. You should reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is less than 0.05.

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• How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Shona McCombes .

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection.

Table of contents

What is a hypothesis, developing a hypothesis (with example), hypothesis examples, frequently asked questions about writing hypotheses.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

Variables in hypotheses

Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables . An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent variable is something the researcher observes and measures.

In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause . The dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect .

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Step 1: ask a question.

Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Step 2: Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.

At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you’ll have to operationalise more complex constructs.

Step 3: Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

Step 4: Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:

• The relevant variables
• The specific group being studied
• The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

Step 5: Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if … then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.

Step 6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing , you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0 , while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a .

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

A hypothesis is not just a guess. It should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

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B oth the hypothesis statement and the thesis statement answer the research question of the study.  When the statement is one that can be proved or disproved, it is an hypothesis statement.  If, instead, the statement specifically shows the intentions/objectives/position of the researcher, it is a thesis statement.

A hypothesis is a statement that can be proved or disproved.  It is typically used in quantitative research and predicts the relationship between variables.

A thesis statement is a short, direct sentence that summarizes the main point or claim of an essay or research paper. It is seen in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research.  A thesis statement is developed, supported, and explained in the body of the essay or research report by means of examples and evidence.

Every research study should contain a concise and well-written thesis statement. If the intent of the study is to prove/disprove something, that research report will also contain an hypothesis statement.

Jablonski , Judith. What is the difference between a thesis statement and an hypothesis statement? Online Library. American Public University System. Jun 16, 2014. Web.   http://apus.libanswers.com/faq/2374

Let’s say you are interested in the conflict in Darfur, and you conclude that the issues you wish to address include the nature, causes, and effects of the conflict, and the international response. While you could address the issue of international response first, it makes the most sense to start with a description of the conflict, followed by an exploration of the causes, effects, and then to discuss the international response and what more could/should be done.

This hypothetical example may lead to the following title, introduction, and statement of questions:

Conflict in Darfur: Causes, Consequences, and International Response       This paper examines the conflict in Darfur, Sudan. It is organized around the following questions: (1) What is the nature of the conflict in Darfur? (2) What are the causes and effects of the conflict? (3) What has the international community done to address it, and what more could/should it do?

Following the section that presents your questions and background, you will offer a set of responses/answers/(hypo)theses. They should follow the order of the questions. This might look something like this, “The paper argues/contends/ maintains/seeks to develop the position that...etc.” The most important thing you can do in this section is to present as clearly as possible your best thinking on the subject matter guided by course material and research. As you proceed through the research process, your thinking about the issues/questions will become more nuanced, complex, and refined. The statement of your theses will reflect this as you move forward in the research process.

So, looking to our hypothetical example on Darfur:

The current conflict in Darfur goes back more than a decade and consists of fighting between government-supported troops and residents of Darfur. The causes of the conflict include x, y, and z. The effects of the conflict have been a, b, and c. The international community has done 0, and it should do 1, 2, and 3.

Once you have setup your thesis you will be ready to begin amassing supporting evidence for you claims. This is a very important part of the research paper, as you will provide the substance to defend your thesis.

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Answered By: APUS Librarians Last Updated: Apr 15, 2022     Views: 129108

Both the hypothesis statement and the thesis statement answer a research question. 

• A hypothesis is a statement that can be proved or disproved. It is typically used in quantitative research and predicts the relationship between variables.  
• A thesis statement is a short, direct sentence that summarizes the main point or claim of an essay or research paper. It is seen in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research. A thesis statement is developed, supported, and explained in the body of the essay or research report by means of examples and evidence.

Every research study should contain a concise and well-written thesis statement. If the intent of the study is to prove/disprove something, that research report will also contain a hypothesis statement.

NOTE: In some disciplines, the hypothesis is referred to as a thesis statement! This is not accurate but within those disciplines it is understood that "a short, direct sentence that summarizes the main point" will be included.

For more information, see The Research Question and Hypothesis (PDF file from the English Language Support, Department of Student Services, Ryerson University).

How do I write a good thesis statement?

How do I write a good hypothesis statement?

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How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Definition, Format, Examples, and Tips

Verywell / Alex Dos Diaz

• The Scientific Method

Hypothesis Format

Falsifiability of a hypothesis.

• Operationalization

Hypothesis Types

Hypotheses examples.

• Collecting Data

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide the research process.

Consider a study designed to examine the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance. The hypothesis might be: "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."

At a Glance

A hypothesis is crucial to scientific research because it offers a clear direction for what the researchers are looking to find. This allows them to design experiments to test their predictions and add to our scientific knowledge about the world. This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

In the scientific method , whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:

• Forming a question
• Performing background research
• Creating a hypothesis
• Designing an experiment
• Collecting data
• Analyzing the results
• Drawing conclusions
• Communicating the results

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. At this point, researchers then begin to develop a testable hypothesis.

Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you  expect  to happen.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore numerous factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment  do not  support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk adage that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

• Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the  journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

How to Formulate a Good Hypothesis

To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

• Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
• Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
• Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
• After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.

In the scientific method ,  falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.

Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that  if  something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.

One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.

The Importance of Operational Definitions

A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.

Operational definitions are specific definitions for all relevant factors in a study. This process helps make vague or ambiguous concepts detailed and measurable.

For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in various ways. Clearly defining these variables and how they are measured helps ensure that other researchers can replicate your results.

Replicability

One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.

Replication means repeating an experiment in the same way to produce the same results. By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

Some variables are more difficult than others to define. For example, how would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.

To measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming others. The researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness in this situation.

Hypothesis Checklist

• Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
• Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
• Can you manipulate the variables?
• Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:

• Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
• Complex hypothesis : This type suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent and dependent variables.
• Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
• Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
• Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative population sample and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
• Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the  dependent variable  if you change the  independent variable .

The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
• "Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."​
• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."
• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will have higher reading scores than students who do not receive the intervention."

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

• "People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
• "Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

• "There is no difference in anxiety levels between people who take St. John's wort supplements and those who do not."
• "There is no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."
• "There is no difference in aggression levels between children who play first-person shooter games and those who do not."

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

• "People who take St. John's wort supplements will have less anxiety than those who do not."
• "Adults will perform better on a memory task than children."
• "Children who play first-person shooter games will show higher levels of aggression than children who do not." 

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as  case studies ,  naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when  conducting an experiment is difficult or impossible. These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.

Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a  correlational study  can examine how the variables are related. This research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods  are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).

Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually  cause  another to change.

The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.

Thompson WH, Skau S. On the scope of scientific hypotheses .  R Soc Open Sci . 2023;10(8):230607. doi:10.1098/rsos.230607

Taran S, Adhikari NKJ, Fan E. Falsifiability in medicine: what clinicians can learn from Karl Popper [published correction appears in Intensive Care Med. 2021 Jun 17;:].  Intensive Care Med . 2021;47(9):1054-1056. doi:10.1007/s00134-021-06432-z

Eyler AA. Research Methods for Public Health . 1st ed. Springer Publishing Company; 2020. doi:10.1891/9780826182067.0004

Nosek BA, Errington TM. What is replication ?  PLoS Biol . 2020;18(3):e3000691. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000691

Aggarwal R, Ranganathan P. Study designs: Part 2 - Descriptive studies .  Perspect Clin Res . 2019;10(1):34-36. doi:10.4103/picr.PICR_154_18

Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomenon, based on some initial observations or data. It is a tentative statement that can be tested and potentially proven or disproven through further investigation and experimentation.

Hypothesis is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments and the collection and analysis of data. It is an essential element of the scientific method, as it allows researchers to make predictions about the outcome of their experiments and to test those predictions to determine their accuracy.

Types of Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis are as follows:

Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a statement that predicts a relationship between variables. It is usually formulated as a specific statement that can be tested through research, and it is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments.

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is no significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as a starting point for testing the research hypothesis, and if the results of the study reject the null hypothesis, it suggests that there is a significant difference or relationship between variables.

Alternative Hypothesis

An alternative hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is a significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as an alternative to the null hypothesis and is tested against the null hypothesis to determine which statement is more accurate.

Directional Hypothesis

A directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the direction of the relationship between variables. For example, a researcher might predict that increasing the amount of exercise will result in a decrease in body weight.

Non-directional Hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the relationship between variables but does not specify the direction. For example, a researcher might predict that there is a relationship between the amount of exercise and body weight, but they do not specify whether increasing or decreasing exercise will affect body weight.

Statistical Hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is a statement that assumes a particular statistical model or distribution for the data. It is often used in statistical analysis to test the significance of a particular result.

Composite Hypothesis

A composite hypothesis is a statement that assumes more than one condition or outcome. It can be divided into several sub-hypotheses, each of which represents a different possible outcome.

Empirical Hypothesis

An empirical hypothesis is a statement that is based on observed phenomena or data. It is often used in scientific research to develop theories or models that explain the observed phenomena.

Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a statement that assumes only one outcome or condition. It is often used in scientific research to test a single variable or factor.

Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis is a statement that assumes multiple outcomes or conditions. It is often used in scientific research to test the effects of multiple variables or factors on a particular outcome.

Applications of Hypothesis

Hypotheses are used in various fields to guide research and make predictions about the outcomes of experiments or observations. Here are some examples of how hypotheses are applied in different fields:

• Science : In scientific research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain natural phenomena. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular variable on a natural system, such as the effects of climate change on an ecosystem.
• Medicine : In medical research, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of treatments and therapies for specific conditions. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new drug on a particular disease.
• Psychology : In psychology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of human behavior and cognition. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular stimulus on the brain or behavior.
• Sociology : In sociology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of social phenomena, such as the effects of social structures or institutions on human behavior. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of income inequality on crime rates.
• Business : In business research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain business phenomena, such as consumer behavior or market trends. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new marketing campaign on consumer buying behavior.
• Engineering : In engineering, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of new technologies or designs. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the efficiency of a new solar panel design.

How to write a Hypothesis

Here are the steps to follow when writing a hypothesis:

Identify the Research Question

The first step is to identify the research question that you want to answer through your study. This question should be clear, specific, and focused. It should be something that can be investigated empirically and that has some relevance or significance in the field.

Conduct a Literature Review

Before writing your hypothesis, it’s essential to conduct a thorough literature review to understand what is already known about the topic. This will help you to identify the research gap and formulate a hypothesis that builds on existing knowledge.

Determine the Variables

The next step is to identify the variables involved in the research question. A variable is any characteristic or factor that can vary or change. There are two types of variables: independent and dependent. The independent variable is the one that is manipulated or changed by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the one that is measured or observed as a result of the independent variable.

Formulate the Hypothesis

Based on the research question and the variables involved, you can now formulate your hypothesis. A hypothesis should be a clear and concise statement that predicts the relationship between the variables. It should be testable through empirical research and based on existing theory or evidence.

Write the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is the opposite of the alternative hypothesis, which is the hypothesis that you are testing. The null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference or relationship between the variables. It is important to write the null hypothesis because it allows you to compare your results with what would be expected by chance.

Refine the Hypothesis

After formulating the hypothesis, it’s important to refine it and make it more precise. This may involve clarifying the variables, specifying the direction of the relationship, or making the hypothesis more testable.

Examples of Hypothesis

Here are a few examples of hypotheses in different fields:

• Psychology : “Increased exposure to violent video games leads to increased aggressive behavior in adolescents.”
• Biology : “Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will lead to increased plant growth.”
• Sociology : “Individuals who grow up in households with higher socioeconomic status will have higher levels of education and income as adults.”
• Education : “Implementing a new teaching method will result in higher student achievement scores.”
• Marketing : “Customers who receive a personalized email will be more likely to make a purchase than those who receive a generic email.”
• Physics : “An increase in temperature will cause an increase in the volume of a gas, assuming all other variables remain constant.”
• Medicine : “Consuming a diet high in saturated fats will increase the risk of developing heart disease.”

Purpose of Hypothesis

The purpose of a hypothesis is to provide a testable explanation for an observed phenomenon or a prediction of a future outcome based on existing knowledge or theories. A hypothesis is an essential part of the scientific method and helps to guide the research process by providing a clear focus for investigation. It enables scientists to design experiments or studies to gather evidence and data that can support or refute the proposed explanation or prediction.

The formulation of a hypothesis is based on existing knowledge, observations, and theories, and it should be specific, testable, and falsifiable. A specific hypothesis helps to define the research question, which is important in the research process as it guides the selection of an appropriate research design and methodology. Testability of the hypothesis means that it can be proven or disproven through empirical data collection and analysis. Falsifiability means that the hypothesis should be formulated in such a way that it can be proven wrong if it is incorrect.

In addition to guiding the research process, the testing of hypotheses can lead to new discoveries and advancements in scientific knowledge. When a hypothesis is supported by the data, it can be used to develop new theories or models to explain the observed phenomenon. When a hypothesis is not supported by the data, it can help to refine existing theories or prompt the development of new hypotheses to explain the phenomenon.

When to use Hypothesis

Here are some common situations in which hypotheses are used:

• In scientific research , hypotheses are used to guide the design of experiments and to help researchers make predictions about the outcomes of those experiments.
• In social science research , hypotheses are used to test theories about human behavior, social relationships, and other phenomena.
• I n business , hypotheses can be used to guide decisions about marketing, product development, and other areas. For example, a hypothesis might be that a new product will sell well in a particular market, and this hypothesis can be tested through market research.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

Here are some common characteristics of a hypothesis:

• Testable : A hypothesis must be able to be tested through observation or experimentation. This means that it must be possible to collect data that will either support or refute the hypothesis.
• Falsifiable : A hypothesis must be able to be proven false if it is not supported by the data. If a hypothesis cannot be falsified, then it is not a scientific hypothesis.
• Clear and concise : A hypothesis should be stated in a clear and concise manner so that it can be easily understood and tested.
• Based on existing knowledge : A hypothesis should be based on existing knowledge and research in the field. It should not be based on personal beliefs or opinions.
• Specific : A hypothesis should be specific in terms of the variables being tested and the predicted outcome. This will help to ensure that the research is focused and well-designed.
• Tentative: A hypothesis is a tentative statement or assumption that requires further testing and evidence to be confirmed or refuted. It is not a final conclusion or assertion.
• Relevant : A hypothesis should be relevant to the research question or problem being studied. It should address a gap in knowledge or provide a new perspective on the issue.

Advantages of Hypothesis

Hypotheses have several advantages in scientific research and experimentation:

• Guides research: A hypothesis provides a clear and specific direction for research. It helps to focus the research question, select appropriate methods and variables, and interpret the results.
• Predictive powe r: A hypothesis makes predictions about the outcome of research, which can be tested through experimentation. This allows researchers to evaluate the validity of the hypothesis and make new discoveries.
• Facilitates communication: A hypothesis provides a common language and framework for scientists to communicate with one another about their research. This helps to facilitate the exchange of ideas and promotes collaboration.
• Efficient use of resources: A hypothesis helps researchers to use their time, resources, and funding efficiently by directing them towards specific research questions and methods that are most likely to yield results.
• Provides a basis for further research: A hypothesis that is supported by data provides a basis for further research and exploration. It can lead to new hypotheses, theories, and discoveries.
• Increases objectivity: A hypothesis can help to increase objectivity in research by providing a clear and specific framework for testing and interpreting results. This can reduce bias and increase the reliability of research findings.

Limitations of Hypothesis

Some Limitations of the Hypothesis are as follows:

• Limited to observable phenomena: Hypotheses are limited to observable phenomena and cannot account for unobservable or intangible factors. This means that some research questions may not be amenable to hypothesis testing.
• May be inaccurate or incomplete: Hypotheses are based on existing knowledge and research, which may be incomplete or inaccurate. This can lead to flawed hypotheses and erroneous conclusions.
• May be biased: Hypotheses may be biased by the researcher’s own beliefs, values, or assumptions. This can lead to selective interpretation of data and a lack of objectivity in research.
• Cannot prove causation: A hypothesis can only show a correlation between variables, but it cannot prove causation. This requires further experimentation and analysis.
• Limited to specific contexts: Hypotheses are limited to specific contexts and may not be generalizable to other situations or populations. This means that results may not be applicable in other contexts or may require further testing.
• May be affected by chance : Hypotheses may be affected by chance or random variation, which can obscure or distort the true relationship between variables.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to Write a Research Hypothesis

• Research Process
• Peer Review

Since grade school, we've all been familiar with hypotheses. The hypothesis is an essential step of the scientific method. But what makes an effective research hypothesis, how do you create one, and what types of hypotheses are there? We answer these questions and more.

Updated on April 27, 2022

What is a research hypothesis?

General hypothesis.

Since grade school, we've all been familiar with the term “hypothesis.” A hypothesis is a fact-based guess or prediction that has not been proven. It is an essential step of the scientific method. The hypothesis of a study is a drive for experimentation to either prove the hypothesis or dispute it.

Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is more specific than a general hypothesis. It is an educated, expected prediction of the outcome of a study that is testable.

What makes an effective research hypothesis?

A good research hypothesis is a clear statement of the relationship between a dependent variable(s) and independent variable(s) relevant to the study that can be disproven.

Research hypothesis checklist

Once you've written a possible hypothesis, make sure it checks the following boxes:

• It must be testable: You need a means to prove your hypothesis. If you can't test it, it's not a hypothesis.
• It must include a dependent and independent variable: At least one independent variable ( cause ) and one dependent variable ( effect ) must be included.
• The language must be easy to understand: Be as clear and concise as possible. Nothing should be left to interpretation.
• It must be relevant to your research topic: You probably shouldn't be talking about cats and dogs if your research topic is outer space. Stay relevant to your topic.

How to create an effective research hypothesis

Pose it as a question first.

Start your research hypothesis from a journalistic approach. Ask one of the five W's: Who, what, when, where, or why.

A possible initial question could be: Why is the sky blue?

Do the preliminary research

Once you have a question in mind, read research around your topic. Collect research from academic journals.

If you're looking for information about the sky and why it is blue, research information about the atmosphere, weather, space, the sun, etc.

Write a draft hypothesis

Once you're comfortable with your subject and have preliminary knowledge, create a working hypothesis. Don't stress much over this. Your first hypothesis is not permanent. Look at it as a draft.

Your first draft of a hypothesis could be: Certain molecules in the Earth's atmosphere are responsive to the sky being the color blue.

Make your working draft perfect

Take your working hypothesis and make it perfect. Narrow it down to include only the information listed in the “Research hypothesis checklist” above.

Now that you've written your working hypothesis, narrow it down. Your new hypothesis could be: Light from the sun hitting oxygen molecules in the sky makes the color of the sky appear blue.

Write a null hypothesis

Your null hypothesis should be the opposite of your research hypothesis. It should be able to be disproven by your research.

In this example, your null hypothesis would be: Light from the sun hitting oxygen molecules in the sky does not make the color of the sky appear blue.

Why is it important to have a clear, testable hypothesis?

One of the main reasons a manuscript can be rejected from a journal is because of a weak hypothesis. “Poor hypothesis, study design, methodology, and improper use of statistics are other reasons for rejection of a manuscript,” says Dr. Ish Kumar Dhammi and Dr. Rehan-Ul-Haq in Indian Journal of Orthopaedics.

According to Dr. James M. Provenzale in American Journal of Roentgenology , “The clear declaration of a research question (or hypothesis) in the Introduction is critical for reviewers to understand the intent of the research study. It is best to clearly state the study goal in plain language (for example, “We set out to determine whether condition x produces condition y.”) An insufficient problem statement is one of the more common reasons for manuscript rejection.”

Characteristics that make a hypothesis weak include:

• Unclear variables
• Unoriginality
• Too general
• Too specific

A weak hypothesis leads to weak research and methods . The goal of a paper is to prove or disprove a hypothesis - or to prove or disprove a null hypothesis. If the hypothesis is not a dependent variable of what is being studied, the paper's methods should come into question.

A strong hypothesis is essential to the scientific method. A hypothesis states an assumed relationship between at least two variables and the experiment then proves or disproves that relationship with statistical significance. Without a proven and reproducible relationship, the paper feeds into the reproducibility crisis. Learn more about writing for reproducibility .

In a study published in The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology of India by Dr. Suvarna Satish Khadilkar, she reviewed 400 rejected manuscripts to see why they were rejected. Her studies revealed that poor methodology was a top reason for the submission having a final disposition of rejection.

Aside from publication chances, Dr. Gareth Dyke believes a clear hypothesis helps efficiency.

“Developing a clear and testable hypothesis for your research project means that you will not waste time, energy, and money with your work,” said Dyke. “Refining a hypothesis that is both meaningful, interesting, attainable, and testable is the goal of all effective research.”

Types of research hypotheses

There can be overlap in these types of hypotheses.

Simple hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a hypothesis at its most basic form. It shows the relationship of one independent and one independent variable.

Example: Drinking soda (independent variable) every day leads to obesity (dependent variable).

Complex hypothesis

A complex hypothesis shows the relationship of two or more independent and dependent variables.

Example: Drinking soda (independent variable) every day leads to obesity (dependent variable) and heart disease (dependent variable).

Directional hypothesis

A directional hypothesis guesses which way the results of an experiment will go. It uses words like increase, decrease, higher, lower, positive, negative, more, or less. It is also frequently used in statistics.

Example: Humans exposed to radiation have a higher risk of cancer than humans not exposed to radiation.

Non-directional hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis says there will be an effect on the dependent variable, but it does not say which direction.

Associative hypothesis

An associative hypothesis says that when one variable changes, so does the other variable.

Alternative hypothesis

An alternative hypothesis states that the variables have a relationship.

• The opposite of a null hypothesis

Example: An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

Null hypothesis

A null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables. It is posed as the opposite of what the alternative hypothesis states.

Researchers use a null hypothesis to work to be able to reject it. A null hypothesis:

• Can never be proven
• Can only be rejected
• Is the opposite of an alternative hypothesis

Example: An apple a day does not keep the doctor away.

Logical hypothesis

A logical hypothesis is a suggested explanation while using limited evidence.

Example: Bats can navigate in the dark better than tigers.

In this hypothesis, the researcher knows that tigers cannot see in the dark, and bats mostly live in darkness.

Empirical hypothesis

An empirical hypothesis is also called a “working hypothesis.” It uses the trial and error method and changes around the independent variables.

• An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
• Two apples a day keep the doctor away.
• Three apples a day keep the doctor away.

In this case, the research changes the hypothesis as the researcher learns more about his/her research.

Statistical hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is a look of a part of a population or statistical model. This type of hypothesis is especially useful if you are making a statement about a large population. Instead of having to test the entire population of Illinois, you could just use a smaller sample of people who live there.

Example: 70% of people who live in Illinois are iron deficient.

Causal hypothesis

A causal hypothesis states that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable.

Example: Using tobacco products causes cancer.

Final thoughts

Make sure your research is error-free before you send it to your preferred journal . Check our our English Editing services to avoid your chances of desk rejection.

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Thesis Vs Hypothesis: Understanding The Basis And The Key Differences

Hypothesis vs. thesis: They sound similar and seem to discuss the same thing. However, these terms have vastly different meanings and purposes. You may have encountered these concepts in school or research, but understanding them is key to executing quality work. 

In this article, I’ll discuss hypothesis vs. thesis, break down their differences, and show you how to apply this knowledge to create quality written works. Let’s get to it!

Thesis vs. Hypothesis: Understanding the Basis

The power of a thesis.

A thesis statement is typically found at the end of the introduction in an essay or research paper, succinctly summarizing the overarching theme.

Crafting a strong thesis

Hypothesis: the scientific proposition.

In contrast, a hypothesis is a tentative proposition or educated guess. It is the initial step in the scientific method, where researchers formulate a hunch to test their assumptions and theories. 

Formulating a hypothesis

Key differences between thesis vs. hypothesis, 1. nature of statement, 3. testability, 4. research stage, 6. examples.

These differences highlight the distinct roles that the thesis and hypothesis play in academic writing and scientific research, with one providing a point of argumentation and the other guiding the scientific inquiry process.

Can a hypothesis become a thesis?

Do all research papers require a thesis, can a thesis be proven wrong.

Yes. The purpose of a thesis is not only to prove but also to encourage critical analysis. It can be proven wrong with compelling counterarguments and evidence.

How long should a thesis statement be?

Is a hypothesis only used in scientific research, can a hypothesis be vague.

No. When creating a hypothesis, it’s important to make it clear and able to be tested. Developing experiments and making conclusions based on the results can be difficult if the hypothesis needs clarification.

Final Thoughts

In conclusion, understanding the differences between a hypothesis and a thesis is vital to crafting successful research projects and academic papers. While they may seem interchangeable at first glance, these two concepts serve distinct purposes in the research process. 

So, the next time you embark on a research project, take the time to ensure that you understand the fundamental difference between a hypothesis and a thesis. Doing so can lead to more focused, meaningful research that advances knowledge and understanding in your field.

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HOW TO: Use Articles for Research: Introduction: Hypothesis/Thesis

• What's a Scholarly Journal?
• Reading the Citation
• Authors' Credentials
• Introduction: Hypothesis/Thesis
• Literature Review
• Research Method
• Results/Data
• Discussion/Conclusions

Hypothesis or Thesis

The first few paragraphs of a journal article serve to introduce the topic, to provide the author's hypothesis or thesis, and to indicate why the research was done.  A thesis or hypothesis is not always clearly labled; you may need to read through the introductory paragraphs to determine what the authors are proposing.

• << Previous: Abstract
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• Last Updated: Jan 29, 2024 3:35 PM
• URL: https://libguides.cayuga-cc.edu/1ST-PRIORITY/articles

Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

What is a Research Hypothesis: How to Write it, Types, and Examples

Any research begins with a research question and a research hypothesis . A research question alone may not suffice to design the experiment(s) needed to answer it. A hypothesis is central to the scientific method. But what is a hypothesis ? A hypothesis is a testable statement that proposes a possible explanation to a phenomenon, and it may include a prediction. Next, you may ask what is a research hypothesis ? Simply put, a research hypothesis is a prediction or educated guess about the relationship between the variables that you want to investigate.  

It is important to be thorough when developing your research hypothesis. Shortcomings in the framing of a hypothesis can affect the study design and the results. A better understanding of the research hypothesis definition and characteristics of a good hypothesis will make it easier for you to develop your own hypothesis for your research. Let’s dive in to know more about the types of research hypothesis , how to write a research hypothesis , and some research hypothesis examples .  

Table of Contents

What is a hypothesis ?  

A hypothesis is based on the existing body of knowledge in a study area. Framed before the data are collected, a hypothesis states the tentative relationship between independent and dependent variables, along with a prediction of the outcome.  

What is a research hypothesis ?  

Young researchers starting out their journey are usually brimming with questions like “ What is a hypothesis ?” “ What is a research hypothesis ?” “How can I write a good research hypothesis ?”   

A research hypothesis is a statement that proposes a possible explanation for an observable phenomenon or pattern. It guides the direction of a study and predicts the outcome of the investigation. A research hypothesis is testable, i.e., it can be supported or disproven through experimentation or observation.     

Characteristics of a good hypothesis  

Here are the characteristics of a good hypothesis :  

• Clearly formulated and free of language errors and ambiguity  
• Concise and not unnecessarily verbose  
• Has clearly defined variables  
• Testable and stated in a way that allows for it to be disproven  
• Can be tested using a research design that is feasible, ethical, and practical   
• Specific and relevant to the research problem  
• Rooted in a thorough literature search  
• Can generate new knowledge or understanding.  

How to create an effective research hypothesis  

A study begins with the formulation of a research question. A researcher then performs background research. This background information forms the basis for building a good research hypothesis . The researcher then performs experiments, collects, and analyzes the data, interprets the findings, and ultimately, determines if the findings support or negate the original hypothesis.  

Let’s look at each step for creating an effective, testable, and good research hypothesis :  

• Identify a research problem or question: Start by identifying a specific research problem.   
• Review the literature: Conduct an in-depth review of the existing literature related to the research problem to grasp the current knowledge and gaps in the field.   
• Formulate a clear and testable hypothesis : Based on the research question, use existing knowledge to form a clear and testable hypothesis . The hypothesis should state a predicted relationship between two or more variables that can be measured and manipulated. Improve the original draft till it is clear and meaningful.  
• State the null hypothesis: The null hypothesis is a statement that there is no relationship between the variables you are studying.   
• Define the population and sample: Clearly define the population you are studying and the sample you will be using for your research.  
• Select appropriate methods for testing the hypothesis: Select appropriate research methods, such as experiments, surveys, or observational studies, which will allow you to test your research hypothesis .  

Remember that creating a research hypothesis is an iterative process, i.e., you might have to revise it based on the data you collect. You may need to test and reject several hypotheses before answering the research problem.  

How to write a research hypothesis  

When you start writing a research hypothesis , you use an “if–then” statement format, which states the predicted relationship between two or more variables. Clearly identify the independent variables (the variables being changed) and the dependent variables (the variables being measured), as well as the population you are studying. Review and revise your hypothesis as needed.  

An example of a research hypothesis in this format is as follows:  

“ If [athletes] follow [cold water showers daily], then their [endurance] increases.”  

Population: athletes  

Independent variable: daily cold water showers  

Dependent variable: endurance  

You may have understood the characteristics of a good hypothesis . But note that a research hypothesis is not always confirmed; a researcher should be prepared to accept or reject the hypothesis based on the study findings.  

Research hypothesis checklist  

Following from above, here is a 10-point checklist for a good research hypothesis :  

• Testable: A research hypothesis should be able to be tested via experimentation or observation.  
• Specific: A research hypothesis should clearly state the relationship between the variables being studied.  
• Based on prior research: A research hypothesis should be based on existing knowledge and previous research in the field.  
• Falsifiable: A research hypothesis should be able to be disproven through testing.  
• Clear and concise: A research hypothesis should be stated in a clear and concise manner.  
• Logical: A research hypothesis should be logical and consistent with current understanding of the subject.  
• Relevant: A research hypothesis should be relevant to the research question and objectives.  
• Feasible: A research hypothesis should be feasible to test within the scope of the study.  
• Reflects the population: A research hypothesis should consider the population or sample being studied.  
• Uncomplicated: A good research hypothesis is written in a way that is easy for the target audience to understand.  

By following this research hypothesis checklist , you will be able to create a research hypothesis that is strong, well-constructed, and more likely to yield meaningful results.  

Types of research hypothesis  

Different types of research hypothesis are used in scientific research:  

1. Null hypothesis:

A null hypothesis states that there is no change in the dependent variable due to changes to the independent variable. This means that the results are due to chance and are not significant. A null hypothesis is denoted as H0 and is stated as the opposite of what the alternative hypothesis states.   

Example: “ The newly identified virus is not zoonotic .”  

2. Alternative hypothesis:

This states that there is a significant difference or relationship between the variables being studied. It is denoted as H1 or Ha and is usually accepted or rejected in favor of the null hypothesis.  

Example: “ The newly identified virus is zoonotic .”  

3. Directional hypothesis :

This specifies the direction of the relationship or difference between variables; therefore, it tends to use terms like increase, decrease, positive, negative, more, or less.   

Example: “ The inclusion of intervention X decreases infant mortality compared to the original treatment .”   

4. Non-directional hypothesis:

While it does not predict the exact direction or nature of the relationship between the two variables, a non-directional hypothesis states the existence of a relationship or difference between variables but not the direction, nature, or magnitude of the relationship. A non-directional hypothesis may be used when there is no underlying theory or when findings contradict previous research.  

Example, “ Cats and dogs differ in the amount of affection they express .”  

5. Simple hypothesis :

A simple hypothesis only predicts the relationship between one independent and another independent variable.  

Example: “ Applying sunscreen every day slows skin aging .”  

6 . Complex hypothesis :

A complex hypothesis states the relationship or difference between two or more independent and dependent variables.   

Example: “ Applying sunscreen every day slows skin aging, reduces sun burn, and reduces the chances of skin cancer .” (Here, the three dependent variables are slowing skin aging, reducing sun burn, and reducing the chances of skin cancer.)  

7. Associative hypothesis:  

An associative hypothesis states that a change in one variable results in the change of the other variable. The associative hypothesis defines interdependency between variables.  

Example: “ There is a positive association between physical activity levels and overall health .”  

8 . Causal hypothesis:

A causal hypothesis proposes a cause-and-effect interaction between variables.  

Example: “ Long-term alcohol use causes liver damage .”  

Note that some of the types of research hypothesis mentioned above might overlap. The types of hypothesis chosen will depend on the research question and the objective of the study.  

Research hypothesis examples  

Here are some good research hypothesis examples :  

“The use of a specific type of therapy will lead to a reduction in symptoms of depression in individuals with a history of major depressive disorder.”  

“Providing educational interventions on healthy eating habits will result in weight loss in overweight individuals.”  

“Plants that are exposed to certain types of music will grow taller than those that are not exposed to music.”  

“The use of the plant growth regulator X will lead to an increase in the number of flowers produced by plants.”  

Characteristics that make a research hypothesis weak are unclear variables, unoriginality, being too general or too vague, and being untestable. A weak hypothesis leads to weak research and improper methods.   

Some bad research hypothesis examples (and the reasons why they are “bad”) are as follows:  

“This study will show that treatment X is better than any other treatment . ” (This statement is not testable, too broad, and does not consider other treatments that may be effective.)  

“This study will prove that this type of therapy is effective for all mental disorders . ” (This statement is too broad and not testable as mental disorders are complex and different disorders may respond differently to different types of therapy.)  

“Plants can communicate with each other through telepathy . ” (This statement is not testable and lacks a scientific basis.)  

Importance of testable hypothesis  

If a research hypothesis is not testable, the results will not prove or disprove anything meaningful. The conclusions will be vague at best. A testable hypothesis helps a researcher focus on the study outcome and understand the implication of the question and the different variables involved. A testable hypothesis helps a researcher make precise predictions based on prior research.  

To be considered testable, there must be a way to prove that the hypothesis is true or false; further, the results of the hypothesis must be reproducible.  

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on research hypothesis  

1. What is the difference between research question and research hypothesis ?  

A research question defines the problem and helps outline the study objective(s). It is an open-ended statement that is exploratory or probing in nature. Therefore, it does not make predictions or assumptions. It helps a researcher identify what information to collect. A research hypothesis , however, is a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables. Accordingly, it guides the study design and data analysis approach.

2. When to reject null hypothesis ?

A null hypothesis should be rejected when the evidence from a statistical test shows that it is unlikely to be true. This happens when the test statistic (e.g., p -value) is less than the defined significance level (e.g., 0.05). Rejecting the null hypothesis does not necessarily mean that the alternative hypothesis is true; it simply means that the evidence found is not compatible with the null hypothesis.  

3. How can I be sure my hypothesis is testable?  

A testable hypothesis should be specific and measurable, and it should state a clear relationship between variables that can be tested with data. To ensure that your hypothesis is testable, consider the following:  

• Clearly define the key variables in your hypothesis. You should be able to measure and manipulate these variables in a way that allows you to test the hypothesis.  
• The hypothesis should predict a specific outcome or relationship between variables that can be measured or quantified.   
• You should be able to collect the necessary data within the constraints of your study.  
• It should be possible for other researchers to replicate your study, using the same methods and variables.   
• Your hypothesis should be testable by using appropriate statistical analysis techniques, so you can draw conclusions, and make inferences about the population from the sample data.  
• The hypothesis should be able to be disproven or rejected through the collection of data.  

4. How do I revise my research hypothesis if my data does not support it?  

If your data does not support your research hypothesis , you will need to revise it or develop a new one. You should examine your data carefully and identify any patterns or anomalies, re-examine your research question, and/or revisit your theory to look for any alternative explanations for your results. Based on your review of the data, literature, and theories, modify your research hypothesis to better align it with the results you obtained. Use your revised hypothesis to guide your research design and data collection. It is important to remain objective throughout the process.  

5. I am performing exploratory research. Do I need to formulate a research hypothesis?  

As opposed to “confirmatory” research, where a researcher has some idea about the relationship between the variables under investigation, exploratory research (or hypothesis-generating research) looks into a completely new topic about which limited information is available. Therefore, the researcher will not have any prior hypotheses. In such cases, a researcher will need to develop a post-hoc hypothesis. A post-hoc research hypothesis is generated after these results are known.  

6. How is a research hypothesis different from a research question?

A research question is an inquiry about a specific topic or phenomenon, typically expressed as a question. It seeks to explore and understand a particular aspect of the research subject. In contrast, a research hypothesis is a specific statement or prediction that suggests an expected relationship between variables. It is formulated based on existing knowledge or theories and guides the research design and data analysis.

7. Can a research hypothesis change during the research process?

Yes, research hypotheses can change during the research process. As researchers collect and analyze data, new insights and information may emerge that require modification or refinement of the initial hypotheses. This can be due to unexpected findings, limitations in the original hypotheses, or the need to explore additional dimensions of the research topic. Flexibility is crucial in research, allowing for adaptation and adjustment of hypotheses to align with the evolving understanding of the subject matter.

8. How many hypotheses should be included in a research study?

The number of research hypotheses in a research study varies depending on the nature and scope of the research. It is not necessary to have multiple hypotheses in every study. Some studies may have only one primary hypothesis, while others may have several related hypotheses. The number of hypotheses should be determined based on the research objectives, research questions, and the complexity of the research topic. It is important to ensure that the hypotheses are focused, testable, and directly related to the research aims.

9. Can research hypotheses be used in qualitative research?

Yes, research hypotheses can be used in qualitative research, although they are more commonly associated with quantitative research. In qualitative research, hypotheses may be formulated as tentative or exploratory statements that guide the investigation. Instead of testing hypotheses through statistical analysis, qualitative researchers may use the hypotheses to guide data collection and analysis, seeking to uncover patterns, themes, or relationships within the qualitative data. The emphasis in qualitative research is often on generating insights and understanding rather than confirming or rejecting specific research hypotheses through statistical testing.

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How to Write a Hypothesis – Steps & Tips

Published by Alaxendra Bets at August 14th, 2021 , Revised On October 26, 2023

What is a Research Hypothesis?

You can test a research statement with the help of experimental or theoretical research, known as a hypothesis.

If you want to find out the similarities, differences, and relationships between variables, you must write a testable hypothesis before compiling the data, performing analysis, and generating results to complete.

The data analysis and findings will help you test the hypothesis and see whether it is true or false. Here is all you need to know about how to write a hypothesis for a  dissertation .

Research Hypothesis Definition

Not sure what the meaning of the research hypothesis is?

A research hypothesis predicts an answer to the research question  based on existing theoretical knowledge or experimental data.

Some studies may have multiple hypothesis statements depending on the research question(s).  A research hypothesis must be based on formulas, facts, and theories. It should be testable by data analysis, observations, experiments, or other scientific methodologies that can refute or support the statement.

Variables in Hypothesis

Developing a hypothesis is easy. Most research studies have two or more variables in the hypothesis, particularly studies involving correlational and experimental research. The researcher can control or change the independent variable(s) while measuring and observing the independent variable(s).

“How long a student sleeps affects test scores.”

In the above statement, the dependent variable is the test score, while the independent variable is the length of time spent in sleep. Developing a hypothesis will be easy if you know your research’s dependent and independent variables.

Once you have developed a thesis statement, questions such as how to write a hypothesis for the dissertation and how to test a research hypothesis become pretty straightforward.

Looking for dissertation help?

Researchprospect to the rescue then.

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Step-by-Step Guide on How to Write a Hypothesis

Here are the steps involved in how to write a hypothesis for a dissertation.

Step 1: Start with a Research Question

• Begin by asking a specific question about a topic of interest.
• This question should be clear, concise, and researchable.

Example: Does exposure to sunlight affect plant growth?

Step 2: Do Preliminary Research

• Before formulating a hypothesis, conduct background research to understand existing knowledge on the topic.
• Familiarise yourself with prior studies, theories, or observations related to the research question.

Step 3: Define Variables

• Independent Variable (IV): The factor that you change or manipulate in an experiment.
• Dependent Variable (DV): The factor that you measure.

Example: IV: Amount of sunlight exposure (e.g., 2 hours/day, 4 hours/day, 8 hours/day) DV: Plant growth (e.g., height in centimetres)

Step 4: Formulate the Hypothesis

• A hypothesis is a statement that predicts the relationship between variables.
• It is often written as an “if-then” statement.

Example: If plants receive more sunlight, then they will grow taller.

Step 5: Ensure it is Testable

A good hypothesis is empirically testable. This means you should be able to design an experiment or observation to test its validity.

Example: You can set up an experiment where plants are exposed to varying amounts of sunlight and then measure their growth over a period of time.

Step 6: Consider Potential Confounding Variables

• Confounding variables are factors other than the independent variable that might affect the outcome.
• It is important to identify these to ensure that they do not skew your results.

Example: Soil quality, water frequency, or type of plant can all affect growth. Consider keeping these constant in your experiment.

Step 7: Write the Null Hypothesis

• The null hypothesis is a statement that there is no effect or no relationship between the variables.
• It is what you aim to disprove or reject through your research.

Example: There is no difference in plant growth regardless of the amount of sunlight exposure.

Step 8: Test your Hypothesis

Design an experiment or conduct observations to test your hypothesis.

Example: Grow three sets of plants: one set exposed to 2 hours of sunlight daily, another exposed to 4 hours, and a third exposed to 8 hours. Measure and compare their growth after a set period.

Step 9: Analyse the Results

After testing, review your data to determine if it supports your hypothesis.

Step 10: Draw Conclusions

• Based on your findings, determine whether you can accept or reject the hypothesis.
• Remember, even if you reject your hypothesis, it’s a valuable result. It can guide future research and refine questions.

Three Ways to Phrase a Hypothesis

Try to use “if”… and “then”… to identify the variables. The independent variable should be present in the first part of the hypothesis, while the dependent variable will form the second part of the statement. Consider understanding the below research hypothesis example to create a specific, clear, and concise research hypothesis;

If an obese lady starts attending Zomba fitness classes, her health will improve.

In academic research, you can write the predicted variable relationship directly because most research studies correlate terms.

The number of Zomba fitness classes attended by the obese lady has a positive effect on health.

If your research compares two groups, then you can develop a hypothesis statement on their differences.

An obese lady who attended most Zumba fitness classes will have better health than those who attended a few.

How to Write a Null Hypothesis

If a statistical analysis is involved in your research, then you must create a null hypothesis. If you find any relationship between the variables, then the null hypothesis will be the default position that there is no relationship between them. H0 is the symbol for the null hypothesis, while the hypothesis is represented as H1. The null hypothesis will also answer your question, “How to test the research hypothesis in the dissertation.”

H0: The number of Zumba fitness classes attended by the obese lady does not affect her health.

H1: The number of Zumba fitness classes attended by obese lady positively affects health.

Also see:  Your Dissertation in Education

Hypothesis Examples

Research Question: Does the amount of sunlight a plant receives affect its growth? Hypothesis: Plants that receive more sunlight will grow taller than plants that receive less sunlight.

Research Question: Do students who eat breakfast perform better in school exams than those who don’t? Hypothesis: Students who eat a morning breakfast will score higher on school exams compared to students who skip breakfast.

Research Question: Does listening to music while studying impact a student’s ability to retain information? Hypothesis 1 (Directional): Students who listen to music while studying will retain less information than those who study in silence. Hypothesis 2 (Non-directional): There will be a difference in information retention between students who listen to music while studying and those who study in silence.

How can ResearchProspect Help?

If you are unsure about how to rest a research hypothesis in a dissertation or simply unsure about how to develop a hypothesis for your research, then you can take advantage of our dissertation services which cover every tiny aspect of a dissertation project you might need help with including but not limited to setting up a hypothesis and research questions,  help with individual chapters ,  full dissertation writing ,  statistical analysis , and much more.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the 5 rules for writing a good hypothesis.

• Clear Statement: State a clear relationship between variables.
• Testable: Ensure it can be investigated and measured.
• Specific: Avoid vague terms, be precise in predictions.
• Falsifiable: Design to allow potential disproof.
• Relevant: Address research question and align with existing knowledge.

What is a hypothesis in simple words?

A hypothesis is an educated guess or prediction about something that can be tested. It is a statement that suggests a possible explanation for an event or phenomenon based on prior knowledge or observation. Scientists use hypotheses as a starting point for experiments to discover if they are true or false.

What is the hypothesis and examples?

A hypothesis is a testable prediction or explanation for an observation or phenomenon. For example, if plants are given sunlight, then they will grow. In this case, the hypothesis suggests that sunlight has a positive effect on plant growth. It can be tested by experimenting with plants in varying light conditions.

What is the hypothesis in research definition?

A hypothesis in research is a clear, testable statement predicting the possible outcome of a study based on prior knowledge and observation. It serves as the foundation for conducting experiments or investigations. Researchers test the validity of the hypothesis to draw conclusions and advance knowledge in a particular field.

Why is it called a hypothesis?

The term “hypothesis” originates from the Greek word “hypothesis,” which means “base” or “foundation.” It’s used to describe a foundational statement or proposition that can be tested. In scientific contexts, it denotes a tentative explanation for a phenomenon, serving as a starting point for investigation or experimentation.

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Home » Education » Difference Between Thesis and Hypothesis

Difference Between Thesis and Hypothesis

Main difference –  thesis vs hypothesis                           .

Thesis and hypothesis are two common terms that are often found in research studies. Hypothesis is a logical proposition that is based on existing knowledge that serves as the starting point of an investigation. A thesis is a statement that is put forward as a premise to be maintained or proved. The main difference between thesis and hypothesis is that thesis is found in all research studies whereas a hypothesis is mainly found in experimental quantitative research studies.

This article explains,

1. What is a Thesis?      – Definition, Features, Function

2. What is a Hypothesis?      – Definition, Features, Function

What is a Thesis

The word thesis has two meanings in a research study. Thesis can either refer to a dissertation or a thesis statement. Thesis or dissertation is the long essay or document that consists of the research study.  Thesis can also refer to a theory or statement that is used as a premise to be maintained or proved.

The thesis statement in a research article is a sentence found at the beginning of the paper that presents the main argument of the paper. The rest of the document will gather, organize and present evidence to support this argument. The thesis statement will basically present the topic of the paper and indicate what position the researcher is going to take in relation to this topic. A thesis statement can generally be found at the end of the first paragraph (introductory paragraph) of the paper.

What is a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a logical assumption based on available evidence. Hypothesis is defined as “a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation” in the Oxford dictionary and as “an idea or theory that is not proven but that leads to further study or discussion” in the Merriam-Webster dictionary. In simple words, it is an educated guess that is not proven with concrete scientific evidence. Once it is scientifically tested and proven, it becomes a theory. However, it is important to note that a hypothesis can be accurate or inaccurate.

Hypotheses are mostly used in experiments and research studies. However, hypotheses are not used in every research study. They are mostly used in quantitative research studies  that deal with experiments. Hypotheses are often used to test a specific model or theory . They can be used only when the researcher has sufficient knowledge about the subject since hypothesis are always based on the existing knowledge. Once the hypothesis is built, the researcher can find and analyze data and use them to prove or disprove the hypothesis.

Thesis: A thesis is a “statement or theory that is put forward as a premise to be maintained or proved” or a “long essay or dissertation involving personal research, written by a candidate for a university degree” (Oxford dictionary).

Hypothesis: A hypothesis is “a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation” (Oxford dictionary).

Thesis: Thesis statement can be found in all research papers.

Hypothesis: Hypotheses are usually found in experimental quantitative research studies.

Thesis: Thesis statement may explain the hypothesis and how the researcher intends to support it.

Hypothesis: Hypothesis is an educated guess based on the existing knowledge.

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“Master’s Thesis” by  Henri Sivonen   (CC BY 2.0)  via Flickr

“Colonial Flagellate Hypothesis” By Katelynp1 – Own work (CC BY-SA 3.0) via Commons Wikimedia

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Hasanthi is a seasoned content writer and editor with over 8 years of experience. Armed with a BA degree in English and a knack for digital marketing, she explores her passions for literature, history, culture, and food through her engaging and informative writing.

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• Green River LibGuides

Research Guide: Scholarly Journals

• Introduction: Hypothesis/Thesis
• Why Use Scholarly Journals?
• What does "Peer-Reviewed" mean?
• What is *NOT* a Scholarly Journal Article?
• Interlibrary Loan for Journal Articles
• Reading the Citation
• Authors' Credentials
• Literature Review
• Methodology
• Results/Data
• Discussion/Conclusions
• APA Citations for Scholarly Journal Articles
• MLA Citations for Scholarly Journal Articles

Hypothesis or Thesis

Looking for the author's thesis or hypothesis.

The image below shows the part of the scholarly article that shows where the authors are making their argument. 

(click on image to enlarge)

• The first few paragraphs of a journal article serve to introduce the topic, to provide the author's hypothesis or thesis, and to indicate why the research was done.  
• A thesis or hypothesis is not always clearly labeled; you may need to read through the introductory paragraphs to determine what the authors are proposing.
• << Previous: How to Read a Scholarly Article
• Next: Reading the Citation >>
• Last Updated: Aug 19, 2024 4:40 PM
• URL: https://libguides.greenriver.edu/scholarlyjournals

While Sandel argues that pursuing perfection through genetic engineering would decrease our sense of humility, he claims that the sense of solidarity we would lose is also important.

This thesis summarizes several points in Sandel’s argument, but it does not make a claim about how we should understand his argument. A reader who read Sandel’s argument would not also need to read an essay based on this descriptive thesis.  

Broad thesis (arguable, but difficult to support with evidence) 

Michael Sandel’s arguments about genetic engineering do not take into consideration all the relevant issues.

This is an arguable claim because it would be possible to argue against it by saying that Michael Sandel’s arguments do take all of the relevant issues into consideration. But the claim is too broad. Because the thesis does not specify which “issues” it is focused on—or why it matters if they are considered—readers won’t know what the rest of the essay will argue, and the writer won’t know what to focus on. If there is a particular issue that Sandel does not address, then a more specific version of the thesis would include that issue—hand an explanation of why it is important.  

Arguable thesis with analytical claim 

While Sandel argues persuasively that our instinct to “remake” (54) ourselves into something ever more perfect is a problem, his belief that we can always draw a line between what is medically necessary and what makes us simply “better than well” (51) is less convincing.

This is an arguable analytical claim. To argue for this claim, the essay writer will need to show how evidence from the article itself points to this interpretation. It’s also a reasonable scope for a thesis because it can be supported with evidence available in the text and is neither too broad nor too narrow.  

Arguable thesis with normative claim 

Given Sandel’s argument against genetic enhancement, we should not allow parents to decide on using Human Growth Hormone for their children.

This thesis tells us what we should do about a particular issue discussed in Sandel’s article, but it does not tell us how we should understand Sandel’s argument.  

Questions to ask about your thesis 

• Is the thesis truly arguable? Does it speak to a genuine dilemma in the source, or would most readers automatically agree with it?  
• Is the thesis too obvious? Again, would most or all readers agree with it without needing to see your argument?  
• Is the thesis complex enough to require a whole essay's worth of argument?  
• Is the thesis supportable with evidence from the text rather than with generalizations or outside research?  
• Would anyone want to read a paper in which this thesis was developed? That is, can you explain what this paper is adding to our understanding of a problem, question, or topic?
• picture_as_pdf Thesis

Frequently asked questions

Should i use a research question, hypothesis, or thesis statement.

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

Frequently asked questions: Writing a research paper

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them.

In general, they should be:

• Focused and researchable
• Answerable using credible sources
• Complex and arguable
• Feasible and specific
• Relevant and original

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Use 1 inch margins or larger
• Apply double line spacing
• Indent every new paragraph ½ inch
• Include a title page
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center
• Cite your sources with author-date citations or Chicago footnotes
• Include a bibliography or reference list

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:

• Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Set 1 inch page margins
• Include a four-line MLA heading on the first page
• Center the paper’s title
• Use title case capitalization for headings
• Cite your sources with MLA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a Works Cited page at the end

To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial
• If submitting for publication, insert a running head on every page
• Apply APA heading styles
• Cite your sources with APA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a reference page at the end

No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:

• A restatement of the research problem
• A summary of your key arguments and/or findings
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

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• Essay Editor

Thesis Format: Detailed Instructions and Tips

Gathering the necessary material for a large and saturated project is just half the battle, to set up everything and format the work properly is a real deed, challenging and exacting. There are a lot of specific requirements and rules to be born in mind. But don't take it so hard, we give you all the fundamental information concerning thesis paper format. You'll find out 

• what parts a successful work should have;
• what formatting requirements should be adhered to;
• what tips occur to be helpful.

So, get ready to remember all the important principles in terms of paper finalization.

What is a Thesis Format?

In the process of thesis creation, everyone should set up the data in a specific way. The general structure and stylistic patterns are usually the same everywhere, though some minor issues may vary from one department to another.

Correct Thesis Format: Important or Not?

When working with the material it is crucial to stick to the thesis writing format in order to:

• show your professional approach to this activity;
• refine the readability of the text;
• provide convenient navigation through the work;
• bring the skills nearer to the academic standards;
• help the audience focus on the investigation essence.

A Thesis and its Parts

The thesis structure format implies such parts, obligatory for a good consistent work.

Having discussed the standard structure of the paper, it's high time to discuss useful rules and tips on how to complete the processing.

A General Guideline for Thesis Formatting

Well, how to format a thesis correctly? The most important points are presented in the table.

These recommendations are general, and every writer must look through the local guidelines in all cases. Almost every department has a thesis format example, and by getting acquainted with it everyone is certain to get rid of potential mistakes. It doesn't take much time but accentuates your interest and thoroughness, so important for a perfect researcher.

Other Tips on how to Format the Thesis

Apart from answering the question 'What is the thesis format?', we'd like to present some additional recommendations and tips concerning the work. It is useful to remind that visual division helps to acquire information in a better way

• Use single-spaced blocks for quotations or footnotes.
• Add a special line for the committee signature on the relevant page.
• Organize margins from all the sides of the sheet appropriately.
• Check the numbers on page consequence.
• Proofread all the text and check all the format details before submitting the paper.

Studying general rules of formatting is crucial for students, researchers, and other specialists of the sphere. But every time you are also to look into the guidelines offered by your local headmen. The correct paperwork is pleasant to read. Moreover, it underlines the author's professionalism and preciseness.

If you need to get acquainted with thesis format essay, try Aithor . It is a professional instrument, generating texts according to input parameters. You may choose the language, writing style, topic, outline, and other necessary options.

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The Asteroid-in-Spring Hypothesis

Two paleontologists have turned on each other, each claiming to have found new evidence about the worst day on earth..

This article was featured in One Great Story , New York ’s reading recommendation newsletter. Sign up here to get it nightly.

In August 2017, a bubbly Dutch pink-haired 28-year-old graduate student flew from Amsterdam to South Dakota, where empty fields rolled wide before her, towns of a hundred people and a single church. “You a celebrity or somethin’?” a man had said last time she was in the area, picking up a can of Monster at a truck stop. “Not to my knowledge,” she said. Melanie During had never been to New York, or Los Angeles, or Chicago, but she was already familiar with this particular landscape, dense with buried bone.

Also in town was a 70-year-old Dutch paleontologist named Jan Smit, a man she got to know the day she dissected an ostrich in his kitchen. With him was a stranger, a 35-year-old American graduate student. The three of them drove to what During casually calls “a triceratops mass grave,” at which point, to her surprise, Smit left.

For the next few days, it would be the two students and whatever the ground gave up. Her companion drove a 4Runner under the arc of a giant sky feathered with clouds, through panoramic prairie, fields of buffalo, mud buttes rising against the horizon. He pulled off a gravel road and right onto a ranch.

They got out of the truck. With each step, dry grass crunched under their feet and grasshoppers sprang in all directions. Through the knee-high thistle, it was hard to judge where each footfall would land. The grass stopped, and the earth dipped into a gnarled mass of rock and clay. The land was strange, full of odd textures, scaly in spots, darkly reptilian, and blanched out in others. He was proud of the place. While the site was not technically his property, it was spiritually his, shaped and carved and loved by him, and During was there with his permission. He called it Tanis, so everyone else did too.

Robert DePalma is solid and dark and affable and shares with During a certain kind of rough history, but he is, according to Smit, During’s foil. When During looks at a bone, she sees a chemical matrix waiting to be investigated. She sees an opportunity to extract information. When DePalma looks at a bone, he sees a narrative. He tells stories about the bones, some of them true.

“He is secretive,” says Smit. “Melanie cannot be more the opposite. She’s in all the social media. She makes herself known.” One way that she makes herself known is by posting pictures of herself cradling a model of a baby T. rex like a prehistoric Pietà (“sweet baby Jesus Rex,” she calls it on Instagram) or riding a giant reconstructed dinosaur like a cowboy atop a horse. “I have had a great deal of criticism directed at my work,” she once said, “which was actually criticism of my flamboyant personality, my big mouth.”

During would have only a handful of days at Tanis, but they were days unlike any she had seen before. On a normal dig, it is typical to find nothing of note for long stretches. “You pee in the bushes,” she says, “you get chased by snakes, you find no fossils.” Here, she would brush away clay and come upon a new texture and color — a precious fossil fish. The first sighting gave her goose bumps. Blowing on the fossil would have been too violent an approach; she might waft away the very thing she sought. She would begin to gently carve out sediment around the fossil, but there, astonishingly, would be another one. “A luxury problem,” she calls it, “stumbling on all these other fishes in the way.”

The exact location of the site remains secret, vulnerable as it is to poachers and rival paleontologists. Almost no one knew about the place in 2017, but a few years later there would be magazine features, multiple documentaries, conference presentations and journal papers. David Attenborough, science’s most beloved narrator, would tell his audience of a “truly extraordinary dig site” against a backdrop of an asteroid hurtling through space. “No one has ever found the fossil of a dinosaur that they know for certain died as a result of the impact,” Attenborough would say. “This place might hold evidence of one of the most dramatic events in all the four-and-a-half-billion-year history of our planet.” The New Yorker would publish a feature centering DePalma as a controversial young scientist with a major discovery.

During and DePalma both believed the fish at Tanis died in a violent flood less than an hour after an asteroid hit the Earth, killing off the non-avian dinosaurs. This is why they found fish pointing in both directions, their bodies broken and speared with debris; like a pool in an earthquake, the river rocked back and forth, throwing sea life upward to land wherever it might fall and be entombed in layers of mud. “A car crash frozen in place,” as During puts it, a freeze-frame from 66 million years back. They would both converge on the same mystery, tunneling toward greater precision: In what season had the asteroid struck?

DePalma had set up two tents for them off-site, close to town, where they would sleep and have downtime, though downtime is not something During has ever really appreciated (“I don’t sit down and watch things” is her take on TV). All day long, in temperatures inching toward 100, they crouched over the delicate petrified remains of sturgeon and paddlefish, trying to position their feet such that they could draw remnants from sediment without crushing something that had survived 66 million years intact. They smacked at biting flies. They dug through hot days and slept in tents that failed to keep out the rain.

“Personality-wise, and this is really not about personalities … I mean, I don’t want to make it about personalities,” DePalma told me years later, resisting further specificity. “Personality-wise, she wasn’t necessarily someone I would normally be friends with.”

“I don’t want to judge people for how they come across on a personal level,” During told me, declining to elaborate, “but there were moments where I thought, It would’ve been very helpful if I could have just had a word with someone else. ”

None of what follows will make sense absent a single social fact: The field of paleontology is mean. It has always been mean. It is, in the words of Uppsala University professor Per Ahlberg, “a honeypot of narcissists.” It is “a snake pit of personality disorders.” “An especially nasty area of academia,” the Field Museum’s Jingmai O’Connor calls it. Among the subfields, nastiness correlates with the size and carnivorousness of the creature under study, the comity possible among those who study ammonites being unlikely among those who study T. rex. A “social experimenter with a penchant for sadism” is how his biographer describes Sir Richard Owen, the man who coined the term dinosaur. The first two famous American paleontologists, the prickly academic Othniel Marsh and the gentleman naturalist Edward Cope, savaged each other in print, hired spies and counterspies, destroyed fossils, and generally worked harder to humiliate each other than to describe the boxes and boxes and boxes of remains they pulled from the extraordinarily rich fossil beds of the American West.

It would take years for the ten days During and DePalma spent together to spin into a scandal that consumed both of them. She would accuse him of research misconduct and fabricating data. He would accuse her of plagiarism and defamation. He would lose weight and have flashbacks to childhood bullies; stress would pose a risk to her first pregnancy. Disaster struck one day in the spring, they both decided in the end, and transformed everything that came after.

We don’t know how to read history in water; we know how to read it in bone. The West, in particular a 500-kilometer stretch of rock known as the Hell Creek Formation, is an ideal place to preserve fossils because it is given to collect sediment and it is dry. A bad place would be the tropics, where a dead animal is likely to be eaten before it can be buried. A bad place would be a mountain summit, where a skeleton would be swept off on the wind. A truly terrible place would be the waterlogged nation of the Netherlands, where amid all that peat and loam and sand only a single dinosaur species has been discovered and described. It is a strange place in which to be a paleontologist, but it is where Melanie During was born in 1989, in a land unsuited to fossilization to parents unsuited to parenting.

The little home in Langedijk was not one in which scientific insights seemed likely to develop. Melanie’s father was absent, and, according to her, “a twat.” Her mother was ADHD, autistic, and, by her own description, inadequate. “I was not fit to do the job alone,” she says, “and I was alone,” though she took pride in being a child with her four children, singing and painting and presenting them with great bags of clay they could, together, manifest into shape. Melanie’s ambition stood out to her family in North Holland. “She loves the spotlight,” says her sister, a trait perhaps more befitting the United States, the country that held all the treasure and the trouble to come.

The Dutch school system makes distinctions early, and 12-year-old Melanie was placed on the least intellectual of three tracks, headed not for university but for trade school. Did Melanie want to be a plumber or a hairdresser? No one in her family had been to university. The decision to place a student on such a path is made, sometimes, with the knowledge that not all parents are capable of helping with rigorous schoolwork. In Melanie’s telling, her mother forced the older sister out of the house, sent a younger sister to live with her father, and often disappeared herself, leaving 16-year-old Melanie alone to care for an autistic 6-year-old brother. She shoplifted soap and cheese and maxi pads. She stopped speaking for a time. She went into foster care.

After school, Melanie picked tulip bulbs, delivered newspapers, cut roses, waited tables. Social life was a struggle. “She had a feeling,” according to her mother, “that people didn’t like her.” When Melanie was about 15, her history teacher was concerned about the isolated, chubby girl who seemed to have surrendered the very idea of fitting in. “I was bullied, too,” the teacher told me. In front of the class, the teacher crumpled a piece of paper into a ball and flattened it back out. This, she said, is what happens when you bully someone and then apologize. The paper is never quite right again.

Melanie told the history teacher that she would like to go to university but doubted this would be possible. The history teacher devised a complicated plan of tests and classes. Melanie followed the plan and thrived. Having had to take care of herself for much of her childhood, find a bed, find dinner, she was too independent for her foster parents and successfully petitioned to be emancipated at the age of 17.

By 2017, During was a master’s student in earth sciences at Amsterdam’s Vrije Universiteit working on her thesis. She was examining rocks from a Dutch quarry using a method called stable-isotope analysis. To her great disappointment, she could not find anything earth-shattering to share. “All I could say,” she recalls, “was it was very hot and it was very saline.”

Avoiding work, During attended a lecture by Jan Smit on the occasion of his receiving the Netherlands’ highest award for earth sciences. Smit was talking about his trip to an extraordinary new paleontological site in North Dakota. The site was called Tanis. It occurred to her that if one performed stable-isotope analysis on the bones of the fish at Tanis, one could discover something about the moment in which they had died. Maybe she could find something more to say than: It was hot and salty. She began composing an email to Smit on her phone, right there in her seat, during his talk.

Smit already knew of this teaching assistant. She was the one who had asked him whether he had a pot large enough in which to boil an ostrich after she had procured an ostrich carcass and decided to dissect it for fun. “Somebody who wants to do something like that,” says Smit, “that’s a girl I like, who’s not afraid to do the experiment, is not afraid to make her hands dirty.” Smit told DePalma he had a student familiar with stable-isotope analysis, a subject in which DePalma had no particular training, and DePalma said she could visit. During had lots of ideas and no money. All her travel-grant applications were denied. Smit lent her the money to go to North Dakota.

The knowledge that an asteroid killed the dinosaurs is knowledge recently acquired; most paleontologists working today did not grow up learning that a rock six miles wide slammed into Earth and ended T. rex. The “Alvarez Hypothesis” was published in 1980, shortly after scientists found a layer of iridium locked in rock the world over and surmised that it could only have come from space. It is called the Alvarez Hypothesis and not the Smit Hypothesis because Luis Alvarez and his son Walter got their paper out before Jan Smit. As Peter Brannen put it in his excellent The Ends of the World, “The Alvarezes published first and were immortalized. Jan Smit doesn’t have a Wikipedia page.” Smit does seem to have acquired a page since the publication of Brannen’s book; under the heading “Known For,” the page reads: ALVAREZ HYPOTHESIS.

This is not to say that the idea was readily accepted; it sounded ridiculous, bombastic, childlike in its sudden simplicity, and the Alvarezes spent the ’80s arguing against those who attributed the end of the Cretaceous to excitable Indian volcanoes. In order to support his theory about a space rock with the force of 4.5 billion atomic bombs killing off giant reptiles, Alvarez had to find a crater the size of Connecticut. He looked in Iowa. He looked in the ocean; he was pretty sure it was in the ocean. He could not find it. If you’re so sure a massive asteroid felled the dinosaurs, the volcanists asked, why can’t you find this giant gaping hole? How hard could that even be? Conferences were held and concluded, craterless.

In fact, the crater had already been found, in the Yucatán, by a gregarious, eccentric oil-seeking PEMEX geophysicist named Glen Penfield. Penfield noted anomalies in a magnetic field, charted it with paper and a pencil, found a circle the size of Connecticut, and surmised, before anyone else, that he had found the crater in question. He called Walter Alvarez, left a message, and got no response. (“A mediocre geologist,” Penfield calls him now.) He tried telling NASA and was rebuffed. He had been trying to share the news about it for a decade, but the attitude, according to Penfield, was “This kid doesn’t even have a doctorate” and it’s “not worth talking to some oil guy.” He spent a considerable amount of time, he told me, depressed that no one would hear him, not even a mediocre geologist whose reputation hinged on this very information. He named the crater Chicxulub specifically “to give the academics and NASA naysayers a challenging time pronouncing it after a decade of their dismissals.” Yucatán Crater would have been too easy for them.

It was before grass, before beans, before the 24-hour day. In film, this has been represented as a man gazing into the sky as a rock floats into his field of vision, but this is a confusion born of our inability to understand speed and scale. You would have not had a moment to turn toward the sky; as Brannen explains, the rock, six miles long, shot from the height of an airborne 747 to the ground in .3 seconds and continued onward toward the center of the Earth, 12 miles into crust. In its wake it left a vacuum that sucked in shattered and melted masses of this planet and shot them into space. The shock traveled through the oceans; tsunamis hundreds of feet tall rose skyward. Bits of earth, ejected into space, fell back through our atmosphere on fire, a rain of flame. The surface of the planet grew hot as an oven set to broil. T. rex , triceratops: These were not creatures designed to hide. A layer of iridium settled over the globe, to be buried by millions of years of sediment and discovered by Jan Smit 66 million years and a few weeks too late. In the same layer, known as the K-Pg Boundary, geologists would find tektites — bits of earth that shot into space when the asteroid hit, turned glassy with the heat of the atmosphere, and fell back to the surface. Smit called the smallest ones spherules. That DePalma claims to have found spherules all over Tanis is some of the strongest evidence for the site being a historical record of impact. Spherules appear in sediment like gnarled bits of clay. They look sometimes like BBs; when they’ve fused together, they look like Nerds.

DePalma did not find Tanis. The site was found on a piece of private property by two prospectors who had a modest business bringing fossil enthusiasts to the Dakotas. A good day for Steve Nicklas or Rob Sula, who paid ranchers for access to the site, would mean coming upon a fish tooth or a fragment of fish spine. Most fossil finds are a pile of puzzle pieces. On a single day at the ranch in 2008, they came upon a fragment of a sturgeon skull, brushed off some sediment, and found an entire articulated sturgeon. “We knew it was important right then,” says Sula. “Three-dimensional. There were scales on this thing. It was obviously super-gentle preservation.” Nicklas and Sula began to dig it out with a scalpel. “Once we uncovered the first fish,” he says, “there was another one.” There were, in fact, dozens and dozens of 66-million-year-old fish, “stacked up like cordwood, multiple matrices with multiple densities.” It was difficult, thrilling work. “The single fully articulated sturgeon was the first time I’d ever seen anything like that,” says Sula, “let alone stacks of them!”

At least this much is indisputable: Nicklas and Sula located a Lagerstätte : a site of extraordinary preservation. They sent some fish to the Field Museum and called in an academic to assess what they had found. Nicklas called his friend, a dinosaur prospector named Ron Frithiof. Nicklas and Frithiof had something in common: They liked underdogs and distrusted institutions. Frithiof, in particular, feels “most academics are arrogant assholes.” But he knew one he liked, an academic who seemed like “a regular person.” His name was Robert DePalma, and he was just a kid, really — a graduate student in paleontology at the University of Kansas.

In Nicklas and Sula’s view, they had done DePalma a favor, and they continued to share the site with him for seven years. They were thus shocked, in 2019, to find themselves described in his celebratory New Yorker feature as private collectors who thought the site was “a bust” and so cluelessly passed it on to DePalma, who deemed them irresponsible for failing to properly excavate a dinosaur’s hip bone.

“That put me in a super-dark place,” Sula told me. “It was astounding how in a couple of sentences, they managed to marginalize us and omit us from history.”

Sula was upset enough to call The New Yorker and complain. Soon after that, a woman who helped run the ranch told Sula and Nicklas they weren’t welcome back; the family felt they weren’t following rules regarding fire safety. Sula was devastated. “It was a personal thing,” he says. “I loved that place. It was beautiful, and it was part of who I was.”

He still loves the place, but he’s not convinced it’s a record of the day the dinosaurs died. He thinks it might be what he always thought it was, a “fish site” with spectacular preservation. A lot of people do.

It remains a matter of dispute when and where and with what antecedent Melanie During came up with the idea for determining the season the asteroid killed the dinosaurs. But the idea was this: Sturgeon bones grow like tree rings, and the bone cells grow thickest in summer, when food is most plentiful. A slice of bone, then, should reveal a succession of seasons. Months of plenty would be thicker, as the fish grew fat on plankton. The outermost bone, the last stage of bone growth before the asteroid, should reveal the season of death.

During had a single year to finish her master’s thesis after her 2017 visit to Tanis, and she did not have the money to extend the time. If she did not finish the thesis, she would not graduate and would not be able to apply to Ph.D. programs. “When people tell you ‘Relax,’ I’m like, What’s that?  ” she told me. “What do you mean? Do I sit down and do nothing?”

She was not an expert in fossil fish, or histology, or the Late Cretaceous; she had learned isotope-analysis methodology only the previous year from her adviser, Jeroen van der Lubbe. She was a few years out of undergrad — not even a doctoral student. The demise of the non-avian dinosaurs is perhaps the best-known division in all of paleontology, a historical moment that reaches beyond the classroom into childhood nurseries. It is constituent of the way our culture structures the history of the universe, basic to the way we have come to categorize time itself. For a Dutch 20-something to believe she would contribute new information regarding this moment in a master’s thesis was potentially delusional, but During felt the fish from Tanis contained long-hidden knowledge the right methods might evoke.

Her first attempt to measure the growth lines was a failure, four months lost on a faulty technique. “It was a waste of my time to continue,” she says. “I don’t cry over spilled milk.” She had to beg and wheedle for equipment; she was expert in very little but unafraid to ask for help. In order to understand the chemical composition of her samples, she needed to understand what was the original bone and what was a chemical artifact of the process of fossilization. To do that required a Micro XRF spectrometer, which she did not have, but a friend in Brussels had access to one; she drove to Brussels, and there, for the first time, she clearly saw the growth lines in slices of bone.

During’s naïveté would be, over and over, her strength. She intended to measure the isotopic ratio between two molecules at different points in the growth lines. In a university building that still stands only because there is a nuclear reactor in the basement, in a room with a window taped against the wind, During positioned and repositioned a tiny slice of fish bone in a micromill. She came into the little room before dawn and left when it was dark. “You’re still here,” the lab manager, Suzan Warmerdam-Verdegaal, would say on her way out of the building. The mill produced specks of fossil, smaller than a grain of sand. One day, after she had labored for many hours to collect a few samples, a colleague opened the door. The samples wafted into the room, lost to her. That day, she did cry.

A bit of luck: At a dinner for During’s partner on the occasion of his doctoral defense, another scientist with connections to the European Synchrotron Facility offered her some time there — a valuable and vanishingly rare opportunity for a young academic. She told DePalma, and he mailed her a fish skull. She brought the skull to an 844-meter tunnel for speeding electrons, and shot through it beams of light a million times brighter than the sun. The scan revealed the interior and inside the gills, incredibly, little bits of trapped clay: spherules that had traveled from the Yucatán to space and fallen back to Earth to be inhaled by a doomed paddlefish.

Back in Amsterdam, During worked at the mill, but the bits of precious dust failed to accumulate in the way she had hoped. It was April; she was a student only until late August. She didn’t have money to continue her studies. It was Warmerdam-Verdegaal, the lab manager, who devised a solution. Even with very few samples, the isotopic analysis could be made to work with a cold trap, a piece of equipment the lab had but that no one in the lab had ever used for this purpose. She called During one day in May. “We have results to the end,” she said. During screamed and biked to the lab. After days of plotting graphs, she had it: These fish, the isotopic results confirmed, had died in spring.

She defended her master’s thesis in a dress she had sewn herself, in a print with triceratops and ankylosauruses marching across palm trees. It was late August, and the department was mostly empty; her adviser walked through the corridor pulling people into her defense so she would have someone to defend to. She had not only found seasonality but helped develop a new way to combine osteohistology and isotopic dating. Twelve years earlier, she had been a kid in foster care.

The thesis won the Dutch Escher Prize for the most outstanding master’s thesis in earth sciences. She sent it to DePalma and his co-authors, asking that they keep quiet because she planned on publishing the work later, with DePalma as a co-author, since he controlled the site and provided the fish.

Not long after, Smit received a lengthy email from DePalma. “I was naturally surprised to see that Melanie’s entire thesis, even the title, apparently became refocused specifically on determining the time of year,” he wrote. “There are serious ethical concerns here.” He claimed that the subject and methods had been “extracted directly” from the ongoing work of his research team. The idea for using histology to determine time of year, he said, originated with his colleague Gregory Erickson; she “explored a concept, technique, and research goals that were already being written up by us.” He wrote in a tone of deep agitation unsuccessfully masked by politesse. “I hope all of this gets sorted out in the best way possible” he concluded, “and I now have some valuable insight into what it is like to work with Melanie.”

Smit related the email to During, suggesting that it was all a misunderstanding soon to be resolved. But During was devastated. Now, she would never publish a paper on her work because the results would be contested, the path to a Ph.D. less clear. Now, someone else, someone equally ambitious and working against her, had the method she and her advisers had developed. I sent him, she thought, a fucking cookbook.

I get these all the time from crazy people,” says Kirk Johnson, the director of the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History. “People are always saying, ‘I discovered the Ark of the Covenant.’” He received such an email in 2012 from Robert DePalma when DePalma was a 30-year-old graduate student. “It was a very weird kind of secretive, extraordinarily hyperbolic email that said, ‘Look, I’ve made the most amazing discovery in the history of the planet. I found all this stuff that’ll change the way we view science in the world.’” This guy’s nuts, Johnson thought, and did not respond. The next time he came across DePalma was at a gathering of paleontologists and ranchers in Montana in 2016. DePalma clicked through pictures of himself and his old-style tent. He was writing by hand, on a table strewn with a pipe and a porcelain teacup. “With a lantern!” Johnson recalls. “Nobody uses a lantern!” DePalma described what he had found in Hell Creek. “He said, ‘I actually found a complete gecko in amber.’” In the published literature to date, no one has ever found a large section of amber in Hell Creek; one tends to find tiny pieces and in them microfossils. “To find an entire gecko in amber is, like, the holy grail,” says Johnson. This would have been a major, history-making discovery. “And he flashes this fuzzy image up on the screen and then takes it off, and then he leaves. And we’re all like, What the fuck was that?  ”

DePalma says he showed crisp slides of a partial gecko in a peanut-size nub of amber (and provided clear slides to New York ) but does not dispute the lantern. Cosplay is a word that comes up often in conversations about him; he favors an impractical leather hat, suspenders, dramatic looks into the distance. He digs with a pick possibly owned by an associate of Othniel Marsh, the original rapacious paleontologist, though he prefers the Quaker Cope. If many people, in discussing Robert DePalma’s sartorial choices, will feel the need to explain that Indiana Jones was not even a paleontologist (he was an archaeologist), it is worth noting that the field of paleontology has always had an element of costume.

While a grad student at the University of Kansas, DePalma led a research team that unearthed what he called Dakota-raptor, a 17-foot flightless winged carnivore he described to The Guardian as “the Ferrari of competitors” and “the most lethal animal you can possibly imagine into the paleoecology of that time period.” In the pictures he provided to the paper he wears a suit vest and holds a shovel like a 19th-century showman. Pretty much as soon as DePalma unveiled it, Dakotaraptor was controversial. Other researchers pointed out that the bones he had assembled contained a turtle shell. Such mistakes are easy to make; Marsh made fun of Cope mercilessly and repeatedly for attaching a plesiosaur’s skull to the end of its tail. DePalma, always sensitive to criticism, was attacked online for his possibly chimerical discovery. This was part of the reason Frithiof decided to give DePalma the tip about the “fish site.” He thought DePalma had been badly treated. He thought the kid deserved a break.

In the fall of 2016, DePalma publicly announced, at the annual Geological Society of America meeting, that he had found a mass grave full of spherules. The site had been created, he said, from a giant, deadly flood minutes to hours after the asteroid hit. It was the scene of our greatest natural disaster, hidden from us until now. Audible gasps rose from the crowd.

“I was incredulous,” says Johnson, who has been studying Hell Creek for decades, discovered in 1987 the first K-Pg Boundary site in North Dakota, wrote a book about Hell Creek, found a post-asteroid boundary layer with spherules fewer than two miles from Tanis, and is generally the leading expert on the geology and paleobiology of the region. After the conference, Johnson continued to hear of claims DePalma was making. “He proceeded to list a bunch of things that were outrageous. Like, ‘I found an egg of a pterosaur; I found dinosaur feathers.’”

On a trip to Hell Creek in 2016, when DePalma had the lease on Tanis but had not yet made his dramatic claims about it, Johnson and fellow paleontologist Tyler Lyson were engaged in a project to map the K-Pg Boundary along the entirety of Hell Creek. “I’ve been thinking about this sort of stuff basically my whole life,” says Lyson, a curator at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science who grew up fewer than 20 miles from Tanis. They ran into Sula and Nicklas, who invited them to check out the “fish site.” Lyson and Johnson measured its elevation. After the GSA talk, Lyson went back to his notes. “And I’m like, Dang, it’s much, much lower than you would expect. ” At first glance, at least, one would expect a site at that elevation would be older than 66 million years.

Even before his announcement at the GSA, DePalma began to bring journalists and scientists to Tanis. As a student working toward his Ph.D., DePalma contacted none other than Walter Alvarez, the man most associated with the asteroid itself. Alvarez visited the site, was convinced, and became a supporter. DePalma also contacted the novelist Douglas Preston, who visited the site in 2013 and wrote the article that would eventually appear in The New Yorker. Preston’s account is full of finds as shocking and world-shattering as the gecko in amber: a fossil feather, a dinosaur egg, and the remains of a mammal inside the very place it would have hid during the impact.

“Is that a burrow?” Preston asks in the piece.

“You’re darn right it is,” says DePalma.

Paleontologists were skeptical at the time, but their quotes to the media were measured: Let’s wait and see what he publishes. They would judge the findings by the peer-reviewed papers to come. Tyler Lyson did his own investigating. After the explosive GSA talk, Lyson got a three-by-two-foot block of Tanis dirt from Rob Sula, who had removed it before ceding control to DePalma. Lyson hadn’t opened it, but after reading the New Yorker article he prepped it in his museum in Denver. He found fish. He did not find spherules inside the fish. He did not find, in the dirt around those fish, a single spherule. His suspicion grew.

There have been, in the decade since DePalma claimed to have found a dinosaur feather, a mammal burrow, and a pterosaur egg, no resultant publications on these particular finds. Academic paleontologists must keep their fossils publicly accessible; they might be kept at the Field Museum or the Denver Museum of Nature and Science. They are given accession numbers, attached to a museum or university, which researchers use to refer to and request them, as with library books. DePalma is associated with the Palm Beach Museum of Natural History, which is a storefront in a mall, but his finds are not displayed there. When Frost Museum paleontologist Cary Woodruff called the Palm Beach Museum of Natural History asking for a cast of a Dakotaraptor claw DePalma had found, he was put off for about three years by an “exasperated and apologetic” museum employee. Finally, he says he was told by the museum that DePalma kept the bones in his home, in a safe. “As paleontologists,” Woodruff says, incredulous, “we do not store fossils at our house.” (DePalma, asked if he has kept bones at his home, suggests the employee was joking.) When I asked about the staggering fossils described in The New Yorker, DePalma said they were at Florida Atlantic University, where he teaches, and which did not respond to requests for comment.

Paleontologists who might have felt cautiously skeptical in 2019 are now openly and vocally baffled. “No one’s ever published a dinosaur feather from anywhere in North America,” says Johnson. “He has dinosaur feathers. Why didn’t he show us a picture of them? That’d be the cover of Nature. If he had a pterosaur egg, why didn’t he publish? These would be amazing, major discoveries if they were true. “

In the New Yorker feature, DePalma unwraps “a sixteen-inch fossil feather” and holds it “in his palms like a piece of Lalique glass.” “I mean this is just some cartoon, made-up idea of what paleontology is like,” says Jingmai O’Conner, the Field Museum curator who spent ten years working in China, where most fossil feathers have been found. “Fossil feathers don’t preserve three dimensionally in ways that you could hold them, unless they’re in amber. But then you’re actually holding a chunk of amber.”

Greg Wilson Mantilla of the University of Washington is the foremost expert on Late Cretaceous mammals of Hell Creek, a subject he has studied intensively for 25 years. In a day of digging, he says, “you might find a molar of a mammal and know that the mammal was contemporaneous with all the other little pieces that you’re finding. At best we’ll find a jaw that has a couple of teeth in it. That’s a red-letter day.” DePalma has claimed to have not only found a mammal jaw and shoulder bone, but to have found them inside an intact mammal burrow that crosses the K-Pg Boundary. Wilson Mantilla, having devoted his life to this narrow realm of study, would very much like to see the fossils, but his extensive efforts to coordinate with DePalma have not borne out. When they met at a conference, Wilson Mantilla says, DePalma was solicitous and admiring. “He said, ‘I’d love to get you out to the site and, you know, get you the specimen to look at.’ And so I followed up with him. But this began a series of, um, basically exchanges that never amounted to anything. He either didn’t respond to me or promised that I could come out to the field site, just contact him when I get out to Montana, and then I’d link up with him in North Dakota. And it just — everything always fell through.”

The questions swirling around DePalma necessarily implicate his most fundamental claim: the legitimacy of Tanis as the single site known to record the last moments of the Cretaceous. In 2019, DePalma published for the first time on Tanis, in the journal PNAS. This paper, which made the case that Tanis records a brief time after the asteroid hit but did not reference the specific fossils mentioned earlier, was greeted skeptically, though both Jan Smit and Walter Alvarez were co-authors. “I’m not a great geologist,” Woodruff told me, “but Ray Charles could see the geology didn’t make sense the way they described it.” “No one I’ve talked to who’s not involved in the project,” says University of Alabama geologist Tom Tobin, “was convinced by that first paper.”

Those who buy into Tanis tend to focus on the considerable authority of Smit and Alvarez, giants in the field who stand by DePalma’s claims. Smit says he has seen the Tanis spherules, right there in the dirt, and the dinosaur feather in person. But DePalma’s reputation is such that even this does not settle the question. “You can buy spherules at the Tucson mineral show,” one paleontologist told me.

The person capable of making the best case for Tanis is neither Smit nor Alvarez but someone who has accused DePalma, publicly, of faking data. “I will admit,” Woodruff says, “I didn’t think in my professional opinion that any of Tanis was legitimate.” And yet Woodruff is less sure today because he trusts Melanie During, whose work stands, ironically, as the site’s best defense. In During’s synchrotron scan, her fish head appears to have, lodged in the gills, Nerds-like objects.

“How the hell do you plant them in a fish?” says Woodruff. “Like, I don’t think that can really happen. Melanie’s stuff is the only time that I’ve been like What if? and Huh! ”

DePalma has been working Tanis since 2012, talking about seasonality since at least 2013, and first encountered the concept of using histology to determine the season of the asteroid in conversation with paleobiologist Gregory Erickson in 2016. When During visited a year later, DePalma says he provided her with orientation materials that read “The Fall of the Cretaceous: Month Scale Timing of the Cretaceous Apocalypse,” predicted a “late spring to late summer” mass death, and mentioned “histological and isotopic results,” though it had equal emphasis on locating the flora that died at the same time. DePalma requires an “application” for visiting Tanis, which he says is typical but a number of other paleontologists say they have never before encountered. On her application, During indicated she would be investigating the fish’s various injuries, a fact DePalma noted when he expressed surprise that her thesis, which she sent him only after it was completed, was fully oriented toward pinpointing the season at spring.

“After reading your whole email, I can imagine you’re upset!” wrote Smit in response to DePalma. “Apologies for that, but to tell you the truth, we (Melanie’s supervisors) were also surprised by her last moment change of title. She clearly was carried away with the possibilities of the scans she made!”

In DePalma’s view and that of his colleagues, she had lied about her intentions, come to his site at his invitation, stayed in his tent, investigated fish that he packed up and sent her, concealed the subject of her thesis, and stolen his idea. This was outrageous to him, but it was something he could tolerate so long as the results were confined to an unpublished thesis. That she would publish them as first author was intolerable. “It was his idea,” says Pete Larson, the president of the Black Hills Institute and a co-author on DePalma’s paper. “It wasn’t her idea. That’s the thing that really kind of irks me — she did not come up with that idea on her own.”

Smit knew finding asteroid seasonality was DePalma’s plan, but he also knew the histological isotopic techniques had been developed, through trial and error, by During and others in the lab at Amsterdam. He suggested they write two separate papers and merge them into one. DePalma said he would send his manuscript; it was, he said, almost ready. It never, according to Smit, arrived. DePalma maintains that During never accepted the idea of merged manuscripts.

“Maybe I didn’t want to work with someone who accused me of theft,” During says to this. She concedes that the idea was DePalma’s. In her telling, it was he who suggested she search out the season of the asteroid in the ancient bones, and he was supportive of her work until he suddenly became hostile. Robert told her to “fill in whatever” on the application, she says, so she gestured generally toward her research interests.

In 2019 During applied for jobs and received a string of rejections. Eventually she found a role with Per Ahlberg at Uppsala University in Sweden. Ahlberg hired her, in part, because he thought she had been badly treated. He thought she deserved a break.

DePalma was a threat to During’s reputation, disastrous on a job market with many Ph.D.’s and few jobs, and by 2020 this was a massive source of stress. When she discovered that she was pregnant, she and her partner decided that she should step away from the issue of the unpublished Tanis research. She sewed a felt dinosaur mobile for the son she would soon have. She painted three marine reptiles underwater. She painted a long-necked dinosaur cradling a baby and a T. rex in the sun. Along with all the dinosaurs, she painted exactly one rocket ship. (“He doesn’t have to be a paleontologist,” she told me.) In between being induced and giving birth, she painted three more paintings of birds. The baby would be named Odin, an anagram of dino.

In 2021, Ahlberg encouraged During to submit the paper for publication despite the friction with DePalma. She emailed him to ask whether he wanted to be listed as an author, and weeks later, when he still had not responded, deleted his name.

“She waited for two years before she published anything,” Smit says. “I mean, two years is a long time in a scientist’s life.”

When he heard During was about to publish, a co-author of his told me, DePalma began to rush. His own paper would try to prove the asteroid-in-spring hypothesis through a number of separate overlapping methods, including showing what flora were found in the area, so as to leave little room for criticism.

During was 32 when, six months later, she read the email granting her paper a preliminary acceptance in Nature. Her master’s thesis — not even Ph.D. work — would be published in the world’s most prestigious scientific journal. It was too much to lose. She thought, Something will go wrong. It will never happen. Instead of celebrating, she focused on cleaning her house; her sister, terribly allergic to dust, was coming for a visit.

Two days later, as she was finishing up work, late to pick up her son from day care and her sister from the airport, her phone lit up with a text from Smit. “I should not have clicked the link,” she says, but she did click the link. DePalma had published his paper in the journal Scientific Reports. He was first. He was Alvarez; she was Smit. She drove through a blizzard with her son in the back of the car, working hard to see the road. Okay, she thought. I’m not going to publish. She ran out of wiper fluid, and the wipers could not keep up with the slush. He scooped me. It’s done.

As a child, Robert was, he says, “absolutely mercilessly bullied.” He spent a lot of time at home, though that entailed dealing with his parents’ divorce and custody battles. Alone in his room, he constructed hobby-store dioramas and small models of long-extinct beings. He adored cuckoo clocks; either he would be a cuckoo-clock-maker, he reasoned, or a paleontologist. Something in his body was conversant with matter, with bones. His father, an endodontist, operated on teeth for a living. His great-uncle, an orthopedic surgeon, wrote books with titles such as Diseases of the Knee. Robert did not care for sports, and the other children evidently did not care for clockwork. “I did not get a moment of peace from them,” he says. “I couldn’t even eat lunch.” He was born and raised in Florida, a barely surfaced peninsula in which not a single dinosaur fossil has ever been found.

In early adolescence, Robert found his first close friend, a boy named Terry he’d met outside. Terry was overweight, had also been excluded by other children, and adored microfossils — the little stuff, according to Robert, “that people usually don’t pay any attention to.” The boys volunteered as assistants at a local archaeology museum together. On school breaks, they left Florida for places with climates more given to preservation. They dug fossils in Wyoming and found trail ruts made a century back by Conestoga wagons. In 2004, when Robert was 22, they undertook a dig in South Dakota, unearthing a collection of plant and dinosaur fossils. They were thrilled. While they were at U-Haul getting a trailer on which to load all their new finds, Terry collapsed. Robert called an ambulance and Terry disappeared into the hospital. “A lady came in, and I thought she was going to say, ‘All right, he’s in rough shape, but you can see him in a couple hours.’ She said he was gone.”

There had been a heart condition. “No one had any goddamn idea,” says DePalma, apologizing for his tears. “All of the wonderful stuff that had gone on for both of us was just gone in an instant. It’s like the world disappears for you.”

After long days together looking at the remnants of other creatures, the boys had talked about what to do with their own bodies when they passed. Robert made a mold from the remains of a duck-billed dinosaur, the last dinosaur remnant Terry ever found, mixed his ashes with resin, and encased them in the shape of the fossil.

He found comfort in the field. “There are so many spots where you don’t see anything manmade at all,” he tells me. “And when you’re there, especially without a phone signal, despite the fact that you’re wearing something modern, you look around and you can literally feel like you are in that time period. I would be back there in a heartbeat.”

In July, I met DePalma in Bowman, North Dakota, and joined him on the short drive to Tanis. He had come all the way from Boca Raton for a single day to help a boyish graduate student in need of soil samples for a thesis. He was wearing a leather hat, thick suspenders, and a red backpack that once belonged to Terry. A long scar he didn’t want to talk about ran through his right eyebrow and continued under his eye. Every time someone asks about the scar, he gives a different story. Aliens, he’ll say. A Kraken.

“I’m not used to all this technology,” he said, messing with the dated screen on the rental-car console as mourning doves rose up from the grass. We passed grazing buffalo, horses, cows: “Cows when they’re born are so flippin’ cute.” Prairie chickens hopped along a fence. “I can’t imagine what it would be like to drive a wagon out here,” he said, clearly imagining it. He pointed out distant hills, turned orange by ancient fire. His thoughts flickered in and out of the present.

“Living history,” DePalma told me once, “is definitely one of my passions.” So is “flint napping,” which involves carving flint into stone tools. Robert’s comfort with matter — his facility with rocks and models — does not extend to strings of electrons beneath the threshold of visibility. “I avoided computers for a long time,” he told me, “and most of the first drafts of my papers were on pen and paper.” Still, he loves the lab and is perfectly comfortable at the synchrotron. “I’m like Alan Grant from Jurassic Park, ” he says, “struggling with the seat belt in the helicopter.”

At a lonely white church guarded by a filthy sheepdog, we met up with Erickson, the paleobiologist who first came up with the idea During allegedly stole, and two graduate students. Pete Larson, DePalma’s co-author from the Black Hills Institute, followed in his own truck as we drove onto the ranch.

“Is this a road?” I asked as we pulled onto the grass and our bodies pitched back and forth in the truck.

“This is a good road,” said Erickson.

We followed a fence line. In the soft breeze of a summer day it was easy to follow the story DePalma told: The grass, rippling in the wind, had once been a river, and this pile of gnarled stone the bank on which the river deposited its dead. Rocked by the asteroid, the rivers would have flooded and the fish pitched onto higher ground. Moments after we arrived, DePalma was already inside the place, leaning against the hill with a brush in one hand and a trowel in the other, carving through sediment as he explained dip angles and bedding traces to the students. In the ashen rock, a fish fossil appears rust red, a subtle change in color and texture barely visible to the layperson. “Oh, check it out,” he said. “There’s another fish coming out right there. Right there. And right here, too. That’s the skull of a sturgeon right there. Hey Greg, we got more fish right there.”

“We can’t decide if that’s the start of a footprint or not,” he said, gesturing at what may have been an herbivorous-dinosaur imprint but I would have thought a perfectly ordinary rock, “but we do find footprints in this horizon. It could be. I mean, that’s definitely soft-sediment deformation.”

He worked away some land and unveiled, across the black soil, a white line. “The boundary,” he said, full of asteroid, a weirdly literal transition between the age of dinosaurs and that of mammals. Later he would take a sample out of his pocket, tip dirt onto a microscope, and show me Nerds-like objects he says he gathered from the site. “Melted Yucatán,” he said, “airmailed from Mexico.”

It became clear during our time together that DePalma is beloved in Bowman; a husky-voiced, cigarette-slim worker -stocking shelves at the gas-station convenience store hugged him the moment we walked in (“A fascinating woman,” he called her), and the mohawked, lip-ringed chef who ran one of the only two restaurants open in town on Monday nights did the same. There is a kind of innocent charisma. DePalma is cordial, formal, quaint, an elder millennial clean of our generation’s collective linguistic tics. “Gosh,” he is given to say. “Son of a gun!” He is earnest in a way that engenders a watchful instinct in others.

“He has a history of getting burned by misplacing his trust,” says Liam O’Meallie, a claims adjuster who often accompanies DePalma on digs. “I’ve been protecting him from behind the scenes for a long time.”

When I ask him to tell me the true story of the scar, DePalma hesitates and gives in. It was a car accident. There had been a pileup in another lane. “It was happening so quickly,” he says, “and I crane my head around idiotically, thinking, Oh, I wonder what the hell is going on over there? Let’s have a look! ” A piece of debris flew into his open window, “smacks me right in the face, destroys that side of my glasses.” He drove home using the one eye not covered in blood.

He did not go to the doctor. “I didn’t want to do insurance,” he says, “I didn’t want to go through cops, I didn’t want to do anything. I didn’t want to deal with bureaucracy, screwing around with all the powers that be, the paperwork.” Cops, insurance, a hospital: all the annoying frictions, the tedious conflicts inherent in the time in which Robert actually lives. They struck him as so stressful and time-consuming as to be intolerable. Instead of stitches, then, there would be only Band-Aids and a scar people will ask him about for the rest of his life.

“I wanted,” he says, “to be left alone.”

Academic publishing is not an ideal realm in which to hide from minor conflict. DePalma’s paper had problems During could see as soon as she took the time to look. Some were immediately obvious to those who skimmed it: The isotopes were off. 18C, an isotope that does not exist, is mentioned multiple times. “Even if it’s just a typo,” says Tobin, the Alabama geologist, “it’s a typo that’s consistent throughout in a way that makes you think, Does anyone on this paper know about isotopes?  ”

Others were less obvious and more concerning. During wondered where he had done this analysis; it is hard to acquire these tools. What mass spectrometer had he used? Why were the graphs so perfect, so seesaw in their uniformity? The figures seemed inconsistent with real-world results, or at least results produced with a computer. Some data points were listed twice. It looked to her as if the fish had eaten exactly the same amount every year.

Nature did not, in fact, retract During’s preliminary acceptance, and her paper came out that February. Her paper cited DePalma’s work nine times; it was built on his claims about Tanis, centered on specimens he had sent her, and ultimately rested on his integrity, which she would spend the next several years attacking.

During wrote to Scientific Reports with her concerns about DePalma’s paper, and on Christmas Eve 2021 DePalma received a disturbing email from the journal asking, among other things, about the isotope data. He was “gutted, full of anxiety,” his holiday ruined. Scientific Reports wanted to know the provenance of the raw data, but he did not have it because the person who had handled the data, Curtis McKinney, had died in 2017 before During even got to Tanis. McKinney worked at Miami Dade College. The college did not have a mass spectrometer, so McKinney would have had to do the analysis somewhere else. No one, including DePalma, could say where that was.

No one who knew McKinney seemed to remember him working on such a project. From a certain distance, it could look very much like DePalma had simply found a dead man to whom to attribute work never done. Even his defenders would find the lack of a paper trail a problem. After asking Scientific Reports for more information about the data used in the paper and making no progress in a year’s time, During and Ahlberg were done waiting. They took the extraordinary step of making public a technical 25-page response that was also an accusation. “We are compelled to ask,” they wrote, “whether the data may be fabricated, created to fit an already known conclusion.” (“It was way too personal for my taste,” says Smit. “It was not an objective scientific statement.”) The accusation was covered by Science magazine. In a response to Science, DePalma said the graphs were a bit off because he had plotted them, extraordinarily, by hand. It seemed to him that he was being attacked from all sides. He lost weight. He lost sleep. He was reminded, he tells me, of being bullied as a child.

During and Ahlberg formally complained to the University of Manchester, where DePalma had transferred, alleging misconduct. DePalma formally complained to Uppsala University, where During was a graduate student, alleging plagiarism. “Robert DePalma created these ideas and methods, and … over a period of years Melanie During progressively claimed these ideas for herself, culminating now in these false and shameless accusations against Robert DePalma,” wrote Professor Roy Wogelius in an internal statement to the University of Manchester. “I have been a professional scientist for 40 years and I have never encountered such an unwarranted, unhinged, and hypocritical attack on a colleague.”

“I think she treated Robert very badly,” Larson tells me, “and she, in doing so, probably ruined her own career, which is super-sad for me because she’s a bright young lady.”

DePalma was scheduled to give a talk at TEDx Boca Raton, but he postponed. During gave a talk at TEDx Stockholm. “I knew it was my responsibility to blow the whistle,” she told the crowd. “And why is it important to stand up for science? Because science denial is rampant. Being a researcher means more than doing research … it also takes the backbone to call out misconduct when you see it.”

To his university, now compelled to investigate its own student, DePalma provided copies of the materials he says he gave to During in 2017 when she arrived at Tanis. (She denies having received them.) A page of those materials mentioned “work from Curtis,” strong evidence that McKinney had not been summoned to operate a mass spectrometer from beyond the grave, though to this day no one knows where that analysis took place.

Robert DePalma is, in 2024, 43 years old and still a graduate student, despite having been handed what may or may not be the most spectacular paleontological site in the country. He is by many accounts a brilliant geologist. A student of his I spoke to described him as an extraordinary teacher. But he is not academic. He struggles with parts of paleontology that do not belong in a living-history segment. He does not enjoy publishing; he sees forward to the possibility of criticism. “The dread is, Oh God, then there’s going to be jealous people, ” he says. “There’s going to be people kicking you in the tail over it.” DePalma’s master’s thesis is, according to Smit, unreadable.

In our time in the field, DePalma would almost never mention, without prompting, the world of academic paleontology. He talked about how cool it would be to 3-D print a fossil. He talked about making a film, maybe anime, maybe CGI, from the perspective of an animal that died when the asteroid struck. He showed me a delicate, in-process reconstruction of a rattlesnake. Once in grad school, he had gone to enormous lengths to reconstruct a model of a lungfish in its burrow. “Why did you do this?” he recalls a professor asking him. “Are you studying this? Is this for a paper?”

“I told him time and again,” Smit says, “‘You lay your claims by going to a conference, give a talk, give an abstract.’ And apparently he thought, No, no, no. Then I’m giving away the science. And I couldn’t convince him of the contrary. It’s an imaginary problem for him, so he kept silent about it for a long time. He kept silent about the feathers. He kept silent about the discoveries. And now with Melanie, it sort of overtakes him. I mean, you cannot keep silent for eight years and then not publish anything. That’s not what you do in the modern world. That’s why I say he is a Romantic from the 19th century, but not in a modern, highly competitive field of science. And Melanie is quite the opposite.”

Tanis is so low, DePalma says, because it was part of a river that sliced deep into the land. If Tanis were part of a waterway, that waterway would once have continued onward, and one might therefore find other sites along the ghost of the river packed with petrified carcasses, showered in spherules. In 2023, During and Clint Boyd, a senior paleontologist at the North Dakota Geological Survey, parked a truck next to the ranch where Tanis is located and where Robert was then excavating. They would hike on public land to a Tanis-adjacent spot, also on public land, that During had a feeling about. The hike was hard, over grassy knolls and soft buttes that crumbled under their feet, in part because it was so important to stay on the section line, which was public, though that stretch of land was not always easiest to traverse. They kept checking Boyd’s phone to make sure they weren’t wandering onto someone’s property, until the phone was close to dead. Two hours later, they arrived. Melanie could see the three horns of a triceratops skull sticking out of the side of a hill. They felt more certain this was a solid spot, but it was late in the afternoon and they had a two-hour walk back. They decided to return the next day.

When they were almost back to the truck, a sedan approached. A woman rolled down the passenger-side window. “Better not go in Robert’s section,” she said. It was the woman who helped run the ranch, who had forced out Rob Sula long ago.

From the sedan, the woman gestured behind her.

“I don’t know what those guys want,” she said.

Next to Boyd’s truck were now two pickups and two men. One yelled at them for “trespassing,” spewing a string of expletives; the other paced back and forth to his truck. During was worried about what was in the truck. She hid behind Boyd, whose response to all the yelling was to calmly explain, with an interest that bordered on passion, the complicated rules of North Dakota backcountry private-public byways.

The younger guy got closer to Boyd’s face, waved his arms in protest. Boyd said they would leave.

“You can leave,” he said, “and we are going to watch you leave.”

The men watched them leave. Boyd did not think it was a good idea to go back to the spot on that trip. During flew home.

In December, the University of Manchester’s investigation finally concluded that its doctoral student Robert DePalma had not fabricated data and was probably already working on seasonality before During showed up. The university did say he was guilty of “poor research practice” regarding the mysterious origins of the isotope data. In May, Uppsala University concluded that its doctoral student Melanie During was not guilty of plagiarism, unfair representations of authorship, or deviations from good research practice.

“It has been one of the most hurtful and unexpected and discouraging situations of my life,” DePalma says when pressed about his state of mind, years after all of this started. “It has changed my views of optimism about how people will operate. I’m studying the impact that ended the world for so many different species. And it’s almost ironic that that’s the project that destroyed my soul.”

In June of this year, During returned to North Dakota, searching for a new Tanis. She and Boyd hiked against relentless wind, back toward the hill where she had seen the triceratops skull. It was loud and endless; by the end of an hour and a half of hiking, During’s sunglasses were scratched from flying debris. They gathered gallons of dirt from different sections of the hill and hiked back. Later, sifting through the debris back at the lab, watching it crumble through her fingers, During would find no clear evidence of spherules. But the trip had other pleasures. The wind had blown a salamander vertebrate right out of her palm. They’d found a crocodilian jaw with a tooth in it, just lying there on the surface, the spaces where other teeth had been as straight and uniform as a Battleship grid. They’d found three triceratops (“the cows of the Cretaceous,” During calls them), and Boyd had yanked a Chasmosaurus humerus straight out of a hill. They had found two sets of Thescelosaurus vertebrae. Thescelosaurus, long, heavy bipedal dinosaurs, appeared at the very end of the Late Cretaceous, just before the asteroid that would kill them off.

After the asteroid, surviving birds would carry on the genetic legacy of giant reptiles and the continent would enter the strange age of mammals. There would be a superfast 12-foot-tall bear and a muscular, strong-jawed giant pig. There would be a dog-size horse and beavers six feet long. Camels would evolve right here on the plains, and American lions bigger than African ones. The species that took it upon itself to figure it all out, to make a story of the past, would largely overlook these creatures in favor of T. rex and triceratops. The species would construct elaborate rules that govern who may and may not tread on particular pieces of land. It would evolve a complex economy of prestige to accompany the discovery of truths about all that had come before — a shadowy interplay of gatekeeping, mentorship, and recognition. There would be reason for everyone, on every side of a small discovery of a single fact, to feel overlooked and underappreciated, awake to the vastness of time and vulnerable to the smallest slight.

Correction: A previous version of this story misstated that the Field Museum is part of the University of Chicago.

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