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How to Use Brain-Based Learning in the Classroom

By andy minshew.

• October 1, 2019

In his book A Celebration of Neurons: An Educator’s Guide to the Human Brain , educational researcher Robert Sylwester wrote, “The human brain is the best-organized, most functional three pounds of matter in the known universe.” [3]

We cannot afford to underestimate our students’ academic potential. A child’s brain is capable of learning and growth that, if nurtured, can affect the trajectory of their entire academic career, and beyond. Brain-based learning can be one of the best ways to help kids reach their potential.

What is Brain-Based Learning?

Rather than a concrete theory, brain-based learning is more of an educational mindset. In a nutshell, brain-based learning can be defined as all learning theories in education that use research from the following fields as their basis:

• Neuroscience

How can you get started with brain-based learning? Because new research is always coming out, it’s important to intentionally look out for new ideas in the educational world. You might try reading educational journals, discussing strategies with your colleagues, or attending teacher conferences. Once you discover a new brain-based learning strategy, test it out with your students to see whether it works for your classroom.

Keep in mind, however, that since no two students’ minds are alike, some strategies may work for certain students better than others.[4] If you read up on a research-based theory but find that it doesn’t fit your students’ needs, don’t worry! As long as you’re making an effort to discover and use educational research to help your students, you’re using the spirit of brain-based learning in your classroom.

The Educational Benefits of Brain-Based Learning

On the superficial, grades-based level, using psychological or scientific theories of learning can have profound benefits. Researchers found, for example, that teachers who implement brain-based learning often see both increased knowledge retention and academic performance.[7] Not only do students score higher on test scores, but they also remember the skills they’ve learned and can use them beyond the classroom.

Brain-based learning can also affect social-emotional development , or a student’s ability to understand and regulate their emotions. Studies have found that brain-based learning strategies can improve a student’s motivation and attitude.[10] When students develop an intrinsic love of learning and approach class with the right mindset, your entire class will be better prepared for a successful school career.

Ultimately, this is the goal of brain-based learning: to create a learning environment and classroom strategy where all students can thrive.[9] Because the scientific and psychological fields are always evolving, however, take each strategy with a grain of salt.[2] You may need to try a few different theories or strategies before you find those that best align with your classroom needs.

Learning Strategies Compatible with Brain-Based Learning

Now that you understand what brain-based learning is and how it can work, it’s time to discover some active learning strategies based on scientific research. These four learning strategies are just a few examples of how brain-based learning can work within well-known learning theories. Read up on the ones that interest you, then test them out to determine whether they work well with your class.

As mentioned earlier, brain-based learning also aligns with social-emotional learning (SEL) .[7] SEL refers to the way a student learns how to manage their thoughts, feelings, and actions. If you teach students these management skills in class, you can help them approach challenges inside and outside of school with a healthy attitude.

An older and generally respected learning theory in the educational field is multiple intelligences . As with the mindset of brain-based learning, multiple intelligences theory helps teachers remember that every child’s brain is different and may respond better to certain activities.[11] Because multiple intelligences is still undergoing research, however, this is best used as a classroom management strategy and not as a neuroscientific fact.

Finally, experiential learning (also known as “hands-on” learning) is another strategy developed using cognitive research.[12] This strategy encourages students to put concepts they learn in class to the test and both practice and reflect on them. This can help students develop critical thinking skills that extend far beyond a single lesson.

5 Tips to Model Your Curriculum After How Children Learn

Brain-based learning is one of the best ways to help students get the most out of their education. When you plan with your students’ brain in mind, you can put together lessons and activities that reflect how their brains work.

Keep these five tips in mind when you’re planning brain-based learning activities for your kids in class:

• Brain-based learning is not only theoretical but practical, too. Model your assignments in ways that mirror challenges students may face in real life.[15]
• Keep in mind that brain-based learning also encompasses social-emotional development .[7] Plan lessons that teach students social and team-building skills.
• A child’s learning environment can enhance or impair their academic achievement. Avoid creating lessons or situations that make students feel overly anxious, threatened, or helpless.[7]
• Lessons shouldn’t just involve memorizing words or facts. Use activities and lessons to help students learn how to problem solve and develop critical thinking skills that will benefit them for their entire academic career.[13]
• Not every brain-based learning strategy will be a good fit for your students. Try out a variety of different strategies to find the best ones for your class.[14]
• Caine, R.N., and Caine, G. Understanding a Brain-Based Approach to Learning and Teaching . Retrieved from semanticscholar.org: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8d58/b6af940e0117fcd4f52ef7e73e16690261f5.pdf.
• Jensen, E. Brain-based Learning: A Reality Check . Educational Leadership, April 2000, 57(7), pp. 76-80. Concordia University-Portland Room 241 Team. Explanation of Brain Based Learning. Retrieved from cu-portland.edu: https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/classroom-resources/brain-based-learning-explained/ [1]
• Kaufman, E.K., Robinson, S.J., Bellah, K.A., Akers, C., Haase-Wittler, P., and Martindale, L. Engaging Students with Brain-Based Learning . Retrieved from researchgate.net: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eric_Kaufman/publication/253117676_Engaging_Students_with_Brain-Based_Learning/links/5454366d0cf26d5090a5593d.pdf.
• Connell, J.D. The Global Aspects of Brain-Based Learning . Educational Horizons, Fall 2009, 88(1), pp. 28-39.
• Ozden, M., and Gultekin, M. The Effects of Brain-Based Learning on Academic Achievement and Retention of Knowledge in Science Course . Electronic Journal of Science Education, 2008, 12(1), pp. 2078-2103.
• Clemons, S.A. Brain-Based Learning: Possible Implications for Online Instruction . Retrieved from mass.edu: https://www.middlesex.mass.edu/ace/downloads/sept05bb.pdf.
• Edelenbosch, R., Kupper, F., Krabbendam, L., Broerse, J. Brain‐Based Learning and Educational Neuroscience: Boundary Work . Mind, Brain, and Education, March 2015, 9(1), pp. 40-49.
• Prigge, D.J. Promote Brain-Based Teaching and Learning. Intervention in School and Clinic, March 2002, 37(4), pp. 237-241.
• Akyurek, E., and Afacan, O. Effects of Brain-Based Learning Approach on Students’ Motivation and Attitudes Levels in Science Class. Mevlana International Journal of Education, April 2013, 3(1), pp. 104-119.
• Edutopia Staff. Multiple Intelligences: What Does the Research Say? Retrieved from edutopia.org: https://www.edutopia.org/multiple-intelligences-research.
• Kolb, A.Y., and Kolb, D.A. The Learning Way: Meta-cognitive Aspects of Experiential Learning. Simulation & Gaming, 2009, 40(3), pp. 297-327.
• Hmelo-Silver, C.E. Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn? Educational Psychology Review, September 2004, 16(3), pp. 235-266.
• Kiewra, K.A. How Classroom Teachers Can Help Students Learn and Teach Them How to Learn . Theory Into Practice, 2002, 41(2), pp. 71-80. NME Foundation. How Do Today’s Students Learn? Retrieved from nmefoundation.org: https://www.nmefoundation.org/getmedia/4e11f2e3-e934-4184-b92d-a2526ba56562/nessc-briefing-how-do-students-learn?ext=.pdf
• International Dyslexia Association. Multisensory Structured Language Teaching Fact Sheet . Retrieved from dyslexiaida.org: https://dyslexiaida.org/multisensory-structured-language-teaching-fact-sheet/.

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Putting Neuroscience in the Classroom: How the Brain Changes As We Learn

The more we know about how the developing brain changes as we learn, the better we can support young learners

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As we learn, our brains continually change. From toddlerhood to early childhood, all of life’s natural learning experiences—from a playdate with a friend to hearing that bedtime story one more time—are acting to refine the function and structure of circuits in the brain that are central to how we see, hear, feel, and act in the world. When children go off to school, they need to adapt these circuits of their brains in new and profound ways as they learn how to translate letters into words, words into ideas, and numbers into mathematical concepts. Now, scientists and educators are teaming up to study how schooling changes brain development—and to take lessons from what they learn to improve the learning process. 

On a typical day at the Synapse School in Menlo Park, California, where our team of Stanford University neuroscientists works hand in hand with teachers, students might drop by the Brainwave Learning Center , an on-site research lab where they can wear stretchy caps with more than a hundred small, spongy sensors on their heads. These sensors measure the naturally occurring brain waves that fluctuate as they play educational games or engage in guided meditation. The students can also watch live computer displays to witness how their own brain waves change as they concentrate on a task or engage in mindfulness. This interactive experience provides each child the chance to see and think about their own brain activity, how it changes with learning, and even how it changes with moment-to-moment shifts in mindset, which helps instill in students a sense of ownership of their learning process. Meanwhile, the brain activity evoked by the educational games provides important data to ongoing studies of brain and skill development.  

This nascent research is bringing together two different worlds: the rapidly progressing field of developmental cognitive neuroscience, which studies how brains change during learning (Related podcast: “The Future of Learning: The Evolving Classroom”) , and the complex domain of schools, teachers, and curricula, which shape and support the learning. This emerging field of educational neuroscience goes beyond what either of these worlds could attempt to tackle on their own and will help answer important questions: How does classroom learning place pressure on specific brain circuits to change? Are there differences in these circuits that could help us understand why some children struggle with learning? Are there ways we can improve education to help children with those challenges?

Our understanding of how brain development changes during the early school years is expanding rapidly. Today’s generation of children is the first to grow up in a time when tools such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and wearable brain-wave sensors are widely available. At the same time, collaborative, open-science practices such as data sharing are becoming the norm. This has expanded our basic knowledge about the developing brain circuits of reading, math, and attention, as well as allowing sampling of large populations of schoolchildren that covers the true range of neurodiversity in them.

Just last year, for example, over 11,000 third grade children completed an extensive brain scanning protocol in multiple cities across the country. Each has pledged to repeat the scans every two years as they progress through elementary, middle, and high school, providing the largest brain development study ever carried out and enabling researchers to follow changes in the structure and functions of specific neural circuits and fully explore the diversity of paths that children’s brain development takes.   Importantly, we will be able to explore the question of how all this rich diversity in brain development is linked to each child’s ongoing education through richly detailed assessments of their educational achievement, home and school environment, social media use, and involvement in arts and sports.

Circuits that adapted at very early ages to recognize faces and objects reconfigure to recognize thousands of visual words.

But how can the role of educational experiences be directly linked to changes in brain structure and function? Remarkably, many brain imaging technologies are now sensitive to changes in brain circuits that accrue from one week to the next, allowing researchers to better understand how specific learning experiences drive changes in brain function and structure. In one study, researchers used MRI imaging to take pictures of the brains of struggling readers who tested in the dyslexic range and were undergoing several weeks of intensive tutoring. Brain scans collected every two weeks revealed remarkable changes in both reading skills and in the structural brain scan measures of white matter tracts (the long fiber bundles that connect one part of the brain to another). A control group scanned across weeks of “business as usual” education allowed researchers to make powerful claims about the extent to which this tutoring actually caused changes in the brain circuits. Such results are challenging and even changing our understanding of the term “learning disability.” These findings place increasing focus on how the right educational supports can lead to positive changes in both the mind and brain.

We also can study how week-to-week change accumulates over a school year by observing natural experiments that are occurring in educational systems all the time. For example, schools need to decide when a student enters kindergarten and when a student must wait. Consider a group of 5-year-olds born in September of the same year in a school district that requires incoming kindergartners to have a birthday before the 15th of the month. After a year, students of virtually the same maturity who attended school can be compared with those who had to wait. This provides a rare glimpse into the impact that formal learning in kindergarten—versus alternatives such as preschool or day care—has on developing brains. Such studies are already beginning to show how kindergarten experiences can enhance development in brain networks related to skills such as sustained attention.

Teachers, of course, play a central role in guiding a child’s learning experiences. The way a teacher focuses a student’s attention can affect the nature of learning-induced changes in specific brain circuits. One recent brain-imaging study asked students to learn to read words made up from a set of artificial symbols, not traditional letters, that the students had never seen before. Two different sets of learning instructions either biased them toward a “whole-word” strategy or a “letter-sound” strategy. Words learned under whole-word instructions produced a pattern of brain activity associated with novice learners or unfamiliar words. In contrast, words learned under letter-sound instructions produced a left hemisphere response in regions associated with adult-level word recognition. This adds to a growing body of work suggesting that with their instructional choices, teachers can play a significant role in helping to direct learning, which may have an impact on which brain circuits are changing as a result.

When children understand how their brains change as they learn new things, the whole idea of learning in school could change profoundly for them

Combining the science of reading and math development with brain imaging has led to new insights into how brain circuits change as children master these foundational educational skills. We know that emerging readers’ brains change in two fundamental ways: Circuits that adapted at very early ages to recognize faces and objects reconfigure to recognize thousands of visual words. And circuits for language that developed early to hear and pronounce words adapt to recognize sounds associated with syllables and letters. As children learn to read, these circuits increasingly take on the job of taking a jumble of tiny lines, curves, and spaces and turning them into recognized patterns of letters, letter combinations, and familiar words such as “rabbit,” which happens to be one of the few six-letter words first graders at Synapse know by sight. By middle school, students’ circuits further mature to allow them to recognize any of several thousand words they’ve been exposed to in their days at Synapse in less time than it takes to blink.  

Meanwhile, we know that math is marked by changes in several other areas of the brain, including a region where visual systems recognize number symbols. Mastering math requires children to learn to automatically associate numerical meaning with these symbols—for example, that the quantity “seven” is written as 7. This specific form of math learning changes circuits of the brain that are located within systems more specialized for spatial relationships than language. As children move into middle school, their brain circuits begin to consolidate and retrieve facts to make relationships between numbers with effortless thought.

Every class of kindergartners at Synapse is actively going through those processes during the school year. Each student brings with them a diversity of developing skills in language, vision, attention, and other cognitive factors that can be measured safely and conveniently in our on-site Brainwave Recording Studio. When students place those nets of sensors on their heads, we can capture a thousand “pictures” of activity per second by measuring the natural electrical fields produced by the child’s brain activity.

After six months of learning, students come in again to allow us to trace how their brain circuits have developed. Repeated visits over the subsequent elementary school years will enable our research team and the school staff to watch as students’ brain circuits change as they grow from novice kindergartners to confident middle schoolers who spend hours a day learning through reading. Importantly, we combine these brain measures with leading behavioral reading assessments. The aim is to leverage the overlapping and complementary insights of these approaches to better understand the interaction between educational experiences and an individual student’s strengths and vulnerabilities, and to predict and rapidly respond to emerging challenges.

This knowledge can guide extra instructional support for a young learner, for instance, to focus additional training on phonological processing or visual attention needs. Similarly, we know that children’s early difficulties with ordering or combining sets of objects, recognizing spatial patterns, and understanding quantities—that general sense of how much of something there is—correlate with later math achievement. So this knowledge, too, can help focus extra support for a young learner to strengthen the brain network that underlies math skills. Clearly, we need to move beyond just describing traditional levels of students’ performance—grading whether they meet or fall below expected standards—and to provide insights that might lead to investigating specific instructional approaches and why they work for the students who respond to them.

Around the world, there is a growing number of collaborations between cognitive neuroscientists and schools that are beginning to tackle a large set of issues beyond just reading and mathematics. This work will help us understand how critical factors such as empathy, creativity, self-control, and problem solving develop in school experiences and how schools can influence the brain circuits involved in much of what makes us human.

This is central to our partnership with Synapse School, where social-emotional learning is a foundational principle. Synapse students are trained in mindfulness practices right from kindergarten, including focused breathing during a “mindful minute.” Because key members of our research team are also full-time staff at the school, we have a deep understanding of these school-specific practices and values. When children complete a mindful minute while wearing the net of sensors on their heads, they can actually see their brain waves change as they do something that is common practice in their classrooms.

This insight is possible only because of the continuity that exists between lab and school. The children are also interacting with adults who are familiar to them and with whom they already share a history and deep trust. The neuroscientist who is putting the funny-looking net of sensors on their heads is the same adult who was out at recess the previous week when they lost their baby tooth, or who was in their class that day helping with a project. When the boundaries between the neuroscience lab and the school environments begin to overlap, we are able to push past traditional obstacles and forward into a new understanding of how going to school changes our brains.

By working directly in schools, educational neuroscientists are learning a great deal about the notion of learning itself. The students in these schools, of course, get to see scientists in action. They also get a chance to learn as the researchers go about their work and to see their own brains as the complex entities that they are, that change and adapt to their experiences. And that is a great lesson for all of us: For when children understand how their brains change as they learn new things, the whole idea of learning in school could change profoundly for them.

The Takeaway

We need to move beyond traditional descriptions of educational performance and gain insights that lead to effective teaching approaches and an understanding of why they work for students.

Bruce McCandliss heads the Educational Neuroscience Initiative at Stanford University, where he is a professor in the Graduate School of Education. Elizabeth Toomarian directs the Brainwave Learning Center at Synapse School and is a researcher with the Educational Neuroscience Initiative at Stanford University.

The Future of Learning: A Career of Learning

More from pew.

Brain Basics: Know Your Brain

The brain is the most complex part of the human body. This three-pound organ is the seat of intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of behavior. Lying in its bony shell and washed by protective fluid, the brain is the source of all the qualities that define our humanity. It is the crown jewel of the human body.

This fact sheet is a basic introduction to the human brain. It can help you understand how the healthy brain works, how to keep your brain healthy, and what happens when the brain doesn't work like it should.

The Structure of the Brain

The brain is like a group of experts. All the parts of the brain work together, but each part has its own special responsibilities. The brain can be divided into three basic units: the forebrain , the midbrain , and the hindbrain .

The hindbrain includes the upper part of the spinal cord, the brain stem, and a wrinkled ball of tissue called the cerebellum . The hindbrain controls the body’s vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.

The cerebellum coordinates movement and is involved in learned movements. When you play the piano or hit a tennis ball, you are activating the cerebellum.

The uppermost part of the brainstem is the midbrain, which controls some reflex actions and is part of the circuit involved in the control of eye movements and other voluntary movements. The forebrain is the largest and most highly developed part of the human brain: it consists primarily of the  cerebrum and the structures hidden beneath it ( see " The Inner Brain").

When people see pictures of the brain it is usually the cerebrum that they notice. The cerebrum sits at the topmost part of the brain and is the source of conscious thoughts and actions. It holds your memories and allows you to plan, imagine, and think. It allows you to recognize friends, read, and play games.

The cerebrum is split into two halves (hemispheres) by a deep fissure. The two cerebral hemispheres communicate with each other through a thick tract of nerve fibers that lies at the base of this fissure, called the corpus callosum. Although the two hemispheres seem to be mirror images of each other, they are different. For instance, the ability to form words seems to lie primarily in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere seems to control many abstract reasoning skills.

For some as-yet-unknown reason, nearly all of the signals from the brain to the body and vice versa cross over on their way to and from the brain. This means that the right cerebral hemisphere primarily controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere primarily controls the right side. When one side of the brain is damaged, the opposite side of the body is affected. For example, a stroke in the right hemisphere of the brain can leave the left arm and leg paralyzed.

The Cerebral Cortex

Coating the surface of the cerebrum and the cerebellum is a vital layer of tissue the thickness of a stack of two or three dimes. It is called the cortex, from the Latin word for bark. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. When people talk about "gray matter" in the brain, they are talking about the cortex. The cortex is gray because nerves in this area lack the insulation that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white. The folds in the brain add to its surface area and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the volume of information that can be processed.

The Geography of Thought

Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into sections, or lobes, each of which specializes in different functions. To understand each lobe and its specialty, we will take a tour of the cerebral hemispheres.

Frontal lobes

The two  frontal lobes lie directly behind the forehead. When you plan a schedule, imagine the future, or use reasoned arguments, these two lobes do much of the work. One of the ways the frontal lobes seem to do these things is by acting as short-term storage sites, allowing one idea to be kept in mind while other ideas are considered.

Motor cortex

In the back portion of each frontal lobe is a  motor cortex , which helps plan, control, and execute voluntary movement, like moving your arm or kicking a ball.

Parietal lobes

When you enjoy a good meal—the taste, smell, and texture of the food—two sections behind the frontal lobes called the  parietal lobes are at work. The parietal lobes also support reading and arithmetic.

Somatosensory cortex

The forward parts of these lobes, just behind the motor areas, is the somatosensory cortex . These areas receive information about temperature, taste, touch, and movement from the rest of the body.

Occipital lobes

As you look at the words and pictures on this page, two areas at the back of the brain are at work. These lobes, called the  occipital lobes , process images from the eyes and link that information with images stored in memory. Damage to the occipital lobes can cause blindness.

Temporal lobes

The last lobes on our tour of the cerebral hemispheres are the  temporal lobes , which lie in front of the visual areas and nest under the parietal and frontal lobes. Whether you appreciate symphonies or rock music, your brain responds through the activity of these lobes. At the top of each temporal lobe is an area responsible for receiving information from the ears. The underside of each temporal lobe plays a crucial role in forming and retrieving memories, including those associated with music. Other parts of this lobe integrate memories and sensations of taste, sound, sight, and touch.

The Inner Brain

Deep within the brain, hidden from view, lie structures that are the gatekeepers between the spinal cord and the cerebral hemispheres. These structures not only determine our emotional state, but they also modify our perceptions and responses and allow us to initiate movements that without thinking about them. Like the lobes in the cerebral hemispheres, the structures described below come in pairs: each is duplicated in the opposite half of the brain.

The  hypothalamus , about the size of a pearl, directs a multitude of important functions. It wakes you up in the morning and gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or job interview. The hypothalamus is also an important emotional center, controlling the chemicals that make you feel exhilarated, angry, or unhappy. Near the hypothalamus lies the  thalamus , a major clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum.

An arching tract of nerve cells leads from the hypothalamus and the thalamus to the  hippocampus . This tiny nub acts as a memory indexer—sending memories out to the appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieving them when necessary. The  basal ganglia  (not shown) are clusters of nerve cells surrounding the thalamus. They are responsible for initiating and integrating movements. Parkinson’s disease, which results in tremors, rigidity, and a stiff, shuffling walk, affects the nerve cells in the basal ganglia.

The brain and the rest of the nervous system are composed of many different types of cells, but the primary functional unit is a cell called the neuron. All sensations, movements, thoughts, memories, and feelings are the result of signals that pass through neurons. Neurons consist of three parts: the cell body , dendrites , and the axon .

The cell body contains the nucleus, where most of the molecules that the neuron needs to survive and function are manufactured. Dendrites extend out from the cell body like the branches of a tree and receive messages from other nerve cells. Signals then pass from the dendrites through the cell body and travel away from the cell body down an axon to another neuron, a muscle cell, or cells in some other organ.

The neuron is usually surrounded by many support cells. Some types of cells wrap around the axon to form an insulating  myelin sheath . Myelin is a fatty molecule which provides insulation for the axon and helps nerve signals travel faster and farther. Axons may be very short, such as those that carry signals from one cell in the cortex to another cell less than a hair’s width away. Other axons may be very long, such as those that carry messages from the brain all the way down the spinal cord.

The Synapse

Scientists have learned a great deal about neurons by studying the synapse—the place where a signal passes from the neuron to another cell. When the signal reaches the end of the axon it stimulates the release of tiny sacs called  vesicles. These vesicles release chemicals known as  neurotransmitters  into the  synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and attach to  receptors on the neighboring cell. These receptors can change the properties of the receiving cell. If the receiving cell is also a neuron, the signal can continue the transmission to the next cell.

Some Key Neurotransmitters At Work

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that brain cells use to talk to each other. Some neurotransmitters make cells more active (called  excitatory ) while others block or dampen a cell's activity (called  inhibitory ).

• Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter. It governs muscle contractions and causes glands to secrete hormones. Alzheimer’s disease , which initially affects memory formation, is associated with a shortage of acetylcholine.
• Glutamate is a major excitatory neurotransmitter. Too much glutamate can kill or damage neurons and has been linked to disorders including Parkinson's disease , stroke , seizures, and increased sensitivity to pain .
• GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps control muscle activity and is an important part of the visual system. Drugs that increase GABA levels in the brain are used to treat epileptic seizures and tremors in patients with Huntington’s disease .
• Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that constricts blood vessels and brings on sleep. It is also involved in temperature regulation. Low levels of serotonin may cause sleep problems and depression, while too much serotonin can lead to seizures.
• Dopamine  can be excitatory or inhibitory and is involved in mood and the control of complex movements. The loss of dopamine activity in some portions of the brain leads to the muscular rigidity of Parkinson’s disease . Many medications used to treat mental health disorders and conditions work by modifying the action of dopamine in the brain.

Neurological Disorders

The brain is one of the hardest working organs in the body. When the brain is healthy it functions quickly and automatically. But when problems occur, the results can be devastating. NINDS supports research on hundreds of neurological disorders. Knowing more about the brain can lead to the development of new treatments for diseases and disorders of the nervous system and improve many areas of human health.

Mind, Brain, & Education

• Posted June 1, 2005
• By Julia Hanna

Now in its third year, the MBE program formalizes a longstanding commitment at HGSE to the integration of cognitive science, biology, and education in research and practice.

“What is new about the center’s work is its application in intervention across a broad span of languages and culture. We’re trying to help as many kids as we can.”

“The traditional curriculum is for a narrow band of kids. CAST is about creating new media that are more responsive to students’ individual differences.”

“We’re committed to the common goal of understanding the developing child through the multidisciplinary union of basic research and its principled application to education.”

“If you take physics and leave out the engineers, you can’t build bridges. In the same way, you can’t go from biology to education without the education researchers. That’s the mission of MBE— to train the students who will build that bridge between the lab and the classroom.”–Bigelow Professor Kurt Fischer, director of the MBE program.

Ed. Magazine

The magazine of the Harvard Graduate School of Education

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Growing Brains, Nurturing Minds—Neuroscience as an Educational Tool to Support Students’ Development as Life-Long Learners

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Compared to other primates, humans are late bloomers, with exceptionally long childhood and adolescence. The extensive developmental period of humans is thought to facilitate the learning processes required for the growth and maturation of the complex human brain. During the first two and a half decades of life, the human brain is a construction site, and learning processes direct its shaping through experience-dependent neuroplasticity . Formal and informal learning, which generates long-term and accessible knowledge, is mediated by neuroplasticity to create adaptive structural and functional changes in brain networks. Since experience-dependent neuroplasticity is at full force during school years, it holds a tremendous educational opportunity. In order to fulfill this developmental and learning potential, educational practices should be human-brain-friendly and “ride” the neuroplasticity wave. Neuroscience can inform educators about the natural learning mechanisms of the brain to support student learning. This review takes a neuroscientific lens to explore central concepts in education (e.g., mindset, motivation, meaning-making, and attention) and suggests two methods of using neuroscience as an educational tool: teaching students about their brain (content level) and considering the neuro-mechanisms of learning in educational design (design level).

1. Educational Neuroscience (Teaching for the Brain and Teaching about the Brain)

Educational neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field exploring the effects of education on the human brain and promotes the translation of research findings to brain-based pedagogies and policies [ 1 ]. The brain is the target organ of education. Education is thought to influence brain development [ 2 , 3 ] and health, even as the brain ages [ 4 , 5 ]. Studying the dynamics between the brain and education can be instrumental in finding ways to better support learners across the lifespan.

Educational neuroscience research explores every possible relationship between the physiological, mental, and behavioral aspects of learning. Some studies have tried to identify the optimal physical conditions for neuroplasticity and learning. This stream of educational neuroscience research includes studies exploring the effects of sleep (or sleep deprivation), physical exercise, and environmental pollution on the brain and its cognitive performance [ 1 ]. While these studies focus on the effect of brain health on learning, other studies examine the effect of learning on brain health, assessing the long-term effects of learning/education on the human brain and exploring in what ways formal/informal education is associated with better aging of the human brain [ 2 , 3 , 4 ].

Some educational neuroscience studies take a developmental approach to study the relationship between cognitive and learning capacities across the lifespan. For example, multilevel measurements collected from adolescents (e.g., neuronal, hormonal, psychological, and behavioral) have advanced our understanding of how the massive neuronal changes that take place during adolescence promote cognitive development but also introduce immense neuronal and mental vulnerability (and the onset of most psychiatric disorders) [ 1 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Other studies in this line of research explore the factors supporting neuroplasticity in the mature brain—to support lifelong learning [ 8 ].

Educational neuroscience also explores the nature–nurture aspects of learning, for example, examining how learning environments interact with genetic conditions and what DNA variations predict differential learning abilities [ 9 ]. Environmental influences on learning include studies about the impacts of socio-economic status (SES) on the brain and cognitive developmental trajectory [ 10 ]. Furthermore, educational neuroscience seeks to understand the mechanisms that facilitate general learning abilities (such as executive control and social and emotional skills), discipline-specific learning abilities (such as literacy, numeracy, and science), the connections between these mechanisms, and the extent to which these learning skills are trainable [ 11 ].

As a developing, interdisciplinary research field, educational neuroscience faces challenges, limitations, and criticism, especially concerning the ability to generalize research findings in lab conditions to classroom learning, and its validity and transferability to larger scales, such as mass education systems. Other challenges stem from the fact that learning is one of the most basic yet complex brain functions that incorporates the entire brain and has a continuous effect. Furthermore, empirical studies in educational neuroscience are challenging and cumbersome due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field (education, psychology, and neuroscience); the need for repeated measures over time; and the young target population (school students), which imposes ethical restrictions on experimental designs. Finally, while still evolving as a research field, educational neuroscience is intriguing for many educational leaders who are enthusiastic about applying neuroscience in education practices. Unfortunately, the current gap between the high demand and limited supply may lead to misuse of neuroscience in pedagogy (e.g., neuromyths or the justification of educational methods based on limited to no evidence) [ 1 ].

While educational neuroscience is preliminary in forming evidence-based pedagogy, it can already offer valuable information and a much-needed bridge between educators and scientists in translating the research of learning into effective educational practices.

Neuroscience-informed educational design (teaching the way the brain learns) can promote learning motivation, high-level information processing, and knowledge retention. Moreover, neuroscience educational content (teaching about the brain) can inform students about their developing brains to promote scientific education and self-exploration.

1.1. Learning and Neuroplasticity

Human development is based on nature (genetics), nurture (physical and social environments), and their interactions (epigenetics) [ 12 , 13 ]. These factors play an essential role in learning processes and the reorganization of neuronal networks to create neuronal representations of new knowledge. Learning and training new knowledge or skills evoke specific and repeated activity patterns, and in the process of Hebbian neuroplasticity, neural pathways are reinforced by the strengthening of specific synapses, while less functional ones are eliminated [ 14 , 15 , 16 ].

Almost half a century ago, Vygotsky introduced the zone of proximal development (ZPD) [ 17 ] in education. According to the ZPD, learning and development depend on an optimal balance between support and challenge (see Figure 1 : the zone of proximal development and neuroplasticity), which should be tuned and tailored for each learner based on their specific developmental stage. The ZPD model was revolutionary, as it emphasized the importance of the educational environment (nurture) in unlocking the internal potential (nature) of students, and it placed the learning process (as opposed to the learning product ) as the central educational goal [ 17 ]. Some decades later, the biology of learning revealed a beautiful alignment with Vygotsky’s theory—with evidence showing that brain neuroplasticity is highly affected by environmental conditions and the balance between demands (challenge) and available resources (support) [ 18 ]. The impact of stressors on learning can be constructive or destructive depending on the intensity, duration, and accumulation of the stressors and the coping mechanisms and support that one has.

The zone of proximal development and neuroplasticity. An integrative approach between Vygotsky’s educational model and the neuroscience of learning. When learning and performance demands exceed the available support and resources, students are likely to be overwhelmed and resort to survival mode (stress zone). When learning and performance demands are significantly lower than the available support and resources, students are likely to be under stimulated and resort to static mode (comfort zone). When learning and performance demands match the available support and resources, students are likely to be appropriately challenged and work within their zone of proximal development, which promotes neuroplasticity and growth (stretch zone).

Neuroscience research suggests that experience-dependent neuroplasticity [ 19 ], which facilitates learning processes, benefits from several principles. The central one is that learning a skill or new knowledge requires the activation of relevant neuronal pathways. The research also points to the saliency, intensity, and repetition of the learned skill/knowledge as valuable strategies for enhancing neuroplastic changes [ 16 , 20 , 21 ]. Learners cannot be passive recipients of content but must be active participants in the learning process.

An enriched environment for enhanced neuroplasticity offers physiological integrity, cognitive challenge, and emotional safety. More specifically, an enriched environment includes adequate sleep and nutrition, sensory–motor and cognitive challenges, opportunities for exploration and novelty, and secured relationships that act like a safety net and enable learners to take on challenges [ 22 , 23 ]. Conversely, a lack of these conditions may slow down or decrease the level of neuroplasticity in the developing brain.

The social and cognitive safety net that enables learners to aim high while taking risks and to turn failure into resilience is rooted in safe relationships (with adults and peers) and in holding a growth mindset. A growth mindset is the belief that intelligence and learning potential are not fixed and can be developed [ 24 ]. Holding a growth mindset has been associated with academic success, emotional wellbeing, and motivation while reducing racial, gender, and social class achievement gaps [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. While the impact of mindset interventions on academic performance is debatable regarding the general population [ 31 ], the literature is clear about the potential of growth mindset intervention in supporting the academic development of high-risk and economically disadvantaged students [ 26 , 27 , 31 , 32 ].

The notion of human potential as something dynamic resonates with the concept of the plastic brain. Moreover, teaching students about neuroplasticity and the dynamic potential of their brains has been shown to effectively reinforce a growth mindset [ 32 ].

1.1.1. Using Neuroplasticity as Educational Content

Teaching students about experience-based neuroplasticity and the dynamic changes in neuronal networks during learning provides strong evidence of their natural and powerful learning capacity. Furthermore, teaching students about neuroplasticity with explicit connections to the growth mindset and development creates a motivating premise for learners—according to which their learning potential is dynamic and depends significantly on their attitudes and learning practices.

The neuroplasticity rules of “use it or lose it” and “use it to improve it” mean that, while teachers should support and guide them, learning occurs by and within the students. This physiology-based realization can help build students’ responsibility and ownership over their learning.

Harnessing neuroplasticity and a growth mindset to motivate students can be especially important with neurodivergent learners, whose cognitive development and learning styles deviate from the typical range. Twenty percent of the population is neurodivergent, including students on the autistic spectrum (ASD), students with learning disabilities (e.g., dyslexia), attention disorders (e.g., ADHD), neurological disorders (e.g., epilepsy), and mental illness (e.g., PTSD). While neurodiversity and variations in neuronal and cognitive expressions hold many advantages [ 33 ], neurodivergent students face extra challenges navigating neurotypical-oriented school systems. Learning about neuroplasticity can be a potent form of validation for neurodivergent students, as neurodiversity is a natural result of experience-dependent neuroplasticity [ 19 ]. In addition, by fostering a growth mindset and neuroplasticity awareness, neurodivergent students can be motivated to participate in evidence-based interventions. For example, teaching students with dyslexia about the specific structural and functional brain changes associated with the reading interventions that they apply [ 34 , 35 , 36 ] can motivate them to endure the hard work before noticing visible results.

1.1.2. Using Neuroplasticity to Guide Learning Design

Organizing learning systems around conditions that promote neuroplasticity can enhance learners’ academic development and wellbeing. When a student accomplishes today what was not in their reach yesterday, it is the product of neuroplasticity through a growth mindset.

Educational environments that promote neuroplasticity include encouraging and modeling a healthy lifestyle (physical exercise, a balanced diet, sufficient sleep, and regulated stress), —for example, educating students about the counter-productiveness of sleep deprivation (e.g., “all-nighter” study marathons) on learning. In addition, learning systems should invest in intellectual stimulation (novelty and challenge) and the system’s social and emotional climate (human connections). Neuroplasticity and development are optimal in the stretch zone, where learners experience a motivating level of challenge and stimulation while feeling emotionally supported and socially safe. This ratio between support and challenge should be individualized (between learners and within learners over time).

Educating teachers about neuroplasticity can be powerful in understanding and supporting students that were affected by trauma. Childhood adversity hampers neuroplasticity duration and magnitude [ 37 ]; a surviving brain is not a learning brain. While neuroplasticity is compromised by early trauma, neuroplasticity is also the key to healing from trauma. Schools have a pivotal role in battling the damage of early trauma by creating enriched and safe learning environments that reinforce alternative neuronal pathways to reverse the effects of early adverse environments on child brain development [ 22 , 38 , 39 , 40 ].

1.2. Learning Motivation and Reward

Learning and adaptation are essential for surviving and thriving in dynamic environments. The brain evolved to make sense of information from our external and internal environments and to produce adaptive behaviors that promote survival. The brain is, therefore, a learning machine by nature, and learning does not require external initiation. However, learning is highly experience-dependent and can be directed and enhanced through education.

The brain reward system evolved to reinforce effortful behaviors that are essential for survival (e.g., foraging, reproduction, and caregiving). Such behaviors activate the dopaminergic system associated with reward and motivation [ 41 ]. The hormone/neurotransmitter dopamine is a central player in reward-motivated behavior and learning through the modulation of striatal and prefrontal functions [ 42 ]. The human brain reward system balances between (limbic) impulsive desire and (cortical) goal-directed wanting to guide flexible decision-making and adaptive motivational behaviors.

Psychologically, intrinsic motivation is driven by the need to experience a sense of competence, self-determination, and relatedness [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ].

Competence refers to a perception of self-efficacy and confidence in one’s abilities to achieve a valuable outcome. Self-determination refers to the sense of autonomy and agency in the learning process. Relatedness refers to the drive to pursue goals that hold social value, which can be achieved by working collaboratively as part of a team or by creating something that resonates with others. Relatedness is a strong motivational driver, as it touches on a primary and primordial need to be part of a group and a higher spiritual and intellectual need for self-transcendence and impact.

Overall, these components are based on the human inclination to be valued and validated by the self and others. Biologically, they reflect basic survival needs that combine self-reliance (competence and ownership) and social reliance. Psychologically, these are all subjective perceptions that serve the need to maintain positive self-perception and self-integration. Finally, educationally, they reflect the natural human curiosity and tendency to learn and develop continuously.

The human brain reward system in the 21st century is an evolutionary mismatch. There is a discrepancy between the conditions that the reward system evolved to serve and those that it often faces in the 21st century. The reward system evolved over millions of years to motivate humans to work hard (invest time and energy) in maintaining their survival needs (e.g., nutrition, protection, reproduction, and the learning of new skills). However, this system is not designed for the abundance and immediacy of stimulation in the digital and instant reward era, which promotes the persistent release of dopamine that leads to an increased craving for reward (seeking behavior; wanting) and a decreased sense of pleasure and satisfaction (liking) [ 42 , 48 ].

Some of the most significant challenges of modern education systems relate to the massive changes in how people consume information and communicate in the digital era. Digital platforms have become dominant in information consumption and communication, which provide access to unlimited information and reinforce immediate rewards.

1.2.1. Using Neuroscience (of Reward and Motivation) as Educational Content

The science of human motivation, including its evolutionary mismatch, can be utilized to shed some light on students’ struggles with learning motivation. It can further provide a framework for students to explore their motivational (approach or avoid) tendencies regarding learning and academic challenges. Moreover, learning the neuroscience underlying motivation and reward can raise students’ awareness and proactivity in managing and protecting their reward system. Since adolescence is the peak time for the initiation of substance use, and early onset imposes a higher risk of mental health and substance abuse disorders persisting into adulthood [ 49 , 50 , 51 ], neuroscience knowledge about the reward system and its vulnerability (especially during brain development) is essential educational knowledge that can help in the prevention and mitigation of teen addiction.

1.2.2. Using Neuroscience to Guide Learning Design and Intrinsic Motivation

While students of the digital era are the most stimulation-flooded and attention-challenged in human history, learning is a process that takes time, selective attention, and perseverance. Therefore, learning designs that harness students’ intrinsic motivation for training and the development of stamina and grit (skills that might be hampered in the digital era) are precious for students’ health and success.

Motivational drivers include an adequate level of challenge that fits the student’s sense of competence and that creates optimal arousal levels, opportunities to expand social relatedness and impact, and balance between support and autonomy (see the ZPD, Figure 1 ).

Importantly, in classroom learning, educators are required to manage the attention, motivation, and reward system of not one but many students, which is a complex task. The typical classroom presents a broad spectrum of learners with diverse learning needs and stretch zones ( Figure 1 ). While the facilitation of autonomy and the sense of competence varies between learners and requires personalized support, the social norms that promote learning are more ubiquitous and apply to most learners. While educators do not always have the resources to support students’ motivation individually, harnessing the social aspects of classroom learning is a manageable, effective strategy to elevate students’ motivation. Learning environments that demonstrate empathy, inclusiveness, and psychological safety have shown positive results in students’ behavior, self-esteem, motivation, and academic success [ 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ]. Social motivation has been shown to enhance the encoding of new information (even if the content is not social) [ 57 ]. Learning-for-teaching and peer tutoring (one student teaching another student) effectively encode information into memory. Beyond memory improvement, peer tutoring has many further benefits to both the tutor and the learner in academic achievements [ 58 , 59 ], motivation, and ownership over the learning process and results in a deep conceptual understanding of the material [ 60 ].

The teacher’s demeanor is another controllable factor with a high potential to affect students’ motivation. For example, the literature points to teachers’ immediacy (creating physical and psychological closeness with students) as an effective way to enhance students’ engagement, learning motivation, and performance (including memory retention) [ 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 ]. Immediacy can be demonstrated through verbal and non-verbal gestures that communicate interest and personal connection (relating to personal stories, using animated voice and body language, creating eye contact, and using humor).

The research also indicates that, when students perceive the content as being personally relevant, they are more motivated to study [ 66 ]. Therefore, educators can actively make the learning content more relevant by using stories and real-life examples, making explicit connections and demonstrations of how the content may be relevant/applicable to the students, and giving students opportunities to reflect and share their connections to the learning material.

In summary, physiological and psychological approaches point to primary motivational drivers that direct engagement and investment in the learning process. Not surprisingly, these drivers that are anchored around social and intellectual needs align with the conditions supporting neuroplasticity discussed in the first part of this review.

1.3. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Processing in Learning and Meaning-Making

As the environment provides more information than the brain can handle, survival depends on saliency detection and attention management to direct perception and behavior. The brain constantly selects and attends to relevant input while suppressing irrelevant or distracting information [ 67 ]. Information that is valuable or urgent for survival and prosperity receives attention. Attention capacities (e.g., alerting, orienting, and controlling attention) are managed by several brain systems that interact and coordinate [ 68 , 69 , 70 ]. Top–down, cognitive-driven attention that fosters a goal-directed thinking process is associated with the dorsal attention network (consisting of the intraparietal sulcus and the frontal eye fields) [ 71 ]. This mechanism enables students to read a paragraph, listen to a lecture, think about the teacher’s question, or write an essay. A second attention system is bottom–up and stimulus-driven, and it orients attention to unexpected and behaviorally relevant stimuli. This ventral attention network consists of the right temporoparietal junction and the ventral frontal cortex [ 71 ]. This attention-grabbing mechanism enables the individual to respond quickly to urgent environmental demands, for example, moving away to prevent a struck-by-object accident. Flexible attention control depends on dynamic interactions and switching between the two systems and involves the central executive network (CEN) [ 68 , 70 ].

The insula and anterior cingulate cortex comprise the core structures of the saliency network [ 72 ], another major player in attention altering to emotionally salient stimuli through the interaction of the sensory and cognitive influences that control attention [ 72 , 73 , 74 ].

In addition to outward-focused attention, the human brain is also invested in inward-focused processing. Functional brain imaging studies of the human brain show a robust functional anticorrelation between two large-scale systems, one highly extrinsic and the other deeply intrinsic [ 75 , 76 , 77 ]. The central executive network (CEN) is an externally driven system and is paramount for attention control, working memory, flexible thinking, and goal-directed behavior. The core components of the CEN are the dorsolateral PFC and the lateral posterior parietal cortex (hence, the frontoparietal network) [ 72 , 78 ]. When the human brain is not occupied with external tasks, the default mode network (DMN) is activated. This internally driven cognitive network includes the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) as core components. The DMN is thought to facilitate reminiscing, contemplating, autobiographical memory, self-reflecting, and social cognition [ 79 ]. Conversely, the DMN is immediately suppressed when the brain is engaged in externally driven tasks and stimulation.

Resting-state brain imaging studies revealed that the activity in the DMN during resting awake states indicates the quality of subsequent neural and behavioral responses to environmental stimuli [ 72 , 80 ]. Moreover, a high connectivity between “intrinsic” (DMN) and “extrinsic” (CEN) brain networks, and specifically emotional saliency, attention (extrinsic), and reflection (intrinsic) networks is associated with better cognitive performance, meaning-making, and broad perspective thinking [ 75 , 76 , 81 ]. These networks function antagonistically but are highly connected and balance each other. Furthermore, the anticorrelation between their function is associated with better task performance and positive mental health [ 79 , 82 ]. Recent studies also suggest that a causal hierarchical architecture orchestrates this anticorrelation between externally and internally driven brain activities. More specifically, that regions of the saliency network and the dorsal attention network impose inhibition on the DMN. Conversely, the DMN exhibits an excitatory influence on the saliency and attention system [ 79 ].

1.3.1. The Neuroscience of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Processing as Educational Content

Teaching students about the dynamics of the default mode and executive control network can help them understand how their brain processes information, the importance of each process (e.g., extrinsic and intrinsic), and their integration for meaningful learning. This knowledge can be applied as students explore and experiment with ways to enhance their learning and memory by intentionally engaging both intrinsic and extrinsic processing and integrating the two.

1.3.2. Using the Neuroscience of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Processing to Guide Learning Design

Traditionally, instructional education is based on learning objectives that are externally dictated and is focused on outward attention (stimulus-driven lectures and assignments). Mind-wandering has become the enemy of classroom teachers, as it indicates students’ lack of attention and poor learning.

Nevertheless, neuroscience research indicates that meaning-making and cognitive performance benefit from the interplay between extrinsic and intrinsic oriented attention and processing [ 56 , 75 ].

Learning instructions should consider the different attention mechanisms, evoking adequate arousal levels and leading to goal-directed thinking. Furthermore, students will benefit from an educational design that stimulates the natural interplay between “intrinsic” (DMN) and “extrinsic” (CEN) brain networks by incorporating external stimulation (e.g., presenting content), allocating time and space for intrinsic reflection (e.g., guided reflection and journaling), and integrating the two (e.g., guided class discussion and insights sharing) [ 83 , 84 ].

2. Discussion

2.1. teaching students about their developing brains.

As far as we know, humankind is the only species with access to the underlying mechanisms of its perception, learning, and inner workings. In addition, the human brain is endowed with a lengthy developmental period of approximately 25 years [ 85 , 86 ]. Therefore, schooling years are the prime time for neuroplasticity, and students can learn about their brains while they are highly malleable and can utilize this to amplify their learning and growth.

While students were traditionally required to choose whether to focus on the humanities or science fields, an integrative view is becoming increasingly common in academic institutes. Multidisciplinary studies have been shown to promote students’ positive learning and professional outcomes [ 87 ]. Teaching neuroscience from a dual perspective, both scientific/objective and humanistic/subjective, is a novel but natural bridge between the humanities and science fields.

Studying neuroscience with explicit connections to the lived experience of brain development and its behavioral manifestation can be academically and personally transformative for students.

Shedding a scientific light on students’ experiences as they unfold can support significant developmental processes during those years, such as improvements in executive functions, emotional regulation skills, meta-cognition, and social cognition [ 88 ].

Among the topics and burning issues of teens and young adults that neuroscience can offer insights into are selective and leaky attention [ 89 ], the reward system and addiction [ 90 ], the PFC–limbic developmental mismatch during adolescence [ 91 ], neurodiversity and inclusion, emotion regulation, and mental health [ 92 ].

Moreover, adding a personal layer to neuroscience studies fits the notion that personal relatedness and relevance are essential for learning motivation. Teaching neuroscience from a dual (scientific and personal) perspective and connecting neuroscience knowledge to a deeper understanding of the self and others can elevate engagement and nurture students’ passion for science and their ability to integrate and transfer scientific knowledge across contexts. In addition, similar to the effect of physical education, educational neuroscience can promote the awareness of brain health and encourage students to be intentional about their education and developmental trajectory.

2.2. Teaching the Way(s) the Human Brain Learns Best

Teaching students in brain-friendly ways means implementing principles that align with how the human brain encodes, consolidates, and retrieves information. Educational neuroscience points to the importance of a holistic and integrated view of cognitive, emotional, and social aspects to support learning and development [ 52 , 75 , 93 , 94 ]. Maintaining physical health, cognitive challenge, and emotional safety are essential factors in creating an enriched environment that supports neuroplasticity and learning.

Assessing the learning progress rather than the end product can encourage students to move away from rote memorization to more meaningful learning that carries on beyond the final exam.

Meaningful learning can be promoted by learning designs that encourage students to take experimental and explorative approaches, take risks, and make mistakes without detrimental consequences to their grades.

Furthermore, assessments throughout the learning process and not only at the end of it, using multiple sample points and low-risk tasks, can provide information on the student’s learning curve and allow for personalized and timely feedback that students can apply to improve their learning on the go.

These methods not only promote psychological safety but also align with the evidence-based practices of building long-term and accessible knowledge by spreading out the learning concept across time (spacing), practicing information retrieval from memory (recall), and integrating and transferring knowledge (the application of knowledge in different contexts) [ 95 ].

3. Conclusions

Brain knowledge is brainpower; teaching students about their developing brain can support their academic and personal development by deepening their understanding of science and humanities, their mental capacity, and their self-identity. Educational neuroscience is a promising field in teaching students about their brains and teaching them in brain-friendly ways to support them in becoming lifelong learners.

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This research received no external funding.

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Not applicable.

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Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Faulkner University News – Unlocking the Power of Culturally Responsive Teaching: A Guide for College Professors

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Introduction

Unlocking the power of culturally responsive teaching: a guide for college professors.

As college professors, our responsibility extends beyond delivering content; we must create inclusive learning environments that honor and celebrate our students’ unique backgrounds and experiences. Culturally responsive teaching offers a framework to achieve this goal, fostering engagement, empowerment, and academic success for all learners.

At its core, culturally responsive teaching recognizes the importance of cultural diversity in teaching and learning. The term was coined by researcher Geneva Gay in 2000, who wrote that “when academic knowledge and skills are situated within the lived experiences and frames of reference for students, they are more personally meaningful, have higher interest appeal, and are learned more easily and thoroughly.” In her book, Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain, Zaretta Hammond defines culturally responsive teaching as “an educator’s ability to recognize students’ cultural displays of learning and meaning making and respond positively and constructively with teaching moves that use cultural knowledge as a scaffold to connect what the students know to new concepts and content to promote effective information processing.”

Culturally responsive teaching acknowledges that students bring a wealth of cultural knowledge, experiences, and perspectives to the classroom, significantly influencing their learning styles, motivations, and academic outcomes. Culturally responsive teaching aims to bridge the gap between students’ cultural backgrounds and the academic curriculum, promoting meaningful connections and relevance in learning.

What are the essential elements of culturally relevant teaching and learning?

• A fundamental belief in the ability of all students to learn. Professors must have high expectations for every student, accompanied by positive attitudes about them. Help students foster a growth mindset.
• A strong knowledge base about cultural diversity. Learn about the different racial and ethnic groups in your classrooms and include connections to those groups in your instruction.
• A wide range of curricular content, including culturally relevant curriculum. Multiple perspectives should be included, and presentations and other visuals should represent a wide range of diversity. We should design lessons with the most underserved students in mind.
• Dynamic instruction. Students learn in many ways, so teaching strategies should be dynamic and diverse. Students should be allowed multiple ways to participate and demonstrate content mastery whenever possible. Activating students’ prior knowledge at the beginning of a new topic or lesson allows the professor to understand what students think they know or have experienced about that topic. It also provides a “hook” on which they can “hang” new learning.
• Relationships with students. Connecting with students and learning about their likes, dislikes, family backgrounds, etc., are all important. Additionally, sharing about yourself helps build that two-way relationship.
• Incorporate popular culture. Connect your content with current music, movies, video games, and other media students are interested in.

How do we get started with culturally relevant teaching?

• Reflect on your own cultural identity. As professors, we should understand our own cultural perspectives and how our backgrounds influence our teaching styles. Sometimes, our unconscious attitudes impact the way we relate to our students. There are multiple online tools for uncovering implicit bias, including Harvard University’s Project Implicit and Franklin Covey’s Unconscious Bias .
• Make a plan for getting to know your students next semester. Engage in open conversations, surveys, or reflective activities to begin the semester. The time you spend on the front end will reap rewards later in the semester.
• Continuously reflect and adapt. We should assess the effectiveness of our teaching processes often. Solicit student feedback on how instruction meets their needs and engage in opportunities to stay current with best practices in the science of learning.

Embracing culturally responsive teaching is not just a pedagogical approach but a commitment to our students. By embracing the principles of culturally responsive teaching, professors can create inclusive learning environments that empower all students to succeed academically and thrive personally. As we embark on this journey, let us remember that our efforts to cultivate cultural responsiveness in the classroom can positively impact our students beyond the time they are at Faulkner University.

Culturally responsive teaching . National Equity Project. (n.d.). https://www.nationalequityproject.org/culturally-responsive-teaching

HAMMOND, Z. (2015). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain . CORWIN.

Hammond, Z. (2022, June 3). Beyond flesh-colored crayons: The four components of culturally responsive pedagogy . Culturally Responsive Teaching & the Brain. https://crtandthebrain.com/beyond-flesh-colored-crayons-the-four-components-of-culturally-responsive-pedagogy/

Howard, Dr. T. C. (2024, May 30). Culturally responsive teaching: 7 strategies and instruction practices . HMH. https://www.hmhco.com/blog/culturally-responsive-teaching-strategies-instruction-practices

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

Rucker, N. W. (2019, December 10). Getting started with culturally responsive teaching . Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/getting-started-culturally-responsive-teachingWill, M., & Najarro, I. (2023, March 24). What is culturally responsive teaching? . Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/culturally-responsive-teaching-culturally-responsive-pedagogy/2022/04

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Embracing the power of physical activity in schools

As National School Sports Week begins, Amy Dunne from the Youth Sport Trust explains how their annual campaign highlights the importance of physical education, sport and play in schools.

17th June 2024

As National School Sports Week begins, excitement is building across the UK. From 17 to 23 June, schools, families, and communities will unite to promote the joy and benefits of 60 minutes a day of PE, sport and play . 

This year, in partnership with Sports Direct's Monster Kickabout , we are set to ignite a passion for physical activity like never before. 

With over 4,000 schools already signed up, we are on a mission to ensure every child can lead an active, healthy lifestyle. 

But what exactly is National School Sports Week, and why is it so important?

What is National School Sports Week?

National School Sports Week (NSSW) is an annual campaign highlighting the importance of physical education, sport and play in schools. 

Since its inception in 2008, NSSW has become a cornerstone of the Youth Sport Trust's efforts to promote physical activity, health and wellbeing among young people. 

This year's theme, powered by the Monster Kickabout, brings a special one-off Euro 2024 event emphasising football to engage young people in 60 minutes a day of PE, sport and play. 

Schools that have registered for NSSW will receive free resources, lesson plans and classroom activities co-designed by young people for young people. 

These resources aim to bring all favourite sports and school subjects together through football, helping teachers host a week-long celebration that encourages young people to get their daily dose of physical activity.

Why 60 minutes a day?

The benefits of regular physical activity for children and young people are well documented. According to research by the UK Chief Medical Officers , children and young people aged 5 to 18 should engage in at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity each day. 

But we know that this recommendation isn’t always met :

• Only 31% of parents think that children should be active for at least 60 minutes or more a day.
• 92% of parents believe that sport and play are important parts of every young person's education and development.
• 70% agree that digital distractions mean their child is spending less time being active. 

A young person who is physically active and plays sport on a regular basis will have these attributes:

Physical health

• Cardio-vascular fitness
• Healthy weight
• Co-ordination
• Energy levels

Mental wellbeing

• Happiness 
• Equipped to tackle anxiety and stress
• Improved mood through release of ‘feel-good’ endorphins

Emotional and social wellbeing

• Less lonely
• More trusting
• Improved communication and teamwork skills

Brain function

There is also growing evidence that being physically active impacts on progress and achievement.

It improves the brain by stimulating growth in the part of the brain responsible for learning and memory.

Young people’s ability to concentrate has also been shown to improve after physical activity.

One of the most important things young people should develop through daily physical activity, PE and sport is physical literacy . This means they have the motivation, confidence, competence, knowledge and understanding to stay active for life.

Research sources can be found in our PE and School Sport Report 2023 . The 2024 report will be out soon! 

The impact of raising awareness

Raising awareness about the importance of physical activity and taking part in NSSW has far-reaching benefits. 

Schools and pupils are the primary beneficiaries, gaining access to valuable resources and opportunities to enhance their physical and mental wellbeing.    Moreover, NSSW fosters a sense of community and collective effort towards a common goal. It encourages schools to share best practices and innovative ideas, creating a ripple effect that can inspire others to prioritise physical activity.   It’s not too late to take part! Whether you’re a school, organisation or family, you can still register with us and make the most of this year's NSSW.

Find out more

Make sure to follow National School Sports Week social activity by using #NSSW2024 on  X (Twitter) ,  LinkedIn ,  Instagram  and  Facebook .

For more information about National School Sports Week and the Youth Sport Trust, visit our website.

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Lesson Plan

June 17, 2024, 6:05 a.m.

Lesson plan: History of Juneteenth and why it became a national holiday

A Juneteenth celebration in Richmond, Virginia, 1905. Library of Congress

This lesson was originally published on June 16, 2021, and was updated on June 16, 2024.

For a Google version of this lesson plan, click here . (Note: you will need to make a copy of the document to edit it).

In this lesson, students will explore and discuss the history and context around the Juneteenth holiday in the United States. Topics explored will include the history of racial injustice in the U.S., the Civil War and the limitations of the Emancipation Proclamation. Additionally, students will be encouraged to explore the modern significance of Juneteenth and its long-term impact.

Estimated time

One 50-60 minute class period

Grade Level

Grades 6-12

On June 15, 2021, the Senate unanimously approved a bill approving June 19 as a federal holiday for “Juneteenth National Independence Day.” The House passed the bill one day later. Still, many Americans are still unaware of the history and significance of June 19.

On Jan. 1, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation declaring “that all persons held as slaves” in the Confederacy “shall be free.” While this may have freed some enslaved people on paper, the reality was much more complicated.

Source: PBS NewsHour via Associated Press

For instance, the Emancipation Proclamation only freed those slaves held under the Confederacy, not in border states loyal to the Union, including Kentucky, West Virginia and Delaware, where slavery was still legal after the Emancipation Proclamation. In fact, slavery was still legal in Kentucky until Dec. 1865, when the 13th Amendment was passed, though Kentucky voted against ratifying the amendment.

Confederate states and slaveholders also resisted emancipation, and many people remained enslaved in Confederate states after the proclamation, even as many enslaved people fought for their freedom or escaped behind Union lines. On June 19, 1865, Major General Gordon Granger of the Union issued an order in Galveston, Texas, alerting all enslaved persons that they were legally free.

At this point in 1865, Texas was the westernmost state in America and one of the last Confederate states to be occupied by the Union. Many slaveholders had fled Union advances in other parts of the South to Texas, along with the people they had enslaved.

While it took time for the logistics of “freeing” enslaved people to come into effect, the importance of June 19, or “Juneteenth” lived on. Considering how complicated emancipation was, many dates were considered for holding celebrations of emancipation, but over 150 years later, June 19 remains.

What originally was a holiday mainly observed by Texans has grown to be recognized all over the country. Each year on “Juneteenth,” (or more formally Juneteenth National Freedom Day), communities all around the United States gather and celebrate and reflect on the history of slavery and struggle for civil rights and equality, including the work that still remains after conditional advances such as the Emancipation Proclamation.

Warm up activity

As a class, watch the BrainPop video (8 minutes) below found here introducing Juneteenth. While watching the video, answer the following discussion questions.

Source: BrainPop

Discussion questions:

• What is “Juneteenth”? What does it celebrate?
• Why did it take so long for enslaved peoples in Texas to finally be free? What obstacles existed?
• What were some of the forms of discrimination against newly freed people mentioned in the video?
• What is the Great Migration?
• How did Juneteenth become a national, not just regional, celebration?

After watching the video, separate into groups of 3-4 to discuss the focus questions (5 minutes).

Main activities:

• Why was June 19th chosen as the date to celebrate the freedom of all Americans? What were some of the drawbacks to other dates? Can you make an argument for why you think a different date might have been better and/or worse?
• Gates describes several reasons why Juneteenth struggled to be remembered at times, and why it was able to endure. Compare and contrast what the BrainPop video included as reasons why Juneteenth struggled and endured with what Gate’s emphasizes. What do you think were the most important factors in Juneteenth’s momentum and remembrance continuing?
• “When did they start recognizing Juneteenth, if at all?”
• “What was the process of Juneteenth becoming a holiday in my state?”
• If Juneteenth isn’t recognized in your state, see if you can answer, “Why is Juneteenth not recognized?”
• This search engine for state and local government websites
• The Library of Congress

Additional activities

• Brainstorm or plan a Juneteenth celebration activity. This can be decorating a common area, bringing in a relevant local speaker or planning a refreshment break for your school. Juneteenth celebrations can be in the home, at school or in community locations. For more inspiration see these resources:
• “ How to Celebrate ” from Juneteenth.com
• See how others are celebrating Juneteenth on Twitter .
• Some activists feel ambivalent about Juneteenth becoming a national holiday, or reject the idea. To learn more about the nuances surrounding making Juneteenth a federal holiday, watch this NewsHour interview with Dr. Mark Anthony Neal recorded in 2020 amid the George Floyd protests.

• The day now known as Juneteenth was formally recognized as a national holiday in 2021, due in large part to the activism of retired teacher Opal Lee. Learn more about Lee's activism and the message of Juneteenth in this NewsHour interview with Opal Lee.

If classrooms finish and plan a celebratory activity, please share your ideas with us on social media @NewsHourEXTRA on Twitter.

This lesson was written by Cecilia Curran, NewsHour Classroom intern, while she was a rising sophomore at Amherst College. This lesson was edited by NewsHour Classroom's education producer and former history teacher Vic Pasquantonio.

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