essay guidance

Essay and dissertation writing skills

Planning your essay

Writing your introduction

Structuring your essay

• Writing essays in science subjects
• Brief video guides to support essay planning and writing
• Writing extended essays and dissertations
• Planning your dissertation writing time

Structuring your dissertation

• Top tips for writing longer pieces of work

Advice on planning and writing essays and dissertations

University essays differ from school essays in that they are less concerned with what you know and more concerned with how you construct an argument to answer the question. This means that the starting point for writing a strong essay is to first unpick the question and to then use this to plan your essay before you start putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard).

A really good starting point for you are these short, downloadable Tips for Successful Essay Writing and Answering the Question resources. Both resources will help you to plan your essay, as well as giving you guidance on how to distinguish between different sorts of essay questions. 

You may find it helpful to watch this seven-minute video on six tips for essay writing which outlines how to interpret essay questions, as well as giving advice on planning and structuring your writing:

Different disciplines will have different expectations for essay structure and you should always refer to your Faculty or Department student handbook or course Canvas site for more specific guidance.

However, broadly speaking, all essays share the following features:

Essays need an introduction to establish and focus the parameters of the discussion that will follow. You may find it helpful to divide the introduction into areas to demonstrate your breadth and engagement with the essay question. You might define specific terms in the introduction to show your engagement with the essay question; for example, ‘This is a large topic which has been variously discussed by many scientists and commentators. The principal tension is between the views of X and Y who define the main issues as…’ Breadth might be demonstrated by showing the range of viewpoints from which the essay question could be considered; for example, ‘A variety of factors including economic, social and political, influence A and B. This essay will focus on the social and economic aspects, with particular emphasis on…..’

Watch this two-minute video to learn more about how to plan and structure an introduction:

The main body of the essay should elaborate on the issues raised in the introduction and develop an argument(s) that answers the question. It should consist of a number of self-contained paragraphs each of which makes a specific point and provides some form of evidence to support the argument being made. Remember that a clear argument requires that each paragraph explicitly relates back to the essay question or the developing argument.

• Conclusion: An essay should end with a conclusion that reiterates the argument in light of the evidence you have provided; you shouldn’t use the conclusion to introduce new information.
• References: You need to include references to the materials you’ve used to write your essay. These might be in the form of footnotes, in-text citations, or a bibliography at the end. Different systems exist for citing references and different disciplines will use various approaches to citation. Ask your tutor which method(s) you should be using for your essay and also consult your Department or Faculty webpages for specific guidance in your discipline. 

Essay writing in science subjects

If you are writing an essay for a science subject you may need to consider additional areas, such as how to present data or diagrams. This five-minute video gives you some advice on how to approach your reading list, planning which information to include in your answer and how to write for your scientific audience – the video is available here:

A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.

Short videos to support your essay writing skills

There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing, including:

• Approaching different types of essay questions  
• Structuring your essay  
• Writing an introduction  
• Making use of evidence in your essay writing  
• Writing your conclusion

Extended essays and dissertations

Longer pieces of writing like extended essays and dissertations may seem like quite a challenge from your regular essay writing. The important point is to start with a plan and to focus on what the question is asking. A PDF providing further guidance on planning Humanities and Social Science dissertations is available to download.

Planning your time effectively

Try not to leave the writing until close to your deadline, instead start as soon as you have some ideas to put down onto paper. Your early drafts may never end up in the final work, but the work of committing your ideas to paper helps to formulate not only your ideas, but the method of structuring your writing to read well and conclude firmly.

Although many students and tutors will say that the introduction is often written last, it is a good idea to begin to think about what will go into it early on. For example, the first draft of your introduction should set out your argument, the information you have, and your methods, and it should give a structure to the chapters and sections you will write. Your introduction will probably change as time goes on but it will stand as a guide to your entire extended essay or dissertation and it will help you to keep focused.

The structure of  extended essays or dissertations will vary depending on the question and discipline, but may include some or all of the following:

• The background information to - and context for - your research. This often takes the form of a literature review.
• Explanation of the focus of your work.
• Explanation of the value of this work to scholarship on the topic.
• List of the aims and objectives of the work and also the issues which will not be covered because they are outside its scope.

The main body of your extended essay or dissertation will probably include your methodology, the results of research, and your argument(s) based on your findings.

The conclusion is to summarise the value your research has added to the topic, and any further lines of research you would undertake given more time or resources. 

Tips on writing longer pieces of work

Approaching each chapter of a dissertation as a shorter essay can make the task of writing a dissertation seem less overwhelming. Each chapter will have an introduction, a main body where the argument is developed and substantiated with evidence, and a conclusion to tie things together. Unlike in a regular essay, chapter conclusions may also introduce the chapter that will follow, indicating how the chapters are connected to one another and how the argument will develop through your dissertation.

For further guidance, watch this two-minute video on writing longer pieces of work . 

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Ultimate Guide to Writing Your College Essay

Tips for writing an effective college essay.

College admissions essays are an important part of your college application and gives you the chance to show colleges and universities your character and experiences. This guide will give you tips to write an effective college essay.

Want free help with your college essay?

UPchieve connects you with knowledgeable and friendly college advisors—online, 24/7, and completely free. Get 1:1 help brainstorming topics, outlining your essay, revising a draft, or editing grammar.

Writing a strong college admissions essay

Learn about the elements of a solid admissions essay.

Avoiding common admissions essay mistakes

Learn some of the most common mistakes made on college essays

Brainstorming tips for your college essay

Stuck on what to write your college essay about? Here are some exercises to help you get started.

How formal should the tone of your college essay be?

Learn how formal your college essay should be and get tips on how to bring out your natural voice.

Taking your college essay to the next level

Hear an admissions expert discuss the appropriate level of depth necessary in your college essay.

Student Stories

Student Story: Admissions essay about a formative experience

Get the perspective of a current college student on how he approached the admissions essay.

Student Story: Admissions essay about personal identity

Get the perspective of a current college student on how she approached the admissions essay.

Student Story: Admissions essay about community impact

Student story: admissions essay about a past mistake, how to write a college application essay, tips for writing an effective application essay, sample college essay 1 with feedback, sample college essay 2 with feedback.

This content is licensed by Khan Academy and is available for free at www.khanacademy.org.

• Tips for Reading an Assignment Prompt
• Asking Analytical Questions
• Introductions
• What Do Introductions Across the Disciplines Have in Common?
• Anatomy of a Body Paragraph
• Transitions
• Tips for Organizing Your Essay
• Counterargument
• Conclusions
• Strategies for Essay Writing: Downloadable PDFs
• Brief Guides to Writing in the Disciplines

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Essay Writing

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

This resource begins with a general description of essay writing and moves to a discussion of common essay genres students may encounter across the curriculum. The four genres of essays (description, narration, exposition, and argumentation) are common paper assignments you may encounter in your writing classes. Although these genres, also known as the modes of discourse, have been criticized by some composition scholars, the Purdue OWL recognizes the wide spread use of these genres and students’ need to understand and produce these types of essays. We hope these resources will help.

The essay is a commonly assigned form of writing that every student will encounter while in academia. Therefore, it is wise for the student to become capable and comfortable with this type of writing early on in her training.

Essays can be a rewarding and challenging type of writing and are often assigned either to be done in class, which requires previous planning and practice (and a bit of creativity) on the part of the student, or as homework, which likewise demands a certain amount of preparation. Many poorly crafted essays have been produced on account of a lack of preparation and confidence. However, students can avoid the discomfort often associated with essay writing by understanding some common genres.

Before delving into its various genres, let’s begin with a basic definition of the essay.

What is an essay?

Though the word essay has come to be understood as a type of writing in Modern English, its origins provide us with some useful insights. The word comes into the English language through the French influence on Middle English; tracing it back further, we find that the French form of the word comes from the Latin verb exigere , which means "to examine, test, or (literally) to drive out." Through the excavation of this ancient word, we are able to unearth the essence of the academic essay: to encourage students to test or examine their ideas concerning a particular topic.

Essays are shorter pieces of writing that often require the student to hone a number of skills such as close reading, analysis, comparison and contrast, persuasion, conciseness, clarity, and exposition. As is evidenced by this list of attributes, there is much to be gained by the student who strives to succeed at essay writing.

The purpose of an essay is to encourage students to develop ideas and concepts in their writing with the direction of little more than their own thoughts (it may be helpful to view the essay as the converse of a research paper). Therefore, essays are (by nature) concise and require clarity in purpose and direction. This means that there is no room for the student’s thoughts to wander or stray from his or her purpose; the writing must be deliberate and interesting.

This handout should help students become familiar and comfortable with the process of essay composition through the introduction of some common essay genres.

This handout includes a brief introduction to the following genres of essay writing:

• Expository essays
• Descriptive essays
• Narrative essays
• Argumentative (Persuasive) essays

Basic essay structure

Improve your writing

Organise your essays to demonstrate your knowledge, show your research and support your arguments

Essays are usually written in continuous, flowing, paragraphed text and don’t use section headings. This may seem unstructured at first, but good essays are carefully structured.

How your assignment content is structured is your choice. Use the basic pattern below to get started.

Essay structure

An essay consists of three basic parts:, introduction.

The essay itself usually has no section headings. Only the title page, author declaration and reference list are written as headings, along with, for example, appendices. Check any task instructions, and your course or unit handbook, for further details.

Content in assignment introductions can vary widely. In some disciplines you may need to provide a full background and context, whereas other essays may need only a little context, and others may need none.

An introduction to an essay usually has three primary purposes:

• To set the scene
• To tell readers what is important, and why
• To tell the reader what the essay is going to do (signposting)

A standard introduction includes the following five elements:

• A statement that sets out the topic and engages the reader.
• The background and context of the topic.
• Any important definitions, integrated into your text as appropriate.
• An outline of the key points, topic, issues, evidence, ideas, arguments, models, theories, or other information, as appropriate. This may include distinctions or contrasts between different ideas or evidence.
• A final sentence or two which tells the reader your focal points and aims.

You should aim to restrict your introduction to information needed for the topic and only include background and contextual information which helps the reader understand it, or sets the scene for your chosen focal points.

In most essays you will have a considerable range of options for your focus. You will be expected to demonstrate your ability to select the most relevant content to address your focal points.

There are some exceptions. For example, if an assignment brief specifically directs the essay focus or requires you to write broadly about a topic. These are relatively rare or are discipline-specific so you should check your task instructions and discipline and subject area conventions.

Below are examples of an opening statement, a summary of the selected content, and a statement at the end of the introduction which tells the reader what the essay will focus on and how it will be addressed. We've use a fictional essay.

The title of our essay is: 'Cats are better than dogs. Discuss.'

To submit this essay you also would need to add citations as appropriate.

Example of opening statements:

People have shared their lives with cats and dogs for millenia. Which is better depends partly on each animal’s characteristics and partly on the owner’s preferences.

Here is a summary of five specific topics selected for the essay, which would be covered in a little more detail in the introduction:

• In ancient Egypt, cats were treated as sacred and were pampered companions.
• Dogs have for centuries been used for hunting and to guard property. There are many types of working dog, and both dogs and cats are now kept purely as pets.
• They are very different animals, with different care needs, traits and abilities.
• It is a common perception that people are either “cat-lovers” or “dog-lovers”.
• It is a common perception that people tend to have preferences for one, and negative beliefs about and attitudes towards, the other.

Example of closing statements at the end of the introduction:

This essay will examine both cats’ and dogs’ behaviour and abilities, the benefits of keeping them as pets, and whether people’s perceptions of their nature matches current knowledge and understanding.

Main body: paragraphs

The body of the essay should be organised into paragraphs. Each paragraph should deal with a different aspect of the issue, but they should also link in some way to those that precede and follow it. This is not an easy thing to get right, even for experienced writers, partly because there are many ways to successfully structure and use paragraphs. There is no perfect paragraph template.

The theme or topic statement

The first sentence, or sometimes two, tells the reader what the paragraph is going to cover. It may either:

• Begin a new point or topic, or
• Follow on from the previous paragraph, but with a different focus or go into more-specific detail. If this is the case, it should clearly link to the previous paragraph.

The last sentence

It should be clear if the point has come to an end, or if it continues in the next paragraph.

Here is a brief example of flow between two summarised paragraphs which cover the historical perspective:

It is known from hieroglyphs that the Ancient Egyptians believed that cats were sacred. They were also held in high regard, as suggested by their being found mummified and entombed with their owners (Smith, 1969). In addition, cats are portrayed aiding hunters. Therefore, they were both treated as sacred, and were used as intelligent working companions. However, today they are almost entirely owned as pets.

In contrast, dogs have not been regarded as sacred, but they have for centuries been widely used for hunting in Europe. This developed over time and eventually they became domesticated and accepted as pets. Today, they are seen as loyal, loving and protective members of the family, and are widely used as working dogs.

There is never any new information in a conclusion.

The conclusion usually does three things:

• Reminds your readers of what the essay was meant to do.
• Provides an answer, where possible, to the title.
• Reminds your reader how you reached that answer.

The conclusion should usually occupy just one paragraph. It draws together all the key elements of your essay, so you do not need to repeat the fine detail unless you are highlighting something.

A conclusion to our essay about cats and dogs is given below:

Both cats and dogs have been highly-valued for millenia, are affectionate and beneficial to their owners’ wellbeing. However, they are very different animals and each is 'better' than the other regarding care needs and natural traits. Dogs need regular training and exercise but many owners do not train or exercise them enough, resulting in bad behaviour. They also need to be 'boarded' if the owner is away and to have frequent baths to prevent bad odours. In contrast, cats do not need this level of effort and care. Dogs are seen as more intelligent, loyal and attuned to human beings, whereas cats are perceived as aloof and solitary, and as only seeking affection when they want to be fed. However, recent studies have shown that cats are affectionate and loyal and more intelligent than dogs, but it is less obvious and useful. There are, for example, no 'police' or 'assistance' cats, in part because they do not have the kinds of natural instincts which make dogs easy to train. Therefore, which animal is better depends upon personal preference and whether they are required to work. Therefore, although dogs are better as working animals, cats are easier, better pets.

Download our basic essay structure revision sheet

Download this page as a PDF for your essay structure revision notes

Better Essays: Signposting

Paragraphs main body of an assessment

Essay Writing: A complete guide for students and teachers

P LANNING, PARAGRAPHING AND POLISHING: FINE-TUNING THE PERFECT ESSAY

Essay writing is an essential skill for every student. Whether writing a particular academic essay (such as persuasive, narrative, descriptive, or expository) or a timed exam essay, the key to getting good at writing is to write. Creating opportunities for our students to engage in extended writing activities will go a long way to helping them improve their skills as scribes.

But, putting the hours in alone will not be enough to attain the highest levels in essay writing. Practice must be meaningful. Once students have a broad overview of how to structure the various types of essays, they are ready to narrow in on the minor details that will enable them to fine-tune their work as a lean vehicle of their thoughts and ideas.

In this article, we will drill down to some aspects that will assist students in taking their essay writing skills up a notch. Many ideas and activities can be integrated into broader lesson plans based on essay writing. Often, though, they will work effectively in isolation – just as athletes isolate physical movements to drill that are relevant to their sport. When these movements become second nature, they can be repeated naturally in the context of the game or in our case, the writing of the essay.

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Planning an essay

The Boys Scouts’ motto is famously ‘Be Prepared’. It’s a solid motto that can be applied to most aspects of life; essay writing is no different. Given the purpose of an essay is generally to present a logical and reasoned argument, investing time in organising arguments, ideas, and structure would seem to be time well spent.

Given that essays can take a wide range of forms and that we all have our own individual approaches to writing, it stands to reason that there will be no single best approach to the planning stage of essay writing. That said, there are several helpful hints and techniques we can share with our students to help them wrestle their ideas into a writable form. Let’s take a look at a few of the best of these:

BREAK THE QUESTION DOWN: UNDERSTAND YOUR ESSAY TOPIC.

Whether students are tackling an assignment that you have set for them in class or responding to an essay prompt in an exam situation, they should get into the habit of analyzing the nature of the task. To do this, they should unravel the question’s meaning or prompt. Students can practice this in class by responding to various essay titles, questions, and prompts, thereby gaining valuable experience breaking these down.

Have students work in groups to underline and dissect the keywords and phrases and discuss what exactly is being asked of them in the task. Are they being asked to discuss, describe, persuade, or explain? Understanding the exact nature of the task is crucial before going any further in the planning process, never mind the writing process .

BRAINSTORM AND MIND MAP WHAT YOU KNOW:

Once students have understood what the essay task asks them, they should consider what they know about the topic and, often, how they feel about it. When teaching essay writing, we so often emphasize that it is about expressing our opinions on things, but for our younger students what they think about something isn’t always obvious, even to themselves.

Brainstorming and mind-mapping what they know about a topic offers them an opportunity to uncover not just what they already know about a topic, but also gives them a chance to reveal to themselves what they think about the topic. This will help guide them in structuring their research and, later, the essay they will write . When writing an essay in an exam context, this may be the only ‘research’ the student can undertake before the writing, so practicing this will be even more important.

RESEARCH YOUR ESSAY

The previous step above should reveal to students the general direction their research will take. With the ubiquitousness of the internet, gone are the days of students relying on a single well-thumbed encyclopaedia from the school library as their sole authoritative source in their essay. If anything, the real problem for our students today is narrowing down their sources to a manageable number. Students should use the information from the previous step to help here. At this stage, it is important that they:

●      Ensure the research material is directly relevant to the essay task

●      Record in detail the sources of the information that they will use in their essay

●      Engage with the material personally by asking questions and challenging their own biases

●      Identify the key points that will be made in their essay

●      Group ideas, counterarguments, and opinions together

●      Identify the overarching argument they will make in their own essay.

Once these stages have been completed the student is ready to organise their points into a logical order.

WRITING YOUR ESSAY

There are a number of ways for students to organize their points in preparation for writing. They can use graphic organizers , post-it notes, or any number of available writing apps. The important thing for them to consider here is that their points should follow a logical progression. This progression of their argument will be expressed in the form of body paragraphs that will inform the structure of their finished essay.

The number of paragraphs contained in an essay will depend on a number of factors such as word limits, time limits, the complexity of the question etc. Regardless of the essay’s length, students should ensure their essay follows the Rule of Three in that every essay they write contains an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Generally speaking, essay paragraphs will focus on one main idea that is usually expressed in a topic sentence that is followed by a series of supporting sentences that bolster that main idea. The first and final sentences are of the most significance here with the first sentence of a paragraph making the point to the reader and the final sentence of the paragraph making the overall relevance to the essay’s argument crystal clear. 

Though students will most likely be familiar with the broad generic structure of essays, it is worth investing time to ensure they have a clear conception of how each part of the essay works, that is, of the exact nature of the task it performs. Let’s review:

Common Essay Structure

Introduction: Provides the reader with context for the essay. It states the broad argument that the essay will make and informs the reader of the writer’s general perspective and approach to the question.

Body Paragraphs: These are the ‘meat’ of the essay and lay out the argument stated in the introduction point by point with supporting evidence.

Conclusion: Usually, the conclusion will restate the central argument while summarising the essay’s main supporting reasons before linking everything back to the original question.

ESSAY WRITING PARAGRAPH WRITING TIPS

●      Each paragraph should focus on a single main idea

●      Paragraphs should follow a logical sequence; students should group similar ideas together to avoid incoherence

●      Paragraphs should be denoted consistently; students should choose either to indent or skip a line

●      Transition words and phrases such as alternatively , consequently , in contrast should be used to give flow and provide a bridge between paragraphs.

HOW TO EDIT AN ESSAY

Students shouldn’t expect their essays to emerge from the writing process perfectly formed. Except in exam situations and the like, thorough editing is an essential aspect in the writing process. 

Often, students struggle with this aspect of the process the most. After spending hours of effort on planning, research, and writing the first draft, students can be reluctant to go back over the same terrain they have so recently travelled. It is important at this point to give them some helpful guidelines to help them to know what to look out for. The following tips will provide just such help: 

One Piece at a Time: There is a lot to look out for in the editing process and often students overlook aspects as they try to juggle too many balls during the process. One effective strategy to combat this is for students to perform a number of rounds of editing with each focusing on a different aspect. For example, the first round could focus on content, the second round on looking out for word repetition (use a thesaurus to help here), with the third attending to spelling and grammar.

Sum It Up: When reviewing the paragraphs they have written, a good starting point is for students to read each paragraph and attempt to sum up its main point in a single line. If this is not possible, their readers will most likely have difficulty following their train of thought too and the paragraph needs to be overhauled.

Let It Breathe: When possible, encourage students to allow some time for their essay to ‘breathe’ before returning to it for editing purposes. This may require some skilful time management on the part of the student, for example, a student rush-writing the night before the deadline does not lend itself to effective editing. Fresh eyes are one of the sharpest tools in the writer’s toolbox.

Read It Aloud: This time-tested editing method is a great way for students to identify mistakes and typos in their work. We tend to read things more slowly when reading aloud giving us the time to spot errors. Also, when we read silently our minds can often fill in the gaps or gloss over the mistakes that will become apparent when we read out loud.

Phone a Friend: Peer editing is another great way to identify errors that our brains may miss when reading our own work. Encourage students to partner up for a little ‘you scratch my back, I scratch yours’.

Use Tech Tools: We need to ensure our students have the mental tools to edit their own work and for this they will need a good grasp of English grammar and punctuation. However, there are also a wealth of tech tools such as spellcheck and grammar checks that can offer a great once-over option to catch anything students may have missed in earlier editing rounds.

Putting the Jewels on Display: While some struggle to edit, others struggle to let go. There comes a point when it is time for students to release their work to the reader. They must learn to relinquish control after the creation is complete. This will be much easier to achieve if the student feels that they have done everything in their control to ensure their essay is representative of the best of their abilities and if they have followed the advice here, they should be confident they have done so.

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Essay writing tips

UCL Academic Communication Centre Writing academic essays: a few tips

Here are a few basic tips to help you with your academic writing. These may be particularly of use if you have limited experience of writing essays. These are generic tips and you will need to adapt to the style and conventions specific to your discipline and department. Always check the handbook and any recommended style guide. 

Read the assignment 

Yes, it looks obvious, and yet is perhaps the most overlooked aspect of writing academic essays. Essay questions are not necessarily straightforward, and it is all too easy to miss an aspect of the question, misinterpret what is asked, or even go off topic. Look in particular at the verbs used in the question: are you asked to analyse? Discuss? Compare? Evaluate? 

Plan – your writing as well as your answer

An essay requires time: to read, take notes, process, evaluate, organise ideas, draft, and actually write. In addition, you will need extra time to edit and cut if your draft is too long. It is easy to underestimate the time needed, particularly if you are not used to writing essays, and it is all too tempting to leave it to the last minute.  Breaking the assignment down can prevent feeling overwhelmed. Try this early: what will you need to read? Are these sources easily accessible? Are there any aspects of the question that will require more research or preparation? 

Similarly, plan your answer carefully: create an outline for the whole answer, with all the sections and paragraphs. Think about the order of information you need to include, how the different sections connect. This needs to be clear before you draft your essay.  Do not start writing your introduction before you have a strong sense of what will go into your essay: the introduction is often too vague as a result. 

This is important in many ways: it helps you to support your answer with clear references, to avoid plagiarism, but also to make it clear what your evidence / sources are saying and what your position is. Once you have accumulated a lot of notes, it may be difficult to remember where a particularly useful fact or idea is from. Is that from you? From a text? Which one? Is that a paraphrase or a quotation? Keeping a record of where your notes come from will help you to find the right support and reference it clearly. For instance, you can use colour coding to indicate when an idea is yours (just stick to the same colour). 

Read the assignment (yes, again)

As you gather notes, start drafting your essay, it is easy to go off track. You may have discovered interesting things, maybe they are related to the theme of the question, but does that help to actually address the question asked? As you take notes and draft the essay, go back to the assignment: are there any parts you are not addressing? Are you off on a tangent? Be strict: better to realise you are off on a tangent early and correct this than to submit an off-topic essay…  

Support your claim – explicitly 

You may be asked to take a position on a given question. This is not asking about your beliefs or personal opinions. Such questions are testing your ability to evaluate the facts and evidence at hand so as to reach an informed position.  

1. Finding evidence

Evidence from primary and secondary sources are what you must use to support your position.

• Primary sources include original documents, photographs, interviews, etc.
• Secondary sources present information that has already been processed or interpreted by someone else.

For example, if you are writing a paper about a museum exhibition, then the items displayed, interviews of visitors or the curator, and exhibition photos could serve as primary sources of evidence. A review from a magazine or a collection of essays about the exhibition would be secondary sources.

2. Using evidence - explicitly

You may find the evidence compelling, but it does not speak for itself: you have to make the case. You must say why / how this evidence supports your position.  As an academic writer, do not assume that your readers can read your mind: although they may be familiar with the ideas you are discussing, they do not know what you are trying to do with those ideas unless you indicate it through explanations, organisation of ideas, transitions, etc. Check and check again: is the evidence you are presenting relevant to the question? If so, how? Does it make sense? Is your chain of thought clear enough that a friend could follow?

Academic styles

Writing academically generally implies a rather impersonal tone as well as following certain editorial conventions. Again, such conventions will differ depending on disciplines, so always check your handbook, and, if in doubt, check with your department. 

Here are a few general guidelines:

Avoid being personal 

It is often the case that your department will want you to avoid saying “I” in an academic essay. Similarly, avoid using “we” or “you”, as if you were talking directly to the reader of your essay. “We all know that…”, “as you know” are generally frowned upon. Try using the passive or “this paper” / “this essay” instead of “I”.  Please note that this “rule” is contested and largely depends on your discipline. If you are asked to write a reflective piece or a fieldtrip report, you may need to use the first person. 

Check your department’s style guide 

Word count (and what this includes) and referencing conventions have less to do with your ideas and how you express yourself and can be overlooked. However, abiding by these rules demonstrates professionalism and ignoring them will negatively impact on your marks.

Avoid informal styles 

• In general, academic writing avoids contraction: they don’t (do not), they aren’t (are not). 
• Avoid grand generalisation (e.g. “everyone knows that…”, “no one wants war”, etc.): academic writing and thinking requires nuance and subtleties.
• Avoid using an overly emotional language (“it is sad that…”): you need to show an ability to build rational and logical arguments.
• Be specific. The following terms tend to lead to vague statements:

      1. People / some people / many people / most people – who exactly? 

      2. Some time ago / since the beginning / for a long time / throughout history / over time / as time passes / through the passing of time – when?

• Throughout the world / the whole world – where? 
• Similarly avoid any informal language such as cool, stuff, coz, besides, etc.

Be careful with the word “obviously,” particularly in an introduction when you have not yet made a demonstration. And if you need to make a demonstration, it means that things are not obvious.

As a general rule a good essay needs to be: clear, concise, to the point, addressing the question fully, logically organised, coherent. It also needs to show critical thinking and analysis. These qualities are not always discussed or explained. Think carefully about what they mean in your discipline and how you can integrate them in your own writing. 

Ask for help

If you are struggling, know this is normal, but know also that there is help out there. Talk to your tutors and reach out: the ACC offers support to help you.

• Cambridge Libraries

Study Skills

Wolfson college academic skills: academic writing.

• Transition to Wolfson
• Finding Information on Reading List
• Literature Searching
• Keeping up to date
• Critical reading and evaluation
• Speed reading
• Reference management
• Note making
• Research Data Management
• Academic writing
• Finishing a long document in Word
• Publishing your research
• Using AI for Academic Purposes
• Reflection and setting goals
• Responding to and using feedback
• Time management
• Digital wellbeing
• Working remotely
• Exam and Revision Tips

Your writing style will have no doubt changed significantly over the last few years and will still be developing. Your style will also be responsive to the task: an exam answer is very different to an essay. Your department will be able to advise you on specific expectations in your discipline but there are many general principles which be useful to all students, some of which we cover here. 

The writing process is book-ended by two other key skills which we cover elsewhere:

• First, you will need to take effective notes that so that you can refer to them during writing. If they are well-formed, they will act as the basis of your written work. Learn more under the  Note Making  section of this guide.
• Finally, it is essential that you correctly credit the work and ideas of others that you have used in your writing. To learn more about this read our pages on  Referencing  and  Avoiding Plagiarism .

This section focuses on essay writing in the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. Scientific disciplines will provide guidance on specific writing styles for their subject area.

• Read the assignment carefully and identify key words within the question. 
• Work backwards from the due date of the assignment. After you have the number of days you have available to write your assignment, divide the time into pre-writing activities such as reading, reviewing your notes and free writing, drafting activities such as organising your arguments and editing activities such as checking grammar, punctuation and references. 
• Spend some time planning and organising your essay before writing. Having a clear road map for your work can ensure your writing flows clearly and you do not drift away from addressing the question you set out to write. 
• Don't forget to schedule some down time while you are writing. Creating some distance from your work will help keep you refreshed and allow you time to see new perspectives and process further information.
• If you are experiencing writer's block, try freewriting for 10 minutes. During this time, do not worry about grammar or structure; the goal should be to get your thoughts out on a piece of paper or the screen. Free writing can help unlock some of the factors contributing to the block, and since you will have some words after the 10 minutes, it may kick start a new writing cycle for you.

Below you will find a series of videos that provide a survey of academic writing and a closer look at introductions, paragraphs and conclusions. While there may be a heavier emphasis on the writing done in the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, the general concepts of strong academic writing presented will also apply to other disciplines.

• Academic Writing- An Overview
• Writing an abstract
• Reducing your work count

None of the below will cut all the words you need in one go. But they may help you spot sytlistic tendancies than mean your style is unnecessarily verbose.

As with all proofreading, reading aloud can help you spot awkward wording and clumsy phrasing. Eliminate problematic words or highlight phrases as you go, so that you can tighten them up later.

Rearranging content

Once you have a rough draft, to reverse outline your document. This way you can make sure that your ideas and arguments develop logically. Write down what each section is about and if you spot anything extraneous, it is a candidate for deletion.

If you are still well above yoru word count, rank the points you use to sunstantiate your argument. That way, you can eliminate ones which aren't as important as others.

If you don't want to eliminate a point, take the topic sentence or main idea of several less important paragraphs and create combined paragraphs with less detail than the more important arguments.

Removing extraneous words

Look through your work and seeif you find any adverbs, especially those that end 'ly'. These are often filler words that don't add anything beneficial. These might include actually, commonly, continually, correctly, finally, fully, greatly, perfectly, rigidly, sadly, totally, urgently. If they're not necessary, remove them!

In much the same way as advebs make their way into writing, multiple adjectives are used when one (or none) would suffice. Only use them if they add to the meaning of the sentence.

Writers sometimes clog up their prose with one or more extra words or phrases that seem to modify the meaning of a noun, but don't add meaning to the sentence e.g. kind of, sort of, basically, for all intents and purposes.

Excessive detail

Watch out for phrases or longer passges that repeat earlier writing. If the words don't buils on the conent, they are rarely necessary.

Many words imply one another: 'finish' implies 'complete' and so 'completely finish' is redundant in most cases. There are many other phrases like this: past memories, future plan, terrible tragedy. each individual, end result, final outcome, unexpected surprise, sudden crisis.

There are also illogical expressions such as 'very unique'. Since unique means one-of-a-kind, it doesn't need a modifier of degree such as: very, so, especially, somewhat, or extremely. There are no gradations; either it is unique or not.

Replacing vague phrases with specific words

Many commonly used phrases can be replaced with a single word. We often feel that they make writing more 'formal' but they can detract, rather than add to, meaning. For example:

• 'the reason for', 'owing to the fact that', 'in light of the fact that' 'given that', considering the fact that' could be replaced with because, since or why
• 'in the event that' or 'under circumstance in which' could be replaced with if
• 'it is necessary that' can be replaced with must or should
• 'on the occasion of' or 'in a situation in which' could be replaced with when
• 'in reference to', 'as regards', 'concerning the matter of' could be replaced with about
• 'in anticipation of', 'at the same time as', 'following on from' could be replaced with before, when or after.

Identify negatives and change them to affirmatives

Expressing ideas in negative means you must use an extra word and and it makes it harder to figure out your meaning.

e.g. If you do not have more than five years of experience, do not call for an interview if you have not already emailed Human Resources.

can be revised as: Applicants with more than five years’ experience can call for an interview. Otherwise, email Human Resources.

• Breaking down the question
• Structuring your writing
• Refining your writing

It is important to understand what you are being asked to do before you begin writing. Regardless of the task, you will be marked more highly for answering the question than simply showing how much you know about a topic. Ask yourself the following three questions when you start a new task:

• What are you being asked about? Identify the topics that you need to focus on and take care to note that there may be multiple topics in any one task. Alternatively, it may be an open-ended task, and you need to define the parameters. If this is the case, make sure that you explain why you have limited your answer in this way. For example, you may choose to limit your answer to a few examples. Why have you selected them? Also, make clear that you understand the context in which these few examples sit.
• What are you being asked to use? Identify sources, materials, theories and examples that you are expected to refer to. You may be told these in the question itself, the reading list, or need to identify them from the work you have already done on this topic.
• What are you being asked to do? Identify the verb or question word in your task such as compare, describe, contrast, evaluation, explain, examine, summarise, or analyse. If you aren't sure what they mean, download this list of instruction words and their definitions. Try breaking the question down into sub-questions. This will focus your reading and help to formulate the structure of your essay.

If you are not sure what the words mean in the question, have a look at this list of instruction words and their definitions.

Use Manchester University's Phrasebank . This aims to provide you with examples of some of the phraseological ‘nuts and bolts’ of writing organised according to the main sections of a research paper or dissertation. The items in the Academic Phrasebank are mostly content neutral and generic in nature; in using them, therefore, you are not stealing other people’s ideas and this does not constitute plagiarism. It gives you alternative ways of saying the same thing.

The top level sections are:

• Being cautious
• Being critical
• Classifying and listing
• Compare and contrast
• Defining terms
• Describing trends
• Describing quantities
• Explaining causality
• Giving examples
• Signalling transition
• Writing about the past

Find out more

Wolfson and cambridge university support for writing.

• If you need support in thinking through the structure of an essay, brainstorming ideas, considering flow and clarity, and other matters related to the mechanics of writing you can book an appointment with one of our Wolfson College Writing Consultants .
• If you are thinking about writing for publication, Wolfson offers workshops as part of the regular  WolfWorks programme  during the Lent Term.
• The college offers a proofreading service for dissertations and theses prior to submission. Please contact the  Academic Skills Librarian  for further information.
• If you looking for some time to get some writing done, Wolfson runs   Write Here, Write Now at Wolfson Sessions .   These provide a space for students to come together to work silently for an hour, then take a collective break and discuss what they are writing on, and then carry on writing for an hour and then take a break and so on. These are very productive sessions, and the peer support works well.
• As part of Academic Writing Month 2023 we asked members of the Wolfson Community to describe their writing process and provide a tip they would give to writers. We have collated the videos on our YouTube channel under  Academic Writing Month 2023 . 
• If you need support with your style, The Royal Literary Fund Fellow provides writing support two days a week.  Contact Vitali Vitaliev, the Royal Literary Fund Fellow  for a 50-minute in-person appointment. He is based at Magdalene College but works with our students too. The Royal Literary Fund also produces an  online essay writing guide .
• There are a number of  online writing resources  provided by the University's Language Centre, but which are useful for all students.
• Cambridge's MMLL has produced a very useful  dissertation toolkit .

External Writing Support 

• Very detailed academic writing support from  Purdue University  from establishing arguments to active and passive voice. Also sections on English as a second language and writing for job applications.
• Manchester's  Academic Phrasebank  gives you a range of alternative ways of expressing your ideas. You can approach it by the part of the  Sections include being critical, giving examples, comparing and contrasting, writing conclusions and signalling transition between topics.
• The Skills Hub at Sussex University  has resources on report writing, as well as essay writing.
• Leeds University  has a series of pages to work through on academic writing.
• Monash University has produced a practical online guide to Excel at Writing   for both undergraduates and postgraduates.

Unless otherwise stated, this work is licenced under a  CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0  licence by Wolfson College Cambridge.

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How to write an essay? | B2 First (FCE)

The essay is a compulsory task to be completed in Part 1 of the writing section in the Cambridge B2 First (FCE) that is written to convince someone of something or to simply inform the reader about a particular topic.

There is no single, method of successful writing essay. However, this article will outline how to write an excellent essay   in the B2 First (FCE) exam by putting into practice some simple, but invaluable, tips.

You will learn how to write an essay, an example of essay structure , guidance , sample topics , model answers , useful tips , frequently asked questions and useful phrases and expressions.

B2 First (FCE) Essay: Structure example

An essay can be organised in different ways, but it is useful to write one idea in one paragraph and add a short introduction and conclusion .

writing a professional essay

FCE, CAE, CPE

Practice, write & improve, b2 first (fce) essay: how to write an essay (guide).

It is always an essay written for your teacher, and the start of the question wording is always the same:

In your English class you have been talking about [topic]. Now, your English teacher has asked you to write an essay. Write your essay using all the notes and giving reasons for your point of view.

We will use the example question below in our writing essay  advice:

In your English class, you have been talking about society. Write an essay using all the notes and giving reasons for your point of view.

University should be free for everyone. Do you agree or disagree?

Write about: 1. Taxes 2. Opportunity 3. …………………… (your own idea)

Step 1: Briefly analyse your task…

Before you start writing your essay at B2 First exam you need to ask three questions:

What is the topic of the essay?

If you look at our example task you will notice that we are going to write about society .

In your English class, you have been talking about society . Write an essay using all the notes and giving reasons for your point of view.

Knowing this, you can quickly prepare in your head all the words that you associate with this topic or even write them down.

What exactly do I have to include in my essay?

As you can see there are three points included in the task there are two that are already given in our example

Write about: 1. Taxes 2. Opportunity 3. …………………… ( your own idea) <= you have to come up with this one yourself 

The first point is taxes , the second is opportunity , and the third one is something you must come up with yourself!

We decided that the third point we would comment on would be economics

Who is going to read my essay?

In the FCE essay, it’s always your English teacher.  It means that you need to write with respect because she is a person with authority, therefore essay has to be written in a formal style.

What is formal style?

Formal language is professional and serious rather than relaxed and friendly and is used especially in official situations. It is usually reserved for essays and academic settings, while informal writing is used for more casual settings, like friendly text messages and creative writing.

Below are listed the biggest differences between formal and informal writing styles:

Contractions

It is advised to avoid contractions (shortened versions of words) in formal language, but they’re acceptable in informal language.

Unfortunately, the team could not replicate the results. (Formal)

Unfortunately, the team couldn’t replicate the results. (Informal)

Colloquial Phrases/Slang

Formal language is also marked by an absence of colloquial phrases and slang (words or phrases that are common only in everyday speech), but are typically used in informal language.

Everyone was disappointed . (Formal)

Everyone was bummed . (Informal)

First-Person Pronouns

Generally, first-person pronouns (like I and we ) are avoided when writing with formal language . However, it’s accepted (and expected) in informal language.

The students were asked to fill out the questionnaire. (Formal) We asked the students to fill out the questionnaire. (Informal)

Phrasal Verbs

When using formal language in your B2 writing, it is also recommended to replace phrasal verbs (proper verbs that are followed by one or more prepositions and act as a single verb).

It was something the protestors could endure . (Formal) It was something the protestors could put up with . (Informal)

Vocabulary Choice

Formal language tends to use longer, more complex vocabulary. Sometimes it is not recommended to use this type of vocabulary with informal language (depending on what you’re writing) because it can confuse or distract your audience.

They needed assistance while recovering from the outcomes of the hurricane. (Formal) They needed help while recovering from the effects of the hurricane. (Informal)

Step 2: Write an introduction

The purpose of the introduction is simply to tell the reader what the essay is about.

You can start your essay by referring to the question that was asked “ University should be free for everyone. Do you agree or disagree? ” and writing it in your own words . It is also worth mentioning the three points you are going to describe.

Introduction : There are many factors to consider when deciding if the university should be free or not. Among these are taxes, equality of opportunity, and the economy. 

You can use phrases such as:

This essay will discuss … This essay will focus on … In order to discuss …, I will analyse …

Step 3: Main body paragraphs… 

Main body paragraphs are the most important part of your essay so they should be the longest and one paragraph should comment on one point. See below:

Write about: 1. Taxes – the first paragraph should comment on “ taxes”  2. Opportunity – the second paragraph should comment on “ opportunity “ 3. …………………… (your own idea) – the third paragraph should comment on “economy”

In addition, every paragraph should start with a topic sentence, which is like an introduction to the paragraph and it tells the reader what exactly the paragraph is going to discuss.

Also, a good idea is to include different linking words/expressions to make sure that your ideas are well connected and in a logical order.

What is a topic sentence?

A topic sentence is the first sentence of a paragraph (which is also the most important )

A topic sentence essentially tells readers about the rest of the paragraph . If the topic sentence says “ Cats are very good pets for several reasons” , then every sentence after that needs to describe that subject.

For example:

Cats are very good pets for several reasons . (<=topic sentence / every sentence after it describes that subject =>) They are naturally good caregivers because they take care of their kittens, so they want to take care of their owners as well. Cats are quite clean, and if you train them to use a litter box, they require almost no cleanup in their areas.

What are the linking words/expressions?

These are words and expressions that help the text flow logically . These words act as signposts, helping the reader easily move from one idea to the next and see connections between sentences or paragraphs.

Linking words is especially useful when you want to indicate that you are going to explain something, provide an example use a time sequence, or present a contrasting point of view.

Between paragraphs:

To begin with, I would like to put forward […] The first possible action is, to improve physical education …[…] A second option would be. …  competitive attitudes that […]

Within a paragraph:

[…] which activity is better than the others. Another reason for not financing sports […]

You can see a model answer below:

First paragraph comment on  “Taxes” Paragraph 1: Firstly , a majority of people believe that a significant part of taxes should go to education. Opponents might say if someone can afford university, then he/she should pay for it. However , people with higher education have better wages and therefore pay higher income tax after graduation .

Second paragraph comment on “Opportunity ” Paragraph 2: Secondly, making university free for all, creates more opportunities for those from low-income backgrounds . Although they may still have difficulty meeting other costs such as accommodation , it makes the playing field more level.

Third paragraph comment on “….…… (your own idea)” : economy Paragraph 3: In addition , having an educated workforce is proven to help the economy grow. Namely , the more highly educated people there are, the higher the standard of living for everyone. Consequently , more people will be able to pay taxes to fund the education of future generations.

                  – topic sentence

                    – linking words/expressions

                    – interesting/topical vocabulary

Remember, you don’t have to tell the truth! The examiners won’t know, so if you don’t have experience or an opinion you can make something up!

Step 4: Conclusion 

The conclusion comes at the end of your essay, it summarizes the main idea of the essay.  You need to write a clear, justified conclusion. You can’t just say, ‘I agree’, or ‘I disagree.’ Think of it like this: you need to convince the examiner that your conclusion is correct.

In conclusion, a university should be free for everyone. It makes economic sense and ultimately benefits all members of society.

                  – linking words/expressions

Make sure your paragraphs are connected to your conclusion!

See Full Essay

There are many factors to consider when deciding if the university should be free or not. Among these are taxes, equality of opportunity, and the economy.

Firstly, a majority of people believe that a significant part of taxes should go to education. Opponents might say if someone can afford university, then he/she should pay for it. However, people with higher education have better wages and therefore pay higher income tax after graduation.

Secondly, making university free for all, creates more opportunities for those from low-income backgrounds. Although they may still have difficulty meeting other costs such as accommodation, it makes the playing field more level.

In addition, having an educated workforce is proven to help the economy grow. Namely, the more highly educated people there are, the higher the standard of living for everyone. Consequently, more people will be able to pay taxes to fund the education of future generations.

Get Your (FCE) Essay Checked!

B2 first (fce)  essay: example essays, fce essay sample 1.

In your English class you have been talking about the environment. Write an essay using all the notes and give reasons for your point of view.

Every country in the world has problems with pollution and damage to the environment. Do you think these problems can be solved?

Write about: 1. transport 2. rivers and seas 3. ………………………… (your own idea)

Student’s FCE Essay Answer:

DEVELOPMENT VS ENVIRONMENT

If we surf the web looking for pollution and environmental catastrophes, we will find out that every country in the world suffers them. This is a natural consequence of the struggle between development and environment.

If a country decided to live isolated from the rest of the world, living on what it can naturally grow and produce, it surely wouldn’t be highly polluted. But we all want exotic food and technological items from all over the world, so we have to pay the price.

Investing on electrical transport would benefit the environment a lot. Even more if this electricity came from a natural source of energy like wind, rivers and solar boards. It’s difficult to achieve this because petrol companies will fight against these actions.

We also have to take care of our rivers and seas. We all have heard about factories throwing highly toxic substances to rivers, without minimizing their poisoning effects. A really strict law should be applied to fine these factories and make them change their policy.

But what about ourselves? We also can do a lot! If, when possible, we bought larger packs of food, we would be producing less rubbish. And this is only an example!

FCE Essay Sample 2

In your English class you have been talking about the fashion industry. Write an essay using all the notes and giving reasons for your point of view.

Some people say the fashion industry has a bad effect on people’s lives. Do you agree?

Write about: 1. whether people’s appearance is important 2. the price of clothes 3. …………………… (your own idea)

The society we live today is characterised by technology in constant development, fast speed processes, information travelling and getting to people at a blink of an eye and a complex web of social networking. In this context, the fashion industry is becoming increasingly important and having a more and more paramount role in our lives.

On one hand, the fashion industry is undeniably a source of profit and income. It hires millions of people all over the world and generates millions of dollars every year. Furthermore, such profitable business is also believed to be able to spread and make known the culture of a people, encouraging and enhancing a better understanding of each other.

Nevertheless, for those who are neither impressed nor motivated by numbers and figures, the fashion industry is seen as one which segregates people, isolating those who not fit their laws and commands. It is stated that people place too much importance on appearance and the material, world, sadly true, and the fashion industry just spurs on such situation. Moreover, not only are the costs of fashion item unrealistically high, it is thought to be a money better spent on more pressing issues, such as poverty and hunger.

I do believe that the fashion industry, as it is today, has a harmful effect, because it values a minority of people in detriment to the majority. However, it has such a wide reach that, it put into a good use, it can save lives.

B2 First (FCE) Essay: Example topics

Fce example topic 1.

Your teacher has asked you to write your response to the following statement taken from a recent newspaper article:

Is it true that we help the environment when we plant a tree?

Write about:

• clear the air
•  ………….( your own idea)

FCE Example topic 2

Nowadays children are suffering from obesity, that was once considered to be meant for adults only. What are its causes and what solutions can be offered?

• busy lifestyle
• ………………(your own idea)

FCE Example topic 3

Is it better to be the oldest or the youngest in a family?

• role of older sibling

More than Practice Tests

B2 first (fce)  essay: tips.

• Make sure you know how to comment on all the points that are asked
• Invent information if you don’t have any ideas
• Divide the essay into paragraphs – put one answer in one paragraph
• Use advanced vocabulary when you can and formal language
• The final paragraph is the best place to express your opinion clearly.
• Revise your essay to correct mistakes.

B2 First (FCE) Essay: FAQ

How long should a b2 essay be.

You need to answer the question with between 140-190 words. 

If an answer is too long, you may get a lower score.   If you write 200 words, it’s not a problem. However, if you write 300 words, it’s a problem.

Should you do a plan?

Yes! You must make a plan to organise your essay writing . On the day of the exam, you will be stressed and feel pressure. A plan is your way of organising you text and your thoughts.

What happens if I write more than 190 words?

Nothing… Well, almost nothing. In the past for every 5 words extra, they took away a point, however, now they do not. It is not good to go over 190 words because of time, but you can. I wouldn´t write more than 200 words because they will probably lower the mark they give you for content. They will determine some of it to be unnecessary.

What counts as a complex language in the exam?

You MUST use complex language at B2 level . You must use attention-grabbing vocabulary and a variety of grammar structures. The passive voice, relative clauses, modal verbs, conditionals, reported speech and inversions all count as COMPLEX grammar forms and you must use them. Otherwise, you can address academic experts and pay someone to write your paper if you need help to write an essay for you.

B2 First (FCE) Essay: Useful Phrases & Expressions

Introduction.

The trend nowadays is towards …. Over the past ten years or so the media have frequently carried reports of …. Recent research indicates that …. Hardly a week goes by without another report of ……….. appearing in the media. This raises the issue of whether …… Although most people would generally agree that ………… few would deny that ….

Stating your opinion

As I see it, It seems to me that ………… I would also say that …. I am convinced that …………… I am inclined to believe that ……………… There is no doubt in my mind that ……………… One of the drawbacks of ……. is ………. However, one of the benefits is that ………… Changing topic As regards the causes for this, ………….. Concerning the causes for this, ……… As for the causes, ………..

Presenting arguments

One justification is often given for ……….. is that…………….. Advocates/Proponents would claim that ……………… Those who object to …………….. often argue that ………………. Another objection is that …… However, it should not be forgotten that ………….. ……….. are opposed to ……………. on the grounds that …………….. From the point of view of …………….. According to ………………..

Describing causes

One factor which has led to ………… is ………….. One of the factors which has brought this about is ……… The problem often stems from ……………….. The situation has been exacerbated by ……………. ………….. has only made the situation worse. One consequence of ……………. is …………….

Proposing steps and measures

As regards the most appropriate response to this situation, one suggestion would be to ……… The first step to be taken would be to …….. To alleviate the situation people should ……….. In addition they ought to …………… To begin to tackle this situation society/individuals/the government need/s to This can only be dealt with if ………… To overcome this problem, ………….. Were the government to ……………, the situation would doubtless improve. Individuals can do a great deal to ………… The burden of responsiblity lies in the hands of …….. It is vitally important that ……… Legislation should be introduced to control …………….. It would be a grave error if we ……………..

All in all it seems to me that ……….. The obvious conclusion to be drawn is that ………………….. All things considered, …………. On balance, I tend to believe that ………… The world would surely be a better place to live in if ………….. If people stopped ….ing, we would have/ we could look forward to a …………… The prospects for the future will be bleak/grim unless ……………….

What is your level of English?

Department of History

Guidance on writing essays.

Essay Writing Checklist

Here are some of the things you need to think about in preparing an essay. Few of them are iron rules. Good essays come in many forms, and a good essay writer will sometimes ignore some of these guidelines. But to become a good essay writer you would probably do well to start by following them.

Please remember that writing an essay involves skills of discussion and argument which differ from those that might be used in the informal setting of a seminar. In the first place, argument and analysis in essays will usually have to be more carefully structured than the comments you might make in a seminar or tutorial discussion. In essays, you should demonstrate awareness of more than one argument, acknowledge differences in the views of historians, and adopt a critical appreciation of evidence and its sources. You should also provide the necessary scholarly underpinning for your analysis by showing the sources of your information and arguments in bibliographies and footnotes.

On questions of presentation, footnoting, etc. you should follow the advice given in the MHRA Style Guide .

1. The Essay Question

• Have you really answered the question?
• Have you thought what might lie behind the question, e.g. if it asks 'Was the First World War the main cause of the Russian Revolution?', have you thought about what alternative explanations might be suggested?
• Is each paragraph clearly related to the overall question, raising a new topic and moving the argument forward?
• The ultimate test is that if you left the title off the top of your essay, could a friend guess the question from your answer?

2. Your Analysis

• Have you made an argument or is the essay simply relating what happened?
• Is your argument logical, coherent and clear?
• Are you contradicting yourself?
• Are you using appropriate evidence to back up each part of your argument?
• Are you aware of counter-arguments?
• Have you combined evidence and ideas from several different sources at each stage of the argument, or are you merely summarising what your sources say one by one?

3. Your Research

• Have you done enough reading? Six books/article/chapters is suggested for a short essay; ten or more for a long one.
• Are you up to date on the historical debate? Do not rely only on the older texts.
• Have you listed in the bibliography all the sources you used, and only those sources?

4. Presentation

• Is it legible? Is it double-spaced with wide enough margins for comments?
• Is the essay written simply and fluently, so that the reader does not have to read sentences twice?
• Have you numbered the pages? In typing comments, it is useful for tutors to have page numbers to refer to.
• Is it too long? Almost every essay would be better if the same things were said in fewer words. Recommended word lengths are a maximum, not a minimum.
• Have you given footnotes and page references for any direct quotations or ideas that are not yours? Are these set out properly, in accordance with the Style Guide?
• Are your punctuation and your spelling correct? Use the spell check function on your word processing software.

5. The One Iron Rule

Please be aware that plagiarism (using someone else's words or ideas without acknowledgement) is a serious offence, and is taken seriously by the Department and the University. To avoid doing this by mistake always put inverted commas into your notes around any passage you copy out, and keep a record of the source.

Please also note that self-plagiarism   is also a serious offence. You may not submit work at Warwick that you previously submitted at your home institution.

• For questions about a specific essay or module, contact your module tutor
• For general questions about essay writing in the UK (especially regarding how it might differ from your previous studies abroad), contact Tim Lockley, Director of Study Abroad Programmes.

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, the complete ib extended essay guide: examples, topics, and ideas.

International Baccalaureate (IB)

IB students around the globe fear writing the Extended Essay, but it doesn't have to be a source of stress! In this article, I'll get you excited about writing your Extended Essay and provide you with the resources you need to get an A on it.

If you're reading this article, I'm going to assume you're an IB student getting ready to write your Extended Essay. If you're looking at this as a potential future IB student, I recommend reading our introductory IB articles first, including our guide to what the IB program is and our full coverage of the IB curriculum .

IB Extended Essay: Why Should You Trust My Advice?

I myself am a recipient of an IB Diploma, and I happened to receive an A on my IB Extended Essay. Don't believe me? The proof is in the IBO pudding:

If you're confused by what this report means, EE is short for Extended Essay , and English A1 is the subject that my Extended Essay topic coordinated with. In layman's terms, my IB Diploma was graded in May 2010, I wrote my Extended Essay in the English A1 category, and I received an A grade on it.

What Is the Extended Essay in the IB Diploma Programme?

The IB Extended Essay, or EE , is a mini-thesis you write under the supervision of an IB advisor (an IB teacher at your school), which counts toward your IB Diploma (learn more about the major IB Diploma requirements in our guide) . I will explain exactly how the EE affects your Diploma later in this article.

For the Extended Essay, you will choose a research question as a topic, conduct the research independently, then write an essay on your findings . The essay itself is a long one—although there's a cap of 4,000 words, most successful essays get very close to this limit.

Keep in mind that the IB requires this essay to be a "formal piece of academic writing," meaning you'll have to do outside research and cite additional sources.

The IB Extended Essay must include the following:

• A title page
• Contents page
• Introduction
• Body of the essay
• References and bibliography

Additionally, your research topic must fall into one of the six approved DP categories , or IB subject groups, which are as follows:

• Group 1: Studies in Language and Literature
• Group 2: Language Acquisition
• Group 3: Individuals and Societies
• Group 4: Sciences
• Group 5: Mathematics
• Group 6: The Arts

Once you figure out your category and have identified a potential research topic, it's time to pick your advisor, who is normally an IB teacher at your school (though you can also find one online ). This person will help direct your research, and they'll conduct the reflection sessions you'll have to do as part of your Extended Essay.

As of 2018, the IB requires a "reflection process" as part of your EE supervision process. To fulfill this requirement, you have to meet at least three times with your supervisor in what the IB calls "reflection sessions." These meetings are not only mandatory but are also part of the formal assessment of the EE and your research methods.

According to the IB, the purpose of these meetings is to "provide an opportunity for students to reflect on their engagement with the research process." Basically, these meetings give your supervisor the opportunity to offer feedback, push you to think differently, and encourage you to evaluate your research process.

The final reflection session is called the viva voce, and it's a short 10- to 15-minute interview between you and your advisor. This happens at the very end of the EE process, and it's designed to help your advisor write their report, which factors into your EE grade.

Here are the topics covered in your viva voce :

• A check on plagiarism and malpractice
• Your reflection on your project's successes and difficulties
• Your reflection on what you've learned during the EE process

Your completed Extended Essay, along with your supervisor's report, will then be sent to the IB to be graded. We'll cover the assessment criteria in just a moment.

We'll help you learn how to have those "lightbulb" moments...even on test day!  

What Should You Write About in Your IB Extended Essay?

You can technically write about anything, so long as it falls within one of the approved categories listed above.

It's best to choose a topic that matches one of the IB courses , (such as Theatre, Film, Spanish, French, Math, Biology, etc.), which shouldn't be difficult because there are so many class subjects.

Here is a range of sample topics with the attached extended essay:

• Biology: The Effect of Age and Gender on the Photoreceptor Cells in the Human Retina
• Chemistry: How Does Reflux Time Affect the Yield and Purity of Ethyl Aminobenzoate (Benzocaine), and How Effective is Recrystallisation as a Purification Technique for This Compound?
• English: An Exploration of Jane Austen's Use of the Outdoors in Emma
• Geography: The Effect of Location on the Educational Attainment of Indigenous Secondary Students in Queensland, Australia
• Math: Alhazen's Billiard Problem
• Visual Arts: Can Luc Tuymans Be Classified as a Political Painter?

You can see from how varied the topics are that you have a lot of freedom when it comes to picking a topic . So how do you pick when the options are limitless?

How to Write a Stellar IB Extended Essay: 6 Essential Tips

Below are six key tips to keep in mind as you work on your Extended Essay for the IB DP. Follow these and you're sure to get an A!

#1: Write About Something You Enjoy

You can't expect to write a compelling essay if you're not a fan of the topic on which you're writing. For example, I just love British theatre and ended up writing my Extended Essay on a revolution in post-WWII British theatre. (Yes, I'm definitely a #TheatreNerd.)

I really encourage anyone who pursues an IB Diploma to take the Extended Essay seriously. I was fortunate enough to receive a full-tuition merit scholarship to USC's School of Dramatic Arts program. In my interview for the scholarship, I spoke passionately about my Extended Essay; thus, I genuinely think my Extended Essay helped me get my scholarship.

But how do you find a topic you're passionate about? Start by thinking about which classes you enjoy the most and why . Do you like math classes because you like to solve problems? Or do you enjoy English because you like to analyze literary texts?

Keep in mind that there's no right or wrong answer when it comes to choosing your Extended Essay topic. You're not more likely to get high marks because you're writing about science, just like you're not doomed to failure because you've chosen to tackle the social sciences. The quality of what you produce—not the field you choose to research within—will determine your grade.

Once you've figured out your category, you should brainstorm more specific topics by putting pen to paper . What was your favorite chapter you learned in that class? Was it astrophysics or mechanics? What did you like about that specific chapter? Is there something you want to learn more about? I recommend spending a few hours on this type of brainstorming.

One last note: if you're truly stumped on what to research, pick a topic that will help you in your future major or career . That way you can use your Extended Essay as a talking point in your college essays (and it will prepare you for your studies to come too!).

#2: Select a Topic That Is Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow

There's a fine line between broad and narrow. You need to write about something specific, but not so specific that you can't write 4,000 words on it.

You can't write about WWII because that would be a book's worth of material. You also don't want to write about what type of soup prisoners of war received behind enemy lines, because you probably won’t be able to come up with 4,000 words of material about it. However, you could possibly write about how the conditions in German POW camps—and the rations provided—were directly affected by the Nazis' successes and failures on the front, including the use of captured factories and prison labor in Eastern Europe to increase production. WWII military history might be a little overdone, but you get my point.

If you're really stuck trying to pinpoint a not-too-broad-or-too-narrow topic, I suggest trying to brainstorm a topic that uses a comparison. Once you begin looking through the list of sample essays below, you'll notice that many use comparisons to formulate their main arguments.

I also used a comparison in my EE, contrasting Harold Pinter's Party Time with John Osborne's Look Back in Anger in order to show a transition in British theatre. Topics with comparisons of two to three plays, books, and so on tend to be the sweet spot. You can analyze each item and then compare them with one another after doing some in-depth analysis of each individually. The ways these items compare and contrast will end up forming the thesis of your essay!

When choosing a comparative topic, the key is that the comparison should be significant. I compared two plays to illustrate the transition in British theatre, but you could compare the ways different regional dialects affect people's job prospects or how different temperatures may or may not affect the mating patterns of lightning bugs. The point here is that comparisons not only help you limit your topic, but they also help you build your argument.

Comparisons are not the only way to get a grade-A EE, though. If after brainstorming, you pick a non-comparison-based topic and are still unsure whether your topic is too broad or narrow, spend about 30 minutes doing some basic research and see how much material is out there.

If there are more than 1,000 books, articles, or documentaries out there on that exact topic, it may be too broad. But if there are only two books that have any connection to your topic, it may be too narrow. If you're still unsure, ask your advisor—it's what they're there for! Speaking of advisors...

Don't get stuck with a narrow topic!

#3: Choose an Advisor Who Is Familiar With Your Topic

If you're not certain of who you would like to be your advisor, create a list of your top three choices. Next, write down the pros and cons of each possibility (I know this sounds tedious, but it really helps!).

For example, Mr. Green is my favorite teacher and we get along really well, but he teaches English. For my EE, I want to conduct an experiment that compares the efficiency of American electric cars with foreign electric cars.

I had Ms. White a year ago. She teaches physics and enjoyed having me in her class. Unlike Mr. Green, Ms. White could help me design my experiment.

Based on my topic and what I need from my advisor, Ms. White would be a better fit for me than would Mr. Green (even though I like him a lot).

The moral of my story is this: do not just ask your favorite teacher to be your advisor . They might be a hindrance to you if they teach another subject. For example, I would not recommend asking your biology teacher to guide you in writing an English literature-based EE.

There can, of course, be exceptions to this rule. If you have a teacher who's passionate and knowledgeable about your topic (as my English teacher was about my theatre topic), you could ask that instructor. Consider all your options before you do this. There was no theatre teacher at my high school, so I couldn't find a theatre-specific advisor, but I chose the next best thing.

Before you approach a teacher to serve as your advisor, check with your high school to see what requirements they have for this process. Some IB high schools require your IB Extended Essay advisor to sign an Agreement Form , for instance.

Make sure that you ask your IB coordinator whether there is any required paperwork to fill out. If your school needs a specific form signed, bring it with you when you ask your teacher to be your EE advisor.

#4: Pick an Advisor Who Will Push You to Be Your Best

Some teachers might just take on students because they have to and aren't very passionate about reading drafts, only giving you minimal feedback. Choose a teacher who will take the time to read several drafts of your essay and give you extensive notes. I would not have gotten my A without being pushed to make my Extended Essay draft better.

Ask a teacher that you have experience with through class or an extracurricular activity. Do not ask a teacher that you have absolutely no connection to. If a teacher already knows you, that means they already know your strengths and weaknesses, so they know what to look for, where you need to improve, and how to encourage your best work.

Also, don't forget that your supervisor's assessment is part of your overall EE score . If you're meeting with someone who pushes you to do better—and you actually take their advice—they'll have more impressive things to say about you than a supervisor who doesn't know you well and isn't heavily involved in your research process.

Be aware that the IB only allows advisors to make suggestions and give constructive criticism. Your teacher cannot actually help you write your EE. The IB recommends that the supervisor spends approximately two to three hours in total with the candidate discussing the EE.

#5: Make Sure Your Essay Has a Clear Structure and Flow

The IB likes structure. Your EE needs a clear introduction (which should be one to two double-spaced pages), research question/focus (i.e., what you're investigating), a body, and a conclusion (about one double-spaced page). An essay with unclear organization will be graded poorly.

The body of your EE should make up the bulk of the essay. It should be about eight to 18 pages long (again, depending on your topic). Your body can be split into multiple parts. For example, if you were doing a comparison, you might have one third of your body as Novel A Analysis, another third as Novel B Analysis, and the final third as your comparison of Novels A and B.

If you're conducting an experiment or analyzing data, such as in this EE , your EE body should have a clear structure that aligns with the scientific method ; you should state the research question, discuss your method, present the data, analyze the data, explain any uncertainties, and draw a conclusion and/or evaluate the success of the experiment.

#6: Start Writing Sooner Rather Than Later!

You will not be able to crank out a 4,000-word essay in just a week and get an A on it. You'll be reading many, many articles (and, depending on your topic, possibly books and plays as well!). As such, it's imperative that you start your research as soon as possible.

Each school has a slightly different deadline for the Extended Essay. Some schools want them as soon as November of your senior year; others will take them as late as February. Your school will tell you what your deadline is. If they haven't mentioned it by February of your junior year, ask your IB coordinator about it.

Some high schools will provide you with a timeline of when you need to come up with a topic, when you need to meet with your advisor, and when certain drafts are due. Not all schools do this. Ask your IB coordinator if you are unsure whether you are on a specific timeline.

Below is my recommended EE timeline. While it's earlier than most schools, it'll save you a ton of heartache (trust me, I remember how hard this process was!):

• January/February of Junior Year: Come up with your final research topic (or at least your top three options).
• February of Junior Year: Approach a teacher about being your EE advisor. If they decline, keep asking others until you find one. See my notes above on how to pick an EE advisor.
• April/May of Junior Year: Submit an outline of your EE and a bibliography of potential research sources (I recommend at least seven to 10) to your EE advisor. Meet with your EE advisor to discuss your outline.
• Summer Between Junior and Senior Year: Complete your first full draft over the summer between your junior and senior year. I know, I know—no one wants to work during the summer, but trust me—this will save you so much stress come fall when you are busy with college applications and other internal assessments for your IB classes. You will want to have this first full draft done because you will want to complete a couple of draft cycles as you likely won't be able to get everything you want to say into 4,000 articulate words on the first attempt. Try to get this first draft into the best possible shape so you don't have to work on too many revisions during the school year on top of your homework, college applications, and extracurriculars.
• August/September of Senior Year: Turn in your first draft of your EE to your advisor and receive feedback. Work on incorporating their feedback into your essay. If they have a lot of suggestions for improvement, ask if they will read one more draft before the final draft.
• September/October of Senior Year: Submit the second draft of your EE to your advisor (if necessary) and look at their feedback. Work on creating the best possible final draft.
• November-February of Senior Year: Schedule your viva voce. Submit two copies of your final draft to your school to be sent off to the IB. You likely will not get your grade until after you graduate.

Remember that in the middle of these milestones, you'll need to schedule two other reflection sessions with your advisor . (Your teachers will actually take notes on these sessions on a form like this one , which then gets submitted to the IB.)

I recommend doing them when you get feedback on your drafts, but these meetings will ultimately be up to your supervisor. Just don't forget to do them!

The early bird DOES get the worm!

How Is the IB Extended Essay Graded?

Extended Essays are graded by examiners appointed by the IB on a scale of 0 to 34 . You'll be graded on five criteria, each with its own set of points. You can learn more about how EE scoring works by reading the IB guide to extended essays .

• Criterion A: Focus and Method (6 points maximum)
• Criterion B: Knowledge and Understanding (6 points maximum)
• Criterion C: Critical Thinking (12 points maximum)
• Criterion D: Presentation (4 points maximum)
• Criterion E: Engagement (6 points maximum)

How well you do on each of these criteria will determine the final letter grade you get for your EE. You must earn at least a D to be eligible to receive your IB Diploma.

Although each criterion has a point value, the IB explicitly states that graders are not converting point totals into grades; instead, they're using qualitative grade descriptors to determine the final grade of your Extended Essay . Grade descriptors are on pages 102-103 of this document .

Here's a rough estimate of how these different point values translate to letter grades based on previous scoring methods for the EE. This is just an estimate —you should read and understand the grade descriptors so you know exactly what the scorers are looking for.

Here is the breakdown of EE scores (from the May 2021 bulletin):

How Does the Extended Essay Grade Affect Your IB Diploma?

The Extended Essay grade is combined with your TOK (Theory of Knowledge) grade to determine how many points you get toward your IB Diploma.

To learn about Theory of Knowledge or how many points you need to receive an IB Diploma, read our complete guide to the IB program and our guide to the IB Diploma requirements .

This diagram shows how the two scores are combined to determine how many points you receive for your IB diploma (3 being the most, 0 being the least). In order to get your IB Diploma, you have to earn 24 points across both categories (the TOK and EE). The highest score anyone can earn is 45 points.

Let's say you get an A on your EE and a B on TOK. You will get 3 points toward your Diploma. As of 2014, a student who scores an E on either the extended essay or TOK essay will not be eligible to receive an IB Diploma .

Prior to the class of 2010, a Diploma candidate could receive a failing grade in either the Extended Essay or Theory of Knowledge and still be awarded a Diploma, but this is no longer true.

Figuring out how you're assessed can be a little tricky. Luckily, the IB breaks everything down here in this document . (The assessment information begins on page 219.)

40+ Sample Extended Essays for the IB Diploma Programme

In case you want a little more guidance on how to get an A on your EE, here are over 40 excellent (grade A) sample extended essays for your reading pleasure. Essays are grouped by IB subject.

• Business Management 1
• Chemistry 1
• Chemistry 2
• Chemistry 3
• Chemistry 4
• Chemistry 5
• Chemistry 6
• Chemistry 7
• Computer Science 1
• Economics 1
• Design Technology 1
• Design Technology 2
• Environmental Systems and Societies 1
• Geography 1
• Geography 2
• Geography 3
• Geography 4
• Geography 5
• Geography 6
• Literature and Performance 1
• Mathematics 1
• Mathematics 2
• Mathematics 3
• Mathematics 4
• Mathematics 5
• Philosophy 1
• Philosophy 2
• Philosophy 3
• Philosophy 4
• Philosophy 5
• Psychology 1
• Psychology 2
• Psychology 3
• Psychology 4
• Psychology 5
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 1
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 2
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 3
• Sports, Exercise and Health Science 1
• Sports, Exercise and Health Science 2
• Visual Arts 1
• Visual Arts 2
• Visual Arts 3
• Visual Arts 4
• Visual Arts 5
• World Religion 1
• World Religion 2
• World Religion 3

What's Next?

Trying to figure out what extracurriculars you should do? Learn more about participating in the Science Olympiad , starting a club , doing volunteer work , and joining Student Government .

Studying for the SAT? Check out our expert study guide to the SAT . Taking the SAT in a month or so? Learn how to cram effectively for this important test .

Not sure where you want to go to college? Read our guide to finding your target school . Also, determine your target SAT score or target ACT score .

As an SAT/ACT tutor, Dora has guided many students to test prep success. She loves watching students succeed and is committed to helping you get there. Dora received a full-tuition merit based scholarship to University of Southern California. She graduated magna cum laude and scored in the 99th percentile on the ACT. She is also passionate about acting, writing, and photography.

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Insights Weekly Essay Challenges 2024 – Week 181 – Creativity Is Allowing Yourself to Make Mistakes. Art Is Knowing Which Ones to Keep

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