short case study on leadership styles

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Leadership Case Studies

Here is a sample of three case studies from the book, Leadership Case Studies, that are most instructive and impactful to developing leadership skills.

For the past 30 years, I have conducted seminars and workshops and taught college classes on leadership.

I used a variety of teaching aids including books, articles, case studies, role-plays, and videos.

I recently created a book, Leadership Case Studies that includes some of the case studies and role-plays that I found to be most instructive and impactful.

Here is a sample of three case studies.

Peter Weaver Case Study

Peter Weaver doesn’t like to follow the crowd. He thinks groupthink is a common problem in many organizations. This former director of marketing for a consumer products company believes differences of opinion should be heard and appreciated. As Weaver states, “I have always believed I should speak for what I believe to be true.”

He demonstrated his belief in being direct and candid throughout his career. On one occasion, he was assigned to market Paul’s spaghetti-sauce products. During the brand review, the company president said, “Our spaghetti sauce is losing out to price-cutting competitors. We need to cut our prices!”

Peter found the courage to say he disagreed with the president. He then explained the product line needed more variety and a larger advertising budget. Prices should not be cut. The president accepted Weaver’s reasoning. Later, his supervisor approached him and said, “I wanted to say that, but I just didn’t have the courage to challenge the president.”

On another occasion, the president sent Weaver and 16 other executives to a weeklong seminar on strategic planning. Weaver soon concluded the consultants were off base and going down the wrong path. Between sessions, most of the other executives indicated they didn’t think the consultants were on the right path. The consultants heard about the dissent and dramatically asked participants whether they were in or out. Those who said “Out” had to leave immediately.

As the consultants went around the room, every executive who privately grumbled about the session said “In.” Weaver was fourth from last. When it was his turn, he said “Out” and left the room.

All leaders spend time in reflection and self-examination to identify what they truly believe and value. Their beliefs are tested and fine-tuned over time. True leaders can tell you, without hesitation, what they believe and why. They don’t need a teleprompter to remind them of their core beliefs. And, they find the courage to speak up even when they know others will disagree.

• What leadership traits did Weaver exhibit?
• If you were in Weaver’s shoes, what would you have done?
• Where does courage come from?
• List your three most important values.

Dealing with a Crisis Case Study

Assume you are the VP of Sales and Marketing for a large insurance company. Once a year your company rewards and recognizes the top 100 sales agents by taking them to a luxury resort for a four-day conference. Business presentation meetings are held during the morning. Afternoons are free time. Agents and spouses can choose from an assortment of activities including golf, tennis, boating, fishing, shopping, swimming, etc.

On day 2 at 3:00 p.m., you are at the gym working out on the treadmill, when you see Sue your administrative assistant rushing towards you. She says, “I need to talk to you immediately.”

You get off the treadmill and say, “What’s up?” Sue states, “We’ve had a tragedy. Several agents went boating and swimming at the lake. Randy, our agent from California died while swimming.”

(Background information – Randy is 28 years old. His wife did not come on the trip. She is home in California with their three children).

• Explain what you would communicate to the following people.
• Your Human Resources Department
• The local police
• The attendees at the conference (Would you continue the conference?)
• How will you notify Randy’s wife?
• If Randy’s wife and a few family members want to visit the location of Randy’s death, what would you do?
• What are some “guiding principles” that leaders need to follow in a crisis situation?

 Arsenic and Old Lace Case Study

Review the YouTube video, “ I’ll show them who is boss Arsenic and Old Lace.”   

Background Information

The Vernon Road Bleaching and Dyeing Company is a British lace dyeing business. It was purchased in bankruptcy by the father/son team of Henry and Richard Chaplin. Richard has been acting as “Managing Director” which is the same as a general manager or president of a company.

The company has had 50-to-150 employees with 35-to-100 being shop floor, production employees. The company produces and sells various dyed fabrics to the garment industry.

Gerry Robinson is a consultant who was asked to help transform methods of conducting business to save the company.

Jeff is the factory manager.

• What are Richard’s strengths and weaknesses as a leader?
• What could Richard have done to make the problems of quality and unhappy customers more visible to the workforce?
• What do you think Richard’s top three priorities should be for the next 12 months?
• What could Richard have done to motivate the workforce?
• Evaluate Jeff’s approach and effectiveness as a leader.

The book contains 16 case studies, four role-plays, and six articles. I hope you find some of the content useful and helpful in your efforts to teach leadership.

Click for additional leadership case studies and resources .

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How to Make Different Business Leadership Styles Work (With Case Studies)

Note: Some of the recommended resources (tools, vendors, books) may include affiliate links. I only promote solutions I use myself or businesses I support personally.

Several thought leaders have referred to 2020 as the year of great reset. But if you want to be really strict about it, most of the biggest business shifts started way back at the onset of the 21st century. 

Traditional business leaders who are banking on traditional business leadership styles in this new century needlessly risk losing their businesses to unhealthy age-old leadership practices.

The pandemic just helped reiterate the need for business leaders to change the way they approach business problems primarily due to the following reasons:

• New technologies
• Pace of change
• Changing demographics and employee expectations
• Changing customer expectations

Simon Sinek, in his influential book Start with Why: How Great Leaders Inspire Everyone to Take Action , proposes a powerful framework that emphasizes the importance of a leader’s ‘why’. Sinek argues that leaders who start with why, with their purpose, cause, or belief, are able to inspire and motivate others in a way that transcends simply outlining tasks and goals. This focus on purpose aligns well with the idea that effective leadership is about more than just giving orders; it’s about creating a shared vision and inspiring a team to achieve it.

The chart below gives you a better glimpse of the reasons why there is a difference in the requirements for the kind of leaders we need to have in this era. The data depicted is from Deloitte’s Human Capital Trends Survey .

What are these particular requirements? According to the same study by Deloitte, business leaders need to have the following abilities:

• lead through more complexity and ambiguity
• lead through influence
• manage on a remote basis
• manage a workforce with a combination of humans and machines
• lead more quickly

See this second figure below.

According to Forbes , there are three notable leadership skill shifts for 2021 and these are the following:

• Communication to Empathy 
• Emotional Intelligence to Emotional Agility 
• Time Management to Context Management

Leaders are expected to be effective communicators, but the shift is now focused on empathy as a priority for business leaders this year. The Management Research Group found empathy to be the leading positive leadership competency and one of the biggest predictors of senior executive effectiveness . This makes a lot of sense especially now that the recent challenges brought about by the pandemic have highlighted the value of caring while communicating.

Emotional intelligence to emotional agility is another important shift. Susan David , a psychologist and the author of the book “Emotional Agility: Get Unstuck, Embrace Change, and Thrive in Work and Life” describes emotionally agile people be the type of people who are not only aware of their feelings but also know how to navigate through them.

Now the shift from time management to context management gives emphasis on how the change in the context of how and where we work requires realignment in managing our time and designing our days around how we work. 

While there are several leadership styles and the specific strategies vary depending on the field or industry, the concepts are basically the same. Let’s take note of these leadership skill shifts mentioned earlier in studying how we can better tailor the different leadership styles to suit the changing times. 

The following are six of the different leadership styles we will tackle further:

• Autocratic Leadership Style
• Democratic Leadership Style
• Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
• Situational leadership style
• Transactional Leadership Style
• Transformational Leadership Style

First off, let’s start with the traditional business leadership styles.

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1. autocratic leadership style.

Case Study: Howell Raines of The New York Times

The New York Times under Howell Raines as the Executive Editor decided at one point to only put resources on the stories that he deemed as worth covering. While this led to The New York Times winning a record-breaking seven Pulitzer awards in a single year, several staff members got demoralized.

There is no known theorist behind autocratic leadership so it is considered as an organic leadership style that has developed over the course of time that it has been used. 

Basically, an autocratic leader is the type of leader who would make decisions without proper consultation. You may think that this leadership style is unacceptable for who decides on his own especially if the decision concerns an entire organization, right? 

But, Cleverism articulates three situations where the autocratic leadership style can be used and these are the following:

• The situation requires fast and immediate decision-making
• There is no clarity in the process of the procedure and pushing ahead might only lead people to danger
• There are more inexperienced people in the group and most of them are demotivated

The tendency of most businesses with an autocratic leader is that the subordinates will become passive and mediocre, or conflicts may arise.

In these situations where a business leader must step up and use the autocratic leadership style, it is important to take note of communicating openly and regarding others with respect the entire time.

2. Democratic Leadership Style

Case Study: Sergey Brin and Larry Page of Google

Founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page hired Eric Schmidt to jump-start the Internet search engine. Blending autocratic, laissez-faire and democratic leadership styles, they allowed someone knowledgeable and experienced into Google which would then lead to more democratic teams composed of experienced talent. 

Also known as the participative leadership style, the democratic leadership style in business management is often characterized as the style that encourages collaboration with fellow leaders and team members. In other words, everyone is allowed to participate in the decision-making process. 

While this style of leadership is very motivating for most people as compared to the autocratic leadership style, it works best for businesses that employ experts in their departments so little supervision is required. 

According to St. Thomas University , the following organizations can take advantage of this:

• Biotech R&D divisions
• Housing construction sites
• Universities
• Information technology companies

Furthermore, the university lists the following as the disadvantages of this leadership style:

• Business leaders may become too dependent on their subordinates
• Getting everyone’s input may take a lot of time 
• Missed deadlines are possible 
• Consulting with people who lack accurate data or sufficient knowledge
• Too much burden for business leaders to oversee collaboration

The democratic leadership style can bring forth massive business growth if business leaders are willing to take responsibility for the decisions made and provide support and expertise during collaborations.

Such requires highly productive leaders who know what they do and will take action.

3. Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

Case Study: Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway

Warren Buffett is known for exemplifying the laissez-faire leadership style as he allows people he works with to do their jobs without his supervision or intervention. His great success over several years has been attributed to his style of leadership which allows a culture of motivation and confidence. He, however, sees to it that he only hires people he can trust to do their jobs.

The laissez-faire leadership style emerged from the French word laissez-faire which means “leave alone”. Also called the hands-off approach, this style is based on the concept that leaders can leave their employees or teams alone in coming up with ideas or decisions for the business departments they are part of. 

This used to be a very popular style before the 19th century, but as modernization started, more and more business leaders find the disadvantages of leading teams with no supervision to be detrimental. This is particularly possible for companies that lack expert talent.

What business leaders who employ this leadership style should note is that assuming that subordinates must be free from accountability. This only encourages the company’s people to be complacent.

The business leader must ensure that teams are composed of highly-skilled individuals who can be reliable in achieving business goals under their responsibility.

At this point, we’ve already discussed the three leadership styles that can be highly traditional unless approached with a fresh perspective that takes into account the new leadership needs and skill shifts.

How these three business leadership styles work is illustrated below.

Which leadership style can you resonate with the most?

We now have what we call modern leadership styles or approaches. These styles have emerged as a response to the traditional styles that do not allow much room for innovation. 

Although most of these new approaches are modified versions of the traditional leadership styles, they are identified mainly based on the following types of categories:

• Situational leadership
• Transactional leadership
• Transformational leadership
• Innovative leadership

4. Situational Leadership Style 

This leadership style follows the contingency-based leadership model when responding to situations or making decisions. Business leaders who employ this style are flexible and would normally use varying leadership strategies depending on the situation.

Goleman believes that a situational leader must be able to incorporate the six specific leadership styles given the right circumstances.

5. Transactional Leadership Style

Also known as managerial leadership, transactional leadership is a style that focuses on supervision, organization, and group performance.

Business leaders under this style use rewards and punishments to motivate subordinates in a given task.

According to Verywell Mind , the basic assumptions of transactional leadership are the following:

• When the chain of command is clear, your workforce performs their best
• Rewards and punishments are effective agents of motivation
• Obeying the leader is the most important goal of the subordinates
• Careful monitoring is a must

When giving assignments, the business leader must be clear when it comes to the instructions, rewards and consequences, as well as giving feedback. 

6. Transformational Leadership Style

Business leaders who subscribe to the transformational leadership style serve as inspirations to their subordinates.

They inspire as they lead by example and as they cultivate an environment that welcomes creativity and innovation. This suits employees who have entrepreneurial minds as transformational business leaders seek to inspire just the right amount of intellectual independence in the workplace.

In a roundup article, Harvard Business Review lists the following as the best examples of transformational leadership:

• Jeff Bezos , Amazon
• Reed Hastings , Netflix
• Jeff Boyd and Glenn Fogel , Priceline
• Steve Jobs and Tim Cook , Apple
• Mark Bertolini , Aetna
• Kent Thiry , DaVita
• Satya Nadella , Microsoft
• Emmanuel Faber , Danone
• Heinrich Hiesinger , ThyssenKrupp

The Harvard Business Review refers to this group as the Transformation 10 for exemplifying transformational leadership.

Strengthening Your Leadership Mindset

About 60% of the executives who participated in the 2021 Deloitte Global Human Capital Trends said that what prepared them for the unknown is leadership . This is the kind of leadership that takes into account the unpredictable and incorporates strategies surrounding that through coaching, teaming, and fostering.

But did you know that based on the research of the Corporate Executive Board , about 50%-70% of the new business executives or leaders fail within the first 18 months? Unless you have the right leadership mindset and you solidify that mindset, you will become part of this figure. 

Whenever a major business problem happens, you can either succumb to the pressure and give up, or find a solution to the problem . The most successful business leaders try their hardest to never give up.

Most business leaders would rather grind than get back to their regular jobs of 9-to-5.

In 1519, a Spanish explorer and conquistador Hernán Cortés pursued the treasures of the Aztecs with 11 ships and a crew of 100 sailors and 500 soldiers. His army was vastly outnumbered and some soldiers tried to escape. Cortés gave the order to burn the ships and left no choice but to fight until their last breath.

That wasn’t the end for everyone. Part of the army survived and they got a hold of the treasure.

At first, calmness is a myth. People are emotional by nature and react to any deviations from their plans. With time, those who choose to be in the captain’s spot until the end see problems that have to be solved and suppress the emotional part that is dragging them down.

The role of a business leader isn’t easy in the first place. Constant changes and surprises are not abnormal and at some point, they become a daily routine.

Plenty of problems appear to be critical, but in the end, they should be solved. You don’t run away from them. You step up as a business leader and inspire your teams to follow through.

The most effective leadership style for business is the leadership that inspires.

If being a business leader of a successful company is among your highest priorities, work on your leadership know-how, develop your management soft skills , and make it work for your people.

My name is Mario Peshev, a global SME Business Advisor running digital businesses for 20 the past years.

Born in Bulgaria, Europe, I gained diverse management experience through my training work across Europe, North America, and the Arab world. With 10,000+ hours in consulting and training for organizations like SAP, VMware, CERN, I’ve dedicated a huge amount of my time to helping hundreds of SMEs growing in different stages of the business lifecycle.

My martech agency DevriX grew past 50 people and ranks as a top 10 WordPress global agency and Growth Blueprint, my advisory firm, has served 400+ SME founders and executives with monthly ongoing strategy sessions.

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Case Studies of Exemplary Leaders

• December 28, 2023

Discover the inspiring stories of exemplary leaders who have significantly impacted through their visionary leadership and unwavering commitment to driving change. These remarkable individuals have left a lasting legacy in their respective fields, transcending borders and industries. Explore their extraordinary journeys and gain valuable insights into the effective leadership practices and timeless principles that have guided their success.

Barack Obama , the 44th President of the United States, is known for his distinct leadership style characterized by charisma, inclusivity, collaboration, strategic thinking, and a deep commitment to service. His pragmatic approach to problem-solving made him a notable figure in contemporary leadership, marked by his ability to inspire and connect with people through his influential and eloquent speeches. 

He successfully used his oratory skills to articulate a compelling vision, motivate the masses, and foster a sense of hope and unity. Furthermore, he emphasized inclusivity and diversity in his leadership approach, seeking to bring people from different backgrounds and perspectives together, promoting a sense of belonging and unity. His collaborative approach bridged political divides and opened dialogue, negotiation, and compromise to address complex challenges. 

Obama’s calm and composed demeanour under pressure contributed to his capacity to make thorough decisions. His focus on service to others and empathy showcased his compassion towards those facing hardship and his commitment to addressing social and economic inequalities. Obama recognized the power of technology and applied it to engage with the public, fostering transparency and accessibility through digital platforms— Obama’s high level of intelligence garners broad recognition for its sharpness, depth, and sheer brilliance.

Justin Trudeau, his leadership as the Prime Minister of Canada marks his commitment to progressive policies. He has been a staunch advocate for addressing the urgent issue of climate change, implementing a national carbon pricing policy and prioritizing a transition towards a greener economy. Additionally, Trudeau’s government has championed gender equality, promoting inclusivity in government and society by appointing a gender-balanced cabinet and taking steps to ensure diversity. His progressive stance on these issues has garnered attention both nationally and internationally.

In 2015, he made a compassionate pledge to welcome refugees into Canada regardless of ethnicity or faith. This approach showcased Canada’s commitment to humanitarian values and demonstrated leadership in fostering an inclusive society. Trudeau’s emphasis on reconciliation with Indigenous peoples has been a core component of his leadership. He has addressed historical injustices and invested in improving Indigenous education, healthcare, and infrastructure. 

Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, Trudeau demonstrated clear communication, transparent decision-making, unity, resilience, and trust. His strong leadership has primarily contributed to Canada’s economic growth and recovery.

Tonya Williams is an accomplished leader who has significantly contributed to the entertainment industry, particularly in Canada. Williams is the founder and executive director of the Reelworld Film Festival and Reelworld Foundation. Her dedication to promoting diversity and inclusion in the media has profoundly impacted Canadian film and television.

Williams’ leadership and vision transformed the Reelworld Film Festival into a highly regarded event that celebrates diversity, fosters dialogue, and inspires future generations of filmmakers. Williams has created opportunities for individuals to build a more inclusive and equitable entertainment industry in Canada. The foundation provides mentorship, training, and resources to help artists navigate the industry and overcome barriers to entry.

She exemplifies her relentless commitment to amplifying marginalized voices and advocating diversity in film and television. Her unwavering dedication to creating a more inclusive industry has left an indelible mark, inspiring others to challenge the status quo and work towards a more equitable future in the entertainment world.

Angela Merkel , the former Chancellor of Germany, is widely regarded as one of the world’s most influential and respected leaders. Pragmatism, strong analytical skills, and a commitment to democratic values characterize her leadership style. Merkel’s leadership during crises, such as the Eurozone debt and refugee crises, demonstrated her steady and pragmatic approach. She sought consensus, built coalitions, found practical solutions, and emphasized the importance of unity and stability. 

Her ability to navigate political landscapes and find common ground is a hallmark of her pragmatic leadership style. She balances competing interests, builds consensus, and compromises to achieve practical outcomes. Her resilience and stability provide a sense of continuity during turbulent times. Merkel’s leadership is deeply committed to democratic values, human rights, and international cooperation. She advocates for multilateralism, global collaboration, and the European Union, fostering dialogue among nations.

Masai Ujiri plays a crucial leadership role in the basketball community in Canada. Ujiri’s tenure as the President of the Toronto Raptors, a professional basketball team in the NBA, has been particularly noteworthy. Before his time with the Raptors, Ujiri gained recognition as the General Manager of the Denver Nuggets, where he showcased his talent evaluation skills and helped elevate the team’s standing in the Western Conference.

Under his leadership, the team experienced unprecedented success, culminating in the historic 2019 NBA Championship, the first-ever for a Canadian franchise. Ujiri’s strategic decision-making and ability to assemble a championship-calibre roster were pivotal in the team’s achievements. His leadership illustrated a dogged pursuit of excellence and has garnered immense respect in the basketball community. Ujiri’s influence extends beyond the court. 

He is known for his commitment to social justice and community development through his foundation, Giants of Africa, making him an influential figure in Canada and globally.

_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

These case studies and examples of good leadership highlight each leader’s unique characteristics and approaches that have positively impacted their organizations and communities. Through their leadership, these individuals have inspired others, driven innovation and growth, fostered inclusive and supportive cultures, and navigated through challenges with resilience and empathy. 

Jennifer Williams | Editor-in-Chief

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Exploring Different Leadership Styles: A Comprehensive Guide

The way leaders guide and influence their teams can significantly impact productivity, engagement, staff turnover, staff wellbeing, and overall morale.

In fact, Gallup (2023) estimates that 70% of team engagement is attributable to the team leader. And a study by CMI found that 28% of job leavers cited a negative relationship with their manager as a key reason for quitting.

It is thus fair to say that how we lead really matters, even more so than who we lead. This guide provides a comprehensive overview of different leadership styles and suggestions for further reading and development.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Leadership Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or others adopt positive leadership practices and help organizations thrive.

This Article Contains

Goleman’s leadership styles, the 4 most effective positive leadership styles, leadership coaching: improving your skills, 3 leadership programs to enhance your leadership style, 4 recommended leadership books, 4 recommended youtube videos, positivepsychology.com resources, a take-home message.

In their influential book Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence , the psychologists Daniel Goleman, Richard E. Boyatzis, and Annie McKee (2002) turned the term “emotional intelligence” into a household concept. They also demonstrated the importance of emotionally intelligent leadership.

The authors champion leadership that is self-aware, empathic, motivating, and collaborative. These qualities are ever-more important in our increasingly economically volatile, fast-changing, and technologically complex world.

In the book, they also discuss the core features of six distinctive leadership styles. According to Goleman et al. (2002), each style has its own strengths and limitations. Ideally, effective leaders learn to adapt their style to the situation at hand.

1. The visionary leadership style

Goleman et al. (2002) define the visionary leadership style as the ability to move people toward a shared dream or vision.

Visionary leaders have a clear and compelling dream of the future, and they know how to communicate it. They inspire their team members with a sense of purpose and direction.

Their ability to articulate a compelling vision motivates and energizes their followers and fosters a sense of unity and shared commitment.

2. The coaching leadership style

The coaching leadership style is characterized by the leader’s focus on helping employees reach their full potential. Above all, coaching leaders seek to support personal development and growth.

By providing guidance and mentoring, offering constructive feedback, and promoting skill building, coaching leaders create an environment conducive to continuous learning and improvement. This style promotes employee engagement and generates long-term organizational success.

3. The affiliative leadership style

An affiliative leader prioritizes harmony and bonding among their team members. They emphasize building strong relationships, cultivating a sense of belonging, and creating a supportive work environment.

Goleman et al. (2002) argue that affiliative leaders aim to resolve conflicts and enhance team cohesion by focusing their energies on open communication, empathy, and trust.

4. The democratic leadership style

The democratic leadership style entails involving team members in decision-making processes and truly valuing their input and perspectives.

Goleman et al. (2002) suggest that democratic leaders seek to empower their teams. They foster a collaborative culture where everyone’s opinions are respected. This inclusive approach tends not only to result in high levels of job satisfaction , but also promotes creativity and innovation within an organization.

5. The pacesetting leadership style

The pacesetting leadership style is characterized by leaders who consistently set high standards and expect their team members to meet them. This style can be both inspiring and demanding.

Pacesetting leaders strive for excellence and inspire their team members through role modeling. However, although effective in the short term, this style may leave little room for creativity, development, and autonomy in the long run. It is also important to remember that a great challenge should ideally be accompanied by significant support.

6. The commanding leadership style

The commanding leadership style is assertive, direct, top-down, and expects immediate compliance. While commanding leaders may excel in crisis situations, they may create a negative work environment if they overuse that style in non-urgent settings.

This style can be effective for short-term results but may impede employee engagement and creativity over time.

Adjectives to describe more problematic leadership styles include autocratic, top-down, transactional, bureaucratic, laissez-faire, or military. We will now explore four well-known effective leadership styles in more detail.

The four positive leadership styles that are currently attracting the most interest among researchers and positive psychology practitioners are coaching leadership, transformational leadership, authentic leadership, and servant leadership. All of them are viewed as positive and constructive leadership styles that bring out the best in the people who are being led.

Coaching leadership

Coaching leaders focus on developing those whom they lead and seek to support their growth and learning. Coaching leadership revolves around cultivating a supportive and encouraging environment that promotes growth and excellence in team members.

Unlike traditional leadership styles that emphasize top-down decision-making and unquestioning compliance, coaching leaders adopt a facilitative approach. They focus on building strong relationships, fostering collaboration, and nurturing individual talents.

A coaching leader is in effect a powerful catalyst who reminds people of their own resources and strengths and encourages them to use and develop them.

Key principles of coaching leadership include:

1. Active listening

Effective coaching leaders actively listen to their team members, encouraging them freely to express their thoughts, feelings, and aspirations. This practice helps leaders gain a deeper understanding of their team’s needs and enables them to provide tailored guidance. Because they listen carefully to what others say, coaching leaders can also truly benefit from the collective intelligence of their teams and their team members’ insights.

2. Empowerment

Coaching leaders strive to empower individuals by fostering a culture of autonomy and accountability. They encourage their team members to take ownership of their work, to make informed decisions, and to learn from both their successes and their failures.

3. Growth mindset

Coaching leaders promote a growth mindset culture, in which mistakes are seen as learning opportunities and continuous improvement is valued. This mindset encourages individuals to step out of their comfort zones , explore and develop their skills, and embrace new challenges.

Benefits of coaching leadership include enhanced employee engagement and a focus on skill development and improved communication. By valuing people’s needs and aspirations, coaching leaders create a more engaged and motivated team.

This commitment leads to increased productivity and better overall team performance (van Woerkom et al., 2016). Through mentoring, skill-building exercises, and feedback, coaching leaders help their people develop new competencies and refine existing ones (Webb, 2019).

By listening actively and providing constructive feedback, leaders can foster trust, improve team interactions, and boost collaboration among team members (van Woerkom et al., 2016).

Transformational leadership

Transformational leaders inspire and motivate their teams by articulating a compelling vision and encouraging personal growth. They seek to create a sense of community and commitment, challenge existing norms, and drive positive change within their organization (Bass & Riggio, 2006).

At its core, transformational leadership is about empowering and inspiring individuals to transcend their limits by promoting a collective sense of purpose and growth. This leadership approach moves beyond traditional managerial practices by focusing on developing strong relationships, cultivating vision, and promoting personal and professional growth.

The four pillars of transformational leadership are:

1. Idealized influence

Transformational leaders serve as role models. They lead by example and demonstrate high ethical standards. By being charismatic visionaries, they inspire team members to trust, respect, and emulate their behavior.

2. Inspirational motivation

These leaders are adept at articulating a compelling vision and conveying it in a passionate way that instills inspiration within their teams. By sharing a clear purpose and setting high standards, they inspire employees to achieve their full potential and support the bigger-picture aims of their teams and organizations.

3. Intellectual stimulation

Transformational leaders value creativity and encourage innovative thinking in their teams. They challenge employees to question the status quo and build environments that are conducive to learning, curiosity, and growth.

4. Individualized consideration

Recognizing the diverse needs and aspirations of each team member, transformational leaders provide individual support, coaching, and mentoring . They genuinely care about their employees’ personal and professional development, fostering a sense of belonging and creating a supportive work culture.

Numerous studies have shown the positive influence of transformational leadership on both individual wellbeing and organizational outcomes (see, for example, Avolio et al., 2004; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Wang et al., 2011).

Through its emphasis on inspiration and personal growth, this leadership style has been linked to higher employee engagement, job satisfaction, and overall workplace wellbeing . Transformational leaders also tend to foster stronger commitment, loyalty, and organizational citizenship behavior among employees.

Transformational leadership can have a ripple effect throughout organizations, enhancing team performance and increasing overall productivity. By encouraging open communication, generating a shared vision, and valuing innovation, transformational leaders cultivate an environment that nurtures creativity, adaptability, and continuous improvement.

Authentic leadership

Authentic leaders seek to lead with integrity and transparency, inspiring trust and creating an environment where individuals can be their true selves. They prioritize being genuine, self-aware, and acting consistently according to one’s values (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).

Authentic leadership emphasizes genuine self-awareness, transparency, and a commitment to one’s core values. At the core of authentic leadership lies self-awareness, a deep understanding of our values, beliefs, strengths, and weaknesses.

These leaders cultivate awareness through introspection, reflection, and a sincere desire to learn and grow. A study by George et al. (2007) suggests that self-awareness helps leaders align their actions with their core values, which enhances their credibility and authenticity.

Authentic leaders are transparent about their intentions and decisions. They also risk being vulnerable in front of their teams. This transparency promotes trust and psychological safety , enabling followers to reciprocate with their own authenticity. Research by Luthans and Avolio (2003) describes authentic leaders as being down to earth, approachable, and actively engaged with their teams.

Their words and actions are aligned. In other words, they say what they think and do what they say. Even when faced with challenging situations, they uphold their values and ethics. Research by Avolio et al. (2004) suggests that leaders who demonstrate this kind of consistency and integrity are more likely to inspire and motivate their followers, cultivating a sense of trust, purpose, and commitment within their teams.

Authentic leaders possess a high degree of emotional intelligence, which enables them to truly understand and empathize with others. They leverage this empathy to connect with their team members. Positive psychology research conducted by Clapp-Smith et al. (2008) suggests that authentic leaders who display empathy can provide effective support, understanding, and compassion to their followers.

Servant leadership

Servant leaders prioritize the needs of their team members and work to help them reach their full potential, always placing the team’s success above their own. They demonstrate humility, empathy, and a strong commitment to serving others (Greenleaf, 1977).

Servant leadership , as described by Robert K. Greenleaf (1977), centers on the idea that leaders should be driven by a deep-rooted desire to serve and support their team members and the organizations they work for. This counterintuitive approach presents an antidote to traditional leadership styles. It emphasizes the wellbeing, growth, and success of those within the leader’s sphere of influence.

Some key features of servant leadership include:

1. Empowerment rather than control

While many leaders exert their authority and micromanage their teams, servant leaders recognize the importance of empowering individuals to be creative and resourceful on their own terms (Laub, 1999).

By actively listening, providing guidance, and creating a culture of trust, they enable their team members to thrive, pursue innovative ideas, and take full ownership of their responsibilities and decisions (Laub, 1999).

2. Building trust and collaboration

One of the foundational pillars of servant leadership is the cultivation of trust and fostering collaboration among team members. Servant leaders seek to create an environment in which people feel safe, respected, and valued.

By promoting open communication, embracing diverse perspectives, and actively involving everyone in decision-making processes, servant leaders seek to create a cohesive and nurturing team culture.

3. Emotional intelligence

Servant leaders possess strong emotional intelligence, which enables them to empathize with their team members’ experiences, needs, and aspirations. This heightened understanding allows them to provide the necessary support, guidance, and motivation, which, in turn, leads to increased satisfaction and personal growth among team members (Van Dierendonck, 2011).

By practicing servant leadership, leaders not only enhance the wellbeing and productivity of their teams but also seed a legacy of ethical and compassionate leadership. Servant leadership creates a positive ripple effect, inspiring others to adopt a similar people-centric approach. In that way, servant leaders can create sustainable cultures of humility, empathy, and continuous learning in organizations (Greenleaf, 1977).

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Whichever leadership style appeals to you, the good news is that leadership can be learned. It is a teachable skill, and the best way to develop as a leader is by opting for leadership coaching.

Leadership coaching (which differs from the coaching leadership style discussed above) focuses on developing leadership skills through one-on-one coaching and feedback sessions. This personalized and experiential approach helps leaders identify their strengths and areas for improvement and unlock their full potential (Grant et al., 2019).

Leadership coaching is a collaborative and personalized process aimed at improving leadership effectiveness. It can maximize potential and foster growth in individuals or groups (Hattrick & Scholz, 2020). Rather than dictating solutions, coaches empower leaders to discover their unique leadership style, overcome challenges, and achieve their professional and personal goals. They educate their coaches to help themselves and strengthen their own problem-solving capacities and resilience.

Leadership coaching has the following positive effects:

1. Enhanced self-awareness

Leadership coaching aids in fostering self-awareness , enabling leaders to understand their strengths, weaknesses, values, and areas where personal growth is required (Kumari et al., 2020). By recognizing and harnessing their unique qualities, leaders can guide and inspire their teams more effectively.

2. Improved communication and emotional intelligence

Leadership coaching emphasizes developing strong interpersonal skills, effective communication, and emotional intelligence. By honing these qualities, leaders can build better relationships, resolve conflicts with more equanimity, and create a positive work environment (Oakley et al., 2019).

3. Clarifying goals and strategies

Coaches assist leaders in clarifying their goals and defining strategies to achieve them. This process helps leaders focus on their vision and align their actions with their objectives (Salas-Vallina et al., 2021).

4. Increased resilience

Leadership coaching plays a crucial role in fostering resilience in leaders . By developing adaptive and coping strategies, leaders who are receiving coaching can better handle challenges, setbacks, and pressures (Passarelli et al., 2019). This resilience leads to improved decision-making and enhanced overall leadership performance.

World’s Largest Positive Psychology Resource

The Positive Psychology Toolkit© is a groundbreaking practitioner resource containing over 500 science-based exercises , activities, interventions, questionnaires, and assessments created by experts using the latest positive psychology research.

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To further develop your leadership skills, consider participating in the following leadership programs. Each program focuses on specific aspects of leadership, equipping individuals with the tools and knowledge to become more effective leaders.

Organizations such as the Harvard Business School, the Center for Creative Leadership, and the Henley Business School in the United Kingdom offer some of the most renowned leadership development programs.

1. Harvard Business School

The Harvard Business School is perhaps one of the most prestigious business schools. It offers four comprehensive leadership programs that offer business management and leadership curriculum and personalized coaching.

Find out more about their offerings to choose an option that appeals: Comprehensive leadership programs .

2. The Center for Creative Leadership

The Center for Creative Leadership offers numerous different and inspiring leadership development programs too, including one that focuses specifically on transformational leadership.

You can have a look at their options here: Leadership programs .

3. The Henley Business School

The Henley Business School, which is affiliated with the University of Reading, offers a comprehensive six-day in-person leadership program.

Find out more about The Leadership Programme .

To deepen your understanding of leadership and to develop new insights, you may enjoy reading one of the following books.

1. Leadership: A Very Short Introduction – Keith Grint

This book is a great comprehensive overview of leadership and leadership styles. No longer than a long essay, it is a perfect choice for those pressed for time and needing a good overview, and thereafter you can dive into styles and topics most appealing.

Keith Grint invites us to rethink our understanding of leadership in Leadership . His guide includes valuable reflections on how leadership has evolved over time and also considers the different contexts from which different leadership theories emerge.

Grint goes back all the way to the early reflections on leadership by writers including Plato, Sun Tzu, and Machiavelli.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. The Leadership Challenge: How to Make Extraordinary Things Happen in Organizations – James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner

This international bestseller, which is now in its seventh edition, offers valuable practical guidance for becoming an exemplary leader.

The two authors deliver an essential strategic playbook for effective leadership. They explore the five practices of exemplary leadership, providing real-life examples and actionable strategies.

Crucially, the authors also emphasize that leadership is a skill to be learned as well as a practice grounded in relationships. New sections include reflections on how to lead in hybrid environments and how to combat disengagement and cynicism.

3. Dare to Lead: Brave Work, Tough Conversations, Whole Hearts  – Brené Brown

In this famous book and number one New York Times bestseller, Brené Brown combines research, personal stories, and practical advice to explore the qualities that make courageous leaders.

Brown’s take on the topic is unique. Above all, she emphasizes vulnerability, as well as self-awareness, curiosity, and empathy, as the key qualities of a great leader. She invites us to see power not as something we should hoard but as something to share with others.

Brown writes:

From corporations, nonprofits, and public sector organizations to governments, activist groups, schools, and faith communities, we desperately need more leaders who are committed to courageous, wholehearted leadership and who are self-aware enough to lead from their hearts, rather than unevolved leaders who lead from hurt and fear.

(Brown, 2018, p. 4)

4. Leaders Eat Last: Why Some Teams Pull Together and Others Don’t – Simon Sinek

In Leaders Eat Last , the international bestselling author Simon Sinek investigates great leaders who sacrifice not just their place at the table, but often their own comfort and even their lives for those in their care.

They range from Marine Corps officers to the heads of big business and government. They all share that they put aside their own interests to protect their teams. For them, leadership is not a rank, but a responsibility.

If you do not have time to read a book on leadership, you may enjoy watching one of our four recommended YouTube videos instead.

In this short video, Brian Tracy explains five different leadership styles that people can use to lead their teams to success: structural, participative, servant, freedom, and transformational leadership.

Kurt Lewin describes different leadership styles in this slightly longer video. Lewin focuses on autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership. He discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each style as well as the situations in which each style is most useful.

In this much-watched TED talk, Peter Anderton argues that great leadership requires only two simple rules. Curious to find out what they are? Watch the video.

In this last video, Jenn, a career coach, shares insights into eight key leadership styles. Importantly, she also discusses how we can find out which style might be best suited for us. Many of us will have been wondering about this question. Jenn shares practical advice on how we can choose and develop our own natural leadership style.

PositivePsychology.com offers a range of resources to enhance your understanding of various leadership styles. On our website, you will find numerous in-depth articles on specific leadership theories and styles, many of which were only briefly discussed in this article.

In addition, there are a multitude of articles to assist in improving leadership as well as creating a positive working environment.

• How to Use the Johari Window to Improve Leadership
• Assertiveness in Leadership: 19 Techniques for Managers
• 15 Ways to Give Negative Feedback, Positively (+ Examples)
• Job Satisfaction Theory: 6 Factors for Happier Employees
• Why Team Building Is Important + 12 Exercises

Free tools and numerous inspiring activities to identify and enhance your leadership style can be found in our article offering leadership activities , games, and exercises.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others develop positive leadership skills, check out this collection of 17 validated positive leadership exercises . Use them to equip leaders with the skills needed to cultivate a culture of positivity and resilience.

17 Exercises To Build Positive Leaders

Use these 17 Positive Leadership Exercises [PDF] to help others inspire, motivate, and guide employees in ways that enrich workplace performance and satisfaction. Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Perhaps the most important point about leadership is that leadership can be improved. Remember that great leadership is, after all, a combination of skills and qualities that we can work on, practice, and enhance.

As leadership expert Warren Bennis puts it:

“The most dangerous leadership myth is that leaders are born — that there is a genetic factor to leadership. This myth asserts that people simply either have certain charismatic qualities or not. That’s nonsense; in fact, the opposite is true. Leaders are made rather than born.”

(Bennis, as cited in Hunter 2004, p. 42)

Everyone can be a great leader — introverts as well as extroverts, feelers as well as thinkers, visionaries as well as people who care for detail and process.

What matters most is that we cultivate self-awareness, that we remain humble, that we truly care for those whom we lead, that we keep learning, and that we foster a growth mindset both in ourselves and others.

We hope you enjoy using these resources to advance your leadership journey and that they will help you unfold your true potential as a leader.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Leadership Exercises for free .

• Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly , 16 (3), 315–338.
• Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly , 15 (6), 801–823.
• Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
• Brown, B. (2018). Dare to lead: Brave work, tough conversations, whole hearts. Random House.
• Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Avey, J. B. (2008). Authentic leadership and positive psychological capital: The mediating role of trust at the group level of analysis. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies , 15 (3), 227–240.
• Gallup. (2023). Gallup state of the global workplace report 2023 . Retrieved November 9, 2023, from https://www.gallup.com/workplace/349484/state-of-the-global-workplace.aspx.
• George, B., Sims, P., McLean, A. N., & Mayer, D. (2007). Discovering your authentic leadership. Harvard Business Review , 85 (2), 129–138.
• Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Unleashing the power of emotional intelligence . Harvard Business Review Press.
• Grant, A., Curtayne, L. & Burton, G. (2009). Executive coaching enhances goal attainment, resilience and workplace well-being: A randomised controlled study. The Journal of Positive Psychology , 4 , 396–407.
• Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness . Paulist Press.
• Hattrick, S. C., & Scholz, U. (2020). Beyond the dyad: Group-level patterns of change in leadership coaching. Frontiers in Psychology , 11 .
• Hunter, J. C. (2004). The world’s most powerful leadership principle: How to become a servant leader. Crown Business.
• Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology , 89 (5), 755–768.
• Kumari, S., Chaturvedi, S. K., & Isaac, M. (2020). Leadership development in medical education: From knowledge gained to real-world implementation. Frontiers in Psychology , 11 .
• Laub, J. A. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the Servant Organizational Leadership Assessment (SOLA) instrument  [Doctoral dissertation, Florida Atlantic University].
• Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Authentic leadership: A positive developmental approach. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 241–258). Berrett-Koehler.
• Oakley, C. A., Baker, V. L., Baca, L., & Rowland, K. R. (2019). A strategic approach to coaching leaders: Expanding aftercare models to include emotional intelligence and psychological capital. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 .
• Passarelli, A., Caroli, M. E., Caetano, A., & Correia, A. M. (2019). Effects of a cognitive-behavioral leadership coaching program on the stress levels of leaders. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 .
• Salas-Vallina, A., Salanova, M. Martínez, I. M., Bresó, E., Schaufeli, W. B., & García-Renedo, M. (2021). Truly understanding work engagement: Efficacy, discipline, and extraversion as burnout antidotes. Frontiers in Psychology , 12 .
• Van Dierendonck, D. (2011). Servant leadership: A review and synthesis. Journal of Management , 37 (4), 1228–1261.
• van Woerkom, M., Meyers, M. C., & Rutte, C. G. (2016). Coaching leadership style and employee work outcomes: The role of feedback and goal orientation. Journal of Business and Psychology , 31 (3), 339–354.
• Wang, D., Liu, J., Zhu, W., & Mao, J. (2011). The influence mechanism of transformational leadership on employee innovative behavior: A moderated mediation model. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 43 (10), 1121–1132.
• Webb, K. M. (2019). Coaching at work: Leveraging the science of coaching. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 .

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Case Study: When Two Leaders on the Senior Team Hate Each Other

• Boris Groysberg
• Katherine Connolly Baden

How should a CEO address friction between his CFO and the sales chief?

In this fictional case, the CEO of a sports apparel manufacturer is faced with an ongoing conflict between two of his top executives. Specifically, the head of sales and the CFO are at each other’s throats and the tension is having a ripple effect on their teams and the rest of the organization. The CEO, who tends to avoid conflict himself, is struggling with how to respond. His options include changing the company compensation scheme to encourage better collaboration, firing the two leaders, getting them each a coach, and doing more team building activities.

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• BG Boris Groysberg is a professor of business administration in the Organizational Behavior unit at Harvard Business School and a faculty affiliate at the school’s Race, Gender & Equity Initiative. He is the coauthor, with Colleen Ammerman, of Glass Half-Broken: Shattering the Barriers That Still Hold Women Back at Work (Harvard Business Review Press, 2021). bgroysberg
• KB Katherine Connolly Baden is a research associate at Harvard Business School.

Partner Center

Analysis of Leadership Style in Organizations: A Case Study of the Movie Disclosure

5 Pages Posted: 3 Jun 2021

Victor Birikorang Danquah

Business School Netherlands; Independent; Society of Petroleum Engineers

Date Written: June 2, 2021

From the standpoint of an organization, a growing amount of research demonstrates that leadership has an impact on performance. (Waldman et al., 2004; Agle et al., 2006). According to a survey, only a small percentage of people in leadership roles genuinely lead, with the great majority reacting, either to please shareholders or to protect their reputation (Kakabadse and Kakabadse 2007). In 1994, right before Christmas, the film 'Disclosure' was released. The CEO, Bob Garvin, and his subordinates' leadership styles and behaviors are examined in this research. This research looks at power in the workplace in particular and suggests transformational leadership. "A process by which a person inspires a group of persons to attain a common goal" is how leadership is defined (Northhouse, 2019 p. 43). This concept of leadership, according to Northouse (2019), involves three things: procedures, influences, and groups. Leadership theory, like any other theory, must explain three key questions: what, why, and how (Whetten, 2002). Thus, in leadership theory, the "what" reflects the goal that the leader seeks to achieve, "how" describes how the leader achieves the goal, and "why" explains why this particular approach for achieving the objective was chosen. Power is required to be able to influence followers (French and Raven, 1959). There are six power bases.: Informational, Reward, Coercion, Legitimate, Expertise, and Referent (Raven, 2008). One's leadership style is determined by the types of power he or she wields. Coercive leaders, authoritative leaders, affiliative leaders, democratic leaders, pacesetting leaders, and coaching leaders are among the six types of leaders identified (Goleman, 2000). Coercive leadership, according to Goleman, should only be employed with extreme caution and in the few cases where it is absolutely essential. For example, when a turnaround is imminent or when a hostile takeover is imminent. To be effective, he suggests that leaders master at least four types, including authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching, and be able to move between them quickly. According to Raven (2008), an effective leader must utilize informational power to properly explain concerns to subordinates with persuasive arguments for the subordinates to grasp and accept the reasons. The theory of the great man is linked to coercive leadership styles (Matchan 2020). According to the belief, great men leaders place a greater emphasis on the I rather than the we. The “great man” idea (Carlyle, 2007; James, 1880) is concerned with the personality attributes that leaders are born with (Kakabadse and Kakabadse, 1999). Associated with great man theory are transactional leadership. Transactional leaders are said to be incapable of building trusting, mutually beneficial leader-member relationships (Notgrass, 2014). Employees favor leaders that can inspire a group vision, stimulate creativity, reward achievement, develop trust, and promote a sense of belonging (Notgrass, 2014). .

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Home > Books > Leadership - Advancing Great Leaders and Leadership

Leadership Styles during Disruption: A Multi-Case Study

Submitted: 08 July 2022 Reviewed: 13 September 2022 Published: 28 October 2022

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.108029

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This chapter reviews relevant literature in order to identify the leadership framework and profile that may better characterize entrepreneurs and business leaders that eventually founded or developed disruptively successful firms—popularly known as “unicorns.” Next, the chapter describes a conducted multi-case study that demonstrates a strong correlation between the positive checkmarks in the selected leadership framework—visionary leadership—and the profile of the leaders of nine different international corporations that became industry leaders in less than 20 years (Apple, Google, Microsoft, Facebook, General Electrics, Toyota, Alibaba, Tencent, and Inditex).

• visionary leadership
• disruptive success
• disruptive innovation
• discontinuous innovation
• revolutionary innovation
• entrepreneurship
• multi-case study on leadership

Author Information

Alberto abadia *.

• University of Vigo, Ourense, Spain

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

During the last two decades, there is an increasing number of leadership theories and frameworks. However, less work has been done in terms of determining which frameworks would suit better some particular organizational outputs. The study described in this chapter explores how some leadership models may be linked to some exceptional occurrences, such as “disruptive success.” This label can be applied to startups or more mature—but not yet elite—companies that, at some point, grew fast and became world leaders in a period of less than 20 years.

After giving a quick review of state-of-the-art of the leadership research and theories [ 1 ], this chapter shortlists, briefly explains, and finally analyzes the candidate frameworks and chooses the apparently most suitable one. Next, the chapter describes a conducted multi-case study that tested the actual possible correlation between the chosen leadership framework and the profile of the leaders of their “disruptively successful” corporations. The option of the multi-case approach for the testing is the most fitting in the explained context, given the limited number of possible samples and the unquantifiable nature of the analysis. The other most plausible alternative option, direct interviews or direct surveys, would not have been doable, given the challenge of obtaining response from a large number of highly profiled business leaders.

2. Theoretical framework: leadership styles

The article “Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives” [ 1 ] provides a review of the state-of-the-art research in terms of leadership research of the last two decades, including most of the theories and frameworks, except that of visionary leadership, which has anyway been included in the analysis [ 2 ]. Taking into consideration the profile that could be expected in the context of startups and an innovation-led context [ 1 , 2 , 3 ], best framework candidates for further evaluation would be (1) transformational leadership, (2) charismatic leadership, (3) entrepreneurial leadership, and (4) visionary leadership.

2.1 Transformational leadership

The concept of transformational leadership was introduced by James MacGregor Burns in his book Leadership [ 4 ] and then further developed in Transforming Leadership: A New Pursuit of Happiness [ 5 ]. Another researcher, Bernard M. Bass, expanded on Burns’ work by describing the psychological mechanisms behind transforming leadership. He applied the term “transformational” instead of “transforming.” Bass argued that transformational leadership has four constitutive parts [ 6 , 7 ] which are (1) idealized influence, (2) inspirational motivation, (3) intellectual stimulation, and (4) individualized consideration. On the opposite, transactional leaders, which frequently are less successful in terms of outcomes [ 5 ], usually adopt four possible approaches which are (1) contingency reward—rewards in exchange of support, (2) management by exception (active)—monitoring and just acting when a corrective deed is necessary, (3) management by exception (passive)—no monitoring and just acting when a corrective deed is necessary, and (4) laissez faire—leadership avoidance [ 6 , 7 ].

2.2 Charismatic leadership

Long ago, Max Weber described charismatic authority in his book Economy and Society [ 8 ], where he identified it as one of three types of legitimate domination. According to Weber, charisma is defined as a set of qualities in a person that allows him or her “to be set apart from ordinary people and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities … regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader” [ 8 ]. A charismatic leader is a person, who has the ability to influence people and who, consequently, has some controlling power over them [ 9 ]. A widely accepted framework developed and tested by Conger and Kanungo [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ] defines four characteristics in charismatic leaders: (1) possessing and articulating a vision, (2) willing to take risk to achieve the vision, (3) exhibiting sensibility to the needs of followers, and (4) demonstrating noble behavior.

2.3 Entrepreneurial leadership

The definition of entrepreneurial leadership can be traced back to different theories about entrepreneurship [ 14 ], entrepreneurial orientation [ 15 , 16 ], and entrepreneurial management [ 16 ]. “Entrepreneurial Leadership is that leadership that creates visionary scenarios that are used to assemble and mobilize a ‘supporting cast’ of participants who become committed by the vision to the discovery and exploitation of strategic value creation” [ 17 ]. The article “Entrepreneurial leadership: developing and measuring a cross-cultural construct” [ 17 ] compares all the theories about leadership and entrepreneurship. In the case of entrepreneurial leadership, Gupta, MacMillan, and Surie came up with a list of 19 leadership attributes that appeared to be the most relevant [ 17 ]. They grouped the remaining attributes into two “enactments” and five roles that would help the analysis in case that this one is the chosen leadership framework [ 17 ].

2.4 Visionary leadership

“Visionary leaders are those who inspire extraordinary levels of achievement in followers through an inspiring vision and through other behaviors” [ 2 ]. The article “Characteristics of Visionary Leadership” highlights the relevance of certain management traits in the context of greenfield projects and then associates the following attributes to those of a visionary leader [ 18 ]: (1) creators of a positive and inspirational vision, (2) supporters of organized learning and growth inside the organization, (3) innovators, and (4) pioneers.

3.1 Framework selection

The four models that were considered potentially suitable for a context of disruptive success—transformational, charismatic, entrepreneurial, and visionary—underwent a further scrutiny in order to determine which one would better suit the context of disruptive success, as it is briefly described in the next paragraph.

The original term “transformational” already implies the existence of some entity that experiences transformation, and it is not so suitable in the context of completely new startups [ 7 , 19 ]. Charismatic leaders emerge in times of instability, change, or crises, but many critics argue that charismatic leaders tend to forget the group’s benefit and try to gain most of the attention for themselves. This reality implies that collective or organizational outputs may not always be prioritized or maximized, since that is not the main objective for this type of leaders [ 9 ]. Entrepreneurial leadership framework appears to be a suitable option for the study in terms of effectively measuring the entrepreneurial aspect in leadership, but it does not really screen or measure elements that may impact discontinuous innovation [ 17 ], which would be mandatory for the chosen context. Therefore, the framework that appeared to suit the best in terms of analyzing environments that combine entrepreneurship and innovation is that of visionary leadership [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Eventually, there is no assumption on what the results would have been or would be if some other of these frameworks would have been tested in the study. In the case of the selected framework, the results are the ones that tell if this choice was right.

3.2 Case selection

There are few companies—similar to Apple, Microsoft, or Google—that are really disruptively successful over the span of, for instance, a decade, so it is not possible to collect enough samples as to conduct a statistical study. Besides, the analyzed variables are not quantitative in nature. Multiple theorical and practical studies indicate that the longitudinal multi-case approach is the best one in terms of properly investigating the results of qualitative inputs [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. In order to choose the specific companies or cases, disruptively successful firms, the following three criteria were applied: (1) the pool of chosen companies should be located in, at least, three different geographical realms i.e. North America, Western Europe and Eastern Asia, (2) the chosen corporations should be at the highest possible position in the rank of global top 100 companies as per market value [ 29 ], and (2) those firms should have become industry leaders in (a) a relatively short period of time—less than 20 years, and (b) after leveraging some competitive advantage based on discontinuous innovation.

An overwhelming percentage of the disruptively successful companies in the top 100 as per market capitalization are American and, mostly, they are located in Silicon Valley. Nine was the maximum number of samples in the list that allowed to keep a reasonable geographical balance across several geographic realms without mixing firms that were not really comparable in terms of size or level of achievements. Nine is also a number in the range of similar studies conducted in the past. For instance, the number was three in the case of the study “Internationalization of small- and medium-sized enterprises: a multi case study” [ 30 ], four, in the case of the study “Competitive product-service systems: lessons from a multi-case study” [ 31 ], and 10 in the case of the study “Knowledge management critical failure factors: a multi-case study” [ 32 ].

The list of selected American corporations included the top five that could be considered disruptively successful firms as per the rapid growth: Apple, Google, Microsoft, General Electric, and Facebook [ 29 ]. The other American companies ranked in-between in the original list were not disruptively successful ones e.g. Exxon Mobil, Berkshire Hathaway, Wells Fargo, and Johnson and Johnson [ 29 ].

The only large-enough Western European disruptively successful company that also met the criteria was the Spanish firm Inditex—number 67 as per market capitalization [ 29 ]. On the other hand, the Eastern Asian disruptively successful companies that ranked high enough in the global top 100 were Toyota Motors, Alibaba and Tencent—15, 22, and 32 [ 29 ].

Apple Inc.; Steve Jobs. USA

Google (Alphabet, Inc.); Larry Page. USA

Microsoft Corporation; Bill Gates. USA

General Electric; Thomas Edison. USA

Facebook, Inc.; Mark Zuckerberg. USA

Toyota Motor Corporation; Taiichi Ohno. Japan

Alibaba Group Holding Limited; Jack Ma. China

Tencent Holdings Limited; Ma Huateng. China

Industria de Diseño Textil, S.A. (Inditex, owner of Zara and other clothing retailing chains); Amancio Ortega. Spain

4. Multi-case study: findings

4.1 rankings of leadership.

Table 1 summarizes the findings on rankings associated with the four above-mentioned features.

Feature comparison between studied firms and founders.

It can be observed that, in 89% of the cases, the leaders either outperform their already outperforming firms, in terms of “value” rankings—Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg, Amancio Ortega— or enjoy even more prestige and recognition than the companies that they started up. Only in the case of Larry Page, the achievements and profile of the leader appears to be, arguably, less remarkable than that of his own company.

4.2 Steve Jobs, Apple Inc.

Apple Inc., a multinational technology company, was founded by Steven Paul Jobs—known as Steve Jobs—in 1977, in Los Altos, California, USA [ 38 ]. In 2016, Apple ranked number 1 in the world in terms of market capitalization. Steve Jobs ranked top in the list of the 20 most influential Americans of all times [ 34 ].

Jobs was raised by adoptive parents in Cupertino, California—in Silicon Valley. His passions kept changing over the time. He dropped out of Reed College, in Portland, took a job at Atari Corporation as a videogame designer in early 1974, and saved enough money for a pilgrimage to India [ 39 ]. In 1976, back in Silicon Valley, Steve Jobs and his former friend, Stephen Wozniak, worked on a computer design of their own, the Apple I [ 39 ]. Jobs and Wozniak later designed a far better product, the Apple II [ 39 ].

Over the last four decades, Apple has been involved and played a leading role in a number of disruptive and revolutionary innovations. The list includes personal computers, music distribution, tablet computing, mobile phones and digital publishing. Elements of disruptive innovation can be found in at least four of the items in Apple’s list: personal computers, music distribution, tablet computing, and digital publishing. iPhones would belong to the category of revolutionary innovations [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ].

Walter Isaacson, Steve Jobs official biographer, described the founder of Apple as a “creative entrepreneur whose creativity, passion for perfection and ferocious drive revolutionized six industries: personal computers, animated movies, music, phones, tablet computing, and digital publishing” [ 44 ]. Jobs, pioneered devices such as iMacs, iPods, iPhones, iTunes, and iPads and initiated projects such as Pixar and Apple computers [ 18 ].

Some Jobs’ words, recorded in the mentioned documentary Triumph of the Nerds [ 45 ], can give a sense of his ability for creating positive and inspirational visions [ 18 ]:

To me, the spark of that (birth of personal computer industry in Silicon Valley in the early seventies) was that it was something beyond the sort of you see every day. It is the same that causes people to wantna be poets instead of bankers, and I think this is a wonderful thing. And I think that same spirit can be put into products. And these products can be manufactured and given to people and they can sense that spirit [ 45 ].

Regarding the second attribute of visionary leadership [ 18 ], which is supporting organized learning and growth within the organization, Jobs spoke eloquently about its importance, from his own point of view:

“The people who are doing the work are the moving force behind the Macintosh. My job is to create a space for them, to clear out the rest of the organization and keep it at bay” [ 46 ].

“Innovation has nothing to do with how many R&D dollars you have. When Apple came up with the Mac, IBM was spending at least 100 times more on R&D. It’s not about money. It’s about the people you have, how you’re led, and how much you get it” [ 47 ].

4.3 Larry Page, Google/Alphabet

Google was started in 1998 in Menlo Park—California, USA. Founders were two students of Stanford University, Sergey Brin, and Larry Page [ 48 ]. Google’s beginnings were less humble than those of earlier Silicon Valley startups at the time, because the two founders were able to initially raise US$1 million US dollars [ 49 ].

Larry Page met Sergey Brin when Larry entered the doctorate program at Stanford. Both students were interested in finding a way for extracting useful information from the mass of data in the Internet. With that purpose, they devised a new type of search engine tool to track the backing links of each site. They called the new search engine Google—a name derived from a misspelling of the word googol [ 48 ].

Therefore, Google’s initial success was not based on disruptive innovation, but rather on revolutionary innovation—the development of relevancy ranking in the search engine sector [ 49 , 50 ].

In essence, Google’s business model has been labeled as continuous disruptive innovation [ 51 ] or continuous innovation [ 50 ]. These labels define a concept different than Christensen’s. Google’s innovation model is based on a hub—Googleplex—that attracts talent; this is the same model than Edison’s [ 50 , 52 , 53 ]. Eventually, during the last two decades, this model helped Google to be involved in a relevant number of discontinuous innovations, including Android, YouTube, Google Books, and Google Maps, and some continuous ones, such as Chrome or Gmail [ 54 , 55 ].

There is some dispute among scholars regarding the quality of Page’s leadership strength, especially during his early tenure [ 56 ]. Still, there are little doubts that Page congregates the four attributes that define a visionary leader, as several authors already validated in their studies [ 18 , 57 , 58 ]. Several quotes from Larry Page that highlight his visionary skills are as follows:

On being an inspirator: “What is the one-sentence summary of how you change the world? Always work hard on something uncomfortably exciting!” [ 59 ].

On his role as a supporter of organized learning and growth inside the organization: “My job as a leader is to make sure everybody in the company has great opportunities, and that they feel they’re having a meaningful impact and are contributing to the good of society. As a world, we’re doing a better job of that. My goal is for Google to lead, not follow that” [ 59 ]. On being an innovator: “Invention is not enough. [Nikola] Tesla invented the electric power we use, but he struggled to get it out to people. You have to combine both things: invention and innovation focus, plus the company that can commercialize things and get them to people” [ 59 ]. On being a pioneer: “Lots of companies don’t succeed over time. What do they fundamentally do wrong? They usually miss the future. I try to focus on that: What is the future really going to be? And how do we create it? And how do we power our organization to really focus on that and really drive it at a high rate?” [ 59 ].

Page’s personality traits, like his introverted tendencies, may not fit the profile of a charismatic leader [ 55 , 56 , 58 , 60 ], but he definitively does in that of a visionary leader. Eventually, it is interesting to notice that many other leaders analyzed in this study also are, apparently, introvert, e.g. Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg.

4.4 Thomas Edison, General electric

General Electric (GE), a multinational technology corporation, was founded by Thomas Alva Edison in 1889, in Schenectady, New York, USA. Since then, GE has been in the lists of top ranked companies in the USA [ 61 ].

In 1859, Edison quit school and began working as a train boy on the railroad between Detroit and Port Huron. Edison took advantage of the opportunity to learn telegraphy and, in 1863, he became an apprentice telegrapher. By 1869, he thought that he had made enough progress with a duplex telegraph—a device capable of transmitting two messages simultaneously on one single wire—and abandoned telegraphy for full-time entrepreneurship. At that time, Edison moved to New York City, where he initially partnered with Frank L. Pope, an electrical expert, and produced the Edison Universal Stock Printer [ 62 ]. During the next decade, Edison grew fast as successful mogul [ 62 ]. By 1889, he had full ownership or participation in many electricity-related companies that got then merged. The resulting corporation was General Electric Company (GE) [ 61 , 63 ].

From the very beginning, General Electric adopted an innovation development strategy similar to Google’s. The actual scheme was not so much based on sparks of disruptive innovation and genius, but on a systematic approach toward producing inventions [ 64 ]. This method required concentration of researchers and projects in one spot. The first chosen location was Menlo Park, in New Jersey. Menlo Park hub was then succeeded by a larger laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey [ 53 ]. Both hubs developed a long list of innovations [ 53 ]. Some of the most relevant ones were the phonograph, the incandescent electric light and power, the motion picture camera, and the alkaline storage battery [ 53 ].

Thomas Edison ranks in the top of almost every list of all-time greatest innovators, pioneers, and entrepreneurs. He registered more than 1000 patents in the US alone [ 53 ] and founded more than 300 companies [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 53 ]. Edison’s role on the development of these technologies and later commercialization of them clearly qualifies him as visionary, innovator, and pioneer [ 18 ]. Edison also was one of the first entrepreneurs to apply the principles of organized teamwork to the process of invention [ 65 ].

4.5 Bill Gates, Microsoft

In 1975 William Henry Gates III—known as Bill Gates—, a student then at Harvard University, and his friend, Paul Allen, partnered and founded a developing software company, called Microsoft [ 66 ]. First, they adopted BASIC, a programming language used at the time on larger computers, as the core of their work. By 1980, Gates managed to convince a large computer manufacturing multinational, IBM, to depend on Microsoft for every software related to personal computers (PCs). Then, other manufacturers of IBM-compatible PCs also turned to Microsoft in search of its products. By 1990, Gates was the PC industry’s king [ 67 ].

Microsoft’s initial success was based on one disruptive innovation—personal computers and related software [ 66 ]. Later, Microsoft also played a key role in another emerging industry: gaming—Xbox [ 68 , 69 , 70 ].

Gates is as introverted, similar to Larry Page [ 45 , 55 ] and, definitively, he is not as charismatic as Steve Jobs [ 39 , 45 , 71 , 72 ], but, still, he has been equally visionary. Bill Gates clearly fits in the description of an innovator, a pioneer, and a supporter of organized learning and growth [ 45 , 67 , 71 , 72 , 73 ].

4.6 Mark Zuckerberg, Facebook

On February 4, 2004, Mark Zuckerberg, a Harvard student, launched the facebook.com , a directory in which fellow students entered their information and photos into a template. Within 2 weeks, half of the students had signed up [ 74 ]. Then, his two roommates, Chris Hughes and Dustin Moskovitz, helped him add a few features and they made Facebook available to other universities [ 74 ]. It differed from other social media sites at the time in the fact that it required real names and e-mail addresses [ 74 ]. In 2004, the three partners moved to Palo Alto, California, where venture capitalist Peter Thiel invested in the firm. In May 2005, Facebook received additional money from a venture capital firm (US$12.7 million) [ 74 ]. Facebook’s initial success was therefore based on one single but relevant disruptive innovation: social media [ 71 , 74 ].

Among other achievements, Mark Zuckerberg reached the top five in the list of wealthiest people on earth [ 33 ]. Again, Zuckerberg is as charismatic as Jobs or Edison [ 39 , 45 , 71 , 72 ]. However, he definitively qualifies as a visionary leader. Besides other studies, interviews, and papers that prove this point [ 55 , 71 , 72 , 75 ], Zuckerberg produced a number of quotes that support this statement. On being an inspirator: “We look for people who are passionate about something. In a way, it almost doesn’t matter what you’re passionate about” [ 75 ]. On being a supporter of organized learning and growth inside the organization: “I think as a company, if you can get those two things right–having a clear direction on what you are trying to do and bringing in great people who can execute on the stuff–then you can do pretty well” [ 75 ]. On being an innovator: “People think innovation is just having a good idea but a lot of it is just moving quickly and trying a lot of things” [ 75 ]. On being a pioneer: “In a world that’s changing really quickly, the only strategy that is guaranteed to fail is not taking risks” [ 75 ].

4.7 Amancio Ortega, Industria de Diseño Textil (Inditex)

The Inditex group is a multinational textile fashion retailer firm founded in 1985 in A Coruña, Spain. Inditex currently owns famous brands such as Zara, Pull & Bear, Massimo Dutti, Bershka, Stradivarius, Oysho, Zara Home, and Uterqüe. Inditex ranked 67 in the global top 100 as per market capitalization [ 29 ].

As a youth in A Coruña, Galicia, in northwestern Spain, Amacio Ortega gained an entry into the garment business by working as a delivery boy for a men’s shirt store and assistant in a tailor’s shop. He later managed a clothing store that catered to wealthy clients. Finally, Ortega saw an opportunity of appealing to a much broader audience by selling garment at extremely competitive prices. His proposal was based on reducing production costs by using less expensive materials and more efficient manufacturing systems. Ortega first applied this approach in a bathrobe business, Confecciones Goa, company that he founded in 1963. Then, in 1975, Ortega started the first Zara’s ready-to-wear clothing store. Zara soon became not only an internationally famous chain but also the flagship of the holding company Inditex, which he founded 10 years later [ 76 ].

The success of Inditex—and H&M, its main competitor—is ultimately based on a revolutionary innovation called “fast fashion” [ 77 ]. Inditex devised a new model of supply chain, the Agile Supply Chain (ASC), that allows its fashion retailer chains to update products just in time [ 77 , 78 ]. In this process, store managers constantly communicate customer feedbacks to collection designers, who immediately update models and production [ 77 , 78 ]. Inditex’s supply chain operations focus on three aspects: maximizing resources used, minimizing inventory, and minimizing lead times [ 78 ]. Inditex produces a significant amount of its production in-house and makes sure that its own factories reserve 85% of their capacity for in-season adjustments [ 77 ]. Inditex’s business model, which is based on flexibility and speed, requires a vertically integrated value chain that differs greatly from that of other competitors, like Benetton and Mango.

Amancio Ortega, who was the one that directly conceived and engineered the above-mentioned business model, clearly is an innovator and a pioneer [ 18 ]. He also supports organized learning and growth inside of his firm. An article in The Economist describes how Ortega works:

He has never had his own office, desk or desktop computer, preferring to direct his firm while standing with colleagues in a design room of Zara Woman, the flagship line. One former long-term CEO of Inditex, and Mr. Ortega’s business partner for 31 years, José María Castellano, says that his ex-boss’s working method is to discuss things intensely with small groups, delegate paperwork, listen hard to others and prefer oral over written communication [ 79 ].

“Ortega eats lunch with his employees in the company cafeteria. He can regularly be found sharing table on the factory floor with some of the designers, fabric experts and buyers” [ 80 ]. “Dear colleague, dear friend”: these are the words that, both, Ortega and Steve Jobs, used in letters addressed to employees [ 81 ].

Ortega also is, as most of the previously analyzed leaders, an introvert. “Reclusive,” “secretive,” and “reserved” are words frequently used to describe him. Amancio Ortega has guarded his privacy so jealously that his company only released a photograph of him when the firm was first listed [ 82 ].

4.8 Taiichi Ohno, Toyota Motor Corporation

Toward the end of the second world war, Taiichi Ohno worked as a production engineer for Toyota, a Japanese car manufacture founded in Japan by Kiichiro Toyoda in 1937 [ 83 ]. In those days, Toyota was much less productive than its Detroit-based competitors, the Big Three—General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler [ 83 ]. In 1956, Ohno visited the USA to learn their supply and inventory methods. In that trip, he visited one of the supermarkets of the Piggly Wiggly chain [ 84 , 85 ]. Ohno observed then how customers picked up a number of items from shelves and, in turn, the supermarket quickly and precisely replenished them [ 84 ]. This model gave Ohno ideas on how to reduce inventory and simplify assembly lines [ 84 , 86 , 87 ]. Based on the streamlined approach to replenishment, Ohno devised the Toyota Production System, which is more broadly known as lean manufacturing or Just-In-Time (JIT) inventory system. That gave Toyota an edge in terms of productivity and quality [ 86 , 87 ]. The new system made Toyota the car industry leader. Since that time, the principle of lean manufacturing has been adopted by many firms and industries [ 84 , 86 , 87 ].

Based on this history, there is no doubt that Taiichi Ohno was a visionary, an innovator, and a pioneer [ 18 ]. The other quality of a visionary leader, supporting internal growth, was clearly evinced by the way that he spoke about Toyota and its organizational style over the length of his career. For instance, he described Toyota in the following way: “The Toyota style is not to create results by working hard. It is a system that says there is no limit to people’s creativity. People don’t go to Toyota to work, they go there to think” [ 88 ].

In terms of actively supporting internal growth:

When you go out into the workplace, you should be looking for things that you can do for your people there. You’ve got no business in the workplace if you are just there to be there. You’ve got to be looking for changes you can make for the benefit of the people who are working there [ 89 ].

Unlike the previous cases, Toyota was not a startup at the time of its disruptive success and Ohno was not its founder. Ultimately, though, the combination of Onho’s leadership and revolutionary innovation transformed Toyota from being an average car maker in Japan to becoming the number one global leader.

4.9 Jack Ma, Alibaba group holding limited

In 1999, Alibaba Group, an online trading company, was established by Jack Ma, a former English teacher, in Hangzhou City, China [ 90 ]. Everything started in 1995, during a trip to the USA, when Jack Ma learned for the first time about website portals and Internet. He immediately realized that the design of portals could be a great business opportunity in the yet-unformed Chinese market, especially in the business segment. After his return to China, Ma founded China Pages, a website page developer for Chinese businesses. However, 2 years later, he closed his first company because of strong competitors such as Chinesepage [ 91 ]. For a while, Ma went back to his former job as a public servant, but then, in 1999, Ma persuaded his team at the ministry to go to Hangzhou and found the Alibaba Group [ 91 ]. Alibaba’s growth was fast. Six years later, in 2005, Alibaba attracted the attention of Yahoo!, which bought a 40 percent stake. In 2007, Alibaba.com raised US$1.7 billion dollars in its initial public offering (IPO) in Hong Kong [ 91 ].

Alibaba’s business model bets a revolutionary innovation: Ma’s belief that the small-business-to-small-business online market offered much greater opportunity than the consumer-to-consumer one, the reason being that, unlike consumers, small businesses are willing to pay a membership fee [ 91 ].

Ma’s visionary leadership is as uniquely prolific as that of Edison and Jobs. In 2003, Jack Ma created a new company, the consumer-to-consumer online marketplace Taobao (meaning Chinese in “searching for treasure”). Taobao did not charge a fee but made money from online services and advertising. By 2007, Taobao had a 67 percent market share in China and eBay sold its Chinese operations to the media consortium TOM Group.

Some quotes from Ma that also proves his talent as an inspirator and team builder are as follows: “A good boss is better than a good company”; “If we are a good team and know what we want to do, one of us can defeat ten of them”; “We never lack money. We lack people with dreams, who can die for those dreams”; “For most people, they see and believe. We believe, and then we see. For leadership, we have to see things that other people don’t see” [ 92 ].

4.10 Ma Huanteng, Tencent holdings limited

Tencent Holdings Ltd., also known as Tencent, is a Chinese multinational technology conglomerate holding company founded by Ma Huateng in 1998. Tencent is among the largest video game, social media, venture capital, and investment corporations in the world [ 93 ].

Ma Huateng studied computer science at Shenzhen University, where he earned a bachelor of science degree (1993). He then worked as a researcher for China Motion Telecom Development Ltd. before founding Tencent in 1998. In 1999, Ma’s company launched QQ service (then called OICQ), which quickly became China’s most popular instant-messaging platform. In June 2004, Tencent raised nearly US$200 million in the capital market [ 94 ]. By 2015, QQ had 850 million monthly users [ 94 ]. WeChat, a mobile instant-messaging application that was introduced in 201, soon gathered 650 million users [ 94 ]. Tencent also create Qzone, which boasted 670 million monthly users by 2015 [ 94 ].

Tencent started based on a revolutionary innovation, Internet-based QQ service. Later, the company provided users with a range of innovative “online lifestyle services.” These services included online media outlets, e-commerce outlets, gaming options, social media sites, online advertising, and an online payment option [ 94 ].

Huateng is clearly a pioneer and innovator. In terms of being inspirational and a great team builder. Once, he said:

“At Tencent, we may be businessmen, but we are still chasing our IT, our science. We are still striving to create something really cool, trying to create things we couldn’t even imagine without our new technologies. I am still clinging to this enthusiasm’ [ 95 ]. ‘For us, it is important to choose a character, super emphasis on this one. This is related to our culture. The founders like to be simple and don’t like to be politicized. Including the selection of cadres, the character is very important. The second is to look at professional ability and coordination, intelligence and so on. This is a few principles for us to select talent” [ 95 ].

An interesting quote in terms of leadership style—as a paradigm of invention versus innovation in practice—is this one:

“In America, when you bring an idea to market, you usually have several months before competition pops up, allowing you to capture significant market share. In China, you can have hundreds of competitors within the first hours of going live. Ideas are not important in China – execution is” [ 95 ].

5. Conclusions

Unlike other studies [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 30 , 31 , 32 ], the presented multi-case study focuses on a very specific business context: that of the creation of exceptionally successful firms such as Apple, Google, Facebook, or Tencent. The described multi-case study found the four attributes that define visionary leaders (creators of a positive and inspirational vision; supporters of organized learning and growth inside the organization; innovators; pioneers) in the nine studied cases. This is the first search effort that proves the link between the visionary leadership framework and firms that experienced disruptive success—unicorns.

In regard of the reasons why this type of profile is required in the studied context, one may be the fact that, in the case of disruptive innovation, nobody, even clients, may be able to forecast or imagine items such as the final functions and aspect of the products, the expected demand, and other features. Visionaries may be the only ones that can actually provide some accurate guesses, and, at the same time, put together, motivate, and guide a team in the right direction. In the future, it would be interesting to conduct more targeted research that could, both, give more details on the profile and the role of these leaders in the stated context and further describe the associated leadership attributes. Also, it would be of interest to investigate how the visionary leaders and disruptive-innovation-based environments interact with each other and why this type of leadership helps produce such outstanding results. Finally, it would also be interesting to test how other leadership frameworks fit in the same context and how the same leadership framework fits in the different ones.

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How to Lead: 6 Leadership Styles and Frameworks

Authoritarian leadership (autocratic), participative leadership (democratic).

• Delegative Leadership (Laissez-Faire)

Transformational Leadership

Transactional leadership, situational leadership.

Leadership styles are classifications of how a person behaves while directing, motivating, guiding, and managing groups of people. There are many leadership styles. Some of the most widely discussed include: authoritarian (autocratic), participative (democratic), delegative (laissez-faire), transformational, transactional, and situational.

Great leaders can inspire political movements and social change. They can also motivate others to perform, create, and innovate. As you start to consider some of the people who you think of as great leaders , you can immediately see that there are often vast differences in how each person leads.

Fortunately, researchers have developed different theories and frameworks that allow us to better identify and understand these different leadership styles.

Lewin's Leadership Styles

In 1939, a group of researchers led by psychologist Kurt Lewin set out to identify different styles of leadership.   While further research has identified more distinct types of leadership, this early study was very influential and established three major leadership styles that have provided a springboard for more defined leadership theories.

In Lewin's study, schoolchildren were assigned to one of three groups with an authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-faire leader. The children were then led in an arts and crafts project while researchers observed the behavior of children in response to the different styles of leadership. The researchers found that democratic leadership tended to be the most effective at inspiring followers to perform well.

What Kind of Leader Are You? Take the Quiz

If you're curious about your leadership style, this fast and free leadership quiz can help you determine what kind of leader you are:

Authoritarian leaders, also known as autocratic leaders, provide clear expectations for what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done. This style of leadership is strongly focused on both command by the leader and control of the followers. There is also a clear division between the leader and the members. Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently, with little or no input from the rest of the group.

Researchers found that decision-making was less creative under authoritarian leadership.   Lewin also concluded that it is harder to move from an authoritarian style to a democratic style than vice versa. Abuse of this method is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and dictatorial.

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Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations where there is little time for group decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group. The autocratic approach can be a good one when the situation calls for rapid decisions and decisive actions. However, it tends to create dysfunctional and even hostile environments, often pitting followers against the domineering leader.

Lewin’s study found that participative leadership, also known as democratic leadership, is typically the most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members, but they also participate in the group and allow input from other group members. In Lewin’s study, children in this group were less productive than the members of the authoritarian group, but their contributions were of a higher quality.

Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say in the decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in the process and are more motivated and creative. Democratic leaders tend to make followers feel like they are an important part of the team, which helps foster commitment to the goals of the group.

Delegative Leadership (Laissez-Faire)

Lewin found that children under delegative leadership, also known as laissez-faire leadership, were the least productive of all three groups. The children in this group also made more demands on the leader, showed little cooperation, and were unable to work independently.

Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave the decision-making up to group members. While this style can be useful in situations involving highly qualified experts, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.

Lewin noted that laissez-faire leadership tended to result in groups that lacked direction and members who blamed each other for mistakes, refused to accept personal responsibility, made less progress, and produced less work.

Observations About Lewin's Leadership Styles

In their book,  The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications , Bass and Bass note that authoritarian leadership is often presented solely in negative, often disapproving, terms. Authoritarian leaders are often described as controlling and close-minded, yet this overlooks the potential positives of stressing rules, expecting obedience, and taking responsibility.

While authoritarian leadership certainly is not the best choice for every situation, it can be effective and beneficial in cases where followers need a great deal of direction and where rules and standards must be followed to the letter. Another often overlooked benefit of the authoritarian style is the ability to maintain a sense of order.

Bass and Bass note that democratic leadership tends to be centered on the followers and is an effective approach when trying to maintain relationships with others. People who work under such leaders tend to get along well, support one another, and consult other members of the group when making decisions.

Additional Leadership Styles and Models

In addition to the three styles identified by Lewin and his colleagues, researchers have described numerous other characteristic patterns of leadership. A few of the best-known include:

Transformational leadership is often identified as the single most effective style. This style was first described during the late 1970s and later expanded upon by researcher Bernard M. Bass. Transformational leaders are able to motivate and inspire followers and to direct positive changes in groups.

These leaders tend to be emotionally intelligent , energetic, and passionate. They are not only committed to helping the organization achieve its goals, but also to helping group members fulfill their potential.

Research shows that this style of leadership results in higher performance and more improved group satisfaction than other leadership styles. One study also found that transformational leadership led to improved well-being among group members.

The transactional leadership style views the leader-follower relationship as a transaction. By accepting a position as a member of the group, the individual has agreed to obey the leader. In most situations, this involves the employer-employee relationship, and the transaction focuses on the follower completing required tasks in exchange for monetary compensation.

One of the main advantages of this leadership style is that it creates clearly defined roles. People know what they are required to do and what they will be receiving in exchange. This style allows leaders to offer a great deal of supervision and direction, if needed.

Group members may also be motivated to perform well to receive rewards. One of the biggest downsides is that the transactional style tends to stifle creativity and out-of-the-box thinking.

Situational theories of leadership stress the significant influence of the environment and the situation on leadership. Hersey and Blanchard's leadership styles is one of the best-known situational theories. First published in 1969, this model describes four primary styles of leadership, including:

• Telling : Telling people what to do
• Selling : Convincing followers to buy into their ideas and messages
• Participating : Allowing group members to take a more active role in the decision-making process
• Delegating : Taking a hands-off approach to leadership and allowing group members to make the majority of decisions

Later, Blanchard expanded upon the original Hersey and Blanchard model to emphasize how the developmental and skill level of learners influences the style that should be used by leaders. Blanchard's SLII leadership styles model also described four different leading styles:

• Directing : Giving orders and expecting obedience, but offering little guidance and assistance
• Coaching : Giving lots of orders, but also lots of support
• Supporting : Offering plenty of help, but very little direction
• Delegating : Offering little direction or support

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Choi SL, Goh CF, Adam MB, Tan OK. Transformational leadership, empowerment, and job satisfaction: The mediating role of employee empowerment . Hum Resour Health. 2016;14(1):73. doi:10.1186/s12960-016-0171-2

Nielsen K, Daniels K. Does shared and differentiated transformational leadership predict followers’ working conditions and well-being? The Leadership Quarterly . 2012;23(3):383-397. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.09.001

Hussain S, Abbas J, Lei S, Haider MJ, Akram T. Transactional leadership and organizational creativity: Examining the mediating role of knowledge sharing behavior . Cogent Bus Manag. 2017;4(1). doi:10.1080/23311975.2017.1361663

Kark R, Van Dijk D, Vashdi DR. Motivated or demotivated to be creative: The role of self-regulatory focus in transformational and transactional leadership processes . Applied Psychology . 2017;67(1):186-224. doi:10.1111/apps.12122

Hersey P, Blanchard KH. Life cycle theory of leadership . Training and Development Journal . 1969;23(5).

Blanchard KH, Zigarmi P, Drea Zigarmi.   Leadership and the One Minute Manager: Increasing Effectiveness Through Situational Leadership . William Morrow, An Imprint Of HarperCollins; 2013.

Hersey P, Blanchard KH. Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources . Prentice Hall, 1969.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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This is not me

Leadership Case Study

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Learn about theories, skills, and the impact of world leaders in this case study about leadership.

Introduction

Leadership theories, steve jobs leadership, skills approach leadership, list of references.

Leadership is one of the concepts in the world, which has received massive coverage and attention. Although there are several reasons behind this trend, the commonest one is the fact that leaders have a significant influence in the society. Not to mention that some people and organizations have become what they are today because of the impact of certain leaders (Grint 2010, p. 1).

Even though there is a wide range of definitions that describe a leader, it has been universally agreed that a leader is a person who gives direction to others in order to attain a common goal (Gallos 2008, p. 1). This is mainly achieved through setting a pace in serving as a role model and creation of a working environment that allows members of the organization or employees to feel honored as part of the advancement process.

Importantly, a leader cannot be viewed as a boss since he or she remains committed to the full course of achieving set goals and objectives. It is noteworthy that there are numerous qualities, which define the character of a good leader. While these factors may vary from one person to another, common traits include being a good listener, focused, organized, available, ready to delegate duties, confident and decisive (Gallos 2008, p. 2).

Twentieth century saw the demand and interest in leadership rise to an advanced stage. While early leaders laid emphasis on existing differences between leaders and followers in terms of their qualities, subsequent leadership theorists approached the issue by considering certain variable like qualifications and situations in establishing an understanding of leadership traits (Grint 2010, p. 1). Some of these theories have been discussed under this segment of the analysis.

The first one is the “great man” theory, which assumes that good leaders are born and that what is considered to be good traits are naturally obtained. In other words, these leaders are born, which is against the notion that favors making of leaders. This school of thought normally depicts leaders to be heroic and ready to take up leadership positions in the corporate world whenever there is need.

It is also paramount to note that the term was developed when the society thought that leadership was strictly meant for males (Bolden et al. 2003). This theory is believed to have been first developed by Thomas Carlyle, a time when gender equality was not being talked about as it is today. Men were therefore given leadership preference as women dominated other domestic areas of society management.

It is also believed that the trait theory resembles the great man philosophy, as it assumes that certain qualities observed among some leaders are inherited, thus making them better than other leaders. This theory generally focuses on a behavior or trait, which is common among leaders. Even though this has been the case, it is hard to explain the existence of some of these qualities among people who are not leaders (Bolden et al. 2003). This is considered as the main obstacle in adopting this theory when explaining the concept of leadership.

On the other hand, contingency theories address certain variables, which are connected to the environment and influence the type of leadership style suitable for a given situation. A very important fact under this theory is that situations in life cannot be addressed by one leadership style.

This is based on a wide range of ways in which the situations are manifested. Basically, success is coupled with leadership styles, different situational aspects and traits carried by followers (Bolden et al. 2003). This leadership theory is closely related to situational theories, which affirm that situational variables are key in influencing the decision made by leaders. It follows that a decision-making process may require several leadership styles to ensure that the best position is reached.

Unlike of the ideas discussed above, behavioral theories of leadership are inclined towards the fact that good leaders are made. It is solely based on behaviorism and the overall manner in which leaders act. In essence, the theory suggests that good leadership can be attained through learning and observation as opposed to being natural traits in human beings (Bolden et al. 2003).

Moreover, participative theories of leadership support the fact good leadership seeks to incorporate the ideas of others in decision-making. They motivate other people to be part of the course of achieving set goals and objectives. Nevertheless, a leader may choose not to consider the input of his or her followers.

Management leadership focuses on concepts of performance, supervision and organization. It is founded on the use of rewards and punishments in ensuring that the course is retained by all parties involved. This is the commonest leadership theory in business, where employees are recognized according to their input.

The last theory of leadership is the relationship theory, which is also referred to as transformational theory. This emphasizes on the bond between leaders and their followers. Through motivation, these leaders show their followers the benefits, which are hidden in the future. As much as they are concerned with performance, exploitation of each person’s potential is always at the heart of their performance. These leaders equally possess high standards in terms of ethics and morality (Bass & Riggio 2006).

The name of Steve Paul Jobs has dominated the world of leadership especially in the 21 st century; at the peak of technological advancements in computer technology. Born in 1955, Steve Jobs was a man of his caliber in terms of innovation of business ideas. Until his death in 2011, Jobs remained an icon of transformational leadership (Peña 2005).

Among other successes and leadership positions, Jobs was well known for as the chairman and co-founder of the famous Apple Inc. Unlike his counterparts who have a clear-cut of their leadership styles, Jobs could not be described by a single style of leadership; he was endowed with several qualities, which helped him to traverse the business world, to achieve such massive success. Importantly, his life experiences right from teenage played a major role in molding his personality, having failed to graduate from college.

In his 2005 address at the Stanford University, Steve Jobs highlighted several life experiences, which had shaped his life and challenged graduates to see success and opportunities in setbacks, which life offers. He believed in having faith, by connecting dots in life even during hard moments and hardly regretted for his decisions, including the selection of an expensive college that became a challenge to his parents in paying tuition fees.

As a result, he dropped out, and registered for calligraphy, which was significant in designing fonts while designing the first Macintosh. The love for his job was unwavering. Together with his friend, they founded Apple and even after being kicked out of the company, he moved on to launch NeXT Software Inc., which was acquired by Apple in 1997, giving a chance to rejoin Apple. His ill-health was a further source of inspiration in life.

After surviving a pancreatic surgery necessitated by cancer, he considered it as a wakeup call; to maximize the use of available time in doing what he loved most (Peña 2005). It is this path that shaped Steve Paul Jobs to become a leader with countless styles and qualities.

Firstly, Jobs was a charismatic leader. He was widely known for his ability to give captivating speeches, a trait that was equally employed in his career. His storytelling skills favored him capturing the attention of not only his audience but also his employees at Apple and other companies (Kramer 2010).

He was able to communicate the benefits of using Apple products as compared to other products by use of metaphors and analogies. His charismatic nature was essential in developing enthusiastic leaders who remained focused towards achieving that which seemed impossible in the eyes of many and convince his customers that his company had the best products in the market.

Jobs inherent and learned traits seemed to define his character and leadership path. Due to this, he earned himself several titles, which mainly described his attachment to perfection (Kramer 2010). His leadership was therefore described as personalized; he sometimes expected too much from an employee.

According to Jobs, he was interested in making people better, a leadership approach that was sometimes misinterpreted as being autocratic and rude especially in meetings. As an autocratic leader, Jobs insisted on being in control and showing people what to do even as a role model. While at Apple, Jobs had over a hundred employees who directly reported to him directly. His degree as a participatory leader was therefore low (Peña 2005).

Importantly, Steve Jobs remains an icon of transformational leadership. Throughout his career, Steve Jobs managed to transform different companies like Pixar. He also led by example, showing employees and other managers what was to be done in order to overcome the challenges of a competitive business world (Kramer 2010). This was essential in bringing out the best in every employee and promoting performance.

He is the founder of Amazon.com, its CEO and chair of the company’s board. Bezos is highly recognized in the money market and was valued at $3.6 billion, according to Forbes’ survey in the year 2006. He was listed as the personality of the year in 1999 by the Time magazine. Besides Amazon.com, Jeff Bezos founded Blue Origin, with an aim of promoting tourism. He is definitely influential and his leadership style is worth studying to understand his success secrets.

Unlike some of company owners who choose to delegate managerial positions, Bezos runs Amazon.com as its founder and CEO. He therefore battles out by transiting from a small company to the head of thousands of employees.

He is generally overwhelmed with fun and innovations, having carried his laughing character to the company. In analyzing his leadership qualities, Bezos has been described using a wide range of approaches (‘Taking the long view’ 2012).

He is a transformational leader. Based on the path he has used to get Amazon.com where it is today, it is doubtless that he has been instrumental in promoting the company’s performance. He has always made choices based on his desire to move to another level, a reasons he gives for marrying his wife. His visionary has definitely landed him to a place he dreamed, decades ago.

He is also concerned in the performance of managers and other company employees. In order to impact his management team, he organizes weekly meeting, reporting on experiences and answering questions from him. The Just Do It program launched by Bezos was highly applauded for promoting participatory management at Amazon (‘Taking the long view’ 2012).

According to the program, managers are promoted for their innovative ideas, which are aimed at improving the company’s performance. His perfectionism in performance means that he has to higher new managers consistently, who are intelligent and highly skilled.

This approach is mainly leader-centered. In other words, it focuses on certain skills, which can be learned and improve the leadership potential of an individual. It is obvious that knowledge and skills are essential for one to be recognized as a strong leader. Furthermore, skills denote what is achievable by a leader, while traits mainly focus on a leader’s identity ( Leadership Skills Approach 2012). This leadership approach requires a leader to master three important areas, which are conceptual, technical and human.

Technical skills determine a leader’s proficiency in performing certain tasks. For instance, Steve Jobs’ skills as a computer scientist were paramount in navigating through the world of computers. Despite his lack of a college degree, he had relevant knowledge in the world of technology (Peña 2005).

He also had innovative skills, which transformed several companies including Apple Inc. Mr. Bezos equally has computer skills in science and business, which have been significant in internet business, marketing and cloud computing. Bezos has experience in garage operations, having been a garage inventor during his early years of entrepreneurship.

Skills approach of leadership further emphasizes on human skills, which are vital in dealing with people ( Leadership Skills Approach 2012). Although Steve Jobs was sometimes considered to be rude autocratic in handing employees, his sense of charisma made him an outstanding leader in handling people. He was a role model and encouraged his employees to exploit their potential. On the other hand, Bezos enhances his human skills through weekly training and hiring of intelligent and smart employees.

The last aspect is having conceptual skills, which are necessary in making long-term decisions ( Leadership Skills Approach 2012). Steve jobs had a long-term vision and remained focused on the course despite his failure to graduate from university. While serving with various companies, he invested in getting higher.

He transformed Apple, making it one of the leading technological companies in the world. Similarly, Amazon culture is dominated with long-term strategies. Since its inception, Amazon always invests its short-term profits for long-term benefits. Bezos takes risks, venturing into fields, which are less considered. These included cloud computing and the Blue Origin.

The question we need to ask is how Steve Jobs and Jeff Bezos would lead a conservative industry like banking or construction. As mentioned before, the contingency theory of leadership focuses on external and internal factors, which determine the kind of leadership necessary. In other words, it may require the application of several styles in order to achieve reputable skills.

The success of the two would not be limited, by the fact that their leadership styles are more diverse. For instance, Steve Jobs had several leadership styles, which would be important in taking a contingent approach. However, they would be limited in innovation; their success stories revolve around innovative ideas, which might not have a place in a conservative environment.

While starting a company like Apple or Amazon with five employees, it would be important to apply transformational leadership in order to realize success. This is because transformational approach focuses on having a vision to advance to higher levels in future. It further nurtures talents and skills among employees for maximum performance (Bass & Riggio 2006).

Transformational leadership was highly employed by Jobs and Bezos. This helped in changing their small businesses into multinational companies. Nevertheless, this styles wastes a lot of time since leaders have to share their goals with follower. It can also be misused especially by dictatorial leaders.

From the above report, it is clear that leadership is a major concept in the society. Additionally, the success of leaders largely depends of their leadership qualities and styles. Leadership theorists argue that every leader can be grouped into a particular class of leadership. In this case study, it was revealed that several leadership styles contributed to the success of Steve Jobs and Jeff Bezos, to become world leading CEOs in the 21 st century.

To thrive in this competitive environment, they adopted several leadership styles. Moreover, transformational leadership qualities were key in developing their success story. It is worth noting that different companies may require varying leadership styles for their success.

Bass, B & Riggio, R 2006, Transformational Leadership , Routledge, London.

Bolden et al. 2003, A Review of Leadership Theory and Competency Frameworks . Web.

Gallos, J 2008, Business Leadership: A Jossey-Bass Reader , John Wiley and Sons, New Jersey.

Grint, K 2010, Leadership: A Very Short Introduction , Oxford University Press, London.

Kramer, D 2010, Leadership Behaviors and Attitudes of Steve Jobs . Web.

Leadership Skills Approach . 2012. Web.

Peña, M, 2005, Steve Jobs to 2005 graduates: ‘Stay hungry, stay foolish . Web.

‘Taking the long view’ 2012 The Economist (US), vol. 402, p. 1-3.

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IvyPanda. (2019, April 6). Leadership Case Study. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-case-study/

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IvyPanda . (2019) 'Leadership Case Study'. 6 April.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Leadership Case Study." April 6, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-case-study/.

1. IvyPanda . "Leadership Case Study." April 6, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-case-study/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Leadership Case Study." April 6, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-case-study/.