C. Worrell (Eds.), (pp. 345–359). American Psychological Association.
Parenthetical citation: (Aron et al., 2019)
Narrative citation: Aron et al. (2019)
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Culture. In . Retrieved September 9, 2019, from |
Parenthetical citation: (Merriam-Webster, n.d.)
Narrative citation: Merriam-Webster (n.d.)
National Cancer Institute. (2019). (NIH Publication No. 18-2059). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. |
Parenthetical citation: (National Cancer Institute, 2019)
Narrative citation: National Cancer Institute (2019)
The specific agency responsible for the report appears as the author. The names of parent agencies not present in the group author name appear in the source element as the publisher. This creates concise in-text citations and complete reference list entries.
Harvard University. (2019, August 28). [Video]. YouTube. |
Parenthetical citation: (Harvard University, 2019)
Narrative citation: Harvard University (2019)
APA Databases [@APA_Databases]. (2019, September 5). [Tweet]. Twitter. Gates, B. [@BillGates]. (2019, September 7). [Thumbnail with link attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. |
Parenthetical citations: (APA Databases, 2019; Gates, 2019)
Narrative citations: APA Databases (2019) and Gates (2019)
News From Science. (2019, June 21). [Image attached] [Status update]. Facebook. |
Parenthetical citation: (News From Science, 2019)
Narrative citation: News From Science (2019)
Fagan, J. (2019, March 25). . OER Commons. Retrieved September 17, 2019, from National Institute of Mental Health. (2018, July). . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. Woodyatt, A. (2019, September 10). . CNN. World Health Organization. (2018, May 24). . |
Parenthetical citations: (Fagan, 2019; National Institute of Mental Health, 2018; Woodyatt, 2019; World Health Organization, 2018)
Narrative citations: Fagan (2019), National Institute of Mental Health (2018), Woodyatt (2019), and World Health Organization (2018)
The following supplemental example references are mention in the Publication Manual:
Archival document and collections are not presented in the APA Publication Manual, Seventh Edition . This content is available only on the APA Style website . This guidance has been expanded from the 6th edition.
Archival sources include letters, unpublished manuscripts, limited-circulation brochures and pamphlets, in-house institutional and corporate documents, clippings, and other documents, as well as such nontextual materials as photographs and apparatus, that are in the personal possession of an author, form part of an institutional collection, or are stored in an archive such as the Archives of the History of American Psychology at the University of Akron or the APA Archives. For any documents like these that are available on the open web or via a database (subscription or nonsubscription), follow the reference templates shown in Chapter 10 of the Publication Manual.
The general format for the reference for an archival work includes the author, date, title, and source. The reference examples shown on this page may be modified for collections requiring more or less specific information to locate materials, for different types of collections, or for additional descriptive information (e.g., a translation of a letter). Authors may choose to list correspondence from their own personal collections, but correspondence from other private collections should be listed only with the permission of the collector.
Keep in mind the following principles when creating references to archival documents and collections:
Frank, L. K. (1935, February 4). [Letter to Robert M. Ogden]. Rockefeller Archive Center (GEB Series 1.3, Box 371, Folder 3877), Tarrytown, NY, United States.
Zacharius, G. P. (1953, August 15). [Letter to William Rickel (W. Rickel, Trans.)]. Copy in possession of Hendrika Vande Kemp.
Allport, G. W. (1930–1967). Correspondence. Gordon W. Allport Papers (HUG 4118.10), Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, MA, United States.
To cite specific letters in the text, provide the author and range of years as shown in the reference list entry, plus details about who wrote the specific letter to whom and when the specific letter was written.
Berliner, A. (1959). Notes for a lecture on reminiscences of Wundt and Leipzig. Anna Berliner Memoirs (Box M50), Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, OH, United States.
Allport, A. (presumed). (ca. 1937). Marion Taylor today—by the biographer [Unpublished manuscript]. Marion Taylor Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge, MA, United States.
Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene Personnel in School Programs. (1949, November 5–6). Meeting of Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene Personnel in School Programs. David Shakow Papers (M1360), Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron, Akron, OH, United States.
Smith, M. B. (1989, August 12). Interview by C. A. Kiesler [Tape recording]. President’s Oral History Project, American Psychological Association, APA Archives, Washington, DC, United States.
Sparkman, C. F. (1973). An oral history with Dr. Colley F. Sparkman/Interviewer: Orley B. Caudill. Mississippi Oral History Program (Vol. 289), University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States.
Psychoanalysis institute to open. (1948, September 18). [Clipping from an unidentified Dayton, OH, United States, newspaper]. Copy in possession of author.
Sci-Art Publishers. (1935). Sci-Art publications [Brochure]. Roback Papers (HUGFP 104.50, Box 2, Folder “Miscellaneous Psychological Materials”), Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, MA, United States.
[Photographs of Robert M. Yerkes]. (ca. 1917–1954). Robert Mearns Yerkes Papers (Box 137, Folder 2292), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT, United States.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1880). 1880 U.S. census: Defective, dependent, and delinquent classes schedule: Virginia [Microfilm]. NARA Microfilm Publication T1132 (Rolls 33–34), National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC, United States.
Read the full APA guidelines on citing ChatGPT
OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat
Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.
Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.
Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.
The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.
Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.
Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).
Works included in a reference list.
The reference list provides a reliable way for readers to identify and locate the works cited in a paper. APA Style papers generally include reference lists, not bibliographies.
In general, each work cited in the text must appear in the reference list, and each work in the reference list must be cited in the text. Check your work carefully before submitting your manuscript or course assignment to ensure no works cited in the text are missing from the reference list and vice versa, with only the following exceptions.
There are a few kinds of works that are not included in a reference list. Usually a work is not included because readers cannot recover it or because the mention is so broad that readers do not need a reference list entry to understand the use.
Information on works included in a reference list is covered in Sections 2.12 and 8.4 of the APA Publication Manual, Seventh Edition
*This guidance has been expanded from the 6th edition.*
The DOI or URL is the final component of a reference list entry. Because so much scholarship is available and/or retrieved online, most reference list entries end with either a DOI or a URL.
Follow these guidelines for including DOIs and URLs in references:
Follow these guidelines to format DOIs and URLs:
https://doi.org/ xxxxx
When a DOI or URL is long or complex, you may use shortDOIs or shortened URLs if desired.
Download and use the editable templates for student papers below: .
& |
Begins on a new page following the text of your paper and includes complete citations for the resources you've used in your writing.
Double-space the entire bibliography. give each entry a hanging indent. in the following annotation, indent the entire paragraph a half inch from the left margin and give the first line of each paragraph a half inch indent. see the template document at the top of this page..
Abstract (section 2.9).
Home » References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide
Table of Contents
Definition:
References in research are a list of sources that a researcher has consulted or cited while conducting their study. They are an essential component of any academic work, including research papers, theses, dissertations, and other scholarly publications.
There are several types of references used in research, and the type of reference depends on the source of information being cited. The most common types of references include:
References to books typically include the author’s name, title of the book, publisher, publication date, and place of publication.
Example: Smith, J. (2018). The Art of Writing. Penguin Books.
References to journal articles usually include the author’s name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date.
Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 87-94.
References to web sources should include the author or organization responsible for the content, the title of the page, the URL, and the date accessed.
Example: World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public
Conference Proceedings
References to conference proceedings should include the author’s name, title of the paper, name of the conference, location of the conference, date of the conference, and page numbers.
Example: Chen, S., & Li, J. (2019). The Future of AI in Education. Proceedings of the International Conference on Educational Technology, Beijing, China, July 15-17, pp. 67-78.
References to reports typically include the author or organization responsible for the report, title of the report, publication date, and publisher.
Example: United Nations. (2020). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. United Nations.
Some common Formates of References with their examples are as follows:
The APA (American Psychological Association) Style has specific guidelines for formatting references used in academic papers, articles, and books. Here are the different reference formats in APA style with examples:
Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.
Example : Smith, J. K. (2005). The psychology of social interaction. Wiley-Blackwell.
Journal Article
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page numbers.
Example : Brown, L. M., Keating, J. G., & Jones, S. M. (2012). The role of social support in coping with stress among African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 218-233.
Author, A. A. (Year of publication or last update). Title of page. Website name. URL.
Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, December 11). COVID-19: How to protect yourself and others. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html
Magazine article
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine, volume number(issue number), page numbers.
Example : Smith, M. (2019, March 11). The power of positive thinking. Psychology Today, 52(3), 60-65.
Newspaper article:
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, page numbers.
Example: Johnson, B. (2021, February 15). New study shows benefits of exercise on mental health. The New York Times, A8.
Edited book
Editor, E. E. (Ed.). (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.
Example : Thompson, J. P. (Ed.). (2014). Social work in the 21st century. Sage Publications.
Chapter in an edited book:
Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. page numbers). Publisher.
Example : Johnson, K. S. (2018). The future of social work: Challenges and opportunities. In J. P. Thompson (Ed.), Social work in the 21st century (pp. 105-118). Sage Publications.
The MLA (Modern Language Association) Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the humanities. Here are the different reference formats in MLA style:
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.
Example : Smith, John. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.
Journal article
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, Publication year, page numbers.
Example : Brown, Laura M., et al. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 22, no. 1, 2012, pp. 218-233.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Publication date, URL.
Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC, 11 Dec. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date, page numbers.
Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, Mar. 2019, pp. 60-65.
Newspaper article
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date, page numbers.
Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, 15 Feb. 2021, p. A8.
Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.
Example : Thompson, John P., editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.
Chapter in an edited book
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last name, Publisher, Publication year, page numbers.
Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, Sage Publications, 2014, pp. 105-118.
The Chicago Manual of Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers, dissertations, and books in the humanities and social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Chicago style:
Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Publication year): page numbers.
Example : Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. Publication date. URL.
Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date.
Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date.
Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.
Example : Thompson, John P., ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Publisher, Publication year.
Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Sage Publications, 2014.
The Harvard Style, also known as the Author-Date System, is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Harvard Style:
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.
Example : Smith, John. 2005. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number (issue number): page numbers.
Example: Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. 2012. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22 (1): 218-233.
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL. Accessed date.
Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed April 1, 2023.
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, month and date of publication.
Example : Smith, Mary. 2019. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, month and date of publication.
Example : Johnson, Bob. 2021. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.
Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.
Example : Thompson, John P., ed. 2014. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher.
Example : Johnson, Karen S. 2014. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
The Vancouver Style, also known as the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, is a widely used style for writing academic papers in the biomedical sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Vancouver Style:
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.
Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2005.
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title. Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.
Example : Brown LM, Keating JG, Jones SM. The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents. J Res Adolesc. 2012;22(1):218-233.
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name [Internet]. Publication date. [cited date]. Available from: URL.
Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others [Internet]. 2020 Dec 11. [cited 2023 Apr 1]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Magazine. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.
Example : Smith M. The Power of Positive Thinking. Psychology Today. 2019 Mar 1:32-35.
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.
Example : Johnson B. New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health. The New York Times. 2021 Feb 15:A4.
Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.
Example: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014.
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Chapter. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. page numbers.
Example : Johnson KS. The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities. In: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014. p. 105-118.
Turabian style is a variation of the Chicago style used in academic writing, particularly in the fields of history and humanities. Here are the different reference formats in Turabian style:
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.
Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Year of publication): page numbers.
Example : Brown, LM, Keating, JG, Jones, SM. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” J Res Adolesc 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Publication date. Accessed date. URL.
Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Month Day, Year of publication, page numbers.
Example : Smith, M. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 1, 2019, 32-35.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Month Day, Year of publication.
Example : Johnson, B. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.
Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.
Example : Thompson, JP, ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s Last name, First name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.
Example : Johnson, KS. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by Thompson, JP, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. Here are the different reference formats in IEEE style:
Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of publication.
Example : Oppenheim, A. V., & Schafer, R. W. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Abbreviated Journal Title, vol. number, no. issue number, pp. page numbers, Month year of publication.
Example: Shannon, C. E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 379-423, July 1948.
Conference paper
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Paper.” In Title of Conference Proceedings, Place of Conference, Date of Conference, pp. page numbers, Year of publication.
Example: Gupta, S., & Kumar, P. “An Improved System of Linear Discriminant Analysis for Face Recognition.” In Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Computer Science and Network Technology, Harbin, China, Dec. 2011, pp. 144-147.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Date of publication or last update. Accessed date. URL.
Example : National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “Apollo 11.” NASA. July 20, 1969. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.
Technical report
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Report.” Name of Institution or Organization, Report number, Year of publication.
Example : Smith, J. R. “Development of a New Solar Panel Technology.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A20-51645, 2011.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Patent.” Patent number, Issue date.
Example : Suzuki, H. “Method of Producing Carbon Nanotubes.” US Patent 7,151,019, December 19, 2006.
Standard Title. Standard number, Publication date.
Example : IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic. IEEE Std 754-2008, August 29, 2008
ACS (American Chemical Society) style is commonly used in chemistry and related fields. Here are the different reference formats in ACS style:
Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title Year, Volume, Page Numbers.
Example : Wang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Cui, Y.; Ma, Y. Facile Preparation of Fe3O4/graphene Composites Using a Hydrothermal Method for High-Performance Lithium Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012, 4, 2715-2721.
Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication.
Example : Carey, F. A. Organic Chemistry; McGraw-Hill: New York, 2008.
Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In Book Title; Editor’s Last name, First name, Ed.; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume number, Chapter number, Page Numbers.
Example : Grossman, R. B. Analytical Chemistry of Aerosols. In Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications; Baron, P. A.; Willeke, K., Eds.; Wiley-Interscience: New York, 2001; Chapter 10, pp 395-424.
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name, URL (accessed date).
Example : National Institute of Standards and Technology. Atomic Spectra Database. https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database (accessed April 1, 2023).
Author’s Last name, First name. Patent Number. Patent Date.
Example : Liu, Y.; Huang, H.; Chen, H.; Zhang, W. US Patent 9,999,999, December 31, 2022.
Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. In Title of Conference Proceedings, Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume Number, Page Numbers.
Example : Jia, H.; Xu, S.; Wu, Y.; Wu, Z.; Tang, Y.; Huang, X. Fast Adsorption of Organic Pollutants by Graphene Oxide. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017; Volume 1, pp 223-228.
AMA (American Medical Association) style is commonly used in medical and scientific fields. Here are the different reference formats in AMA style:
Author’s Last name, First name. Article Title. Journal Abbreviation. Year; Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.
Example : Jones, R. A.; Smith, B. C. The Role of Vitamin D in Maintaining Bone Health. JAMA. 2019;321(17):1765-1773.
Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.
Example : Guyton, A. C.; Hall, J. E. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2015.
Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: Page Numbers.
Example: Rajakumar, K. Vitamin D and Bone Health. In: Holick, M. F., ed. Vitamin D: Physiology, Molecular Biology, and Clinical Applications. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2010:211-222.
Author’s Last name, First name. Webpage Title. Website Name. URL. Published date. Updated date. Accessed date.
Example : National Cancer Institute. Breast Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)–Patient Version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/patient/breast-prevention-pdq. Published October 11, 2022. Accessed April 1, 2023.
Author’s Last name, First name. Conference presentation title. In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Place of Conference.
Example : Smith, J. R. Vitamin D and Bone Health: A Meta-Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research; September 20-23, 2022; San Diego, CA.
Thesis or dissertation
Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Thesis or Dissertation. Degree level [Doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis]. University Name; Year.
Example : Wilson, S. A. The Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women [Doctoral dissertation]. University of California, Los Angeles; 2018.
The ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) style is commonly used in civil engineering fields. Here are the different reference formats in ASCE style:
Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title, volume number, issue number (year): page numbers. DOI or URL (if available).
Example : Smith, J. R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering, vol. 146, no. 3 (2020): 04020010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001668.
Example : McCuen, R. H. Hydrologic Analysis and Design. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education; 2013.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.
Example : Maidment, D. R. “Floodplain Management in the United States.” In: Shroder, J. F., ed. Treatise on Geomorphology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2013: 447-460.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.
Example: Smith, J. R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019: 156-163.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.
Example : U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. “Hurricane Sandy Coastal Risk Reduction Program, New York and New Jersey.” Report No. P-15-001. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; 2015.
The CSE (Council of Science Editors) style is commonly used in the scientific and medical fields. Here are the different reference formats in CSE style:
Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Year;Volume(Issue):Page numbers.
Example : Smith, J.R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2020;146(3):04020010.
Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.
Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial., ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year:Page numbers.
Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.
Example : Smith, J.R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019.
Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.
The Bluebook style is commonly used in the legal field for citing legal documents and sources. Here are the different reference formats in Bluebook style:
Case citation
Case name, volume source page (Court year).
Example : Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
Statute citation
Name of Act, volume source § section number (year).
Example : Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. § 7401 (1963).
Regulation citation
Name of regulation, volume source § section number (year).
Example: Clean Air Act, 40 C.F.R. § 52.01 (2019).
Book citation
Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number (if applicable). Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.
Example: Smith, J.R. Legal Writing and Analysis. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Aspen Publishers; 2015.
Journal article citation
Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Volume number (year): first page-last page.
Example: Garcia, C. “The Right to Counsel: An International Comparison.” International Journal of Legal Information. 43 (2015): 63-94.
Website citation
Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed month day, year).
Example : United Nations. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ (accessed January 3, 2023).
The Oxford style, also known as the Oxford referencing system or the documentary-note citation system, is commonly used in the humanities, including literature, history, and philosophy. Here are the different reference formats in Oxford style:
Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.
Example : Smith, John. The Art of Writing. New York: Penguin, 2020.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue (year): page range.
Example: Garcia, Carlos. “The Role of Ethics in Philosophy.” Philosophy Today 67, no. 3 (2019): 53-68.
Chapter in an edited book citation
Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.
Example : Lee, Mary. “Feminism in the 21st Century.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
Author’s Last name, First name. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).
Example : Jones, David. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed 3 January 2023).
Dissertation or thesis citation
Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name, Year of Publication.
Example : Brown, Susan. “The Art of Storytelling in American Literature.” PhD diss., University of Oxford, 2020.
Newspaper article citation
Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day, Year.
Example : Robinson, Andrew. “New Developments in Climate Change Research.” The Guardian, September 15, 2022.
The American Anthropological Association (AAA) style is commonly used in anthropology research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AAA style:
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.
Example : Smith, John. 2019. The Anthropology of Food. New York: Routledge.
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue: page range.
Example : Garcia, Carlos. 2021. “The Role of Ethics in Anthropology.” American Anthropologist 123, no. 2: 237-251.
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.
Example: Lee, Mary. 2018. “Feminism in Anthropology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).
Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed January 3, 2023).
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name.
Example : Brown, Susan. 2022. “The Art of Storytelling in Anthropology.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day.
Example : Robinson, Andrew. 2021. “New Developments in Anthropology Research.” The Guardian, September 15.
The American Institute of Physics (AIP) style is commonly used in physics research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AIP style:
Example : Johnson, S. D. 2021. “Quantum Computing and Information.” Journal of Applied Physics 129, no. 4: 043102.
Example : Feynman, Richard. 2018. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. New York: Basic Books.
Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Future of Quantum Computing.” In The Handbook of Physics, edited by John Smith, 125-136. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Conference proceedings citation
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Paper.” Proceedings of Conference Name, date and location: page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.
Example : Chen, Wei. 2019. “The Applications of Nanotechnology in Solar Cells.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Nanotechnology, July 15-17, Tokyo, Japan: 224-229. New York: AIP Publishing.
Example : American Institute of Physics. 2022. “About AIP Publishing.” AIP Publishing. https://publishing.aip.org/about-aip-publishing/ (accessed January 3, 2023).
Patent citation
Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Patent Number.
Example : Smith, John. 2018. US Patent 9,873,644.
Here are some general guidelines for writing references:
References in research serve several purposes:
References play an important role in research for several reasons:
There are several advantages of including references in research:
Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer
When formatting a citation in APA style, pay particular attention to italics, punctuation, indentation, and capitalization.
Many more samples of citations presented in the APA style can be found in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . Please consult this book or a librarian for help with unusual resources.
All of the following samples are taken from:
(In the above sample, the name of the organization is the author. Note that only proper names are capitalized in the title, and the edition number follows the title.)
Book: (This sample from Purdue OWL )
Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Book with an Editor:
Robinson, D. N. (Ed.). (1992). Social discourse and moral judgment . San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Note: italicize the title of the book and do not capitalize any words in titles except the first word, proper names, and after a colon. Use the author's or editor's initials only for first and middle names.
Chapter from an Edited Volume or Anthology :
Haybron, D. M. (2008). Philosophy and the science of subjective well-being. In M. Eid & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 17-43). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Scholarly Article:
Fuentes, A. (2016). Contemporary evolutionary theory in biological anthropology: Insight into human evolution, genomics and challenges to racialized pseudo-science. Revista Cuicuilco , 23 (65), 293-304.
Note: Do not set off the title of the article with quotes, italics, underlines, or capital letters (except for the first word, proper names or after a colon). Italicize the title of the journal and capitalize all words in the title of the journal. This sample includes the volume number (23) which is italicized to set it off from the other numbers. The issue number (65) appears in parentheses and is not italicized. You will also notice that there is no space left between the volume number and the first parenthesis for the issue number.
Scholarly Article (with multiple authors):
Calvo, M. G., & Lang, P. J. (2004). Gaze patterns when looking at emotional pictures: Motivationally biased attention. Motivation and Emotion, 28 , 221-243. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MOEM.0000040153.26156.ed
Note: This sample includes the volume number (28), which is italicized to set it off from the page numbers. There is no issue number in this example because the journal is paginated by volume. Provide the DOI when available for electronic documents. If a DOI is not available for a scholarly article retrieved online, you should supply the URL of the journal's homepage (NOT the URL from the database). Note authors' names, indentations, spare use of capital letters, page numbers, and use of periods and commas.
Popular Article (with two authors):
Kandel, E. R., & Squire, L. R. (2000, November 10). Neuroscience: Breaking down scientific barriers to the study of brain and mind. Science, 290, 1113-1120.
Note: Do not set off the title of the article with quotes, italics, underlines, or capital letters (except for the first word, proper names, or after a colon). Italicize the title of the magazine and capitalize all keywords in the title. Italicize the volume number to set it off from the page numbers.
Newspaper Article:
Scwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington Post , pp. A1, A4.
Note: Do not set off the title of the article with quotes, italics, underlines, or capital letters (except for the first word, proper names or after a colon). Italicize the title of the newspaper and capitalize all keywords in the title of the newspaper.
Webpage Examples: (These samples from Purdue OWL )
Author, A. A. & Author B. B. (Date of publication , or n. d. if no date ). Title of page [Format description when necessary]. Retrieved from https://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Eco, U. (2015). How to write a thesis [PDF file]. (Farina C. M. & Farina F., Trans.) Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/...How_to_write_a_thesis/.../Umberto+Eco-How+to+Write+... (Original work published 1977).
If the page's author is not listed, start with the title. If the date of publication is not listed, use the abbreviation (n.d.):
Spotlight Resources. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/about_the_owl/owl_information/spotlight_resources.html
Only include a date of access when page content is likely to change over time (ex: if you're citing a wiki):
Purdue University Writing Lab [Facebook page]. (n.d.). Retrieved January 22, 2019, from https://www.facebook.com/PurdueUniversityWritingLab/
Nonperiodical Web Document or Report (Examples: government data such as U.S. Census): (This sample from Purdue OWL )
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication, or n.d. if no date). Title of document . Retrieved from https://Web address
Angeli, E., Wagner, J., Lawrick, E., Moore, K., Anderson, M., Soderland, L., & Brizee, A. (2010, May 5). General format. Retrieved from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
Note: Italicize the title of the website but do not capitalize any words except the first, proper names, and the first word following a colon.
For citing company or industry reports from the library's MarketLine database, also see:
https://guides.library.ualberta.ca/apa-citation-style/business
Publication manual of the American Psychological Association 7.07
If map is within a book, cite as In Title of book after [Type of map].
Cite primary contributors in the Author's space followed by their contributing role in parentheses.
Other forms for [Type of map] include:
Use (n.d.) for No date.
Title of map. (Year). [Type of Map]. Publisher Location: Publisher.
Citation Examples:
Plattsburgh, Clinton County: Dannemora, Peru, Keeseville, Champlain, Rouses Point, New York State, 3rd ed.
(1999). [Road map]. Clifton Park, NY: Jimapco.
Topographical Map:
Berlin, N.Y. - Mass. - VT. (1988). [Topographical map]. reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey.
Online Map:
Follow the map citation guidelines as above, but also include a stable URL where the map is found.
Title of map. (Year). [Type of map]. Retrieved from http://xxx.xx
Manhattan sightseeing map. (2010). [City map]. Retrieved from http://www.ny.com/maps/shopmap.html
MTA Metro-North railroad. (2010). [Railroad map]. Retrieved from http://www.mta.info/mnr/html/mnrmap.htm
MTA New York City subway. (2010). [Subway map]. Retrieved from http://www.mta.info/nyct/maps/submap.htm
Since the APA manual does not give direct information for citing every type of source, including charts or graphs, they instruct you to follow the example that is most like the source you are trying to cite. Be sure to provide enough information so your readers can locate the source on their own. When possible provide author or creator, year of publication, title, and publishing and/or retrieval data. When citing a chart, graph or map it may be best to follow the citation style for the format in which the information is presented.
All captions for charts should follow the guidelines below for captions for figures.
Captions for Figures (Charts, Graphs, and Maps): Publication manual of the American Psychological Association 5.20-5.25
All captions should be labeled as Figure followed by a number. The caption should begin with a descriptive phrase and include a citation to the original source and copyright information at the end.
Figure 1. Relations between trust beliefs and school adjustment at T1 and loneliness changes during development in early childhood. All paths attained significance at p> .05. Adapted from “The Relation Between Trust Beliefs and Loneliness During Early Childhood, Middle Childhood, and Adulthood,” by K. J. Rotenberg, N. Addis, L. R. Betts, A. Corrigan, C. Fox, Z. Hobson, & … and M. J. Boulton, 2010, Personality and social psychology bulletin , 36, p. 1090. Copyright 2010 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.
Documentaries or Feature Films:
David, L., Bender, L., Burns S.Z. (Producers), & Guggenheim, P.D. (Director). (2006). An inconvenient truth [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
Note : If a film is not available in wide distribution, add the following to the citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code).
More examples and samples of papers written using the APA style can be found at the following websites:
What is it.
MLA Handbook: Ninth Edition
This section covers the basics of how to structure your research project, including margins, page numbering, and inserting lists, tables, and illustrations. These general guidelines are useful but remember to always follow specifics for your course.
Chapter 2: Mechanics of Prose
This extensive section addresses some of the most common and some not-so-common challenges of writing clearly and effectively. This section is a useful refresher on spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and other technical aspects of writing.
Chapter 3: Principles of Inclusive Language
Utilizing inclusive language in your writing demonstrates respect for the identity of individuals and groups while avoiding bias and assumptions. This section provides generalized guidelines for inclusive language use regarding race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, ability, age, and economic or social status.
Chapter 4: Documenting Sources: An Overview
Academic writing often creates a dialogue with previously created research - make sure that you are properly giving credit to other creators and avoiding plagiarism. This chapter discusses the importance of accurately giving credit to others for their ideas, properly quoting and paraphrasing, and when documentation is not needed. A charge of plagiarism carries severe consequences for your university career. Use this chapter, along with other campus resources, to ensure your writing properly cites the work of others.
Chapter 5: The List of Works Cited
This section delves deeply into the core elements that make up a citation in MLA style. Using a combination of text, images, and sample citations, this chapter addresses the majority of source types that you will encounter. It also guides writers through determining how to navigate web-based resources, interviews, music, television and movies, and many of the other resources you may utilize in your research. Note: Citing Indigenous knowledge is not specifically addressed within the MLA handbook. For information on respectfully utilizing Indigenous style principles, refer to Elements of Indigenous Style: A Guide for Writing By and About Indigenous Peoples by Gregory Younging.
Chapter 6: Citing Sources in the Text
MLA citation style most typically uses brief citations that appear within the text of the document inside parentheses. This chapter also addresses using block quotations, quoting poetry and dialogue, how to cite multiple works by the same author, and technical aspects of in-text citations like punctuation and capitalization.
Chapter 7: Notes
This chapter briefly addresses the situations when end- or foot-notes may be necessary in your MLA formatted work to provide additional information for your reader, as well as how to properly include them in your writing.
Appendix 1: Abbreviations
Abbreviations, when used consistently, can smooth the reading experience. Here you'll find lists of words that are usually abbreviated, like US states, or resource types. This appendix includes abbreviations for texts by Chaucer, Shakespeare, and books of the Bible, as well as guidelines for abbreviating the title of any work.
Appendix 2: Works-Cited-List Entries by Publication Format
This appendix has over 200 citation examples ! A table of contents in this appendix will help you quickly find examples of how to cite your specific resources.
Librarians are available to help you with your questions. Please don't hesitate to contact us with any questions you might have regarding citation styles, citation management, etc.
Ask a question below or contact your subject specialist librarian for more help!
The acknowledgements in research paper are a way to say thank you to the people and groups that helped with the study. This part of the paper lets writers show their thanks and point out the teamwork, support, and guidance they received while doing their research.
The acknowledgement section of the paper does more than just talk about the research. It gives writers a chance to thank the many people and groups that helped them write their paper.
While the main part of the paper shows what was found and studied, the acknowledgments in the research paper point out the help from teachers, partners, money givers, schools, and even family and friends who supported the work. This section does a few things:
In the end, this part of the paper shows how working together and giving back are important for learning new things.
When thinking about how to write acknowledgments for research paper, include:
When writing your research paper acknowledgment, be careful not to include:
When putting together your acknowledgment in research paper, think about this setup:
Here's an example:
Acknowledgments
This research couldn't have been done without help from many people and groups. I want to give a big thank you to...
[List of specific thank-yous]
Lastly, I want to thank my family from the bottom of my heart for always being there for me during this work.
Before you finish, read it over carefully to make sure everything is correct, clear, and complete, including the right spelling of names, titles, and where people work.
Here are ten easy tips to help you figure out how to write acknowledgment for research paper:
Writing good acknowledgments in research is a skill that balances saying thanks with being professional. It's a chance to recognize the often hidden support behind your work and to help create a culture of appreciation in the world of research. Well-written acknowledgments for research papers can lead to working together in the future, more people seeing your work, and more support for your ongoing research.
Remember, if you're having trouble figuring out how to write acknowledgment for paper, tools like Aithor can help. Aithor can assist you in creating acknowledgments that are both heartfelt and professional, making sure you give credit where it's due while keeping the scholarly tone of your research paper.
Top 10 use cases for ai writers.
Writing is changing a lot because of AI. But don't worry — AI won't take human writers' jobs. It's a tool that can make our work easier and help us write better. When we use AI along with our own skills, we can create good content faster and better. AI can help with many parts of writing, from coming up with ideas to fixing the final version. Let's look at the top 10 ways how to use AI for content creation and how it can make your writing better. What Is AI Content Writing? AI content writin ...
Your professor says that it is necessary to avoid plagiarism when writing a research paper, essay, or any project based on the works of other people, so to say, any reference source. But what does plagiarism mean? What types of it exist? And how to formulate the material to get rid of potential bad consequences while rendering original texts? Today we try to answer these very questions. Plagiarism: Aspect in Brief Plagiarism is considered to be a serious breach, able to spoil your successful ...
Creating various topical texts is an obligatory assignment during studies. For a majority of students, it seems like a real headache. It is quite difficult to write a smooth and complex work, meeting all the professors' requirements. However, thanks to modern technologies there appeared a good way of getting a decent project – using AI to write essays. We'd like to acquaint you with Aithor, an effective tool of this kind, able to perform fine and elaborated texts, and, of course, inspiration, i ...
Academic assignments require much knowledge and skill. One of the most important points is rendering and interpreting material one has ever studied. A person should avoid presenting word-for-word plagiarism but express his or her thoughts and ideas as much as possible. However, every fine research is certain to be based on the previous issues, data given, or concepts suggested. And here it's high time to differentiate plagiarism and paraphrasing, to realize its peculiarities and cases of usage. ...
A correct usage of dialogues in essays may seem quite difficult at first sight. Still there are special issues, for instance, narrative or descriptive papers, where this literary technique will be a good helper in depicting anyone's character. How to add dialogues to the work? How to format them correctly? Let's discuss all relevant matters to master putting conversation episodes into academic essays. Essay Dialogue: Definition & Purpose A dialogue is a literary technique for presenting a con ...
Plagiarism has been a challenge for a long time in writing. It's easy to find information online, which might make some people use it without saying where it came from. But plagiarism isn't just taking someone else's words. Sometimes, we might do it by accident or even use our own old work without mentioning it. When people plagiarize, they can get into serious trouble. They might lose others' trust or even face legal problems. Luckily, we now have tools to detect plagiarism. But what about PDF ...
When we write something for school, work, or just for fun, we often use ideas and facts from other places. This makes us ask: what is a citation in writing? Let's find out what this means and why it's really important when we write. What is Citation? Citation in research refers to the practice of telling your readers where you got your information, ideas, or exact words from. It's like showing them the path to the original information you used in your writing. When you cite something, you us ...
Have you ever thought about whether using your own work again could be seen as copying? It might seem strange, but self-plagiarism is a real issue in school and work writing. Let's look at what this means and learn how to avoid self-plagiarism so your work stays original and ethical. What is self-plagiarism? Self-plagiarism, also called auto-plagiarism or duplicate plagiarism, happens when a writer uses parts of their old work without saying where it came from. This isn't just about copying w ...
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The following overview should help you better understand how to cite sources using MLA 9 th edition, including how to format the Works Cited page and in-text citations.
Please use the example at the bottom of this page to cite the Purdue OWL in MLA. See also our MLA vidcast series on the Purdue OWL YouTube Channel .
MLA is a style of documentation that may be applied to many different types of writing. Since texts have become increasingly digital, and the same document may often be found in several different sources, following a set of rigid rules no longer suffices.
Thus, the current system is based on a few guiding principles, rather than an extensive list of specific rules. While the handbook still describes how to cite sources, it is organized according to the process of documentation, rather than by the sources themselves. This gives writers a flexible method that is near-universally applicable.
Once you are familiar with the method, you can use it to document any type of source, for any type of paper, in any field.
Here is an overview of the process:
When deciding how to cite your source, start by consulting the list of core elements. These are the general pieces of information that MLA suggests including in each Works Cited entry. In your citation, the elements should be listed in the following order:
Each element should be followed by the corresponding punctuation mark shown above. Earlier editions of the handbook included the place of publication and required different punctuation (such as journal editions in parentheses and colons after issue numbers) depending on the type of source. In the current version, punctuation is simpler (only commas and periods separate the elements), and information about the source is kept to the basics.
Begin the entry with the author’s last name, followed by a comma and the rest of the name, as presented in the work. End this element with a period.
Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
The title of the source should follow the author’s name. Depending upon the type of source, it should be listed in italics or quotation marks.
A book should be in italics:
Henley, Patricia. The Hummingbird House . MacMurray, 1999.
An individual webpage should be in quotation marks. The name of the parent website, which MLA treats as a "container," should follow in italics:
Lundman, Susan. "How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow, www.ehow.com/how_10727_make-vegetarian-chili.html.*
A periodical (journal, magazine, newspaper) article should be in quotation marks:
Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature , vol. 15, no. 1, 1996, pp. 41-50.
A song or piece of music on an album should be in quotation marks. The name of the album should then follow in italics:
Beyoncé. "Pray You Catch Me." Lemonade, Parkwood Entertainment, 2016, www.beyonce.com/album/lemonade-visual-album/.
*The MLA handbook recommends including URLs when citing online sources. For more information, see the “Optional Elements” section below.
The eighth edition of the MLA handbook introduced what are referred to as "containers," which are the larger wholes in which the source is located. For example, if you want to cite a poem that is listed in a collection of poems, the individual poem is the source, while the larger collection is the container. The title of the container is usually italicized and followed by a comma, since the information that follows next describes the container.
Kincaid, Jamaica. "Girl." The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories, edited by Tobias Wolff, Vintage, 1994, pp. 306-07.
The container may also be a television series, which is made up of episodes.
“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation, created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur, performance by Amy Poehler, season 2, episode 21, Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2010.
The container may also be a website, which contains articles, postings, and other works.
Wise, DeWanda. “Why TV Shows Make Me Feel Less Alone.” NAMI, 31 May 2019, www.nami.org/Blogs/NAMI-Blog/May-2019/How-TV-Shows-Make-Me-Feel-Less-Alone . Accessed 3 June 2019.
In some cases, a container might be within a larger container. You might have read a book of short stories on Google Books , or watched a television series on Netflix . You might have found the electronic version of a journal on JSTOR. It is important to cite these containers within containers so that your readers can find the exact source that you used.
“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation , season 2, episode 21, NBC , 29 Apr. 2010. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/70152031?trackId=200256157&tctx=0%2C20%2C0974d361-27cd-44de-9c2a-2d9d868b9f64-12120962.
Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.” Historical Journal , vol. 50, no. 1, 2007, pp. 173-96. ProQuest, doi:10.1017/S0018246X06005966. Accessed 27 May 2009.
In addition to the author, there may be other contributors to the source who should be credited, such as editors, illustrators, translators, etc. If their contributions are relevant to your research, or necessary to identify the source, include their names in your documentation.
Foucault, Michel. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Translated by Richard Howard , Vintage-Random House, 1988.
Woolf, Virginia. Jacob’s Room . Annotated and with an introduction by Vara Neverow, Harcourt, Inc., 2008.
If a source is listed as an edition or version of a work, include it in your citation.
The Bible . Authorized King James Version, Oxford UP, 1998.
Crowley, Sharon, and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. 3rd ed., Pearson, 2004.
If a source is part of a numbered sequence, such as a multi-volume book or journal with both volume and issue numbers, those numbers must be listed in your citation.
Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and Society: The International Online-Only Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, 2008, www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/60/362. Accessed 20 May 2009.
Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Translated by H. E. Butler, vol. 2, Loeb-Harvard UP, 1980.
The publisher produces or distributes the source to the public. If there is more than one publisher, and they are all are relevant to your research, list them in your citation, separated by a forward slash (/).
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Scientific Reports volume 14 , Article number: 20355 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
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To address the problems of low accuracy in fault diagnosis of oil-immersed transformers, poor state perception ability and real-time collaboration during diagnosis feedback, a fault diagnosis method for transformers based on the integration of digital twins is proposed. Firstly, fault sample balance is achieved through Iterative Nearest Neighbor Oversampling (INNOS), Secondly, nine-dimensional ratio features are extracted, and the correlation between dissolved gases in oil and fault types is established. Then, sparse principal component analysis (SPCA) is used for feature fusion and dimensionality reduction. Finally, the Aquila Optimizer (AO) is introduced to optimize the parameters of the Kernel Extreme Learning Machine (KELM), establishing the optimal AO-KELM diagnosis model. The final fault diagnosis accuracy reaches 98.1013%. Combining transformer digital twin models, real-time interaction mapping between physical entities and virtual space is achieved, enabling online diagnosis of transformer faults. Experimental results show that the method proposed in this paper has high diagnostic accuracy and strong stability, providing reference for the intelligent operation and maintenance of transformers.
Introduction.
The transformer, as the hub of power systems, its health status directly impacts the stability and reliability of the electrical system's operation. Therefore, the precise management of a transformer's health status is paramount to ensuring the steadfast and secure operation of the power grid 1 .
Presently, the technology of Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) is extensively employed in the monitoring and identification of faults within oil-insulated transformers 2 , 3 , primarily encompassing: the IEC triad ratio method 4 , the Rogers quadruple ratio method 5 , and the DUVAL triangle technique 6 . Despite their simplicity of operation, these approaches lack the depth of representation for fault characteristics and are limited by their capabilities, resulting in a blurred and indistinct encoding boundary, thereby leading to a low accuracy rate in fault recognition 7 . With the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence, eminent scholars have integrated machine learning with DGA technology, achieving notable results in the field of transformer fault detection. The literature 8 optimizes the support vector machine parameters through the refinement of the scalar search algorithm, thereby augmenting both the convergence velocity and the diagnostic precision of the methodology. The literature 9 proffers an SE-ELM diagnostic method, whose efficacy was validated through the verification across various datasets. The literature 10 enhances the particle swarm optimization algorithm through the dynamic adjustment of inertial weights and acceleration factors, iteratively optimizing the parameters of XGBoost, thereby augmenting the model's classification acumen. Additionally, methods such as Convolutional Neural Networks 11 , 12 , Long Short-Term Memory Networks 13 , 14 , 15 , LightGBM 16 , and the Capsule Network 17 are extensively employed.
With the advancement of big data and the Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, the Digital Twin (DT) 18 technology has paved a new path for enhancing the efficiency of equipment health management. The core concept is to construct a holographic virtual twin model in the digital realm, utilizing advanced technologies such as intelligent sensing and data transmission, which accurately, comprehensively, and in real-time reflect the evolution of physical devices, achieving intelligent control over entities 19 , 20 , 21 . This technology has been extensively utilized in various sectors including aerospace, manufacturing, and healthcare.
In the field of transformer fault diagnosis, scholars both domestically and internationally have carried out extensive research. Referencing 22 , the study proposed a method for constructing a dual-driving twin model integrating data and models, focusing on 10 kv oil-immersed transformers. This approach enables the synchronization between the actual operating conditions of the transformer and the digital twin center. Referencing 23 , a digital twin fault diagnosis model was constructed based on the mechanism model and data model of transformers. Five characteristic gases extracted from DGA data were selected as input feature vectors for a CNN. Experimental results showed that the 1D-CNN model established in this study responded rapidly, had a short training time, and achieved high accuracy, thus validating the effectiveness of the model. Referencing 24 , a fault diagnosis model based on digital twin was constructed for transformers, taking into account their structural characteristics and operational traits. By optimizing the smoothing factor δ in a probabilistic neural network through differential evolution algorithm, the diagnostic accuracy reached an impressive 96.7%, enabling precise monitoring of the transformer's actual operating state. Reference 25 conducts a statistical analysis of the operating data and state information quantity of power transformers, proposes a framework for a state evaluation system and fault detection system based on GCA-CNN, and verifies with 2000 real data cases that the model has higher accuracy and evaluation and detection effects. The literature 26 establishes a high-fidelity simulation model of transformers to accurately simulate winding currents and the temperatures of different components, which can be used for the identification of early faults. However, the aforementioned research is only focused on a single dissolved gas in oil or vibration signal as the basis for fault diagnosis, but there are many factors affecting transformer faults. In the future, it may be possible to combine multi-source data for comprehensive judgment.
In light of the above context, this paper proposes a fault diagnosis method for oil-immersed transformers that integrates a digital twin model. The main contributions of the paper are divided into several parts. Part 1 mainly elaborates on the research background of the paper and the future research direction. Part 2 establishes a transformer digital twin framework, based on geometric, physical, behavioral, and rule models, to achieve interaction mapping between the virtual entity and the physical entity. Part 3 introduces the methods used in the paper, providing theoretical support for the establishment of an accurate and efficient fault diagnosis model. Part 4 addresses the issue of imbalanced small sample data that can easily lead to misjudgment of minority class samples, deeply explores the correlation between dissolved gases in oil and fault types, and eliminates the 'dimensionality catastrophe' problem, using instance data to obtain diagnostic results. Part 5 discusses and analyzes different sampling methods, different features, and different diagnostic models. Part 6 summarizes the entire paper.
Transformer digital twin framework.
This article takes a 400kV oil-immersed transformer as the research object and establishes a transformer digital twin integrated digital twin technology. The constructed digital twin framework mainly includes: physical space, twin body, twin data layer and application service layer 27 , as shown in Fig. 1 .
Transformer digital twin framework.
In the process of building a digital twin, the geometric model is the foundation for creating the digital twin model. Three-dimensional software such as UG and SolidWorks are used to comprehensively describe the solid model in terms of geometric dimensions, material properties, and assembly relationships. Based on prior knowledge, physical properties, and operating mechanisms, the geometric model is analyzed and tested for magnetic field, structure, and other modeling aspects, fully reflecting the intrinsic nature and operating mechanism of the transformer. Heterogeneous data from multiple sources, such as dissolved gas in oil and acoustic vibration signals, are collected using state-aware devices. Artificial intelligence algorithms integrated in the behavior model are used for processing and analysis. The derived data generated from simulation calculations are fed back to the mechanism model in real-time. At the same time, simulation data, state-aware data, as well as transformer's full life cycle process data, maintenance records, and computed derived data collectively form the twin database. Through data communication protocols and interfaces, real-time updates and interactive control between the physical entity and the digital twin are achieved, enabling visual description, real-time monitoring, analysis, diagnosis, and intelligent decision-making for the physical transformer. This provides new ideas for improving the safety and reliable operation of power transmission and transformation equipment.
The present work is founded on the five-dimensional model proposed by Tao Fei from Beijing Aerospace University 28 , culminating in the creation of a digital twin for transformers, as exemplified by Eq. ( 1 ).
where: PE denotes the physical entity of the transformer, VE represents the virtual entity, SS signifies data, algorithms and models of the digital twin, DD stands for the twinning data of the transformer, and CN symbolizes the interaction and communication among the various components.
The acronym PE stands for transformer physical entity, an ensemble of components including the core, windings, tap-changer, and cooling equipment, it caters to the perception of contact or non-contact by state-sensing devices, embodying the interactive and responsive essence of an objective presence.
The SS represents the process of integrating data and models generated by the digital twin transformer system, thereby facilitating comprehensive monitoring of entities, diagnostic analysis of equipment failures, and predictive maintenance.
VE represents the twin model of the virtual realm, establishing the fundamental groundwork for mapping the virtual to the real. The specific composition is delineated by the formula ( 2 ) shown:
where: Gv represents the geometric model, which uses 3D modeling software to create a comprehensive description of the geometric features of physical entities; Pv represents the physical model, which describes the physical properties and operating mechanisms of electrical equipment; Bv represents the behavior model, which combines artificial intelligence algorithms to create Bv; Rv represents the rule model, which mainly includes expert experience and rule inference based on processed historical data for optimization and deduction.
DD represents twin data, which dynamically stores relevant data of PE/VE/SS, and is an important prerequisite for ensuring intelligent operation and maintenance of transformers. The specific representation is shown in formula ( 3 ):
where: Dp refers to the dynamic factor data collected through the state-aware device; Dv refers to the running parameters in the virtual model; Ds mainly refers to the functional and business service data; Dk includes expert experience, industry rules in the transformer field, and usage guidelines, etc. Df refers to the integrated transformation, interactive fusion, and other derived data of the above-mentioned data.
CN represents the data connection part, which is crucial for ensuring the interaction and updating of the elements in the digital twin model. Through data interfaces, communication protocols, etc., efficient transmission and utilization of data in the digital twin system can be achieved, enabling seamless communication and connectivity among different parts of the model. The interactive relationships of the five dimensions in the digital twin model are shown in Fig. 2 .
Transformer digital twin five-dimensional model connection relationship.
Iterative nearest neighbor oversampling algorithm.
The iterative neighborhood oversampling 29 algorithm is a sampling method designed to tackle class imbalance issues, with its principal tenet being the selection of a multitude of class-specific samples as neighbors, and then traversing all k data points within this category, scouring for the most recent unlabeled instance within each label data subset of said category until the dataset balances out or approaches close to it. Here follow the specific steps:
Assume the samples in the dataset for each tag to be \({\text{r}} = \left\{ {r_{1} ,r_{2} , \cdots ,r_{j} , \cdots ,r_{a} } \right\}\) , with \(r_{j} \left( {j = 1,2, \cdots a} \right)\) denoting the number of samples contained within category j . Define the sample set's imbalance factor, utilizing the standard deviation \({\text{var}} \left( r \right)\) to symbolize the dispersal of various types of samples within the dataset, as illustrated in Eq. ( 4 ):
where: \(\mathop r\limits^{ - } = \frac{1}{a}\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{a} {r_{j} }\) .
Based on the philosophy of greedy search, endeavor to identify a multitude of particular sub-samples, with the process detailed in formula ( 5 ):
where: \(x_{j}\) represents the labeled data in category j . If \(x_{\max k}\) is the classification boundary, remove it and select the next nearest neighbor. Then, label it as category j , remove it from the unlabeled data set \(X_{U}\) , add it to the labeled data set \(X_{L}\) , and set \(r_{j} = r_{j} + 1\) . Recalculate the imbalance degree until the preset value is reached, and stop iterating.
The Kernel Extreme Learning Machine (KELM) 30 is based on a single hidden layer feedforward neural network. It introduces a kernel function on top of the ELM algorithm, which maps low-dimensional data to a high-dimensional feature space, resulting in a model with stronger generalization and robustness. The specific steps are as follows:
Assume we are provided with N samples represented as \(\left\{ {\left( {{\text{x}}_{{\text{i}}} ,t_{i} } \right)} \right\}_{i = 1}^{N}\) , where \(x_{i} = \left[ {x_{i1} ,x_{i2} , \cdots ,x_{in} } \right]^{T} \in R^{n}\) and \(t_{i} = \left[ {t_{i1} ,t_{i2} , \cdots ,t_{im} } \right]^{T} \in R^{n}\) denote the input vector and output function of the model respectively. In the context of a neural network with k hidden layers and an activation function \(g\left( x \right)\) , the number of hidden nodes is L , and the ELM model can be articulated by the formula shown in Eq. ( 6 ):
where: \(\beta_{j} = \left[ {\beta_{j1} ,\beta_{j2} , \cdots ,\beta_{jL} } \right]^{T} \left( {j = 1,2, \cdots ,L} \right)\) denotes the output weight value connecting the j th implicit layer node with the output layer node. Among these, \(H = \left\{ {h_{ij} } \right\}\left( {i = 1,2, \cdots ,N;j = 1,2, \cdots ,L} \right)\) represents the output matrix of the hidden layer, and H denotes the jth column of the input \(x_{1} ,x_{2} , \cdots ,x_{n}\) corresponding to the jth hidden layer node. Within H, the jth row corresponds to the output vector of \(x_{i}\) .
Using the least squares method to obtain the output weight values, as shown in formula ( 7 ):
In the formula, \(H{\prime}\) represents the generalized inverse matrix of the hidden layer output matrix H .
Introducing the kernel function mitigates the issue of randomly generated input weights and bias values, exemplified by the KELM weight output formula ( 8 ):
The KELM output function as expressed in formula ( 9 ):
When \(h\left( x \right)\) remains unknown, the kernel function matrix is represented by formula ( 10 ):
In the equation, \(K\left( {x_{i} ,x_{j} } \right)\) denotes the nuclear function, represented as:
The KELM model's output function expression is delineated in formula ( 12 ):
The sparse principal component analysis 31 is a method that builds upon the principal component analysis algorithm by incorporating the LASSO penalty term, thereby enabling the matrix to be sparsely populated. By solving the regression coefficient matrix, it further transforms PCA into an optimization problem aimed at finding the optimal set of coefficients for regression. Compared to traditional PCA, SPCA excels in effectively managing the sparsity within high-dimensional data, yielding results that are more interpretative.
The SPCA algorithm is resolve into two segments: the first entails calculating the principal components via PCA; the second entails enhancing the LASSO penalty term to render the obtained solution sparse. Here follow the specific steps:
Given a \({\text{n}} \times m\) -variant dataset X, the feature decomposition upon normalization treatment, as expounded upon in formula ( 13 ):
In the equation, \(\Lambda \in R^{m \times m}\) represents a diagonal matrix of eigenvalues, arranged in descending order. \(\Lambda \in R^{m \times m}\) is a unitary matrix with column vectors as load vectors.
Select the first k columns of the load matrix \(P \in R^{m \times k}\) , compute the score matrix T , as shown in Eq. ( 14 ):
Projecting T onto X yields a new matrix \(\mathop X\limits^{ \wedge }\) that encompasses information from the corresponding principal component; the difference with X is denoted as E , as illustrated in formula ( 15 ), ( 16 ):
The solution of the SPCA first reverts to the PCA model. The formula ( 15 – 16 ) yields the expression ( 17 ):
Ensure the main component is as near to the original data as possible, that is,it mandates E'sminimalism. Therefore, the principal component seeks resolution through formula ( 18 ):
In the equation, \(\mathop P\limits^{ \wedge }\) is the solution to the minimum value of the principal matrix P .
The vectors sought by PCA are all non-zero; thus, the sparse solution is achieved by incorporating the LASSO penalty term, thereby mitigating the overfitting issue in PCA. The solution formula for sparse principal components, as displayed in formula ( 19 ), is illustrated:
In this equation, matrix A denotes the expected demand matrix to be sought, while matrix B represents the demand matrix expected under the regression problem. A and B represent the \(m \times k\) matrix, \(\mathop A\limits^{ \wedge }\) and \(\mathop B\limits^{ \wedge }\) the matrices to be solved for minimizing values of A and B; they are subject to the constraints \(b_{j} \propto P_{j}\) , \(\lambda\) and \(\lambda_{1,j}\) being the penalty coefficients, and must adhere to \(\lambda > 0\) . The adjusted variance, as expressed in formula ( 20 ), is indicative of:
In the equation, the diagonal matrix interpreting variance is delineated, with \(\mathop P\limits^{ \wedge }\) representing the load matrix following the coefficients. Model contribution lies articulated in formula ( 21 ):
This article, established on the premise of transformer fault imbalance within small sample sets, aims at achieving real-time and precise diagnosis through the establishment of a diagnostic model and a determined diagnostic process. The specific diagnostic process is illustrated in Fig. 3 . The article employs the AO-KELM model as the diagnostic model, erecting a diagnostic process that integrates offline model training with online fault identification.
Transformer fault diagnosis model based on optimized kernel extreme learning machine.
⑴ Train the model offline
The article delves into the offline model training segment from three perspectives: data preprocessing, feature extraction, and model recognition.
Step 1: the preprocessing segment encompasses data INNOS's oversampling and normalization treatment. Collect the gathered DGA samples through INNOS for augmenting the minority class samples, followed by normalization treatment.
Step 2: the feature extraction section encompasses the establishment of ratio signature generation and the integration of SPCA for fusion dimensionality reduction. First, construct a multidimensional discriminant signature, delving deeply into the correlation between the ratio of dissolved gas content in oil and the type of fault. Subsequently, employ SPCA for feature fusion to acquire the optimal principal component, thereby removing redundant information, and divide the training set, validation set, and test set proportionally.
Step 3: the model identification segment encompasses the training and validation of the model. Utilizing the AO algorithm to optimize the regularization parameters C and the kernel functions within the KELM model, one verifies the model's accuracy through validation set on each iteration. Should the discrepancy between consecutive training sessions fall beneath 5%, the model training continues; otherwise, the model retraining commences anew until the prerequisite conditions are met. The ultimate establishment of the AO-KELM optimal diagnostic model.
⑵ Online fault diagnosis
Normalize the samples collected in real-time to handle and construct multi-dimensional features, employing an unencoded ratio method to input into an optimal diagnosis model directly following optimal principal component projection, thereby achieving swift recognition of transformer fault. Although the computational time for offline model training is accordingly elevated, it is merely necessary to undergo training once, with the aim of achieving online recognition and diagnosis of transformer faults as data from real-time monitoring continues to be inputted.
Data source and normalization processing.
Transformer insults are exacerbated by thermal electrochemical action, causing the decomposition of internal insulating materials and the dissolution of various hydrocarbon gases within the insulation oil. Distinct characteristics of gas dissolved in oil under varying fault types exist; research has demonstrated that diagnostic and classification of faults can be achieved through the use of DGA techniques 32 . Consequently, these five gas contents are utilized as a basis for transformer fault diagnosis in this article.
The article selected a comprehensive sample of 337 monitoring data from a particular power supply company, dividing the operating status of transformers into categories such as normal, moderate heat overload, high temperature overload, high energy discharge, low energy discharge, and local discharge, each represented by labels 1 through 6. Each type of fault is augmented with specific characteristic gases including H 2 , CH 4 , C 2 H 4 , C 2 H 6 , and C 2 H 2 ; the exact number of samples for each category is detailed in Table 1 . The data reveals that the majority of samples fall into the category of normal, comprising 35.63% of the total. Low-energy discharge and local discharge types account for 5.55% and 9.78% respectively, with a maximum disparity reaching 5.1:1. Such imbalanced data is prone to misidentifying samples of the minority class as normal, thereby impacting recognition accuracy. Therefore, this paper employs the INNOS algorithm to augment the minority class samples, achieving a balance in sample categories.
To manifest the disparities between data prior to and after sampling, a principal component analysis is conducted upon the sample data from before and after said sampling process. Subsequently, the first two principal components are selected for visualizing the data of various types both before and after said sampling, as illustrated in Fig. 4 . In Fig. 4 , it becomes apparent that the data distribution trends for various types of faults, prior to and after the adoption of the INNOS sampling method, are identical, thereby underscoring the viability of the INNOS sampling approach.
Scatter plot of INNOS samples.
Considering the substantial disparities among the various volatile gases, a preliminary normalization is required for each gas's abundance, as illustrated in Eq. ( 22 ):
In the equation: \(x_{i}\) and \(x_{{\text{i}}}^{*}\) represent features pre-normalized; \({\text{x}}_{{{\text{i}}\max }}\) and \({\text{x}}_{{{\text{i}}\min }}\) indicate the original minimal and maximum values.
The method of unencoded ratio analysis 33 is but one among numerous techniques widely employed, utilizing the percentage ratio of key gases to either the total gas or the hydrocarbon concentration can profoundly illustrate the interconnectedness between characteristic gases and types of failures. For instance, the ratio of a singular gas to the total hydrocarbon concentration provides a more conclusive indicator of the interplay between diverse fault types; the concentrations of C 2 H 4 and CH 4 can effectively demarcate local discharge from discharge with overheating diagnosis; the percentage composition of C 2 H 2 can determine whether a transformer has experienced thermal failure, among other determinations. The construction of this paper is predicated on the integration of pertinent literature, establishing a nine-dimensional candidate ratio signature for transformer fault diagnosis 31 , as delineated in Table 2 , wherein THC = CH 4 + C 2 H 4 + C 2 H 6 + C 2 H 2 , and ALL = H 2 + CH 4 + C 2 H 4 + C 2 H 6 + C 2 H 2 .
To avoid the redundancy of fault-related feature information within the samples and to enhance the efficiency and precision of the diagnostic model, the SPCA method was employed for the integration of the derived rational features. The cumulative explicable variance contribution rate of each principal component is depicted in Fig. 5 . It is evident from Fig. 5 that the cumulative variance contribution rate for the first six principal components reaches 90.4419%, indicating that the first five principal components can achieve more than 90% of the ability expressed by all the principal components. Hence, selecting these five principal components as inputs for the transformer fault diagnosis model is warranted.
Cumulative variance contribution rate.
The fused features derived from the SPCA extraction are delineated in a ratio of 6:2:2 to be divided into training, testing, and validation datasets. The regularization parameters C within KELM determine the learning capacity of the model and its diagnostic precision; in this paper, we employ the AO optimization algorithm to optimize C, with an introduction of the AO algorithm as delineated in literature 34 , 35 , culminating in the establishment of a diagnostic model based on SPCA-AO-KELM. Figure 6 delineates the confusion matrix diagram of the transformer fault diagnosis. It is evident from Fig. 6 that within the test set of 158 samples, 155 were correctly diagnosed, representing a total correct rate of 98.1013%. The accuracy rates for normal, high-temperature overheating, and low-energy discharge diagnoses are 100%, one case of misjudgment was found in medium–low temperature overheating, high-energy discharge, and partial discharge.
Transformer fault diagnosis results.
However, the precision of diagnostic accuracy alone cannot comprehensively nor efficaciously evaluate the impact of rare class faults on classification performance 36 , 37 . In this paper, we introduce classification model performance evaluation metrics derived from confusion matrices, employing accuracy (R), precision (P), and F1-score as the core components of our evaluation system. The veracity of diagnostic models for identifying various faults is assessed by the accuracy rate, the sensitivity of the model in recognizing a variety of faults is evaluated by the coverage rate, while the F1 score derived from the amalgamation of precision and recall reflects the model's classification performance amidst sample imbalance, with specific formulas denoted in the literature displayed here. The model's precision, recall, and F1-score derived from the computed graph in Fig. 6 respectively stand at 0.9816, 0.9825, and 0.9820, further underscoring the model's high fault detection accuracy and its stable nature.
Comparison and analysis of different sampling methods.
To verify the effectiveness of the new samples synthesized based on INNOS in improving the accuracy of transformer fault diagnosis, this paper uses unbalanced data set, random oversampling, SMOTE, and ADASYN oversampling algorithms for sample augmentation, and the diagnostic results are shown in Fig. 7 . The red dots in the figure represent the samples that are correctly classified in the test set, while the circles represent the samples of the true class, and the scattered dots represent the samples that are misclassified as other classes. The more scattered sample points, the higher the misclassification rate. In Fig. 7 d, the diagnostic accuracy of the original unbalanced data set without balancing processing is only 88.4058%, indicating that due to the imbalance of data in each fault category, the training of the diagnostic model is insufficient, and it is easy to misclassify minority class samples as majority class samples during classification recognition. After balancing the data set using different sampling methods, the misclassification rate of the samples decreases. The sampling method used in this paper improves the diagnostic accuracy by 7.7967%, 2.5316%, and 1.8987% compared to ADASYN, SMOTE, and random oversampling, respectively, indicating that the INNOS sampling method can effectively solve the problem of low diagnostic accuracy caused by data imbalance.
Diagnostic results under different sampling methods.
To demonstrate the effectiveness of the SPCA feature fusion method, this study conducted analysis from two perspectives: qualitative observation and quantitative analysis. Firstly, PCA, KPCA, and SPCA were used to extract features from the constructed ratio signs. The cumulative variance contribution rate threshold was set at 90%, and the obtained principal component information is detailed in Table 3 . LASSO penalty term was introduced based on PCA to constrain some loading vectors to zero, resulting in a loss of variance contribution rate. From the data in the table, it can be seen that the contribution rate of SPCA principal components is slightly lower than that of PCA and KPCA, effectively removing redundant information in the ratio features and providing a valid data foundation for subsequent classification and recognition.
Furthermore, for the above feature extraction methods, quantitative calculations were performed. The fused features extracted by the 9-dimensional joint feature, PCA, KPCA, and SPCA were input into the diagnostic model for comparative analysis, as shown in Fig. 8 . From Fig. 8 a–d, it can be observed that the diagnostic accuracy is significantly improved after feature extraction. Figure 8 a has a higher accuracy compared to Fig. 8 b and c, which validates the superiority of the SPCA feature extraction method.
Diagnostic outcomes under various characteristics.
To explore the diagnostic performance of the models, three diagnostic models, ELM, KELM, and AO-ELM, were constructed for horizontal comparison. The diagnostic results are shown in Table 4 . From the perspective of a single model, the introduction of a kernel function improved the diagnostic accuracy and evaluation indicators of ELM. From the perspective of optimization algorithms, the diagnostic capability of fault recognition was effectively improved after parameter optimization using the AO algorithm.
On the other hand, the extracted integration features are respectively inputted into the POA-SVM model proposed in Literature 38 , the SSA-ELM model suggested in Literature 39 , and the PSO-BiLSTM model introduced in Literature 40 for longitudinal comparison. To circumvent the chances of chance, each model is subjected to ten-fold cross-validation, as manifested in Table 5 . It is evident from Table 5 that, under conditions where the input features remain identical, the AO-KELM outperforms both the POA-SVM and POA-SVM by elevating the average accuracy by 3.23% and 2.64%, respectively, while the PSO-BiLSTM lags behind with a mere 1.8% increase in accuracy. This clearly signifies the robust stability of the AO-KELM model and its formidable classification capabilities.
The paper introduces an oil-immersed transformer fault diagnosis method that integrates digital twin models, providing validation through case studies, leading to the conclusions below:
Build a twin mechanism model based on geometric, physical, rule, and behavior models, use real-time data to drive the fusion of data and mechanism models, complete real-time mapping between physical entities and virtual entities, and use visualization technology to express the twin in multiple dimensions, achieve intelligent diagnosis, health monitoring, and optimization decision-making for the transformer entity.
Proposed a transformer fault diagnosis model based on optimized kernel extreme learning machine, which solves the problem of misjudgment of minority class samples caused by unbalanced small samples, effectively extracts fusion features, establishes the optimal AO-KELM classifier, and achieves an accuracy of 98.1013%. By comparing with different diagnostic models, the classification performance and stability of the proposed method are verified.
The datasets generated and/or analysed during the currentstudy are not publicly availabledue [REASON WHY DATA ARENOT PUBLlC] but are availablefrom the corresponding authoron reasonable request. E-mail:[email protected].
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Project supported by Jilin Provincial Development and Reform Commission innovation capacity construction fund (2020C022-6).
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Haiyan Y designed the experiments and contributedmaterials/analysis tools; Xin Zhang analyzed the data and its visualization; Qiang Guo and Yufeng Miao M guided the data analysis; Shan Guan wrote the paper; All authors have reviewed the manuscript.
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Yao, H., Zhang, X., Guo, Q. et al. Fault diagnosis method for oil-immersed transformers integrated digital twin model. Sci Rep 14 , 20355 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71107-w
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Large, immovable rammed earth buildings in UNESCO World Cultural Heritage sites are at serious risk of disaster due to environmental changes. In this study, the rammed earth city walls (REWs) located in the Ancient City of Ping Yao, a World Cultural Heritage site, affected by heavy precipitation in early October 2021, were used as the research object. The study aimed to specify the details of deterioration through multiple indicator data collection, semi-quantitatively evaluate the degree of deterioration of REWs, and investigate the causes of typical deterioration in REWs with different spatial distributions under the influence of heavy precipitation. Based on the current research and experimental data, and considering the mode of action and form of deterioration, a classification system for the landslide-like collapses of REWs under the influence of precipitation was constructed. Factors such as the influence of heavy precipitation and the REWs' intrinsic features resulted in significant variations in structural properties and deterioration development of REWs with different spatial distribution characteristics. Finally, based on the research in this paper and the conservation ideology of cultural relics that respects the original and minimizes intervention, we propose protection recommendations for the daily management and conservation of the REWs to provide guidance for future research.
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We thank the Culture and Tourism Bureau of Jinzhong City for its assistance in assembling the historical data of the rammed earth walls in this study. We thank the Shanxi Key Laboratory of Civil Engineering Disaster Prevention and Control (202104010910025, Shanxi Key Laboratory Project) and the Geotechnical Engineering Research Centre of the Ancient City of Pingyao (Technology Development Service Project) for the assistance in this study.
The research was supported by the Shanxi Key Laboratory of Civil Engineering Disaster Prevention and Control (202104010910025, Shanxi Key Laboratory Project) and the Geotechnical Engineering Research Centre of the Ancient City of Pingyao (Technology Development Service Project).
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Xiangling Bai, Bin He, Diyue Zhang, Yingxin Wang, Hao Li, Xiaohong Bai, Fuli Ma & Pengju Han
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Xiangling Bai designed the research in close collaboration with Pengju Han and with support from Xiaohong Bai, Bin He and Fuli Ma. Xiangling Bai conducted the analysis and analysed the results in collaboration with Diyue Zhang and Hao Li. Xiangling Bai wrote the manuscript with contributions from Pengju Han, Bin He. and Yingxin Wang. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.
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Bai, X., He, B., Zhang, D. et al. Unveiling the deterioration formation process of the rammed earth city wall site of the Ancient City of Pingyao, a World Heritage Site: occurrence, characterizations, and historic environmental implications. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 16 , 156 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-024-02058-6
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The exact information included varies depending on the source type and the citation style. The order in which the information appears, and how you format it (e.g., capitalization, use of italics) also varies.
Most commonly, the entries in your reference list are alphabetized by author name. This allows the reader to easily find the relevant entry based on the author name in your in-text citation.
In numerical citation styles, the entries in your reference list are numbered, usually based on the order in which you cite them. The reader finds the right entry based on the number that appears in the text.
Because each style has many small differences regarding things like italicization, capitalization , and punctuation , it can be difficult to get every detail right. Using a citation generator can save you a lot of time and effort.
Scribbr offers citation generators for both APA and MLA style. Both are quick, easy to use, and 100% free, with no ads and no registration required.
Just input a URL or DOI or add the source details manually, and the generator will automatically produce an in-text citation and reference entry in the correct format. You can save your reference list as you go and download it when you’re done, and even add annotations for an annotated bibliography .
Once you’ve prepared your citations, you might still be unsure if they’re correct and if you’ve used them appropriately in your text. This is where Scribbr’s other citation tools and services may come in handy:
Citation Checker
Citation Editing
Plagiarism means passing off someone else’s words or ideas as your own. It’s a serious offense in academia. Universities use plagiarism checking software to scan your paper and identify any similarities to other texts.
When you’re dealing with a lot of sources, it’s easy to make mistakes that could constitute accidental plagiarism. For example, you might forget to add a citation after a quote, or paraphrase a source in a way that’s too close to the original text.
Using a plagiarism checker yourself before you submit your work can help you spot these mistakes before they get you in trouble. Based on the results, you can add any missing citations and rephrase your text where necessary.
Try out the Scribbr Plagiarism Checker for free, or check out our detailed comparison of the best plagiarism checkers available online.
Scribbr Plagiarism Checker
Scribbr’s Citation Checker is a unique AI-powered tool that automatically detects stylistic errors and inconsistencies in your in-text citations. It also suggests a correction for every mistake.
Currently available for APA Style, this is the fastest and easiest way to make sure you’ve formatted your citations correctly. You can try out the tool for free below.
If you need extra help with your reference list, we also offer a more in-depth Citation Editing Service.
Our experts cross-check your in-text citations and reference entries, make sure you’ve included the correct information for each source, and improve the formatting of your reference page.
If you want to handle your citations yourself, Scribbr’s free Knowledge Base provides clear, accurate guidance on every aspect of citation. You can see citation examples for a variety of common source types below:
And you can check out our comprehensive guides to the most popular citation styles:
At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).
Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.
The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .
The abbreviation “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”) is used to shorten citations of sources with multiple authors.
“Et al.” is used in APA in-text citations of sources with 3+ authors, e.g. (Smith et al., 2019). It is not used in APA reference entries .
Use “et al.” for 3+ authors in MLA in-text citations and Works Cited entries.
Use “et al.” for 4+ authors in a Chicago in-text citation , and for 10+ authors in a Chicago bibliography entry.
The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.
You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .
APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.
Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.
MLA Style is the second most used citation style (after APA ). It is mainly used by students and researchers in humanities fields such as literature, languages, and philosophy.
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Learn the essentials of APA format for your paper, including title page setup, headings, references, and citations.
Citation styles also differ in terms of how you format the reference list or bibliography entries themselves (e.g., capitalization, order of information, use of italics). And many style guides also provide guidance on more general issues like text formatting, punctuation, and numbers.
The formatting of a research paper is different depending on which style guide you're following. In addition to citations, APA, MLA, and Chicago provide format guidelines for things like font choices, page layout, format of headings and the format of the reference page.
Reference List Resources on writing an APA style reference list, including citation formats Basic Rules Basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper Author/Authors Rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors that apply to all APA-style references in your reference list, regardless of the type of work (book, article ...
Crucially, citation practices do not differ between the two styles of paper. However, for your convenience, we have provided two versions of our APA 7 sample paper below: one in student style and one in professional style. Note: For accessibility purposes, we have used "Track Changes" to make comments along the margins of these samples.
References provide the information necessary for readers to identify and retrieve each work cited in the text. Consistency in reference formatting allows readers to focus on the content of your reference list, discerning both the types of works you consulted and the important reference elements with ease.
4. (1088) In this guide, students and researchers can learn the basics of creating a properly formatted research paper according to APA guidelines. It includes information on how to conceptualize, outline, and format the basic structure of your paper, as well as practical tips on spelling, abbreviation, punctuation, and more.
Common Reference Examples Guide This guide contains examples of common types of APA Style references. Section numbers indicate where to find the examples in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).
Provides examples of references for periodicals; books and reference works; edited book chapters and entries in reference works; reports and gray literature; conference presentations and proceedings; dissertations and theses; unpublished and informally published works; data sets; audiovisual media; social media; and webpages and websites.
Quick Rules for an APA Reference List. Your research paper ends with a list of all the sources cited in your paper. Here are some quick rules for this Reference list: Begin the reference list on a new page after the text. Name it "References," and center the section label in bold at the top of the page. Order the reference list alphabetically ...
Learn how to cite various sources in APA Style (7th ed.) with examples and tips from the University of Wisconsin Whitewater librarians.
APA Style papers generally include reference lists, not bibliographies. In general, each work cited in the text must appear in the reference list, and each work in the reference list must be cited in the text. Check your work carefully before submitting your manuscript or course assignment to ensure no works cited in the text are missing from ...
How to Cite in APA Format (7th edition) | Guide & Generator APA Style is widely used by students, researchers, and professionals in the social and behavioral sciences. Scribbr's APA Citation Generator automatically generates accurate references and in-text citations for free.
Download and use the editable templates for student papers below: APA 7th ed. Template Document This is an APA format template document in Google Docs. Click on the link -- it will ask for you to make a new copy of the document, which you can save in your own Google Drive with your preferred privacy settings. APA 7th ed. Template Document A Microsoft Word document formatted correctly according ...
Reference List: Basic Rules This resourse, revised according to the 7 th edition APA Publication Manual, offers basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper. Most sources follow fairly straightforward rules.
The APA (American Psychological Association) Style has specific guidelines for formatting references used in academic papers, articles, and books. Here are the different reference formats in APA style with examples:
On the APA reference page, you list all the sources that you've cited in your paper. The list starts on a new page right after the body text. Follow these instructions to set up your APA reference page: Place the section label "References" in bold at the top of the page (centered). Order the references alphabetically. Double-space all text.
When formatting a citation in APA style, pay particular attention to italics, punctuation, indentation, and capitalization. Many more samples of citations presented in the APA style can be found in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Please consult this book or a librarian for help with unusual resources.
These sample papers formatted in seventh edition APA Style show the format that authors should use to submit a manuscript for publication in a professional journal and that students should use to submit a paper to an instructor for a course assignment.
Chapter 1: Formatting Your Research Project. This section covers the basics of how to structure your research project, including margins, page numbering, and inserting lists, tables, and illustrations. These general guidelines are useful but remember to always follow specifics for your course. Chapter 2: Mechanics of Prose
The acknowledgements in research paper are a way to say thank you to the people and groups that helped with the study. This part of the paper lets writers show their thanks and point out the teamwork, support, and guidance they received while doing their research. Why Include Acknowledgements in a Research Paper? The acknowledgement section of the paper does more than just talk about the ...
MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This resource, updated to reflect the MLA Handbook (9th ed.), offers examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.
Citation Generator: Automatically generate accurate references and in-text citations using Scribbr's APA Citation Generator, MLA Citation Generator, Harvard Referencing Generator, and Chicago Citation Generator. Plagiarism Checker: Detect plagiarism in your paper using the most accurate Turnitin-powered plagiarism software available to students.
Experimental results show that the method proposed in this paper has high diagnostic accuracy and strong stability, providing reference for the intelligent operation and maintenance of transformers.
Consistency in the order, structure, and format of a paper allows readers to focus on a paper's content rather than its presentation. To format a paper in APA Style, writers can typically use the default settings and automatic formatting tools of their word-processing program or make only minor adjustments.
Large, immovable rammed earth buildings in UNESCO World Cultural Heritage sites are at serious risk of disaster due to environmental changes. In this study, the rammed earth city walls (REWs) located in the Ancient City of Ping Yao, a World Cultural Heritage site, affected by heavy precipitation in early October 2021, were used as the research object. The study aimed to specify the details of ...
To cite a source, you need an in-text citation and a reference entry. Auto-cite in the right format with our free citation generator.